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Copyright, iSqo, by P. Blakiston, Son Co. PREFACE. 
THIS book contains the complete text of my two Compends 
of Anatomy, namely—the “Human Anatomy,” and the 
“Visceral Anatomy,” heretofore published as separate volumes 
in this series of students’ manuals. The marked favor with 
which these Compends were first received, some three and a 
half years ago, has since been continuously extended to them by 
teachers and students, both in America and in England. This 
has been manifested by the sale of a new and large edition every 
year, and has been extremely gratifying to the author. Upon 
the exhaustion of the third edition, the publishers resolved to 
acknowledge the universal appreciation shown these books, by 
incorporating the two in one volume; making this, the first of 
the now well-known “ Quiz-Compends,” a complete quiz-book 
on Human Anatomy. In carrying out this generous resolution, 
the original matter has not been curtailed anywhere; but, on 
the contrary, much new matter has been introduced wherever 
greater detail seemed to be desirable, and the number of the 
illustrations has been increased by eighteen new cuts. 
Originally designed for the use of the medical student, in pre- 
paring for the exercises of the quiz-room and for his final exam- 
ination, the text is confined to the essentials of each structure 
treated of, which are arranged in such a manner as to facilitate 
their rapid acquirement. All superfluities of description have 
been studiously avoided, and only such matter inserted as should 
be thoroughly known in order to pass a rigid examination on 
any organ or structure of the human body. The descriptions 
will be found to closely follow Gray, though Quain and other 
recognized authorities have been freely consulted during the 
preparation of the text. For many of the special arrangements 
V vi 
PREFACE. 
the author is indebted to the lectures of Professor W. H. Pan- 
coast, late of Jefferson Medical College, and to the quizzes of Dr. 
Plenry Morris, formerly assistant to the Chair of Anatomy in the 
same school. 
While striving to carry out the object of this series in furnish- 
ing the medical student with a condensed Manual of Anatomy, 
the author has endeavored, from a strong appreciation of the 
importance of the subject, to make this volume deserving of first 
rank among its kind; and believing that a judicious condensation, 
which does not slight the essential features of the subjects treated, 
cannot fail to be of benefit in any department of science, he 
again commits his Compend to the teachers and students of 
Anatomy, in the hope that it may continue to be found worthy 
of a place alongside the more exhaustive and exhausting text- 
books. 
January, 1887. 
Preface to the Fifth Edition. 
Another edition of this Compend having been exhausted, the 
publishers have requested me to improve the book in any way 
which will keep it in the front rank among works of its class. 
I have therefore added an Appendix of forty-three pages, con- 
taining an original and complete set of Tables and Plates of the 
Arteries, the Cranial and Spinal Nerves and Plexuses, and the 
Sympathetic Nervous System. These have been prepared 
especially for this book, and will, I think, prove of very great 
value to the student in college, and the physician in practice, 
who desires a comprehensive view of these complicated parts of 
the human organism. 
Cooper Medical College, 
San Francisco, July, 1890. 
Sam’l O. L. Potter. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
ANATOMY. 
• PAGE 
OSTEOLOGY 9 
BONES OF THE HEAD I2 
The Orbits 29 
The Foss.® 31 
The Sutures and Fontanelles 33 
The Wormian Bones 33 
The Hyoid Bone. 33 
Table of the Foramina at the base of the Skull 34 
BONES OF THE TRUNK 36 
The Vertebral Column 36 
The Thorax 38 
The Sternum 38 
The Ribs 38 
THE PELVIS 4o 
BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY 43 
The Shoulder 43 
The Arm 45 
The Forearm 47 
The Hand 48 
BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY 50 
The Thigh 50 
The Leg ... .. 51 
The Foot 53 
ARTICULATIONS 55 
MUSCLES AND FASCI/E OF— 
The Head 68 
The Ear 71 
The Neck 71 
The Larynx and Epiglottis 75 
The Back 76 
The Abdomen 80 
The Thorax 82 
The Perineum 83 PAGE 
The Shoulder and Arm 85 
The Forearm 87 
The Hand 90 
The Hip and Thigh ! 91 
The Leg 95 
The Foot 97 
THE HEART 99 
ARTERIES 102 
THE CIRCLE OF WILLIS * 106 
ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSES 114 
VEINS 115 
ABSORBENTS 119 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 120 
THE BRAIN 120 
THE SPINAL CORD 129 
THE CRANIAL NERVES 129 
THE SPINAL NERVES 133 
THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE 136 
CONTENTS. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
(DIGESTIVE ORGANS 141 
ALIMENTARY CANAL 141 
TEETH I4, 
Structure 142 
Development 143 
MOUTH 144 
Palate 144 
Tonsils 144 
Salivary Glands 145 
Tongue I45 
PHARYNX I4fi 
OESOPHAGUS I47 
STOMACH ,48 
SMALL INTESTINE ,So 
Duodenum ,50 
Jejunum ,So 
Ileum. ,so 
LARGE INTESTINE ,5, 
Caxcum ,5, 
Appendix Vermiformis ,s. 
Colon ,52 PAGE 
Rectum 152 
LIVER 153 
Ligaments 154 
Fissures 154 
Lobes 154 
Vessels 155 
Capsule of Glisson 156 
Gall-bladder 156 
PANCREAS 157 
DUCTLESS GLANDS 158 
Spleen 158 
Thyroid Gland 159 
Thymus Gland 160 
Supra-renal Capsules 160 
ABDOMINAL CAVITY 161 
Boundaries 161 
Openings 162 
Regions 162 
PERITONEUM 163 
Foramen of Winslow 163 
Omenta 164 
Mesenteries 164 
ORGANS OF VOICE AND RESPIRATION 165 
LARYNX 165 
TRACHEA AND BRONCHI 170 
LUNGS 17* 
PLEURAE 174 
Mediastinum 174 
URINARY ORGANS .'. 17S 
KIDNEYS 175 
URETERS 177 
BLADDER 178 
Male Urethra 179 
Female Urethra 181 
MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS 181 
PROSTATE GLAND 181 
COWPER'S GLANDS 181 
PENIS 182 
TESTES AND APPENDAGES 183 
Descent of the Testes 
CONTENTS. 
ix X 
CONTENTS. 
PAGB 
FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION 187 
VULVA 187 
VAGINA 188 
UTERUS AND APPENDAGES 188 
Fallopian Tubes 190 
Ovaries - 190 
Parovarium 192 
MAMMAE 192 
ORGANS OF SENSE 193 
SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES 193 
TONGUE 195 
NOSE 195 
Schneiderian Membrane 195 
EYE 197 
Sclerotic and Cornea 198 
Uveal Tract 200 
Retina 202 
Humors 204 
Vessels and Nerves of the Eye 207 
Appenpages of the Eye 209 
EAR 212 
External Ear 213 
Membrana Tympani 214 
Tympanum 216 
Eustachian Tube 219 
Internal Ear 219 
HERNIA 226 
INGUINAL HERNIA 226 
Coverings 227 
FEMORAL HERNIA 228 
Coverings 229 
PERINEUM 230 
MALE PERINEUM 230 
Lithotomy 231 
FEMALE PERINEUM 232 
APPENDIX 235 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM, Tables and Plates 236 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, Tables and Plates 251 
INDEX 277 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIG. PAGE 
Base of the Brain xii 
1. The Temporal Bone, external view, 15 
2. The Temporal Bone, internal view, 16 
3. The Sphenoid Bone, upper suiface, 18 
4. The Sphenoid Bone, lower surface.. 19 
5. The Ethmoid Bone 21 
6. The Superior Maxillary Bone 22 
7. The Malar Bone 24 
8. The Palate Bone 25 
9. The Inferior Turbinated Bone 26 
10. The Vomer 26 
11. The Inferior Maxillary Bone 27 
12. The Cavity of the Oibit 29 
13. The Nasal Fossae 31 
14. The Base of the Skull 34 
15. A Vertebra 36 
16. The Sternum 38 
17. Ribs 39 
18. The First Rib 39 
19. The Pelvis 40 
20. The Sacrum 41 
21. The Coccyx 41 
22. The Innominate Bone 42 
23. The Humerus 46 
24. The Radius and Ulna 47 
25. The Bones of the Carpus 48 
26. The Femur.. 50 
27. The Tibia and Fibula 52 
28. Bones of the Tarsus and Foot 53 
29. The Occipito-atloid Articulation, etc. 56 
30. The Temporo-maxillary Articula- 
tion, 57 
31. The Costo-vertebral Articuftitions... 58 
32. The Sacro-ischiatic Articulation, etc. 59 
33. The Shoulder-joint, etc... 60 
34. The Elbow-joint 61 
35. The Knee-joint, posteriorly 64 
36. The Knee-joint, anteriorly 64 
37. Muscles of the Face and Forehead.. 69 
38. Muscles of the Neck 72 
39. Muscles ot the Back 77 
40. Muscles ot the Back, deep layers.... 79 
41. Muscles of the Chest and Abdomen, 81 
42. The Diaphrag m 83 
43. Muscles of the Perineum 84 
44. Muscles of the Arm £6 
45. Muscles of the Fore-arm and Hand 
(0 88 
46. Muscles of the Fore-arm and Hand 
(2) 89 
47. Muscles of the 1 high, anteriorly 92 
48. Muscles of the Thigh, posteriorly.... 93 
49. Muscles of the Hip joint 94 
50. Muscles of the Leg, anteriorly 96 
51. Muscles of the Leg, posteriorly 97 
52. Muscles of the Foot 98 
53. The Heart 101 
54. The Aorta 103 
55. Arteries of the Face and Head 104 
56. The Right Internal Maxillary Ar 
tery 104 
57. The Sub clavian Artery 106 
58. The Abdominal Aorta IC9 
FIG. PAGE 
59. The Femoral Artery 112 
60. The Venae Cavae and Azygos 
Veins 117 
61. The Optic Nerves and Tract, etc. 130 
62. The Fifth Cranial Nerve 130 
63. The Sacral Plexus, and its 
branches 135 
64. The Three Petrosal Nerves 138 
65. A Tooth 142 
66. The Salivary Glands 144 
67. The Tongue and Fauces 145 
68. The Muscles of the Pharynx 147 
69. The Stomach 148 
70. Arteries of the Stomach, Pancreas, 
etc 149 
71. The Duodenum 150 
72. The Colon and Rectum 152 
73. The Liver 153 
74. Structure of the Liver (vessels) 155 
75. Structure of the Liver (cells) 156 
76. The Pancreas 157 
77. The Spleen 158 
78. Regions of the Abdomen 162 
79. The Peritoneum 164 
80. '1 he Thyroid Cartilage 166 
81. The Cricoid Cartilage — 166 
82. The Arytenoid Cartilages 166 
83. Muscles of the Larynx 169 
84. The Lungs, Heart, etc 172 
85. Lobules and Alveoli of the Lung.... 173 
86. The Kidney 175 
87. A Malpighian Tuft 176 
88. The Bladder 178 
89. The Male Urethra, etc 180 
90. Section of the Penis 182 
91. Section of the Testicle and Scro- 
tum r. 184 
92. Ducts of the Testicle and Epididy- 
mis 185 
93. The Vulva 187 
94. The Uterus and its Appendages 189 
95. The Mammae 192 
96. The Skin and its Appendages 193 
97. The Nose 196 
98. The Eye 198 
99. The Iris 201 
100. The Retina 203 
101. The Crystalline Lens 205 
102. The Muscles of the Eyeball 206 
103. Appendages of the Eye 209 
104. Structure of the Eyelids 210 
105. The Lachrymal Gland 212 
106. The Membrana Tympani 215 
107. The Tympanum 217 
108. The Internal Ear 220 
109. The Cochlea 221 
no. The Membranous Labyrinth 222 
in. The Membranous Cochlea 223 
112. Rods of Corti 224 
113. Auditory Cells .. 224 
114. Poupart’s Ligament 227 
115. Femoral Hernia 228 
116. The Male Perineum 232 
Sixteen Lithographic Plates, in Appendix. 
xi i. Olfactory Bulb. 2. Second, or Optic Nerves. 3. Anterior Perforated Space. 4. 
Optic Tract. 5. Crus Cerebri. 6. 3d Nerve. 7. 4th Nerve. 8. 5th Nerve, g. 6th Nerve. 
10. Pyramid, n. Olivary Body. 12. Vertebral Artery. 13. Anterior Spinal Artery. 14. 
Anterior Cerebral Artery. 15. Lamina Cinerea. 16. Middle Cerebral Artery. 17. Tuber 
Cinereum. 18. Corpora Albicantia. 19. Middle Perforated Space. 20. Posterior Cerebral 
Artery. 21. Superior Cerebral Artery. 22. Pons Varolii. 23. Inferior Cerebellar Artery. 
*4. 7th and 8th Nerves. 25. 9th, 10th and nth Nerves. 26. 12th Nerve. 27. Cerebellum. 
THE BASE OF THE BRAIN. 
xii A 
COMPEND OF ANATOMY. 
Define the term Anatomy. Derived from the Greek dva ana, through, and 
rtuvuu temnein, to cut, it strictly means dissection, but is technically applied to 
that science which treats of the structure of organized bodies. 
What are the divisions of Descriptive Human Anatomy ? They are,— 
Osteology, the anatomy of the bones; Syndestnology, of the joints; Myology, 
of the muscles; Angiology, of the vessels; Neurology, of the nerves; Splanch- 
nology, of the internal viscera; Adenology, of the glands; Dermatology, of the 
skin ; Genesiology, of the generative organs. 
State the number of Bones in the Adult Human Skeleton. It is variously 
stated by different anatomists. Excluding the teeth, the Wormian and sesa- 
moid bones, and the ossicles of the middle ear, the whole number would be 
200; excluding also the 2 patellte, and the hyoid bone, would leave in the 
skeleton proper 197 bones. 
Describe the Long Bones. They number 90, act as supports, or levers, 
and are known by having a medullary canal in the centre of each, a shaft 
(diaphysis), and two extremities. They are developed by osseous deposit in 
cartilage. 
Describe the Short Bones. Numbering 30, they are found where strength 
is required, but limited motion. They also are developed by osseous deposit 
in cartilage. 
Describe the Flat Bones. They number 38, protect the viscera by forming 
trails around them, and afford extensive attachment for muscles. They are 
developed by osseous deposit in membranes, and consists of 2 dense layers, 
separated by a cellular or cancellated osseous tissue, the diploe. 
What are the Irregular Bones ? They are 39 in number, and include the 
vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, the temporal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones, and the 
bones of the face, except the nasal, lachrymal, and vomer. 10 
ANATOMY. 
Name the Bones of the Head. They number 22, and comprise the— 
Cranial Bones (8)—the frontal, 2 parietal, occipital, 2 temporal, the sphenoid 
and the ethmoid bones. 
Facial Bones (14)—2 superior mamillary, 2 malar, 2 nasal, 2 lachrymal, 2 
palate, 2 inferior turbinated, vomer and inferior maxillary. 
Name the Bones of the Trunk. They number 53, as follows, viz.— 
Vertebrce (24)—7 cervical, 12 dorsal, and 5 lumbar vertebrae. 
Thorax (25)—7 pairs of true ribs, 3 pairs of false ribs, 2 pairs of floating ribs, 
(articulating with the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae,) and the sternum. 
Pelvis (4)—the sacrum, the coccyx, and 2 ossa innominata; each os innomi- 
natum consisting of 3,—the ilium, ischium, and pubes. 
Name the Bones of each Upper Extremity. They number 32, as fol- 
lows :— 
Shoulder (2)—the clavicle and scapula. 
Arm (r)—the humerus. 
Forearm (2)—the radius and ulna. 
Hand (27)—8 carpal bones,—the scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, pisiform, 
trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform,—5 metacarpal, and 14 
phalanges. 
Name the Bones of each Lower Extremity. They number 29, viz.— 
Thigh (1)—the femur. 
Leg (2)—the tibia and fibula. 
Foot (26)—7 tarsal bones,—the astragalus, os calcis, scaphoid, cuboid, external 
middle and internal cuneiform,—5 metatarsal, 14 phalanges. 
Name the Unclassified Bones. They are the— 
Patellce (2), which are sesamoid bones, each developed in the tendon of the 
quadriceps extensor femoris muscle. 
Hyoid Bone (1)—the tongue-bone, not articulated to the skeleton. 
Malleus, Incus, Stapes (3 pairs)—the bones of the middle ear. 
Sesamoid Bones, of variable number, situated in the tendons of the gastrocne- 
mius and peroneus longus muscles, and in the flexor tendons of the great toe 
and the thumb. 
Wormian Bones (ossa triqueta), sometimes found in the cranial sutures, are 
not constant in number or size. 
Name the principal Eminences on Bones. Heads, are convex and 
smooth, for articulation in movable joints. Condyles, are irregularly shaped 
heads. Trochanters, when for turning the bone. Tuberosities, are broad, 
uneven prominences. Tubercles, are small tuberosities. Spines, or Spinous 
processes, when sharp and slender. Apophysis, is a process which has never BONES. 
11 
been separate from the bone. Epiphysis, is a process developed as a separate 
piece and afterwards united to the bone by ossification of the intermediate tissue. 
What other names are given to Bony Prominences ? There are sev- 
eral adjectives applied to them from their fancied resemblances, such as— 
Azygos, without a fellow; Clinoid, like a bed; Coracoid, like a crow’s beak; 
Coronoid, hooked like a crow’s beak; Hamular, hook - like; Malleolar, like a 
mallet; Mastoid, like a nipple; Odontoid, tooth-like ; Pterygoid, wing-like; 
Rostrum, a beak; Spinous, thorn-like ; Styloid, pen-like; Squamous, scaly; 
Vaginal, ensheathing, etc. 
Name the Cavities of Bones. Articular cavities are called Cotyloid, cup- 
like; Glenoid, shallow; Trochlear, pulley-like; Facet, if smooth; Alveolar, ox 
Alveoli, when socket-like. Non-articular cavities are named fossae, sinuses, 
aqueducts, foramina, canals, fissures, notches, cells, grooves, depressions, etc. 
What is the Composition of Bone ? Organic or animal matter, about Pf, 
consisting of gelatin, vessels and fat. Inorganic, or mineral, about con- 
sisting of phosphate and carbonate of calcium per cent.), with fluoride 
of calcium, phosphates of magnesium, sodium, and chloride of sodium 
percent.). Heat will remove the organic matter and leave the inorganic; 
dilute Nitric or Hydrochloric acid will remove the inorganic, and leave the 
organic. In old age the inorganic constituents predominate, and the bones 
are brittle; in youth the organic predominate, and epiphyseal dislocation is 
more common than fracture, especially in the long bones of the extremities. 
Describe the Structure of Bone. Bone is composed of an outer compact 
layer, and an inner cellular or spongy structure. It is surrounded, except at 
the articular cartilages, by a vascular fibrous membrane, the Periosteum, which 
receives the insertions of all tendons, ligaments, etc.; and the central cavity 
of long bones is lined by a similar structure, the Endosteum. A transverse 
section of bone, examined microscopically, shows— 
Haversian Canals, diameter inch, for the passage of vessels. 
Canaliculi, diameter inch, radiating from the canals, and connecting 
them with the lacunae. 
Lacuna, arranged circularly around the canals, and contain the bone-cells, 
appearing as irregular dark spaces. 
Haversian Spaces, connect the canals with the medullary spaces, and divide 
one Haversian system from another. An Haversian System comprises 
an Haversian canal with its lamellae, lacunae, and canaliculi. 
Concentric Lamella of bone tissue, around the canals. 
Circumferential Lamella, are bone layers binding the canals together. 
Interstitial Lamella, woven in between the concentric lamellae. 12 
What is the Marrow of Bone? In young bones a tenacious, transparent 
fluid, free from fat. In adult bones of a yellow color, consisting of fat in vary- 
ing proportion and extractive matters. It is found in the medullary canal, the 
cancellous texture, and the large Haversian spaces. 
ANATOMY. 
What Vessels are found in Bones ? Arteries, veins, and some say lym- 
phatics. The Arteries are,—the nutrient, entering at the nutrient foramen; 
the articular, nourishing the cancellous structure; and the periosteal, which 
supply the periosteum and the compact structure. The Veins emerge from 
the ends, the shaft, and from the nutrient foramen. 
Describe the process of Ossification. The site of bone is first occupied 
by a mucoid substance, which becomes temporary cartilage (blastema) in the 
second month of foetal life. The young bone-cells (osteo-blasts) are then de- 
posited in the cartilage at certain points, and their deposition and subsequent 
pressure cause the absorption of the cartilage. In most of the bones of the 
head and face, ossification is intra-membranous instead of intra-cartilaginous. 
The first bones in which ossification appears are the clavicle and inferior max- 
illary (5th to 7th foetal week); the last is the pisiform bone (12th year). 
Epiphyses ossify after birth and begin uniting to the bone from the age of pu- 
berty, and in the inverse order to that in which their ossification began, except 
the lower end of the fibula, which ossifies and is joined to the shaft earlier 
than its upper end. 
THE BONES 0$ THE HEAD. 
THE FRONTAL BONE. 
Describe the points on its vertical portion. They are as follows:— 
Externally,— 
Frontal Eminences, one on each side of the median line. 
Depression, marking the site of the frontal suture before obliteration. 
Superciliary Ridges, behind which are the frontal sinuses. 
Supraorbital Notches or Foramina, in the supraorbital arches, at about their 
inner third, for the supraorbital vessels and nerves. 
Nasal Eminence, at lower end of the frontal depression. 
External Angular Processes, articulate with the malar bones and form ths 
anterior part of the temporal ridges. 
Internal Angular Processes, articulate with the lachrymal bones. 
Nasal Spine and Notch, between the internal angular processes. 
Internally,— 
Groove, for superior longitudinal sinus and the falx cerebri. 
Frontal Crest, for attachment of the falx cerebri. 
Foramen Ccecum, for a small vein to the longitudinal sinus. 
Depressions and Elevations, for convolutions of the brain. THE PARIETAL BONES. 
Between the two tables of the vertical portion in the adult are the— 
Frontal Sinuses, two spaces at the anterior inferior part of the bone, which 
are lined with mucous membrane, and open into the middle meatus of the 
nose by means of an Infundibulum for each. 
Describe its horizontal portion, or orbital plates. They each present the 
following points, viz.— 
Fossa, for the lachrymal gland, near the external angular process. 
Depression, at the nasal margin for the pulley of the superior oblique muscle. 
Ethmoidal Notch, having the following foramina on its margin. 
Anterior Ethmoidal Foramen, for anterior ethmoidal vessels and the nasal 
branch of the ophthalmic nerve. 
Posterior Ethmoidal Foramen, for posterior ethmoidal vessels. 
Grooves, on the cranial surface, for branches of the anterior and middle 
meningeal arteries. 
Describe its articulations, development, and muscles. The frontal 
articulates with 12 bones,—the sphenoid, ethmoid, 2 parietal, 2 nasal, 2 supe- 
rior maxillary, 2 lachrymal, and 2 malar. It is developed by 2 centres in mem- 
brane, i for each lateral half. The muscles attached to it are 3 pairs,—the 
temporal, corrugator supercilii, and orbicularis palpebrarum. 
Describe their general characteristics. They are 2 quadrilaterally-shaped 
bones situated at the superior and lateral regions of the cranium. The supe- 
rior border of each joins the other by the Sagittal Suture ; the anterior border 
joins the frontal bone by part of the Coronal Suture; the posterior border 
articulates with the occipital, forming the Lambdoidal Suture; the inferior 
border with the sphenoid and temporal bones. Forming the lateral walls of 
the skull they are named parietal, from paries, a wall. 
Describe the points on each Parietal bone. Externally the bone is con- 
rex and presents for examination,— 
Temporal Ridge, continuous with the same on the frontal bone. 
Parietal Eminence, the point where ossification commenced. 
Parietal Foramen, close to the upper border, transmits a vein to the superior 
longitudinal sinus. Is not constant. 
Internally, the bone is concave, and marked by— 
Depressions for the Pacchionian bodies, and for the cerebral convolutions. 
Furrows, for branches of the middle meningeal artery. 
Groove, for the lateral sinus, at the posterior inferior angle. 
Half-groove, along the upper border, for the superior longitudinal sinus of 
the dura mater. 
THE PARIETAL BONES. 14 
ANATOMY. 
Describe their articulations, development, and muscles. Each parietal 
bone articulates with 5 bones,—the frontal, occipital, sphenoid, temporal, and 
opposite parietal. It is developed from 1 centre in membrane. The only muscle 
attached to it is the temporal. 
Describe its general features and surfaces. It is trapezoidal in form, 
curved upon itself, and placed at the posterior and inferior region of the 
cranium. Externally its surface is convex and presents for examination the 
following, viz.— 
External Occipital Protuberance, and Crest, for the attachment of the liga- 
mentum nuchae. 
Superior and Inferior Curved Lines, extending outwards on each side of 
the external occipital crest. 
Foramen Magnum, transmitting the medulla oblongata and its membranes, 
the vertebral arteries, and the spinal accessory nerves. 
Condyles, 2 in number, for articulation with the atlas vertebra. 
Tubercles, x on each condyle, for the check ligaments. 
Anterior Condyloid Foramina, 2, for the hypoglossal nerves. 
Posterior Condyloid Foramina, 2, (often absent) for veins. 
Jugular Processes, 2, each helping to form the foramen lacerum posterius 
basis cranii. 
Internally, the surface is concave, showing— 
Fosses, 4, for the cerebellar and posterior cerebral lobes. 
Internal Occipital Protuberance, where 6 cranial sinuses meet to form the 
torcular (wine-press) Herophili. 
Crucial Ridge, the vertical portion for the falx cerebri and falx cerebelli; 
the transverse portion for the tentorium cerebelli, having also a groove for 
the lateral sinus. 
Groove, for the lateral sinus, and the inferior petrosal sinus, along the 
postero-lateral border. 
Internal Openings of the foramina described above. 
Describe the Basilar Process of the Occipital. It lies in front of the 
foramen magnum, articulates with the body of the sphenoid bone, smooth and 
grooved internally for the medulla oblongata and pons varolii, which lie upon 
it; rough inferiorly for the attachment of muscles, and presenting the— 
Pharyngeal Spine, for the attachment of the superior constrictor muscle of 
the pharynx and its tendinous raph£. 
Describe its articulations and development. The occipital articulates 
with 6 bones,—the 2 parietal, 2 temporal, sphenoid, and atlas. It is 
developed by 4 centres, 1 each for the posterior part, the basilar process, 
THE OCCIPITAL BONE. THE TEMPORAL BONES. 
15 
and the 2 «ondyles; its ossification being completed about the 6th year of 
age. 
What muscles are attached to the Occipital Bone? There are 12 
muscles attached on each side to the following portions, viz.— 
Superior Curved Line 3—the occipito-frontalis, trapezius, and sterno-cleido- 
mastoid. 
Space between the curved lines 2—the complexus and splenius. 
Space below the inferior curved line 3—the obliquus capitis superior, rectus 
capitis posticus major and minor. 
Basilar Process 3—the superior constrictor of the pharynx, rectus capitis 
anticus major and minor. 
Jugular Process 1—the rectus capitis lateralis. 
THE TEMPORAL BONES 
Describe their situation and divisions. They are situated at the inferior 
lateral portions of the skull, and contain the organs of hearing. Each bone is 
divided into 3 parts, the Squamousa (scale-like), Alastoidb (nipple-like), and 
Petrous c (hard); and it is named from being the site of the first gray hairs 
(tempus, time). 
Describe the Squamous Portion. It is a semicircular plate, smooth ex- 
ternally, and grooved internally for the middle meningeal artery, with de- 
pressions for the cerebral convolutions. Externally are seen the— 
Zygomatic Process,d or zygoma, 
arising by 3 roots, and extend- 
ing forwards to articulate with 
the mal£r bone. 
Zygomatic Tubercle,e at the base 
of the process, for the exter- 
nal lateral ligament of the lower 
jaw. 
Eminentia Articularis, formed by 
the anterior root of the zygoma. 
Glenoid Fossa,g between the ante- 
rior and middle roots of the zygo- 
ma; its anterior part receives the 
condyle of the lower jaw, and is 
covered with cartilage; its posterior part lodges the parotid gland. 
Glasserian Fissure, divides the glenoid fossa; it transmits the laxato? 
tympani muscle, the tympanic artery, and the processus gracilis of the 
Fig. i, 10 
ANATOMY. 
Opening of the Canal of Hugier, lies in the angle between the squamous 
and petrous portions of the bone; and transmits the chorda tympani nerve. 
Temporal Ridge,/ in part. 
Describe the Mastoid Portion. It projects like a nipple from the inferior 
portion of the bone posteriorly. Internally it is grooved for the lateral sinus ;9 
externally are seen the— 
Mastoid Foramen f the largest of several foramina, for a vein. 
Mastoid Process, at the tip, for the sterno-cleido-mastoid, splenius, and 
trachelo-mastoid muscles. 
Digastric Fossa, j for the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. 
Occipital Groove,8 for the occipital artery. 
Mastoid Cells, in the interior of the mastoid process, open on the posterior 
wall of the middle ear, and are lined with mucous membrane. 
Describe the Petrous Portion. It is very hard, pyramidal in form, con- 
tains the internal and middle ear, projects inwards and forwards, and presents 
a base, an apex, three surfaces, and three borders. 
On the Base are seen, the— 
Meatus Auditor ius Ext emus,i the 
external opening of the ear. 
Auditory Process, a bony ring for the 
external cartilage of the ear. 
Apex lies internally, at the base of the 
skull, forming the outer boundary of 
the foramen lacerum medium, and 
contains the internal carotid canal. 
Anterior Surface, presents from within, 
outwards— 
Opening of the Carotid Canal,11 for 
the internal carotid artery and 
plexus. 
Depression, for the Gasserian ganglion of the 5th pair of cranial nerves. 
Hiatus Fallopii, for great petrosal nerve and an artery. 
Foramen, for small petrosal nerve. 
Eminence, over the superior semicircular canal of the ear. 
Depression, over the tympanum. 
Posterior Surface, presents— 
Meatus Auditorius Internus,lz transmits the 7th and 8th pairs of cranial 
nerves and the auditory artery, and lodges a process of dura mater. 
Opening of the Aqueductus Vestibuli,13 transmits to the vestibule a small 
arterv and vein, and lodges a rnocess of dura mater. 
Fig. 2. THE TEMPORAL BONES. 
17 
Inferior surface, presents from within outwards— 
Rough Quadrilateral Surface,19 for the origin of the tensor tympani and 
levator palati muscles. 
Opening of the Carotid Canal, transmitting the internal carotid artery, and 
the carotid plexus of the sympathetic nerve. 
Aqueductus Cochlece, transmitting a vein from the cochlea. 
Jugular Fossa, a depression for the sinus of the internal jugular vein, form- 
ing with the occipital bone the foramen lacerum posterius, which trans- 
mits that vein and the 8th pair of cranial nerves, etc. (See page 35.) 
Foramen for Jacobson's Nerve (tympanic branch of the glosso-pharyngeal), 
in the ridge-between the jugular fossa and the carotid canal. 
Foramen fo* Arnold's Nerve (auricular branch of the pneumogastric), in 
the outer wall of the jugular fossa. 
Jugular Surface, for articulation with the jugular process of the occipital bone. 
Vaginal Process,l ensheathing the root of the styloid process. 
Styloid Process,u a long projection for the stylo-pharyngeus, stylo-hyoid, 
and stylo-glossus muscles (3); and the stylo-hyoid and stylo-maxillary 
ligaments (2), which are attached thereto. 
Stylo-?nastoid Foramen,15 between the styloid and mastoid processes, for the 
exit of the facial nerve, and the entrance of the stylo-mastoid artery. 
Auricular Fissure, for the exit of Arnold’s nerve. 
In the angle between the petrous and squamous portions, are seen the— 
Septum Tubce, a lamina separating the following canals. Its inner end pro- 
jects into the tympanum, and is called the Processus cochleariformis. 
Opening of the canal for the tensor tympani muscle. 
Osseous Opening of the Eustachian tube * inferiorly. 
The Anterior Border articulates partly with the spinous process of the sphe- 
noid bone. 
The Posterior Border assists in forming the jugular foramen, and is grooved 
for the inferior petrosal sinus. 
The Superior Border separates the anterior fossa of the skull from the middle 
fossa; to it is attached the tentorium cerebelli, and it is grooved for the su- 
perior petrosal sinus.10 
Describe its articulations and development. The temporal articulates 
with 5 bones,—the occipital, parietal, sphenoid, malar, and inferior maxillary. 
It is developed by 4 centres, one each for the squamous portion, styloid pro- 
cess, and auditory process, and one for the petrous and mastoid portions. Its 
ossification is completed about the 2d or 3d year. 
What muscles are attached to it ? There are 14 muscles attached to the 
following-named portions. To the— 
Squamous Portion 2,—the temporal and masseter. 18 
ANATOMY. 
Mastoid Portion 6,—the occipitofrontalis, sterno cleido-mastoid, splenius 
capitis, trachelo-mastoid, digastric, and retrahens aurem. 
Petrous Portion 3,—the tensor tympani, levator palati, and stapedius. 
Styloid Process 3,—the stylo-glossus, stylo-hyoid, and stylo-pharyngeus. 
THE SPHENOID BONE. 
Describe its Position and Form. Wedged in between the bones of the 
skull anteriorly, it resembles a bat with out-stretched wings. It is named 
from the Greek word o<pfiv spkane, a wedge, enters into the formation of 5 
cavities, 4 fossae, 3 fissures, and has— 
A Body. 
2 Greater Wings.2 
2 Lesser Wings.1 
10 Points of Ossification. 
2 Pterygoid Processes. 
2 Styloid Processes. 
6 Clinoid Processes. 
3 Lesser Processes. 
12 Foramina. 
12 pairs of Muscles. 
12 Articulations. 
Describe the Body of the Sphenoid Bone. Placed in the median line, 
cuboid in shape, it presents on its Upper Surface from before backwards, 
the following points, viz.— 
Ethmoidal Spine? ar- 
ticulating with the 
ethmoid bone. 
A Smooth Surface 
grooved for the ol- 
factory nerves. 
Optic Groove, support- 
ing the commissure 
of the optic nerves. 
Olivary Process, an 
olive - shaped emi- 
nence behind the 
optic groove. 
Middle Clinoid Processes, bounding the sella Turcica in front. 
Sella Turcica16 (Turkish saddle), lodges the pituitary body and the circular 
sinus of the brain. 
Dorsum Sellce (back of the saddle), grooved for the 6th nerves. 
Posterior Clinoid Processes,6 for attachment of the tentorium cerebelli. 
Grooves, laterally, for the cavernous sinus and internal carotid artery. 
Fig. 3. 
The posterior surface is rough and quadrilateral :15 it articulates with the 
basilar process of the occipital bone, ossification being completed from the 
18th to the 20th year. • the sphenoid bone. 
19 
The anterior surface is nearly vertical, and presents the— 
Lamella, in the median line, articulating with the perpendicular plate of 
the ethmoid bone, and forming part of the nasal septum. 
Opening of the Sphenoidal Sinuses,e or cavities in the body of the bone 
which exist in adults, not in children. 
Sphenoidal Turbinated Bones (pyramids of Wistar), w’hich partially close 
the sinuses, and articulate with the ethmoid and palate bones. 
The inferior surface helps to form the nasal fossae, and presents the— 
Rostrum,d which articulates with a groove on the vomer. 
Vaginal Processes, I on each side of the rostrum. 
Pterygo-palaiine Grooves, which, with the sphenoidal processes of the palate 
bones, form the pterygo-palatine canals, for the transmission of the pterygo- 
palatine arteries and nerves. 
Describe the Greater Wings of the Sphenoid. Each wing, on its 
SUPERIOR SURFACE, presents the following points, viz.— 
Foramen Rotun- 
dum? for the 
superior max- 
illary division 
of the 5th. 
Foramen Ovale? 
for the inferior 
maxillary divi- 
sion of the 5th 
nerve, the 
small petrosal 
nerve, and the 
small men- 
ingeal artery. 
Foramen Vesalii, transmitting a small vein. 
Foramen Spinosum,10 transmitting the middle meningeal artery. 
1'he anterior SURFACE assists in forming the external wall of the orbit, the 
spheno-maxillary and sphenoidal fissures. It articulates with the frontal and 
malar bones, and presents a— 
Notch, transmitting a branch of the ophthalmic artery. 
Spine, for part of the lower head of the external rectus muscle. 
External Orbital Foramina, transmitting arterial branches, 
f he EXTERNAL SURFACE presents the following points,— 
Pterygoid Ridge, dividing the temporal fossa from the zygomatic. 
Spine of the Sphenoid,11 to which are attached the internal laternal ligament 
of the lower jaw, and the laxator tympani muscle. 
Fig. 4. ANATOMY. 
The circumference is partly serrated for articulation with the temporal and 
frontal bones, and partly smooth for the anterior margin of the foramen 
lacerum medium and the inferior margin of the sphenoidal fissure, which 
margins it assists in forming. 
Describe the Lesser Wings1 of the Sphenoid. Called also the Pro- 
cesses of Ingrassias,« they terminate internally in the Anterior Cl me id Pro- 
cesses ;h their anterior borders articulate with the orbital plate of the frontal 
none, the posterior are free, dividing the anterior cerebral fossa from the 
middle. Connected intimately with each of these wings are the— 
Optic Foramen,4 formed by the separation of its roots, and transmitting the 
optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery. 
Sphenoidal Fissure,7 or foramen lacerum is bounded above by 
the lesser wing, below by the greater wing, and transmits the 3d, 4th, 
ophthalmic division of the 5th, and the 6th nerves, the ophthalmic vein, 
branches of the lachrymal and middle meningeal arteries, stfme filaments 
of the sympathetic nerve, and a process of the dura mater. 
Describe the Pterygoid Processes of the Sphenoid. The wing-like 
processes descend, 1 on each side of the body, and divide each into 2 thin, 
bony plates/w* connected together anteriorly, and presenting— 
Pterygoid Fossa, between the plates posteriorly, the origin of the external 
pterygoid muscle. 
Scaphoid Fossa, at the base of the internal plate, serves as the origin of the 
tensor palati muscle. 
Hamular Process, a hook-like projection at the apex of the internal plate, 
around which plays the tendon of the tensor palati muscle. 
Vidian Canal,14 at the root of the process, for the Vidian nerve and vessels. 
Triangular Notch, at the end of the process, articulates with the pterygoid 
process of the palate bone. 
With what bones does the Sphenoid articulate? With 12, the other 
7 bones of the cranium and 5 of the face,—the vomer, 2 malar, and 2 
palate. 
How is the Sphenoid developed ? By 10 centres, as follows.—2 for the 
greater wings, 2 for the lesser wings and anterior part of the body, 2 for the 
posterior part of the body, 2 for the pterygoid processes, and 2 for the sphe- 
noidal turbinated processes. Ossification begins in the 2d fcetal month, and is 
completed about the nth year, by the union of the turbinated processes with 
the body. 
What muscles are attached to the Sphenoid bone ? There are 12 
pairs, as follows, viz.— 
Orbital muscles, 6—all except the inferior oblique of the eye. THE ETHMOID BONE. 
21 
Muscles of Mastication, 3—the temporal, external and internal pterygoids. 
Superior constrictor, tensor palati, and laxator tympani, 3. 
THE ETHMOID BONE. 
Describe its General Characteristics. It is a spongy, light bone, de- 
pending from the ethmoidal notch of the frontal, and from between its orbital 
plates. It consists of a body and 2 lateral masses, and is named from the Greek 
word tjOfiog, aytkmos, a sieve. 
What are the Points on its Body ? The body£ consists of a horizontal 
or cribriform plate, and a perpendicular plate, and presents the— 
Crista Gallif or cock’s comb, projecting up- 
wards, for the attachment of the anterior end 
of the falx cerebri. 
Cribriform Plate ,d on each side of the crista 
galli. It is concave for the olfactory 
bulbs,i and perforated for the transmission 
of the olfactory nerves, the nasal branch 
of the ophthalmic nerve, and numerous 
small vessels. 
Perpendicular Platen assists to form the nasal 
septum, is usually inclined to one side, 
grooved for filaments of the olfactory 
nerves, and has attached to it the cartilage of the nose. 
Describe the Lateral Masses. They consist of a number of cellular 
cavities, and each one presents the following points, viz.— 
Ethmoid Cells, the anterior opening by the infundibulum into the middle 
meatus of the nose, the posterior into the superior meatus. 
Os Planum,b or orbital plate, helps to form the inner wall of the orbit, and is 
notched superiorly to form with the frontal bone the two ethmoidal foramina. 
Unciform Process, descends to articulate with the inferior turbinated, and 
forms part of the inner wall of the antrum. 
Superior Turbinated Process,/ curves downwards and outwards. 
Middle Turbinated Process,g is larger and more curved than the superior. 
These processes bound the superior meatus of the nose, and are often 
called the superior and middle turbinated bones. 
Describe its articulations, development, and muscles. The ethmoid 
articulates with 15 bones, viz.—all those of the face except the malar, and the 
frontal and sphenoid of the cranium. It is developed by 3 centres, x for each 
lateral mass, and I for the body, ossification being completed about the 6tb 
year. There are no muscles attached to it. 
Fig. 5. 22 
ANATOMY. 
Describe them. They are 2 small bones forming the bridge of the nose by 
articulation with each other in the median line. They are convex exter- 
nally, concave internally, and grooved for the external branch of the nasal 
nerve and for small arteries. They each articulate with 4 bones,—the frontal, 
ethmoid, superior maxillary, and the opposite nasal; are each developed by one 
centre of ossification, and have no muscles attached to them. 
THE NASAL BONES. 
THE SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES. 
Describe them. They are 2 hollow bones, together forming the upper 
jaw. Each bone consists of 4 processes, and a body which possesses a large 
cavity, the antrum of Highmore. 
Describe the Antrum of Highmore. It is a pyramidal cavity in the body of 
the bone, and opens into the middle meatus of the nose by an aperture which 
is very small in the recent subject, admitting only a small probe. Its walls are 
very thin, and are covered internally by a mucous membrane. It presents the— 
Aperture, partly closed by the articulation of the unciform process of the 
ethmoid with the ethmoidal process of the inferior turbinated; and that 
of the maxillary process of the palate with a fissure in the superior maxil- 
lary ; also by the maxillary process of the inferior turbinated which hooks 
over the lower edge of the orifice. 
Posterior Dental Canals, on the posterior wall of the cavity. 
Processes in its floor, formed by the alveoli of the 1st and 2d molar teeth, 
the roots of which occasionally perforate it. 
What other points are presented by the body? The body has 4 
surfaces, the facial externally, the zygomatic 
posteriorly, the orbital superiorly, and an 
internal surface forming part of the outer 
wall of the nose and the cavity of the 
mouth. It presents the— 
Incisive Fossa,2 on the facial surface, 
above the incisor sockets, for the origin 
of the depressor alae nasi muscle. 
Canine Fossa? more externally, for the 
levator anguli oris. 
Infraorbital Foramen,8 above the ca- 
nine fossa, transmitting the infraor- 
bital vessels and nerve, from the in- 
fraorbital canal in the orbital surface 
of the bone. 
Fig. 6. THE SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES. 
23 
Maxillary Tuberosity, articulates with the tuberosity of the palate bone. 
Turbinated Crests, inferior and superior, on the inner surface, bounding 
horizontal grooves which correspond to the meati of the nose. 
Vertical Grooves, on the inner surface, one assisting to form the nasal duct, 
the other to form the posterior palatine canal. 
Rough Surface, for articulation with the palate bone. 
Orbital Surface, articulating with the lachrymal, ethmoid, and palate bones 
interiorly, partly bounding the spheno-maxillary fissure exteriorly, and 
forming the lower margin of the orbit anteriorly. 
Infraorbital Groove, along the orbital surface, ending in the infraorbital 
canal and foramen. (See ante.) 
Depression, for the origin of the inferior oblique muscle of the eye. 
Describe its Processes. They number 4, as follows.— 
Malar Process,4 is triangular, looks outwards from the body, and is rough 
for articulation with the malar bone. 
Nasal Process,8 is thin anteriorly and serrated superiorly for articulation 
with the nasal bone; posteriorly it is smooth and articulates with the lachry- 
mal. It presents the— 
Turbinated Crests, superior and inferior, the former articulating with the 
middle turbinated process of the ethmoid bone. 
Outer Surface, gives origin to the orbicularis palpebrarum and levator labii 
superioris alaeque nasi muscles, and the tendo oculi. 
Groove on the posterior border, helping to form the nasal duct. 
. ALVEOLAR Process, forms the curved line of the teeth, and presents— 
Alveoli, or sockets, for 8 teeth in the adult, 5 in the child. 
Palate Process, forms part of the floor of the nasal cavity, and the roof of 
the mouth. It articulates with the vomer, the palate bone, and with its 
fellow process, and presents the— 
Incisive Foramen, or foramen of Stenson, leading into the anterior palatine 
canal, for the anterior palatine vessels. 
Foramina of Scarpa, 2, transmitting the naso-palatine nerves. 
Groove on the under surface, for the protection of the vessels and nerves. 
Orifice of the posterior palatine canal, at the posterior end. 
Nasal Crest, at the articulation of the two processes with the vomer. 
Anterior Nasal Spine, the anterior extremity of the nasal crest. 
Describe its articulations and development. The superior maxillary 
articulates with 9 bones,—the frontal,12 ethmoid,14 vomer,13 nasal,15 lachrymal, 
malar, palate, inferior turbinated, and opposite superior maxillary.10 It is de- 
veloped probably by 4 centres,— 1 for the facial and nasal parts, another for the 
orbital and malar, a 3d for the incisive, and a 4th for the palate portion. 24 
ANATOMY. 
What muscles are attached to it? There are 11, viz.—the orbicularis 
palpebrarum, and levator anguli oris alseque nasi, 2, to the nasal process ;—the 
levator labii superioris, levator anguli oris, compressor naris, depressor alse 
nasi, orbicularis oris, and inferior oblique of the eye, 6, to the body;—the buc- 
cinator, 1, to the alveolar process ;—the masseter, 1, to the malar process ;—and 
the external pterygoid, 1, to the tuberosity. 
THE LACHRYMAL BONES. 
Describe them. They are 2 small quadrilateral-shaped bones, situated in 
the anterior part of the inner wall of the orbit. Each presents a— 
Groove, on the external surface, forming part of the nasal duct. 
Ridge, also externally, for attachment of the tensor tarsi muscle. 
Furrow, internally, corresponding to the ridge on the external surface. 
Hamular Process, projecting downwards to articulate with the lachrymal 
process of the inferior turbinated bone. 
Internal Surface, closes the anterior ethmoidal cells. 
Describe its articulations, development, and muscles. The lachry- 
mal articulates with 4 bones,—the frontal, ethmoid, superior maxillary, and 
inferior turbinated. It is developed from 1 centre, and has but I muscle attached 
to it, the tensor tarsi, or Horner’s muscle. 
THE MALAR BONES. 
Describe them. The cheek bones are situated at the outer and upper part 
of the face, aiding to form the cavities of the orbits and the temporal and zyg- 
omatic fossa?. Each presents an— 
External Surface, convex, for attachment of the zygomatic muscles. 
Foramen, externally, for the malar branch of the temporo-malar nerve. 
Foramen,e internally, for the temporal branch of the same nerve. 
Frontal Process,a articulates with the external angular process of the frontal. 
Orbital Process,b projecting backwards, forming part of the floor and outer 
wall of the orbit, as well as part of the temporal fossa, and bounds the 
spheno-maxillary fissure anteriorly. 
Zygomatic Process,/ projecting backwards to articulate 
with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone by a 
serrated edge. 
Upper Border,b forms the outer and inferior margin of tha 
orbit. 
Lower Border, thick and rough, for the origin of the mas 
seter muscle. 
Anterior Border,d articulates with the superior maxillary bone. 
Posterior Border, terminates the temporal fossa below. 
Fig. 7. the palate bones. 
Name its articulations, centres, and muscles. The malar articulates 
with 4 bones,—the frontal, sphenoid, temporal, and superior maxillary. It is 
developed by one centre of ossification, and has 5 muscles attached to it,—the 
levator labii superioris, zygomaticus major and minor,masseter and temporal. 
THE PALATE BONES. 
Describe them. They are 2 irregularly-shaped bones, situated poste- 
riorly in the nares. Each bone assists in forming the floor and outer wall of 
the nose, the roof of the mouth, the floor of the orbit, the inner wall of the 
antrum, the zygomatic, spheno-maxillary, and pterygoid fossae, and presents tns- 
following points.— 
Horizontal plate,« completes the nasal floor and hard palate; has a— 
Ridge, on the inferior surface, for the tensor palati aponeurosis. 
Groove, assisting to form the posterior palatine canal. 
Foramina, transmitting the anterior and posterior 
palatine nerves. 
Anterior Border, is serrated, and joins the superior 
maxillary bones. 
Posterior Border, is free and concave, for the attach- 
ment of the soft palate. 
Inner Border,d is thick, and articulates with its fel- 
low, forming a groove for the reception of the vomer. 
Its posterior extremity is the— 
Posterior Nasal Spine, for the origin of the azygos 
uvulae muscle. 
Vertical plate/ a broad and thick lamella, presents the following :— 
Superior Turbinated Crest, on the inner surface. Below it is the— 
Inferior Turbinated Crest,s dividing the middle meatus of the nose from 
the inferior, and articulating with the inferior turbinated bone. 
Posterior Border, articulates with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid. 
Groove, on the external surface, helping to form the posterior palatine canal. 
Two Smooth Surfaces, externally, one forming the inner wall of the zygo- 
matic fossa; the other, part of the inner wall of the antrum. 
Two Rough Surfaces, also externally, one for articulation with the superior 
maxillary; the other with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid. 
Deep Notch, which by articulation with the sphenoid bone, forms the 
spheno-palatine foramen,h for the splieno-palatine nerves. 
Pterygoid is wedged into the notch between the plates of the ptery- 
goid process of the sphenoid, with which it articulates laterally. In it are the—1 
Palatine Foramina, for the external and posterior palatine nerves. 
Posterior Surface, aids in forming the pterygoid fossa. 
Fig. 8. 26 
ANATOMY. 
Orbital process,*" triangular in shape, large and hollow. It has— 
Three Articular Surfaces, for the sup. maxillary, sphenoid, and ethmoid. 
Two Free Surfaces, the orbital forming part of the floor of the orbit, the 
external aiding to form the zygomatic fossa. 
Rounded Border, forms a part of the spheno-maxillary fissure. 
Sphenoidal process,/ projects backwards, articulates superiorly with the 
body of the sphenoid, and externally with the pterygoid process of the 
sphenoid. On its upper surface is a— 
Groove, which assists in forming the pterygo-palatine canal. 
Inner Surface, forms part of the outer wall of the nasal fossa. 
Describe its articulations, development, and muscles. The palate 
articulates with 6 bones,—the sphenoid, ethmoid, vomer, superior maxillary, 
inferior turbinated, and its fellow palate bone. It is developed by one centre at 
the junction of the two plates. There are 5 muscles attached to it,—the azygos 
uvula;, internal and external pterygoids, superior constrictor, and tensor palatl 
THE INFERIOR TURBINATED BONES. 
Describe them. They are 2 thin curved osseous plates situated in the 
nasal fossae, their convex surfaces presenting inwardly. Each bone is attached 
above to the inferior turbinated crests of the superior maxillary and palate 
bones, and presents the following, viz.— 
Lachrymal Process,3 aiding to form the nasal 
duct, by articulation with the lachrymal and 
superior maxillary bones. 
Ethmoidal Process,1 articulating with the unci- 
form process of the ethmoid, thus helping to 
partially close the aperture of the antrum. 
Maxillary Process,4 also helps to partially close the aperture of the antrum, 
by hooking7 over the lower edge of that orifice. 
Free Border,5 below, coming to about x/2 inch above the floor of the nose. 
Name its articulations, centres, and muscles. The inferior turbinated 
articulates with 4 bones, the ethmoid, lachrymal, palate, and superior max- 
illary. It is developed by one centre, and has no muscles attached to it. 
Fig. 9. 
THE VOMER. 
Describe it. The vomer (plough-share) forms the postero-inferior part 
of the nasal septum, but is usually bent to one 
side. Its— 
Superior Border} 2 has a groove and two alas 
or wings, for articulation with the rostrum 
and vaginal processes of the sphenoid bone. 
Fig. io. THE INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE. 
27 
Anterior Border,s is grooved for the ethmoidal plate and the nasal cartilage. 
Inferior Border,4 the longest, articulates with the nasal crest of the superior 
maxillary and palate bones. 
Posterior Border, is free and presents towards the pharynx. 
Naso-palatine Grooves, laterally, for the naso-palatine nerves. 
Furrows, on the lateral surfaces,6 for vessels and nerve-filaments. 
Name its articulations, centres, and muscles. The vomer articulates 
with 6 bones,—the sphenoid, ethmoid, 2 superior maxillary, and 2 palate 
bones. It is developed by one centre, which appears about the 6th foetal week 
in cartilage between two laminae which coalesce after puberty. It has no 
muscles attached to it. 
THE INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE. 
Describe its general characteristics. The inferior maxillary bone forms 
the lower jaw, receives the inferior teeth, and is the second bone of the body 
in which ossification appears, the clavicle being the first. It consists of a body 
and two rami. 
Describe the Body of the bone. It is shaped somewhat like a horse- 
shoe, and presents for examination the following: viz.— 
Alveolar Portion, above the oblique line, containing on its upper border 
alveoli for 16 teeth in the adult, for io in the child. 
Symphysis, a vertical ridge on the median line, marking the junction of the 
two symmetrical portions of which the bone originally consisted. 
Afental Process, a prominent triangular eminence, forming the chin. 
Externally on each side from the symphysis backwards, are the— 
Incisive Fossa, above the chin, for 
the origin of the levator menti. 
Mental Foramen, below the 2d 
bicuspid alveolus, transmitting 
the mental artery and nerve. 
External Oblique Line, for the 
origins of the depressor labii 
inferioris and depressor anguli 
oris muscles from its anterior 
half. 
Groove, near the angle, for the 
facial artery. 
Internally, on each side from the median depression backwards, are the— 
Genial Tubercles, the superior for the genio-hyo-glossus muscle; the inferior 
for the genio hyoid. 
Alylo-kyoid Ridge, obliquely backwards, for the mylo-hyoid muscle. 
Fig. ii ANATOMY. 
Sublingual Fossa, near the genial tubercles, for the sublingual gland. 
Fossa, below the sublingual, for the anterior belly of the digastric muscle. 
Submaxillary Fossa, below the ridge, for the submaxillary gland. 
Describe the Rami of the Inferior Maxillary. The rami, or ascending 
portions of the bone, are 2 in number, and each present the— 
Coronoid Process, anteriorly, for the insertion of the temporal muscle. 
Condyloid Process, posteriorly. Its condyle articulates with the glenoid 
fossa of the temporal bone, its neck receives the insertion of the external 
pterygoid muscle, its tubercle has attached to it the external lateral liga- 
ment of the lower jaw. 
Sigmoid Notch, a deep depression separating the above-named processes 
from each other, and crossed by the masseteric vessels and nerve. 
Groove, on the coronoid process internally, and prolonged downwards upon 
the body, for the attachment of the buccinator muscle. 
Ridges, on the external surface, for the insertion of the masseter. 
Spine, a projection on the internal surface, for the attachment of the internal 
lateral ligament of the jaw. 
Inferior Dental Canal, opening behind the spine, lies within the ramus and 
body of the bone for the inferior dental vessels and nerve. It communi- 
cates with each alveolus and with the mental foramen. 
Mylo hyoid Groove, below the spine, for the mylo-hyoid vessels and nerve. 
Rough Surface, behind the groove, for the internal pterygoid muscle. 
Angle of the Jaw, at the junction of the posterior body of the ramus with 
the inferior border of the body, for the insertion of the masseter and in- 
ternal pterygoid muscles, and the stylo-maxillary ligament. 
Describe the Articulations and Development of the Inferior Max- 
illary bone. It articulates with one pair of bones,—the temporal. It is the 
earliest formed bone in the body except the clavicle, and is probably developed 
by 2 centres, one for each lateral half, the two halves coalescing at the 
symphysis about the 1st year of age. In adult life the ramus arises almost 
vertically from the body, and the dental canal lies about the middle of the 
body. In old age the ramus extends obliquely backwards, the angle becoming 
very obtuse; and the alveolar portion being absorbed, the dental canal is near 
the superior border. 
What Muscles are attached to the Inferior Maxillary ? They 
number 15 pairs,—the masseter, internal and external pterygoids and temporal, 
4, to the ramus;—the genio-hyo-glossus, genio-hyoid, myio-nyoid, digastric, 
and superior constrictor, 5, to the internal surface of the body;—the depressor 
labii inferioris, depressor anguli oris, levator menti, orbicularis oris, platysma 
myoides, and buccinator, 6, to the external surface of the body. THE ORBITS. 
29 
Describe the Orbital Cavities. The orbits are 2 conoidal cavities, 
situated between the forehead and the face, their bases outwards, their apices 
pointing backwards, the lines of axial prolongation meeting at the sella 
turcica of the sphenoid bone. They contain the organs of vision with their 
appendages, and are each formed by 7 bones,—the frontal,1 ethmoid,2 sphe- 
noid,3 4 5 lachrymal,6 superior maxillary,7 palate,8 and malar,9 of which the 
first three are common to both orbits. Each orbit communicates with 1 cavity 
and 4 fossa-, as follows, viz.— 
Cavily of the cranium, by the optic foramen 11 and sphenoidal fissure.10 
Fossa (4)—the nasal, temporal, zygomatic, and spheno maxillary,—by the 
nasal duct12 and the spheno-maxillary fissure.13 
What Foramina communicate with each orbit? Nine,—the optic 
foramen,11 sphenoidal fissure,10 anterior21 and posterior22 ethmoidal foramina, 
supraorbital,14 infraorbital,15 and malar foramina,16 the nasal duct,12 and the 
spheno-maxillary fissure.13 
THE ORBITS. 
Describe the Roof of the Orbit. Formed by the orbital plate of the 
frontal bone anteriorly,1 and the 
lesser wing of the sphenoid4 pos- 
teriorly, it is concave, and presents 
the— 
Lachrymal Fossa,17 at its outer 
angle,for the lachrymal gland. 
Depression,18 at the inner angle, 
for the pulley of the superior 
oblique. 
Describe the Floor of the 
Orbit. Formed by the orbital 
surface of the superior maxillary 
bone,7 and the orbital process of 
the malar9 and palate bones,8 it 
is nearly flat and presents the— 
Palato-maxillary Suture poste- 
riorly. 
Infraorbital Canal, and a De- 
pression for the superior 
oblique muscle of the eye, 
anteriorly. 
Infraorbital Groove}9 poste- 
riorly. 
Fig. i2. 30 
ANATOMY. 
Describe the Inner Wall of the Orbit. Formed by the nasal process 
of the superior maxillary bone,20 the lachrymal,6 the os planum of the ethmoid,2 
and the body of the sphenoid,3 it presents— 
A Groove, for the lachrymal sac, and the Lachrymal Crest, anteriorly. 
2 Sutures,—the ethmo-lachrymal, and the ethmo-sphenoidal. 
Describe the Outer Wall of the Orbit. Formed by the orbital pro- 
cess of the malar bone,9 and the greater wing of the sphenoid,5 it presents the 
Orifices16 of the malar canals, and the Spheno-malar Suture. 
Describe the Angles of the Orbit. They present the following points. 
In the superior external angle. 
Sphenoidal Fissure,10 or foramen lacerum anterius, transmits the 3d, 4th, 
ophthalmic division of the 5th, and the 6th nerves, the ophthalmic vein, 
branches of the lachrymal and middle meningeal arteries, filaments of 
the sympathetic nerve, and a process of the dura mater. 
Articulations,—the fronto-malar, and fronto-sphenoidal. 
In the superior internal angle. 
Suture,—the lachrymo-ethmo-frontal, in which are the following foramina. 
Anterior Ethmoidal Foramen,21 transmitting the anterior ethmoidal artery 
and the nasal nerve. 
Posterior Ethmoidal Foramen?2 transmitting the posterior ethmoidal artery 
and vein. 
In the inferior external angle. 
Spheno-maxillary Fissure13 (described under the Zygomatic Fossa). 
In the inferior internal angle. 
A Suture, the ethmo-maxillo-palato-lachrymal. 
What other points are connected with the Orbit ? Two, the supra- 
orbital notch, and the optic foramen, as follows, viz.— 
Supraorbital Notch or Foramen,u at the junction of the inner and middle 
thirds of the upper circumference, transmitting the supraorbital artery, 
veins, and nerve. A line prolonged from this notch through the interval 
between the bicuspid teeth of either jaw, will cross both the infraorbital 
and mental foramina, and the canine fossa of the superior maxillary bone. 
Optic Foramen,n at the apex, is formed by the 2 roots of the lesser wing 
of the sphenoid, and transmits the optic nerve and the ophthalmic artery. 
From around its margin arises a tendinous ring, the common origin of the 
4 recti muscles of the eye. 
What Muscles arise within the Orbit ? The 4 recti and 2 oblique of the 
eye, the levator palpebrse, and the tensor tarsi (8 in all). the fossae. 
Describe the Nasal Fossae. Together they form the cavity of the nose, 
being separated from each other by the Septum Nasi.n They open in front 
by the anterior nares, behind by the posterior nares; and extend from the 
palate processes of the superior maxillary and palate bones,17 upwards to the 
base of the cranium. They are formed by 14 bones,—the ethmoid, sphenoid, 
frontal, vomer, 2 nasal, 2 superior maxillary, 2 lachrymal, 2 palate, and 2 
inferior turbinated. 
THE FOSSZE. 
Describe the Septum Nasi.11 It forms the inner wall of each nasal 
fossa, and is formed chiefly by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, 
the vomer, and the triangular cartilage of the septum; to a less extent by 5 
other bones,—the rostrum of the sphenoid, the nasal spine of the frontal, and 
the crests of the nasal, palate, and superior maxillary bones. 
Describe the points presented by each Nasal Fossa. They are— 
On the roof. 
Openings, posteriorly, into the sphenoidal sinuses. 
Olfactory Foramina, and the Nasal Slit, in the cribriform plate of the eth- 
moid bone. 
On the floor. 
Orifice, of the anterior palatine canal. 
Suture, between the bones forming the hard palate. 
Nasal Spines, anterior and posterior, and the Ridge connecting them. 
On the outer wall, from above downwards. 
Superior Turbinated process of 
the ethmoid. 
Superior Meatus of the nose, into 
which open 3 orifices,—those 
of the posterior ethmoidal and 
the sphenoidal sinuses, and the 
spheno palatine foramen. 
Middle Turbinated1 process of 
the ethmoid. 
Middle Meatus of the nose, into 
which open 2 orifices,—those 
of the antrum14 and infundib- 
ulum,—the latter draining the 
anterior ethmoidal cells,8 and the frontal sinus. 
Inferior Turbinated Bone}** below which is the— 
Fig. 13. ANATOMY. 
Inferior Meatus of the nose, the largest; into it open 2 orifices,—those of 
the lachrymal, and anterior palatine canals. To these may be added the 
anterior and posterior nares. 
Describe the Temporal Fossa. Situated on each side of the cranium, 
it is shallow above and behind, but deep in front and below; and is formed 
by parts of 5 bones,—the frontal, sphenoid, temporal, parietal, and malar. It 
is bounded above and behind by the temporal ridge, in front by the malar 
frontal and sphenoid bones, and below by the zygoma and the pterygoid ridge 
on the greater wing of the sphenoid. It is traversed by 6 sutures,—the 
spheno-malar, spheno-frontal, spheno-parietal, spheno-temporal, fronto-parietal, 
and temporo-parietal. It opens below into the zygomatic fossa; and lodges the 
temporal muscle, and the deep temporal vessels. 
Describe the Zygomatic Fossa. Extending downwards from the tem- 
poral fossa, it is thus bounded,— 
In front, by the tuberosity of the superior maxillary bone. 
Externally, by the zygoma, and the ramus of the inf. maxillary. 
Internally, by the external plate of the pterygoid process. 
Above, by the temporal fossa, the squamous portion of the temporal bone, 
and the greater wing of the sphenoid. 
Below, by the alveolar border of the inferior maxillary bone. 
What Fissures open into the Zygomatic Fossa. Two, the— 
Spheno-maxillary Fissure, between the greater wing of the sphenoid externally, 
and the superior maxillary and palate bones internally. It connects the 
orbit with the zygomatic, temporal, and spheno-maxillary fossae; and trans- 
mits the infraorbital artery, the superior maxillary nerve and its orbital 
branches, and the ascending branches of Meckel’s ganglion. 
Pterygo-maxillary Fissure, between the tuberosity of the superior maxillary 
bone and the pterygoid process of the sphenoid. It transmits branches of 
the internal maxillary artery, and connects the zygomatic fossa with the 
spheno-maxillary. 
Describe the Spheno-Maxillary Fossa. It is a triangular cavity be- 
tween the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone and the tuberosity of the 
superior maxillary, and is situated at the junction of the spheno-maxillary, 
pterygo-maxillary, and sphenoidal fissures. Into it open— 
3 Fossa,—the orbital, zygomatic, and nasal. 
2 Cavities,—the cranial, and buccal. 
3 Foramina,—the Vidian and plerygo-pala, me canals, and the foramen 
rotundum, posteriorly; the spheno-palatine foramen on the inner wall; 
and the posterior palatine canal inferiorly t—occasionally also the acces 
sory palatine canals. THE SUTURES AND FONTANELLES. 
THE SUTURES AND FONTANELLES. 
Name the Sutures of the skull. There are 17. 
4t the Vertex of the skull are 5, the— 
Sagittal, or interparietal. 
2 Coronal, or fronto-parietal. 2 Lambdoid, or occipito-parietal. 
At the Sides of the skull are 4, the— 
2 Spheno-parietal. 2 Temporo-parietal. 
it the Base of the skull are 5, the— 
2 Temporo-occipital. Basilar, in the central line of the base. 
2 Temporo-sphenoidal. 
In the Mesial line, besides the sagittal and basilar, are 3, the— 
Spheno-ethmoidal. Spheno-frontal. Ethmo-frontal. 
Describe the Facial Sutures. The most important are the following, bu* 
the sutures of the face are very numerous. 
Zygomatic Suture, at the temporo-malar articulation. 
Transverse Suture, extending from one external angular process of the 
frontal bone across to the other, and connecting that bone with the malar, 
sphenoid, ethmoid, lachrymal, superior maxillary, and nasal bones. 
Symphysis of the Chin, the site of a foetal suture. 
How are the Sutures formed? By dentations of the external tables in- 
terdigitating with each other, the adjacent edges of the internal tables lying in 
unjoined proximity. The sutures are not formed until a long time after the 
formation of the skull, probably to permit of the marginal growth of the bones. 
What are the Fontanelles? They are 6 membranous intervals in the in- 
fant’s skull, corresponding in situation with the angles of the two parietal 
bones. They are as follows, viz.— 
Anterior, at the junction of the sagittal and coronal intervals. 
Posterior, at the junction of the sagittal and lambdoid intervals. 
Lateral Fontanelles, 4, two at the anterior inferioi angles, and two at the 
posterior inferior angles of the parietal bones. 
Describe the Wormian Bones. They are supernumerary small pieces 
of bone, irregularly shaped, and developed by special centres in unclosed por- 
tions of the cranial sutures and fontanelles, being more frequent in the lamb- 
doid suture. They are also called “ossa triqueta” from their triangular form. 
Describe the Hyoid Bone. It is shaped like a horse-shoe, has no articu- 
lation with the skeleton, but supports the tongue. It consists of a Body, two 
greater, and two lesser Cornua or horns. On the body is a Crucial Ridge, 
with a Tubercle at the centre. It is developed by 5 centres,—one for the body 
and one tor each horn. Attached to it are 10 muscles, 3 ligaments, and J 
membrane, as follows, viz.— ANATOMY. 
To the Body,—the genio-, mylo-, stylo-, sterno-, thyro-, omo-hyoid, the genio- 
hyo-glossus, and the hyo-glossus muscles; also the pulley of the digas- 
tric, the hyo-epiglottic ligament, and the thyro-hyoid membrane. 
To the Greater Cornu,—the hyo-glossus, middle constrictor muscles, and 
part of the thyro-hyoid;—also the thyro-hyoid ligament. 
To the Lesser Cornu,—the stylo-hyoid ligament. 
TABLE OF THE FORAMINA AT THE BASE OF THE SKULL, 
with the various structures transmitted by each. 
Anterior Fossa contains I single foramen and 5 in pairs, viz.— 
Foramen Ccecum,—lodges a fold of dura mater, and transmits a vein to the 
longitudinal sinus from the nose, sometimes one from the frontal sinus. 
Ethmoidal Fissure,—the nasal nerve, and the anterior ethmoidal artery. 
Olfactory,—olfactory nerves, and nasal branches of the ethmoidal arteries. 
Anterior Ethmoidal,—anterior ethmoidal artery and the nasal nerve. 
Posterior Ethmoidal,—posterior ethmoidal artery and vein. 
Optic Foramen,—optic nerve and ophthalmic artery. 
Middle Fossae contain 8 pairs, viz.— 
Foramen Lacerum Anterius, or Sphenoidal Fissure,P—the 3d, 4th, oph- 
thalmic division of the 5th, and the 6th cranial nerves, and filaments of 
the sympathetic; ophthalmic vein, 
a branch of the lachrymal artery, 
orbital branches of the middle 
meningeal arteiy, and a process 
of dura mater. 
Foramen Rotundum,—superior max- 
illary division of the 5th cranial 
nerve. 
Foramen Vesalii, — a small vein. 
This foramen is often absent. 
Foramen Ovale, l — inferior max- 
illary division of the 5th nerve, 
lesser petrosal nerve, and the 
small meningeal branch of the 
internal maxillary artery. 
Foramen Spinosum,m—middle men- 
ingeal artery, meningeal veins, 
and sympathetic filaments from the 
cavernous plexus. 
Fig. 14. THE CRANIAL FORAMINA. 
35 
Foramen Lacerum Mediwn,q—internal carotid artery, carotid plexus, large 
petrosal nerve, and a branch from the ascending pharyngeal artery. 
Small Foramen,—lesser petrosal nerve. 
Hiatus Fallopii,—large petrosal nerve, branch of middle meningeal artery. 
Posterior Fossa contains 6 pairs and 1 single, viz.— 
Meatus Auditorius Internus,—facial and auditory nerves, auditory artery. 
Aqueductus Vestibuli,—small artery and vein, process of dura mater. 
Foramen Lacerum Posterius,r—glosso-pharyngeal, pneumo gastric, and spinal 
accessory nerves, internal jugular vein, meningeal branches of the ascend- 
ing pharyngeal and occipital arteries. 
Mastoid Foramen (often absent),—small vein, occasionally the mastoid 
artery. 
Anterior Condyloid Foramen,—hypoglossal nerve, meningeal branch from 
the ascending pharyngeal artery. 
Posterior Condyloid Foramenw (often absent), posterior condyloid vein. 
Foramen Magnum,k—medulla oblongata and its membranes, the vertebral 
arteries, and the spinal accessory nerves. 
Externally, at the base of the skull are io pairs, viz.— 
Opening of the Eustachian Tube,—air to the middle ear. 
Opening of Tensor Tympani Canal,—the tensor tympani muscle. 
Orifice of the Vidian Canal,—the Vidian nerve, and vessels. 
Glasserian Fissure,»—laxator tympani muscle, tympanic artery, processus 
gracilis of the malleus. 
Orifice of the Canal of Hugier,—chorda tympani nerve. 
Foramen for Jacobson's Nerve,—tympanic branch of glosso-phaiyngeal. 
F'oramen for Arnold's Nerve,—auricular branch of pneumogastric. 
Opening of the Aqueduclus Cochlpce,—vein to the cochlea. 
Stylo-mastoid Foramen,•t—facial nerve, stylo-mastoid artery. 
Auricular Fissure,—exit of Arnold’s nerve. 
Face presents 3 pairs, viz.— 
Supraorbital Foramen or Notch,—supraorbital artery, vein, and nerve. 
Infraorbital Foramen,—infraorbital artery and nerve. 
Mental Foramen,—mental artery and nerve. 
Palate presents, on each side at least 6 pairs, viz.— 
Incisive Foraminab (one or two),—nerves and vessels to the incisor teeth 
2 Anterior Palatine,—anterior palatine vessels, naso-palatine nerves. 
Posterior Palatine,—posterior palatine vessels, anterior palatine nerve. 
Accessory Palatine Foramina (one or two),—posterior palatine nerves 
Pterygo-palatine Foramen,—pterygo-palatine vessels. ANATOMY. 
THE BONES OF THE TRUNK. 
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 
What Cnaracteristics are Common to the Vertebrae ? Each vertebra 
consists of a body and an arch, the latter being formed by 2 pedicles and 2 
laminae, which support 7 processes. 
Body6 is thick and spongy, convex in front7 from side to side, concave verti- 
cally, and on the upper and lower surfaces, which are surrounded by a 
bony rim. Anteriorly are small foramina for nutrient vessels, posteriorly 
a large foramen for the exit of the venae basis vertebrarum. 
Pedicleproject backwards from the body, inclining outwards. They are 
notched above and below, thus forming, with the adjacent notches, the 
Intervertebral Foramina for the entrance of vessels and the exit of the 
spinal nerves. 
Lamina,'1 are 2 broad plates, meeting in the spinous process behind, and 
rough on their upper and lower borders for the attachment of the liga- 
mentum subflava. 
Transverse Processes} one 
on each side, projecting 
outwards. 
Articular Processes, two on 
each side, superior3 and 
inferior,5 project from the 
junction of the laminae 
and pedicles, and articu- 
lating above and below 
with the articular pro- 
cesses of the adjacent 
vertebrae. Their superior 
facets look upwards in 
the cervical region, out- 
wards in the dorsal, and 
inwards in the lumbar. 
Spinous Process} projects 
backwards from the junc- 
tion of the laminae with 
each other, sometimes 
very obliquely. 
Spinal Foramen,9 is the space enclosed by the body, pedicles, and laminae ; 
and which, when the vertebrae are articulated, fonns part of the spinal 
canal. 
Fig. 15. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 
37 
How are the Vertebrae distinguished? As cervical (7), dorsal (12), anu 
lumbar (5). Each of these divisions has several pecidiar features, but their 
especial characteristics are as follows. 
The Cervical Vertebra are pierced at the bases of their transverse processes by 
the vertebralforamina, which transmit the vertebral artery, vein, and plexus. 
The Dorsal Vertebra have facets and demifacets on their bodies, for articula- 
tion with the heads of the ribs. 
The Lumbar Vertebra are marked by the absence of the foramina and facets 
which distinguish the other two classes. 
What are the Peculiar Vertebrae? They are 9 in number,—the atlas 
or 1st cervical, the axis or 2d cervical, the vertebra prominens or 7th cervical, 
the 1st, 9th, 10th, nth, and 12th dorsal, and the 5th lumbar. 
The Atlas is a bony ring supporting the head. A bony arch takes the place 
of a body, and its spinous process is a mere tubercle. Its Lateral Masses 
form its chief bulk, supporting large Articular Processes which all look 
inwards, the superior articulating with the condyles of the occipital bone. 
The Axis is marked by its Odontoid Process projecting upwards from the 
body into the anterior part of the spinal foramen of the atlas, where it 
articulates with the anterior arch, and receives the occipito-axoid and the 
check ligaments. 
The Vertebra Prominens has a long and prominent spinous process which 
ends in a tubercle for the ligamentum nuchae. 
The Dorsal Vertebra. The 1st has one facet and a demifacet. The 9th has 
a demifacet only. The 10th has but one facet on the body and one on 
the transverse process. The I ith and 12th have each but one facet on 
the body, and none on the transverse processes. The 12th resembles a 
lumbar vertebra in size and shape. 
The 3th Lumbar is much deeper in front than behind; its spinous process is 
small, but its transverse processes are large and thick, and point slightly 
upwards. 
What important Relations have Certain Vertebrae ? 
The 3d Cervical corresponds to—the bifurcation of the common carotid artery, 
and the superior cervical ganglion. 
The3th Cervical, to—the junctions of the larynx with the trachea, and the phar- 
ynx with the oesophagus, and the middle cervical ganglion of the sympathetic. 
The 2d Ltimhar, to—the junction of the duodenum with the jejunum, the 
commencement of the thoracic duct and the portal vein, the origin of 
the superior mesenteric artery, the lower margin of the pancreas, the 
opening of the ductus communis choledochus, the lower end of the spinal 
cord, and the crura of the diaphragm. 
[The false vertebrae are described as bones of the pelvis.] THE THORAX. 
ANATOMY. 
What is the Thorax? An osseo-cartilaginous cage formed by the boditw 
of the dorsal vertebrae posteriorly, the ribs and costal cartilages laterally, and 
the sternum in front. Its shape is conical, the axis inclined forwards, the bast 
below and closed by the diaphragm. 
What Structures pass through its Apex ? The trachea, oesophagus, 
large vessels of the neck, pneumogastric, phrenic and sympathetic nerves, 
thoracic duct, and in inspiration the apex of the lung. 
What Structures are contained in its Cavity ? The trachea, bronchi 
and lungs, the heart and great vessels, internal mammary arteries, azygos and 
bronchial veins, pneumogastric, phrenic, and splanchnic nerves, oesophagus, 
thoracic duct, lymphatic vessels, and glands. 
Describe it. The sternum, or breast-bone, consists of 3 parts,—the manu- 
brium/* or handle; the gladiolus/ or sword; and the ensi 
form or xiphoid It presents the— 
Interclavicular Notch, on its superior border. 
Manubrium,a articulates with the 1st costal 
cartilage,* and a part of the 2d../ 
Gladiolus, articulates with the costal cartilages from the 
3d to the 6th inclusive, and partly with the 2d and 7th. 
Ensiform Appendix (the tip), articulates with the carti- 
lage of the false ribs, and in part with the 7th costal 
cartilage./ 
Describe its development and muscles. The ster- 
num is developed by 6 centres, 1 each for the manubrium 
and ensiform aoDendix, and 4 for the gladiolus. The mus- 
cles attached to it are 9 pairs and one single muscle,— 
the sterno-cleido-mastoid, sterno-hyoid, and sterno-thyroid 
3, to its upper part;—the rectus abdominis, external and internal oblique, trans- 
versalis, and the diaphragm, 5, to its lower part;—the pectoralis major, 1, an- 
teriorly;—and the triangularis sterni, 1, posteriorly. 
THE STERNUM. 
Fig. 16. 
THE RIBS. 
Describe them. There are 12 ribs on each side, of which 7 are “true 
ribs,” being each connected to the sternum by a separate cartilage,—and 5 are 
“ false ribs.” Three of the latter are connected by their cartilages to the carti- 
lage of the 7th rib, while two are called “ floating ribs,” having each one ex- 
tremity free. 
What are the Characteristics Common to most of the Ribs ? They each 
consist of a head, neck, and shaft, and present the following points, viz.— THE RIBS. 
39 
Head,* is divided by a ridge into 2 facets, which articulate with the facets on 
the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae; the ridge giving attachment to the in* 
terarticular ligament. 
Neck, about an inch long, having attached to its upper border the anterior 
costo-transverse ligament, to its posterior surface the middle costo-trams* 
verse ligament; its anterior surface is smooth. 
Tuber osity,b 
at the junc- 
tion of the 
neck with 
the shaft, 
has a facet 
for articula- 
t i o n with 
the trans- 
verse pro- 
cess of the 
next lower 
vertebra, and a rough surface for the posterior costo-transverse ligament. 
Shaft, twisted on itself, is concave internally, convex externally, its upper' 
border round and smooth, its lower border for the intercostal 
vessels and nerves. At its external is an oval depression for 
the insertion of the costal cartilage. 
Angle,e just in front of the tuberosity, is marked by a rough line, to which 
are attached the muscles of the deep layer of the back. 
Fig. 17. 
How are they developed ? Each rib has 3 centres, one each for the 
head, shaft, and tuberosity. The last 2 ribs, having no tuberosity, are devel- 
oped each by 2 centres. 
Describe the Peculiar Ribs. They are the 1st, 2d, 10th, nth, and nth. 
They respectively present the following peculiarities, viz.— 
1st Rib, is broad, short, not 
twisted, has no angle, only one 
facet on the headbut on its 
upper surface are seen two 
grooves for the subclavian ar- 
and vein,* and between 
them a tubercles for the scale- 
nus anticus muscle. 
2d Rib, is not twisted, its tuber- 
osity and angle are very close 
together, and its upper surface presents rough surfaces for the serratu* 
magnus and scalenus posticus muscles. 
Fig. 18. 40 
ANATOMY. 
10th Rib, has but one facet on its head. 
nth. Rib, has no neck, no tuberosity, and but one facet on its head. 
12th Rib, has neither neck, angle, tuberosity nor groove, and but one facet 
Describe the Pelvis. It is formed by the sacrum, coccyx, and two ossa 
Innominata, and is divided into,—the false pelvis, comprising the upper and 
expanded portion,—and the true pelvis, below the ilio-pectineal line. The 
false pelvis corresponds to the iliac fossae, and is marked by its walls being 
deficient anteriorly between the iliac borders, and posteriorly between the 
sacrum and the posterior iliac spines. The true pelvis has a— 
Brim, or inlet, bounded in front by the crest and spine of the pubes, benind 
by the promontory of the sacrum, laterally by the ilio-pectineal line. Its 
axis corresponds to a line from the umbilicus to the middle of the coccyx. 
Its average diameters in the female are,—4 inches antero-posterioriy/ over 
5 inches transversely,* under 5 inches obliquely.3 In the male each of 
these measurements is about 
y2 an inch less. 
Cavity, is a short curved 
canal, connecting the brim 
with the outlet. In front its 
depth is about inch, 
posteriorly 4 to 4yz inches 
in the female, to 
inches in the male. Its 
diameter is about inches 
in the female, inches in 
the male, all around. 
Outlet, is bounded by the pubic arch above, the tip of the coccyx behind, 
and the tuberosities of the ischii laterally. Its axis, if prolonged, would 
touch the promontory of the sacrum. Its diameters in the female are 
each about 4*4' inches, in the male about inches. 
THE PELVIS. 
Fig. 19. 
State the chief differences between the male and female pelves. The male 
pelvis is marked by strength of the bones, prominence of the muscular impres- 
sions, a deep and narrow cavity, and large obturator foramina. The female pel- 
vis has lighter bones, broader iliac fossae, the spines being further apart, greater 
diameters at every point, the sacrum less curved, and the pubic arch wider. 
Describe the Sacrum. The “ sacred bone ” is triangular, curved, with its 
convexity backwards, and is situated base upwards between the ossa innominata, 
forming with the coccyx the posterior wall of the pelvis. The bone is formed 
by the coalescence of 5 vertebrae, and presents the following points, viz— THE PELVIS. 
41 
4 Ridges,* transversely across both surfaces, mark the union of its original 
segments. 
8 Anterior Sacral Foramina, for the anterior sacral nerves. 
8 Grooves,5 shallow and broad, for the aforesaid nerves. 
Promontory, at its junction with the last lumbar vertebra;. 
8 Posterior Sacral Foramina, for the posterior sacral 
nerves. 
Tubercles, representing the spinous processes of the 
segments. 
Groove, posteriorly, on each side of the spinous 
tubercles. 
2 Cornua, at the posterior inferior portion of the 
bone. 
Auricular Surface,3 on each side, articulates with 
the ilium. 
Notch, laterally and inferiorly, for the 5th sacral nerve. 
Base,2 has all the characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae, with the last of 
which it articulates. 
Apex,16 has an oval surface for articulation with the coccyx. 
Sacral Canal, the continuation of the spinal, is incomplete posteriorly at its 
lower end. It transmits the Cauda Equina ; into it open the sacral fora- 
mina laterally. 
Fig. 20. 
Describe the Coccyx. It consists of 4 or 5 rudimentary vertebrae coalesced 
into a triangular bone, the base1 of which articulates with the apex of the 
sacrum. Its posterior surface is rough for muscles and liga- 
ments, its anterior surface is smooth and marked by ridges at 
the junction of its constituent vertebrae. It presents the fol- 
lowing points.— 
2 Cornua,2 superiorly, articulating with the sacral cornua 
to form foramina for the 5th sacral nerves. 
Apex, is sometimes bifid and turned to one side. 
Fig.21 
Describe the Ossa Innominata. The unnamed bones are placed one on 
each side of the osseous pelvis, and are each formed by the union, about 
puberty, of 3 bones,—the ilium, ischium, and pubes. The innominate bone 
as a whole presents the following points, viz.— 
Acetabulum, or cotyloid cavity, receives the head of the femur. It is situ- 
ated at the junction of the 3 bones, the ilium and ischium each forming 
about two-fifths, and the pubes one-fifth of it. A depression in its centre 
lodges a mass of fat containing vessels for the nourishment of the synovial 42 
ANATOMY. 
membrane. The Cotyloid Notch is a deficiency in its lower anterior 
margin, transmitting nutrient vessels to the joint; to the edges of the notch 
is attached the ligamentum teres, and it is bridged over by the transverse 
ligament, a continuation of the cotyloid ligament which surmounts the 
brim of the acetabulum. 
Obturator, or Thyroid Foramen,8 on the anterior surface between the pubes 
and ischium, large and oval in the male, small and triangular in the 
female; is closed by the obturator membrane, except above where the 
obturator nerves and vessels pass through it. 
Describe the Ilium. It is the superior part of the innominate bone, and 
presents the following points, viz.— 
Crestj1 along its upper border, having an outer and inner lip for muscular 
attachment, and ending in the superior spines. 
Anterior Superior Spine? to which is attached 
the sartorius and tensor vaginae femoris mus- 
cles, and Poupart’s ligament. 
Anterior Inferior Spine? for the straight tendon 
of the rectus femoris. 
Notch, between the above-named spines, trans- 
mitting the external cutaneous nerve, and 
lodging some fibres of the sartorius. 
Posterior Superior Spine,19 for the attachment of 
the erector spinae muscle, and the oblique part 
of the sacro-sciatic ligament. 
Posterior Inferior Spine,17 for the great sacro- 
sciatic ligament. 
Great Sacro-sciatic Notch,16 below the last-named 
spine, transmits the great sciatic, superior gluteal, and pudic nerves, the 
pyriformis muscle, and the sciatic, pudic, and gluteal vessels, and a nerve 
supplying the obturator extern us muscle. 
Curved Lines?1 supei'ior middle and inferior, on the outer surface of the 
bone, from the spaces between which arise the glutei muscles. 
Groove, above the acetabulum, for the reflected tendon of the rectus femoris 
muscle. 
Linea Ilio-pectinea, in part; on the inner surface, above which is a smooth 
surface, the Venter of the Ilium. 
Auricular Surface?* rough, articulates with the sacrum. 
Fig. 22. 
Describe the Ischium. It is the lowermost portion of the innominate bone, 
and presents the following points, viz.— 
Body, forms two-fifths of the acetabulum, and the external margin of the 43 
BONES OF THE SHOULDER 
obturator foramen; on it is a broad groove for the tendon of the obturator 
externus muscle. Its posterior margin assists in forming the great sacro- 
sciatic notch. 
Spine,14 for the gemellus superior, coccygeus, and levator ani muscles, and 
the lesser sacro-sciatic ligament. 
Lesser Sacro-sciatic Notch,13 below the spine, transmits the obturator muscle, 
its nerve, and the pudic vessels and nerve as they re-enter the pelvis, hav- 
ing crossed the spine of the ischium. The sacro-sciatic notches are con- 
verted into foramina by the sacro-sciatic ligaments; the greater notch by 
the lesser ligament, the lesser notch by the greater ligament. 
Tuberosity,12 the lowest and most prominent part, gives attachment to the 
greater sacro-sciatic ligament, and to several muscles. On it one rests 
when sitting. 
Ascending Ramus, bounds the obturator foramen inferiorly, articulates with 
the descending ramus of the pubes, and gives attachment to the obturator 
membrane and several muscles. 
Describe the Pubes. The pubic or pectineal bone forms the anterior portion 
of the innominate. It presents the following, viz.— 
Body, lies between the rami, with its fellow forms the Symphysis, giving 
origin to several muscles and ligaments. 
Crest? is the upper part of the body, terminates externally in the Spine, and 
internally in the Angle. 
Spine, affords attachment to one end of Poupart’s ligament. 
Linea Ilio-pectinea, in part; gives attachment to the conjoined tendon, Gim- 
bernat's ligament, and the triangular ligament. 
Horizontal Ramus, forms part of the brim of the pelvis, of the margin of the 
obturator foramen, and of the acetabulum. On its under surface is a groove 
for the obturator vessels and nerve. 
Pectineal Eminence,5 gives attachment to the psoas parvus muscle. 
Descending Ramus,11 flat and thin, joins the ascending ramus of the ischium, 
and bounds the obturator foramen internally. 
What Muscles are attached to the Os Innominatum ? 36, comprising 
those of the abdomen, thigh, perineum, floor of the pelvis, and rotators of the 
hip-joint. 
BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 
THE SHOULDER. 
What Bones form the Shoulder ? The clavicle and scapula connecting the 
arm with the trunk, and in this respect homologous to the innominate bone in 
the lower part of the body. 44 
ANATOMY, 
Describe the Clavicle. The collar- or key-bone, is a short bone by struct- 
ure, having no medullary canal; and is curved like the letter f, its inner 
two-thirds being cylindrical, and convex anteriorly; its outer third flattened, 
and concave anteriorly. It is placed horizontally between the sternum and 
the scapula, and is the most elastic bone in the body. It presents, from within 
outwards, the following points, viz.— 
Facets, for articulation with the sternum and the cartilage of the 1st rib, at 
its sternal end. 
Impression for the rhomboid, or costo-clavicular ligament. 
Groove, on the lower surface, for the subclavius muscle. 
Tubercle, for the conoid part of the costo-clavicular ligament. 
Oblique Line, for the trapezoid part of the same ligament. 
Facet, on the acromial end, for articulation with the scapula. 
Nutrient Foramen, in the subclavian groove. 
Describe the Scapula. The shoulder-blade is a large, flat, and triangular 
bone, situated on the posterior and lateral portion of the thorax, from the 2d 
rib to the 7th, inclusive. 
The Venter, or anterior surface, presents from within outwards,— 
Ridges, giving attachment to the subscapularis muscle. 
Marginal Surface, along the inner border, for the attachment of the serratus 
magnus muscle. 
Subscapular Fossa, and Angle, for the subscapularis muscle. 
The Dorsum, or posterior surface, presents the following, viz.— 
Spine, a bony ridge, which affords attachment to the trapezius and deltoid 
muscles, and ends in the acromion process. 
Supraspinous Fossa, above the spine, for the supraspinatus muscle. 
Infraspinous Fossa, below the spine, larger than the supraspinous, convex at 
its centre, lodges the infraspinatus muscle, and the nutrient foramen. 
Marginal Surface, along the external border, to which are attached the teres 
minor muscle above, the teres major below, and sometimes a few fibres of 
the latissimus dorsi at the lower angle. 
Groove crossing the margin, for the dorsalis scapulae vessels. 
Smooth Surface, behind the root of the spine, over which the trapezius 
muscle glides. 
The Acromion process, or “ summit of the shoulder,” extends from the spine, 
and projects over the glenoid cavity, articulating with the clavicle by an oval 
facet. It affords attachment to the deltoid and trapezius muscles, and by its 
apex to the coraco-acromial ligament. 
The Coracoid process, or “ crow’s beak,” projects from the upper border 
and neck of the bone over the inner and upper part of the glenoid cavity. BONES OF THE ARM. 
45 
Into it is inserted 1 muscle, the pectoralis minor; the coraco-brachialis. 
and the short head of the biceps arise from it by a common tendon; and 3 
ligaments are attached to it,—the conoid, trapezoid, and coraco-acromial. 
I’he Superior Border presents the— 
Suprascapular Notch, converted into a foramen for the suprascapular nerve 
by the transverse ligament, over which passes the suprascapular artery. 
The omo-hyoid muscle is attached to the border just internal to the 
notch. 
The Axillary Border is the thickest, and presents a— 
Rough Surface, for the long head of the triceps muscle, just below the 
glenoid cavity. 
Groove, the origin of a part of the subscapularis muscle. 
The Vertebral Border is the longest, and presents an— 
Anterior Lip, for the attachment of the serratus magnus. 
Posterior Lip, for the supra- and infra-spinatus muscles. 
Interspace, between the lips, for the levator anguli scapulae, the rhomboideus 
minor, and the fibrous arch of the rhomboideus major muscles. 
Other points of interest on the bone are the— 
Superior Angle, affords attachment to part of the serratus magnus, levator 
anguli scapulae, and supra-spinatus muscles. 
Inferior Angle, affords attachment to part of the serratus magnus and 
teres major muscles, and occasionally to a few fibres of the latissimus 
dorsi. 
Glenoid Cavity, at the external angle or head of the bone, a shallow 
cavity for the reception of the head of the humerus. It is deepened by 
the glenoid ligament which is attached around its margin; and at its 
upper part gives origin to the long head of the biceps flexor cubiti 
muscle. 
Neck, is the contracted part of the bone behind the glenoid cavity; from 
it arises the anterior root of the coracoid process. 
THE ARM. 
Describe the Humerus. It is the only bone in the arm, and articulates 
with the scapula above, and with the ulna and radius below. It presents the 
following points, viz.— 
Head? is nearly hemispherical, and smooth for articulation with a gle- 
noid cavity of the scapula. 
Anatomical Neckp is a constriction in the bone, just below the head, for the 
attachment of the capsular ligament. 
Greater Tuberosity,d has 3 small facets for the insertions of the supra- 
spinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles. 46 
ANATOMY, 
Lesser Tuberosity/ on the inner side of the bone, gives insertion to the 
subscapularis muscle. 
Bicipital Groove,f lies vertically between the tuberosities for the upper third 
of the bone, and lodges the tendon of the long head of the biceps flexor 
cubiti. Into its inner or posterior lip h are inserted the teres major and 
latissimus dorsi muscles, while its outer or anterior receives the in- 
sertion of the tendon of the pectoralis major, which covers the groove. 
Surgical Neck, is situated immediately below the tuberosi- 
ties, and is a slight constriction in the upper part of the 
shaft. 
Shaft,a is cylindrical above, prismatic and flattened below. 
Rough Surface,i for the insertion of the deltoid muscle, 
about the middle of the external surface of the shaft. 
Musculo-spiral Groove, lodging the musculo-spiral nerve, 
and the superior profunda artery, is situated on the pos- 
terior surface of the shaft, separating the origins of the 
outer and inner heads of the triceps muscle. 
Orificej of the nutrient canal, about the middle of the 
shaft. 
Condyloid Ridges,°P internal and external, arising from 
the respective condyles, extending upwards along the 
shaft. 
External Condyle,m gives attachment to the external 
lateral ligament and the extensor and supinator group 
of muscles. 
Internal Condyle,« lower and more prominent than the 
other, gives attachment to the internal lateral ligament 
and the flexor and pronator group of muscles of the 
fore-arm. 
Radial L/eadf forms the external part of the inferior articular surface; for 
articulation with the radius. 
Trochlear Surface,l articulates with the greater sigmoid cavity of the ulna; 
is a deep depression between two borders, and extends from the anterior 
to the posterior surface of the bone. 
Coronoid Fossa,9 in front of the trochlea, receives the coronoid process of 
the ulna when the fore-arm is flexed. 
Olecranon Fossa, behind the trochlea, receives the tip of the olecranon pro- 
cess, when the fore-arm is extended. 
Fig. 23. BONES OF THE FORE-ARM. 
47 
Describe the Ulna. The elbow-bone is the internal bone of the fore-arm. 
It is larger and longer than the radius, forming the greater portion of the 
articulation with the humerus. It does not enter into the formation of the 
wrist-joint, being excluded therefrom by an interarticular fibro-cartilage. It 
presents the following, viz.— 
THE FORE-ARM. 
Olecranon Process,d at the upper extremity, forming the elbow. It is curved 
forwards, its apex being received into the olecranon fossa of the humerus 
when the fore arm is extended. Its posterior surface gives insertion to the 
tendon of the triceps. In its function and structure it resembles the patella. 
Coronoid Process,e below the olecranon, projects forwards, its apex being 
received into the coronoid fossa of the humerus when the fore-arm is 
flexed. Its upper surface is concave for articulation with the humerus, 
its lower surface rough for the insertion of the brachialis anticus muscle. 
Its inner surface has a margin for the internal lateral ligament, a tubercle 
for the flexor sublimis digitorum, and a ridge for the pronator radii teres. 
Greater Sigmoid Cavity,b lies between the processes, and is divided by a 
vertical ridge into two unequal parts. It articulates with the trochlear 
surface of the humerus. 
Lesser Sigmoid Cavityc lies external to the coronoid 
process; is oval and concave, articulating with the 
head of the radius, and giving attachment to the 
orbicular ligament. 
Shaft,a large and prismatic above, smaller and rounded 
below, has the Nutrient Foramen/on its anterior sur- 
face, and a prominent margins externally, to which 
is attached the interosseous membrane. The shaft 
gives attachment to 9 of the 12 muscles of the fore- 
arm. 
lleadf at the carpal e*nd, articulates with the lesser 
sigmoid cavity of the radius, and the fibro-cartilage 
of the wrist-joint. 
Styloid Process,i projecting from the head internally 
and posteriorly, its apex gives attachment to the in- 
ternal lateral ligament, and a depression at its root 
to the fibro-cartilage of the joint. 
Groove, for the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris 
muscle. 
Fig. 24. 48 
ANATOMY. 
Describe the Radius. The radius lies externally to the ulna when the 
fore arm is in supination ; it is prismatic in form with the base below where it 
articulates with the carpus. The bone is curved outwards and is shorter than 
the ulna, by the length of the olecranon. It presents the following points from 
above downwards, viz.— 
Headf cylindrical and cup-shaped, articulating with the radial head of the 
humerus, and the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna, and playing within 
the orbicular ligament. 
Neck,l the constricted part below the head. 
Tuberosity,™ rough behind for the insertion of the biceps, and smooth in 
front where it is covered by a bursa. 
Shaft, j prismoid in form, presents a sharp border internally for the attach- 
ment of the interosseous membrane; the Nutrient Foramen is on its an- 
terior surface. It gives attachment to 8 of the 12 muscles of the fore-arm. 
Sigmoid Cavity, at the internal side of the carpal end, is shallow, and artic- 
ulates with the head of the ulna. 
Articular Surface,» is divided by a ridge into 2 facets for articulation with 
the semilunar and scaphoid bones of the carpus. 
Styloid Process,P externally, gives attachment by its apex to the external 
lateral ligament, and by its base to the supinator longus muscle. 
Grooves, on the posterior and external surfaces of the lower extremity, for 
the tendons of the 8 extensor muscles of the thumb, and those of the 
radial side of the wrist, and fingers. 
How are the Bones of the Hand divided? Into the carpus (8), the meta- 
carpus (5), and the phalanges (14). Total, 
27 bones. 
Name the Bones of the Carpus. They 
are placed in 2 rows, one row in front of the 
other, with 4 bones in each row, as follows, 
—the left hand in supination, naming 
from without inwards, viz.— 
1st, or Proximal Row,—Scaphoid,5 Semi- 
lunar,•£ Cuneiform,C Pisiform. 
2d, or Distal Rosa,—Trapezium, T' Trape- 
zoid, Unciform.U 
State the number of Articulations in the 
Carpus. 34, as follows,—the number after 
each bone representing the number of its 
articulations, viz.— 
THE HAND. 
Fig. 25. BONES OF THE HAND. 
49 
Scaphoid, 5. 
Trapezium, 4. 
Semilunar, 5. 
Trapezoid, 4. 
Cuneiform, 3. 
Os-magnum, 7. 
Pisiform, 1. 
Unciform, 5. 
What peculiarities have the Carpal bones ? The first three enter into the 
formation of the wrist-joint; the pisiform does not, but is wholly without it, 
and may be considered a mere appendage of the carpus. When the hand is 
in pronation— 
The Scaphoid, or boat-shaped bone, has a tuberosity on its outer side, its 
largest auricular facet is uppermost, and a transverse groove crosses its 
posterior surface. 
The Semilunar Bone has a crescentic facet externally, and a convex facet 
superiorly. 
The Cuneiform Bone is wedge-shaped, its convex surface above, and has an 
isolated facet for the pisiform articulation. 
The Pisiform Bone is the smallest, and has but one facet, which lies poste- 
riorly when the bone is in position. 
The Trapezium has a deep groove for the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, 
and a saddle-shaped facet, inferiorly. 
The Trapezoid is small and quadrilateral, bent on itself, with a saddle-shaped 
facet looking downwards. 
The Os-magnum has a head looking upwards, a neck, and a body; is the 
largest bone of the carpus, and has a tubercle on the inner side of the base. 
The Unciform Bone is triangular, with a concavity which lies to the outer 
side; and the unciform process, long and curved, projecting from its palmar 
surface. 
Describe the Metacarpus. The 5 metacarpal bones are placed between the 
carpus and the phalanges, are long bones, and each has a head, shaft, and 
base. Their heads articulate with the respective phalanges. 
1st Metacarpal Bonef articulates with the trapezium, is shorter than the 
others by one-third, and its base has but 1 articular facet. This bone is 
classed among the phalanges by Professor W. H. Pancoast. 
2d Metacarpal Bonep articulates with 3 bones of the carpus,—the trape- 
zium, trapezoid, and os-magnum ; its base is large, and has 4 articular facets. 
3d Metacarpal Bonef articulates with 1 bone of the carpus,—the os-mag- 
num ; its base has a projecting process on the radial side, and 2 small 
facets on the opposite side. 
4th Metacarpal Bone4c articulates with 2 bones of the carpus and with the 
adjacent metacarpal bones; its base is small, and has 2 circular facets, 1 
on each side. 
jth Metacarpal Bonef articulates with 1 carpal bone,—the unciform; its 
base has I lateral articular facet. 50 
ANATOMY. 
Describe the Phalanges. The finger-bones are 14 in number (15 accort. 
ing to Pancoast), 3 to each finger, and 2 to the thumb. They are long bones, 
and each has a base, a shaft, and a digital extremity. The Bases of the first 
row articulate with the heads of the metacarpal bones. The Digital Extremities 
of the first and second rows have each 2 small lateral condyles, while in the 
terminal row they are rough, for the attachment of the sensitive pulp of the 
fingers. 
BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 
THE THIGH. 
Describe the Femur. The thigh-bone is nearly cylindrical, and is the 
longest, largest, and strongest bone in the body. In the ver- 
tical position of the skeleton it forms one side of a triangle, 
of which the base is the breadth of the pelvis, and the apex 
at the knee-joints. The base of this triangle is longest in the 
female, and consequently that sex is usually knock-kneed. 
Head,b articulates with the acetabulum, forms about two- 
fifths of a sphere, and has an oval below its 
centre for the attachment of the ligamentum teres. 
Neckf connects the head with the shaft, is pyramidal and 
flattened; its obliquity varies with age, being less before 
puberty, about 120 to 125 degrees in the adult, and nearly 
horizontal to the shaft in old or debilitated subjects. 
Great Trochanter,d a broad, rough, quadrilateral process 
directed outwards and backwards from the summit of 
the shaft to within three-fourths of an inch of the leve. 
of the head. On its outer surface the tendon of the 
gluteus maximus plays over a bursa. It gives insertion 
to the obturator internus, two gemelli, pyriformis, and 
gluteus minimus and medius muscles. 
Digital Fossa, on the inner surface of the great trochanter, 
gives insertion to the obturator externus muscle. 
Lesser Trochanter,e at the inferior root of the neck pos- 
teriorly, is small and conical, and affords insertion to the 
tendon of the psoas magnus muscle, the tendon of the 
iliacus being inserted immediately below it. 
Inter-trochanteric Lines, anterior and posterior, the latter the most prominent; 
to the anterior is attached the capsular ligament of the hip-joint. 
I.inea Quadrati, extends from the middle of the posterior inter-trochanteric 
line about 2 inches down the shaft,, and gives attachment to the quadratus 
fcanunris muscle. 
Fig. 26. BONES OF THE LEG. 
51 
Shaft, is slightly curved forwards, broad and cylindrical at each end, and 
narrow and triangular in the centre. Its nutrient foramen perforates its 
posterior surface below the centre. From its anterior surface arise th*j 
crureus and sub-crureus muscles. 
Linea Aspera,gg a crest lying along the central third of the shaft posteriorly; 
bifurcating above towards each trochanter, also below towards the 2 con- 
dyles. To its outer lip is attached the vastus externus, to its inner lip, the 
vastus internus; and between them, the pectineus, adductor brevis, and 
gluteus maximus above the short head of the biceps below, and the ad- 
ductors longus and magnus along the greater portion of the space. 
Groove, crossing the internal condyloid ridge, and lodging the femoral artery. 
Popliteal Space,l1 triangular and smooth, lying between the condyloid ridges, 
for the popliteal artery. 
External Condyle,* broader and shorter than the internal, so as to form a 
horizontal articulation, the bone being inclined towards the median line. 
It gives attachment to the external lateral ligament, and the popliteus and 
gastrocnemius muscles. 
Internal Condyle,l the longest by half an inch; it gives attachment to the 
internal lateral ligament and the gastrocnemius muscle. 
Inter-condyloid Notch k lodges the crucial ligaments. In front the condyles 
are continuous with each other, forming a concave depression or trochlea 
for the patella. 
Outer Tuberosity, on the external condyle, for the attachment of the exter- 
nal lateral ligament. 
Groove, below the outer tuberosity, for the tendon of the popliteus muscle, 
terminating in a depression whence the muscle takes its origin. 
Inner Tuberosity, on the internal condyle, for the attachment of the internal 
lateral ligament. 
Tubercle, above the inner tuberosity, for the insertion of the tendon of tht, 
adductor magnus muscle. 
Depression, behind the tubercle, for the tendon of the inner head of thf 
gastrocnemius. 
THE LEG. 
Describe the Tibia. The shin-bone ranks next to the femur in respect to 
:ize and length. Its form is prismoidal, the upper extremity being much larger 
;han the lower. 
Head, expands into 2 lateral tuberosities,which articulate with the con- 
dyles of the femur. 
Spinel projects vertically between the 2 articular surfaces, is bifid, affording 
attachment to the semilunar fibro-cartilages, and by depressions in front 
and behind its base to the crucial ligaments of the joint. 52 
ANATOMY. 
Tubercle,e anteriorly on the head, between the tuberosities, for the insertion 
of the ligamentum patellae. 
Popliteal Notch, posteriorly between the tuberosities, affords attachment to 
the posterior crucial ligament. 
Groove, on the inner tuberosity posteriorly, for the insertion of the tendon of 
the semi-membranosus muscle. 
Facet, on the outer tuberosity posteriorly and looking 
downwards, for articulation with the head of the 
fibula. 
Popliteal Line, obliquely across the upper part of the 
shaft posteriorly, affords attachment to the fascia of 
the popliteus, and parts of the soleus, flexor longus 
digitorum, and tibialis posticus muscles. 
Nutrient Canal, the largest in the skeleton, opens just 
below the popliteal line, its orifice looking upwards. 
Shaft,«■ has 3 sharp ridges,—1 in front, the Crest or 
Shin,/ and 1 on either side, to the external of which 
is attached the interosseous membrane. 
Lower Extremity,g is smaller than the upper, grooved 
posteriorly for the tendon of the flexor longus pol- 
licis; externally has a rough triangular depression 
for articulation with the fibula, and for the attach- 
ment of the inferior interosseous ligament. Its in- 
ferior surface is concave and smooth for articulation 
with the upper surface of the astragalus. 
Lntemal Malleolus,h projects downwards from the in- 
ternal side of the lower extremity. It articulates 
with the astragalus, is grooved posteriorly for the 
tendons of the tibialis posticus and flexor longus 
digitorum muscles, and affords attachment to the in- 
ternal lateral ligament. 
Describe the Fibula. It is a long slender bone, placed nearly parallel 
with the tibia on the outer side of the leg. It is also called the peroneous, or 
peroneal bone. 
Head,j articulates with the external tuberosity of fine tibia by a flat facet. 
Externally it has a prominence for the attachment of the long external 
lateral ligament of the knee-joint. 
Styloid Process, projects upwards from the head posteriorly, and gives inser- 
tion to the tendon of the biceps muscle, and the short external lateral 
ligament of the knee-joint. 
Shaft * is triangular and twisted on itself, having 3 marked ridges, the 
Fig. 27. BONES OF THE FOOT. 
53 
innermost of which is sharp for the attachment of the interosseus mem- 
brane. The shaft arches backwards, and gives attachment to 8 of the 12 
muscles of the leg. 
Nutrient Canal, opens about the centre of the shaft posteriorly, its orifice 
looking downwards. 
External Malleolus,k is the lower extremity of the bone. It is larger and 
longer than the internal, articulates with the astragalus by a triangular 
facet, and is grooved posteriorly for the tendons of the peroneus longus 
and brevis muscles. Its edge affords attachment to the external lateral 
ligament of the ankle-joint. 
THE FOOT. 
How are the bones of the Foot divided? Into the tarsus (7), meta- 
tarsus (5), and phalanges (14). Total, 26 bones. 
Name the bones of the Tarsus. They are placed in 2 rows side by side, 
2 bones in the external row, 5 in the internal, as follows- viz.— 
Internally,— Astragalus.« 3 Cuneiform.?/^ 
Externally,— Os Cuboid.^ 
How many Articulations are in the Tarsus ? 28, each bone articulating 
with 4 others, except the os calcis, which articulates 
with 2, and the external cuneiform with 6 bones. 
What Peculiarities have the Tarsal Bones ? 
rhey may be divided transversely at the astragalo- 
scaphoid-calcaneo-cuboid articulation, the site of 
Chopart’s operation. 
The Astragalus,a has a rounded head, a convex 
surface on which is a broad articular facet, and 
on its inferior surface a deep groove between 
2 articular facets. 
The Os Calcis,c is a large bone, having on its upper 
surface a deep groove for the interosseous liga- 
ment, between 2 articular surfaces; anteriorly 
a large irregular portion, the head; and pos- 
teriorly an elongated portion forming the Heel. 
On its internal surface is a projection, the Susten- 
taculum Tali, which supports the internal articu- 
lating surface ; below which process the bone is 
deeply grooved for the plantar vessels and nerves 
and the flexor tendons. To the os calcis are at- 
tached 8 muscles and the plantar fascia. 
Fig. 28. 54 
ANATOMY. 
The Scaphoid Bonef is boat-shaped, has 3 facets anteriorly for the cunei 
form bones, a concave surface posteriorly for the astragalus, and a face! 
externally for the cuboid bone. A tubercle is situated on the lower sur- 
face internally, for the insertion of the tibialis posticus muscle. 
The Cuboid Bone/ has 3 articular surfaces, and a groove inferiorly for the 
tendon of the peroneus longus. 
The Internal Cuneiform Lone,e the largest of the 3, has a tubercle on its 
plantar surface for the insertion of parts of the tendons of the tibialis 
anticus and tibialis posticus muscles. 
The Middle Cuneiform Bone,/ is small and wedge-shaped with the narrow 
end downwards. Its anterior surface is considerably behind the line of 
the tarso-metatarsal articulation, thus forming a recess into which the base 
of the second metatarsal bone fits. 
The External Cuneiform Bone,g is also wedge-shaped, but longer than the 
middle one; and affords origin to X muscle, the flexor brevis pollicis. 
Describe the Metatarsus. The metatarsal bones * are 5 in number, are 
long bones, having each a shaft and 2 extremities. Their bases articulate 
with the tarsal bones and with each other; their heads with the first row of 
phalanges. 
1st Afetatarsal, is large but shorter than the others, and forms the inner 
border of the foot, articulating with the internal cuneiform. 
2d Metatarsal, is the longest; its base has 3 facets for articulation with the 
3 cuneiform bones in the recess formed by the shortness of the middle 
cuneiform. 
3d Metatarsal, has 2 facets on the inner side of its base, besides the facets 
for the internal cuneiform and the 4th metatarsal bone. 
4th Afetatarsal, articulates with the cuboid bone, and also with the internal 
cuneiform. 
jtk Metatarsal, articulates obliquely with the cuboid bone, and has a tuber- 
cular projection on the outer surface of its base, which forms the guide to 
Hey’s operation. 
Describe the Phalanges of the Foot. They number 14 as in the hand, 
the great toe having 2, the other toes 3 each. They are long bones, each 
having a base, a shaft, and an anterior extremity. They are convex above, 
concave below, and articulate by the bases of the first row with the 
bones of the metatarsus. The anterior extremities of the distal phalanges*," 
are expanded into surfaces for the support of the naiis and pulp of the 
toes. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
Into what Classes are the Articulations divided? Into 3,—1. Synarthro'sis, 
immovable; 2. Amphiarthro'sis, Synchondrosis, or Symphysis, having limited 
motion; 3. Diarthro'sis, having free motion. 
THE ARTICULATIONS. 
How are the Synarthroses subdivided? Into 3 divisions,—Sutura, by 
indentations; Schindy'lesis, by a plate of bone into a cleft in another; and 
Gompho'sis, by a conical process into a socket. The Sutura are again sub- 
divided into—S. Dentata, having tooth-like processes; S. Serrata, with ser- 
rated edges; S. Limbosa, having beveled margins and dentated processes; S. 
Squamosa, with thin beveled margins overlapping each other; S. Harmonia, 
contiguous rough surfaces opposed to each other. The first 3 are also named 
Sutura Vera (true sutures) having indented borders; the last 2 Sutura Notha 
(false sutures) being.formed by rough surfaces. 
How are the Diarthroses divided? Into 4 divisions,—Arthrodia, gliding 
joint; Enarthrosis, ball-and-socket joint; Ginglymus, hinge-joint; and Diar~ 
throsis Rotatorius, a ring surrounding a pivot. 
Synarthro'sis,—bones of cranium and face, except the lower jaw. 
Sutura Dentata,—the inter-parietal suture. 
Sutura Serrata,—the inter-frontal suture. 
Sutura Limbosa,— t\\e fronto-parietal suture. 
Sutura Squamosa,—the tempora-parietal suture. 
Sutura Harmonia,—the intermaxillary symphysis. 
Schindy'lesis,—rostrum of sphenoid with the vomer. 
Gompho'sis,—the teeth in their alveoli. 
4mphiarth.ro'sis,—the bodies of the vertebrae, the sacro-iliac, and pubic sym 
physes. 
Diarthro'ses,— 
Arthrodia,—sterno-clavicular articulation. 
Enarthrosis,—hip-joint, shoulder-joint. 
Ginglymus,—elbow-joint, ankle-joint, knee-joint. 
Diarthrosis Rotatorius,—the superior radio-ulnar, and atlo-axoid articula- 
tions. 
Give an Example of each of the above-named articulations. 
Name the Varieties of motion in joints? There are 7 varieties, viz.— 
flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation, circumduction, and gliding 
movement. 
What Structures enter into the formation of joints? There are 5, viz.— 
the articular lamella of bone, ligaments, cartilage, fibro-cartilage, and synovial 
membrane. ANATOMY. 
Articular Lamella of bone differs from ordinary bone tissue in being mote 
dense, containing no Haversian canals nor canaliculi, and having larger 
lacunae. 
Ligaments are bands of white fibrous tissue, except the ligamentum sub- 
flava and the ligamentum nuchae, which are both composed purely of 
yellow elastic tissue. 
Cartilage is temporary or permanent. The first forms the original frame- 
work of the skeleton, and becomes ossified. Permanent cartilage is not 
prone to ossification, and is divided into 3 varieties,—Articular, covering 
the ends of bones in joints; Costal, forming part of the skeleton; Reticular, 
arranged in lamellae or plates to maintain the shape of certain parts. 
Fibro-cartilage is Interarticular (menisci), separating the bones of a joint; 
Connecting, binding bones together; Circumferential, deepening cavities; 
Stratiform, lining grooves. 
Synovial Membranes secrete the synovia, a viscid, glairy fluid, and resemble 
the serous membranes in structure. They are Articular, lubricating joints; 
Bursal, forming closed sacs (bursae); ensheathing tendons. 
Describe the Vertebral Articulations. They are formed by the adjacent 
surfaces of the bodies of the vertebrae, and their articular processes, and are 
connected by the following ligaments, etc.—(See Fig. 31.) 
Intervertebral Fibro-cartilages, between the bodies of all true vertebrae, ex- 
cept the axis and atlas. 
Anterior Common Ligament} along fronts of the bodies. 
Posterior Common Ligament, along backs of the bodies. 
Ligamenta Subflava, connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae. 
Capsular} surround the articular processes, and are lined by synovial mem- 
brane. 
Supra-spinous and Interspinous, connect the spinous processes. 
Inter-transverse,3 connect the transverse processes. 
Describe the Occipito-atloid Articulation. It is a double arthrodia formed 
by the condyles of the occipital bone 
with the superior articular surfaces of the 
atlas, and has 7 ligaments, viz.— 
2 Anterior Occipito-atloid# from the an- 
terior margin of the foramen magnum 
to the anterior arch of the atlas. 
Posterior Occipito-atloid, from the posterior 
margin of the foramen magnum to the 
posterior arch of the atlas. It is per- 
forated by the vertebral arteries and sub 
occipital nerves. 
Fig. 29. THE ARTICUJ.ATIONS. 
57 
2 Lateral, from the jugular processes of the occipital bone to the bases of the 
transverse processes of the atlas. 
2 Capsular,d around the articular surfaces, lined by synovial membrane. 
Describe the Occipito-axoia Articulation. Formed by the occipital bone 
and the odontoid process of the axis, which do not articulate with each other 
strictly, but are connected by 4 ligaments. 
Occipito-axouP (Apparatus Ligamentosus Colli), a continuation of the posterior 
common spinal ligament to the basilar process of the occipital bone. 
2 Lateral Occipito-odontoid5 (Check Ligaments), from the head of the odontoid 
process to the sides of the occipital condyles. 
Vertical Occipito-odontoid (Ligamentum Suspensorium), from the anterior 
margin of the foramen magnum to the odontoid apex. 
Describe the Atlo-axoid Articulation. It is a double arthrodia between the 
articular processes, a double diarthrosis rotatorius between the atlas and the 
odontoid process, and has 6 ligaments, and 4 synovial membranes. 
2 Anterior and 1 Posterior Atlo-axoid, continuations of the anterior and pos- 
terior common spinal ligaments. 
2 Capsular, surrounding the articular surfaces, each lined by a synovial 
membrane. 
Transverse, or Cruciform Ligament, divides the spinal foramen of the atlas 
into two portions, stretching across between the tubercles on the inner 
sides of the articular processes. It holds the odontoid process in place, 
having a synovial membrane interposed. Another synovial membrane is 
situated between the process and the anterior arch. The transverse liga- 
ment sends two vertical slips, one upwards, the other downwards, from 
which it is named the Cruciform Ligament. 
Describe the Temporo-maxillary Articulation. A double arthrodia between 
the condyle of the lower jaw and the anterior part of the glenoid cavity of the 
temporal bone. It has 2 synovial membranes with an inter-articular fibro- 
cartilage between them, and 4 ligaments, viz.— 
External Lateral, from the tubercle of the zygoma to the outer side of th# 
neck of the condyle of the 
lower jaw. 
Internal Lateral,d from the spine 
of the sphenoid to the margin 
of the inferior dental fora- 
men. 
Stylo-maxillary,/ from the sty- 
loid process of the temporal 
bone to the angle of the in- 
ferior maxillary. 
Fig. 30. 58 
ANATOMY. 
Capsular,c from the edge of the glenoid cavity and the eminentia articularis 
to the neck of the inferior maxillary condyle. 
Nerves are derived from the auriculo-temporal and masseteric branches of 
the inferior maxillary. 
Describe the Costo-vertebral Articulations. They are each a double ar- 
throdia between the head of the rib and the bodies of 2 adjacent vertebrae, 
except in the 1st, ioth, nth, and 12th ribs, which are each a single arthrodia, 
as they articulate with but I vertebra each. Their ligaments are 3, viz.— 
Anterior Costo-vertebral,2 or Stellate Ligament, consists of 3 bundles, 
which fasten the anterior part of 
the head of the rib to the inter- 
vertebral disk and the 2 adjacent 
bodies. 
Inter-articular Costo-vertebral, in the 
interior of the joint, from the crest 
on the head of the rib to the inter- 
vertebral disk; on each side there 
is a separate synovial membrane. 
Capsular, surrounding the articular 
surfaces. 
Fig. 31. 
Describe the Costo-transverse Articulations. They are 10 arthrodial articu- 
lations between the tubercles of the first 10 ribs and the transverse processes 
of the vertebrae next below. Their ligaments are 3, viz.—Anterior, Middle, 
and Posterior Costo-transverse. 
Describe the Costo-sternal Articulations. One a synarthrodial, 6 are ar- 
throdial articulations, between the costal cartilages and the margin of the 
sternum. The first has no synovial membrane, the second only has an inter- 
articular fibro-cartilage. Each has 3 ligaments,—the Anterior and Posterior 
Costo-sternal, and a Capsular. The Costo-xiphoid Ligament connects the xiphoid 
appendix to the cartilage of the 6th or 7th rib. 
How are the Costal Cartilages connected with the ribs and with each 
other ? With the ribs by a depression on the end of eaeh rib, strengthened by 
the blending together of the periosteum and the perichondrium. The carti- 
lages of the lower ribs, sometimes from the 5th to the 10th inclusive, articu- 
late with each other by their borders and for each a capsular and an intercostal, 
ligament, with 3 synovial membranes for the 3 articulations between the 
6th and the 9th cartilages. 
What are the Ligaments of the Sternum ? An anterior sternal and a 
posterior sternal ligament, with a layer of cartilage between the manubrium 
and the gladiolus. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
59 
Describe the Sacro-vertebral Articulation. It is similar to the other ver- 
tebral articulations, but has 2 additional ligaments on each side, viz.— 
Lumbo-sacral, from the tfansverse processes of the 5th lumbar vertebra to 
the base of the sacrum laterally and anteriorly. 
Lumbo-iliac, from the apices of the transverse processes of the 5th lumbar 
vertebra to the crest of the ilium. 
Describe the Sacro-coccygeal Articulation. It is an amphiarthrodial joint 
and has 3 ligaments, viz.— 
Anterior Sacro-coccygeal. Posterior Sacro-coccygeal. 
Interarticular Fibro-cartilage, in the joint. 
Describe the Sacro-iliac Articulation. It is an amphiarthrodial joint, 
formed by the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and ilium. Its ligaments on 
each side are as follows, viz.— 
Anterior Sacro-iliac. Posterior Sacro-iliac.* 
Oblique Sacro-iliac. 
Describe the Sacro-ischiatic Articulation. Its ligaments convert the 
sacro-sciatic notches into foramina, the greater notch by the lesser ligament, 
the lesser notch by the 
greater ligament. These 
foramina are described 
under the ilium and is- 
chium bones. 
Great Sacro- sciatic 
Ligament,13 14 from 
the posterior inferior 
spine of the ilium 
and the posterior sur- 
faces and margins of 
the sacrum and coc- 
cyx, to the inner 
margin of the tuber- 
osity and the ascend- 
ing ramus of the 
ischium. 
Lesser Sacro-sciatic Ligament,15 16 from the margins of the sacrum and coccyx, 
into the spine of the ischium. 
Fig. 32. 
Describe the Pubic Articulation. It is an amphiarthrodial joint, formed by 
the 2 pubic bones. It has an interai ticular fibro-cartilage and 4 ligaments, viz.— 
Anterior Pubic. Posterior Pubic. Supra-pubic. 
Sub-pubic, forming a fibrous arch between the rami. 60 
ANATOMY. 
Describe the Sterno-clavicular Articulation. It is an arthrodial joint, 
formed by the sternal end of the clavicle with the sternum and the cartilage 
of the 1st rib. It has an interarticular fibro-cartilage, 2 synovial membranes, 
and 4 ligaments, viz.— 
A nterior Sterno ■ clavicular. 
Posterior Sterno-clavicular. 
Inter clavicular. 
Costo-clavicular or Rhomboid. 
Describe the Scapulo-clavicular Articulation. It is an arthrodial joint, 
formed by the outer extremity of the clavicle and the acromion process of the 
scapula. It frequently has an interarticular fibro-cartilage and 2 synovial 
membranes; usually but I synovial membrane is present, and 3 ligaments, 
viz.— 
Superior Acromio-claviculard 
Inferior Acromio-clavicular. 
Coraco-clavicula r1 
divided into— 
Trapezoid, externally. 
Conoid, internally. 
What are the proper Ligaments of the Scapula? They are 2, the coraco- 
acromial, and the transverse, as follows.— 
Coraco-acromial,3 completes the vault par- 
tially formed by the 2 processes over the 
head of the humerus. 
Transverse;4 from the base of the coracoid 
process to the margin of the suprascapular 
notch, converting it into a foramen, for 
the supra-scapular nerve. 
Describe the Shoulder-joint. It is an 
enarthrodial joint, formed by the head of the 
humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. 
It has a Synovial Membrane which is reflected 
upon the tendons of the biceps, subscapularis, 
and infraspinatus muscles, and communicates 
with bursse beneath the 2 latter tendons. Its 
Arteries are derived from the anterior and 
posterior circumflex and the suprascapular; 
its Nerves from the circumflex and the supra- 
scapular. It has 3 ligaments, viz.— 
Capsular,5 from the margin of the glenoid cavity to the anatomical neck of 
the humerus; has 3 openings for the reflexions of the synovial membrane 
over the tendons. 
Coraco-humcralp intimately united with the capsular, extends from the cora- 
coid process to the greater tuberosity. 
Glenoid, a fibro-cartilaginous ring, continuous above with the tendon of the 
Fig. 33. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
61 
long head of the biceps,7 and attached around the mar- 
gin of the glenoid cavity in order to deepen the articu- 
lar surface. 
Describe the Elbow-joint. It is a ginglymus articulation, 
formed by the lower end of the humerus with the greater 
sigmoid cavity of the ulna and the head of the radius. Its 
Synovial Alembrane is reflected over the ligaments, and dips 
down between the surfaces of the superior radio-ulnar articu- 
lation. Its Arteries are derived from the anastomotica magna, 
radial,ulnar, and interosseous recurrent, superior and inferior 
profunda arteries. Its Nerves are branches of the ulnar and 
the musculo-cutaneous. It has 4 ligaments,— 
Anterior, from the inner condyle and anterior surface of 
the humerus to the orbicular ligament of the radius and 
the coronoid process of the ulna. 
Posterior, from the posterior surface of the humerus to the 
olecranon process of the ulna. 
External Lateral * from the external condyle of the hu- 
merus to the orbicular ligament of the radius. 
Internal Lateral, from the internal condyle of the humerus 
to the coronoid and olecranon processes of the ulna. 
Describe the Radio-ulnar Articulations. They are 3 in number, as follows, 
viz.— 
Superior radio-ulnar articulation is a lateral ginglymoid joint, formed 
by the head of the radius and the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna. Its 
synovial membrane is a continuation of that in the elbow-joint. It has 1 
ligament, the— 
Orbicular Ligament,5 forms four-fifths of a circle and surrounds the neck ot 
the radius. It is attached to the margins of the lesser sigmoid cavity of 
the ulna, and to the external lateral ligament of the elbow-joint. 
Middle radio-ulnar articulation is formed by the shafts of the radius 
and ulna, which do not touch each other, but are connected by 2 ligaments, a? 
follows, viz.— 
Oblique Ligament, from the tubercle at the base of the coronoid process of 
the ulna to the shaft of the radius. 
Interosseous Alembrane,9 obliquely downwards from the interosseous ridge on 
the radius to that on the ulna. Through the interval between its upper 
border and the oblique ligament, the posterior interosseous vessels pass. 
Inferior radio-ulnar articulation is a lateral ginglymoid joint, formed 
by the head of the ulna and the sigmoid cavity of the radius. Its Synovia. 
Membrane (membrana sacciformis) is very loose, and sometimes communicates 
Fig. 34 62 
ANATOMY. 
with that of the wrist joint through an opening in the triangular fibro cartilagi 
which separates the head of the ulna from the wrist-joint, and acts as one of 
the ligaments of this articulation, which are 3, viz.— 
Anterior Radio-ulnar. Posterior Radio-ulnar. 
Triangular Interarticular Fibro-cartilage. 
Describe the Wrist-joint. It is chiefly an enarthrodial articulation, though 
incapable of rotation, and is formed by the lower end of the radius and the tri- 
angular fibro-cartilage, with the scaphoid,semilunar,and cuneiform bones of the 
carpus. Its Arteries are the anterior and posterior carpal from both the radial 
and ulnar, the anterior and posterior interosseous and ascending branches from 
the deep palmar arch. Its Nerves are derived from the ulnar; it is lined by a 
synovial membrane, and has 4 ligaments, viz.— 
External Lateral (radio-carpal). 
Internal Lateral (ulno-carpal). 
Anterior. 
Posterior. 
Describe the Carpal Articulations. They are in 3 sets, (1) between the 
hones of the first row, (2) between the bones of the second row, (3) between 
the 2 rows of bones. 
(1) The scaphoid, semilunar, and cuneiform bones are connected together 
by 2 Dorsal, 2 Palmar, and 2 Interosseous Ligaments. The pisiform bone 
has a separate capsular ligament and synovial membrane and 2 fasciculi 
connecting it with the unciform and the 5th metacarpal. 
(2) The 4 bones of the second row are connected together by j Dorsal, 3 
Palmar, and3 Interosseous Ligaments. 
(3) The 2 rows of bones are united by a Dorsal, a Palmar, and 2 Lateral 
Ligaments, the last named being continuous with the lateral ligaments of 
the wrist-joint. 
Describe the Carpo-metacarpal Articulations. That of the thumb with the 
trapezium is an enarthrodial joint, having a Capsular Ligament and a separate 
synovial membrane. The 4 inner metacarpal bones form 4 arthrodial joints 
with the adjacent carpal bones by 6 Dorsal, S Palmar, and 2 Interosseous Liga- 
ments, irregularly disposed. 
Describe the Synovial Membranes of the Wrist. They number 5, and are 
situated as follows, viz.— 
The First, or Membrana Sacciformis, between the head of the ulna, the sig- 
moid cavity of the radius, and the triangular interarticular fibro-cartilage. 
The Second, between the lower end of the radius, the triangular fibro-carti- 
lage, and the scaphoid, semilunar, and cuneiform bones of the carpus. 
The Third, between all the carpal bones except the pisiform, and between 
the bases of the inner 4 metacarpal bones; but it extends only halfway 
into the 2 intervals between the 3 proximal bones of the carpus. Che Fourth, between the trapezium and the metacarpal bone of the thumb. 
The Fifth, between the cuneiform and pisiform bones. 
THE ARTICULATIONS. 
Describe the Metacarpo-metacarpal Articulations. The 4 inner meta- 
jarpal bones are connected together at their bases by Dorsal, Palmar, and 
Interosseous Ligaments; and at their digital extremities by the Transverse 
Ligament. 
Describe the remaining Articulations of the Hand. The metacarpo- 
phalangeal and the phalangeal articulations are all ginglymoid joints, and each 
has an Anterior and 2 Lateral Ligaments, the former being lined each with a 
synovial membrane. There are no posterior ligaments to these articulations, 
the extensor tendons of the hand supplying their places. 
Describe the Hip-joint. It is a true enarthrodial articulation, formed by 
the head of the femur with the acetabulum of the os innominatum. Its Syno- 
vial Membrane is extensive, investing most of the head and neck of the femur, 
the capsular, cotyloid and teres ligaments, and the cavity of the acetabulum. 
Its Arteries are derived from the obturator, sciatic, internal circumflex, and 
gluteal. Its Nerves are branches from the sacral plexus, great sciatic, obtu- 
rator, and accessory obturator. It has 5 ligaments, as follows, viz.— 
Capsular, from the margin of the acetabulum and the transverse ligament, 
into the base of the neck of the femur above, the anterior inter-trochan- 
teiic line in front, and to the middle of the neck of the bone, behind. 
Ilio femoral or Y-ligament, from the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, into 
the anterior inter trochanteric line by two fasciculi. It is a dissected por- 
tion of the capsular ligament which is very strong anteriorly. 
Ligamentum Teres, from a depression on the head of the femur into the 
margins of the cotyloid notch of the acetabulum and into the transverse 
ligament, by two fasciculi. 
Cotyloid, a fibro-cartilaginous band surrounding the margin of the acetab- 
ulum in order to deepen its cavity. 
Transverse, that part of the cotyloid ligament which crosses over the coty- 
loid notch converting it into a foramen. 
Describe the Knee-joint. It is a ginglymus articulation, formed by the 
condyles of the femur with the head of the tibia, and the patella in front. Its 
Synovial Membrane is the largest in the body, being reflected for 2 or 3 
inches over the anterior surface of the femur, where it is supported by the sub- 
crureus muscle, also over its condyles, the patella, semilunar cartilages, crucial 
ligaments, and head of the tibia; and is prolonged through an opening in the 
capsular ligament beneath the tendon of the popliteus. Its Arteries are derived 
from the anastomotica magna, the 5 articular branches of the popliteal, and 
the recurrent branch of the anterior tibial. Its Serves are branches of the ANATOMY. 
obturator, anterior crural, external and internal popliteal. It has 14 ligaments, 
of which 6 are external and 8 internal, as follows:— 
Anterior, or Ligamentum Patella, is a continuation of the tendon of the 
rectus femoris muscle, extending from the apex of the 
patella to the lower part of the tubercle of the tibia. 
Posterior, or Ligamentum Winslowii} from the inner 
tuberosity of the tibia to the external condyle of the 
femur, being partly derived from the tendon of the 
semimembranosus muscle.2 
Internal Lateral,5 from the internal condyle of the 
femur to the internal surface of the tibia and semi- 
C lunar cartilage. 
2 External Lateral,6 from the external condyle of the 
femur to the head of the fibula. These ligaments are 
a Long anteriorly and a Short posteriorly, separated 
by the tendon of the biceps. 
Capsular, is only present where intervals are left by the 
preceding ligaments. It is thin but very strong. 
The Internal ligaments are as follows:— 
Anterior Crucial,2 from the depression in front of the spine of the tibia to 
the inner side of the outer condyle of the femur. 
Posterior Crucial,s from the same depression, to the outer side of the inner 
condyle. [To remember the positions and insertions of these crucial liga- 
ments, let the student cross his index fingers over each knee in succession; 
when over the right knee placing the right finger in front, when over the 
left knee the left finger in front. The positions of the fingers will then in 
each case correspond with those of the respective crucial ligaments.] 
2 Semilunar Eibro-carlilages,6 external and internal, are 
situated between the articular surfaces, and attached to 
the depressions in front and behind the spine of the tibia. 
Transverse,4 is a connecting slip between the semilunai 
fibro-cartilages anteriorly. 
Coronary,7 are short bands connecting the outer margins 
of the fibro cartilages to the tibia and the adjacent lig- 
aments. 
Ligamentum Mucosum, is a triangular fold of the syn 
ovial membrane which at the lower border of the patella 
is given off to the intercondyloid notch of the femur. 
Liganienta Alaria, are fringes on the sides of the liga- 
mentum mucosum, and art attached to the sides of 
the patella. 
Fig. 35. 
Fig. 36. THE ARTICULATIONS. 
65 
Bursa in the vicinity of this joint are 5, viz.— 1 under the ligamentum patellae,* 
1 between the patella and the skin; 1 between the internal lateral ligament 
and the tendons crossing it; sometimes 1 replacing the synovial pouch on the 
anterior surface of the femur; and occasionally 1 in the popliteal space re- 
placing the synovial pouch usually situated therein. 
Describe the Tibio-fibular Articulations. They are 3 in number, as 
follows, viz.— 
Superior tibio-fibular articulation, is an arthrodial joint, formed by 
the contiguous surfaces of the bones. It has a Synovial Membrane which is 
sometimes continuous with that of the knee-joint, and 2 ligaments, the— 
Anterior and Posterior Superior libiofibular,10 which connect the head of 
the fibula with the outer tuberosity of the tibia. 
Middle tibio-fibular articulation. The shafts of these bones do not 
touch each other, but are connected by the Interosseous Membrane extending 
between their contiguous borders, and perforated, above for the anterior tibial 
artery, below for the anterior peroneal vessels. 
Inferior tibio-fibular articulation, is an amphi-arthrodial joint, 
formed by the contiguous rough surfaces on the bones. Its Synovial Alem- 
brane is derived from that of the ankle-joint, and it has 4 ligaments, viz.— 
Lnferior Interosseous, continuous with the interosseous membrane. 
Anterior and Posterior Inferior Tibio-fibular, from the margins of the ex- 
ternal malleolus to the front and back of the tibia. 
Transverse, posteriorly between the 2 malleoli. 
Describe the Ankle-joint. It is a ginglymoid articulation, formed by the 
lower ends of the tibia and fibula and their malleoli, with the astragalus. Its 
Synovial Membrane *s prolonged upwards between the tibia and fibula for a 
short distance. Its arteries are derived from the malleolar branches of the 
anterior tibial and peroneal arteries; and its Nerves from the anterior tibial 
nerve. It has 3 ligaments, viz.— 
Anterior, connecting the margins of the tibia and astragalus. 
Internal Lateral, or Deltoid Ligament, from the internal malleolus to the 
3 adjacent tarsal bones. 
External Lateral, by anterior posterior and middle fasciculi, from the ex 
ternal malleolus to the astragalus and os calcis. 
Describe the Tarsal Articulations. They are in 3 sets, (1) between the 
bones of the first row, (2) between the bones of the second row, (3) betweeD 
the 2 rows of bones. 
(1.) The astragalus and os calcis are united by 3 ligaments. 
External Calcaneo astragaloid. Interosseous 
Posterior Calcaneo-astragaloid. ANATOMY. 
(2.) The scaphoid, cuboid, and three cuneiform bones are united by an ir 
regular number of Dorsal and Plantar and 4 Interosseus ligaments, which 
latter are arranged transversely. 
(3.) The 2 rows of bones are united by 7 ligaments viz.— 
Superior Astragalo-scaphoid. 
Superior Calcaneo-cuboid. 
Superior Calcaneo-scaphoid. 
Inferior Calcaneo-scaphoid. 
Short Calcaneo-cuboid. 
Long Calcaneo-cuboid. 
Interosseous, or Internal Calcaneo-cuboid. 
Describe the Tarso-metatarsal Articulations. They are 5 arthrodial 
joints formed by the bases of the metatarsal bones with the adjacent bones 
of the tarsus, the 2d metatarsal bone articulating with all 3 cuneiform in 
the recess formed by the shortness of the second cuneiform. They are united 
by Dorsal, Plantar, and 3 Interosseous Ligaments. The 2d metatarsal bone 
has 3 dorsal ligaments, 1 from each cuneiform bone. The interosseous 
ligaments pass from the 2d and 3d metatarsal bones to the internal and Ex- 
ternal cuneiform. 
Describe the Synovial Membranes of the Tarsus and Metatarsus. 
They are 6 in number, and are situated as follows, viz.— 
The First, between the os calcis and the astragalus, behind the interosseous 
ligament. 
The Second, between the same bones in front of the interosseous ligament, 
also between the astragalus and the scaphoid. 
The Third, between the os calcis and the cuboid. 
The Fourth, between the scaphoid and the 3 cuneiform bones, running 
backwards between the scaphoid and the cuboid, forwards between the 
cuneiform bones, between the external cuneiform and the cuboid, between 
the middle and external cuneiform and the bases of the 2d and 3d 
metatarsal, passing also between the bases of these bones and the 4th 
metatarsal. 
The Fifth, between the cuboid and the 4th and 5th metatarsal bones, also 
running forwards between their bases. 
The Sixth, between the internal cuneiform and the base of the 1st meta- 
tarsal bone. 
Describe the Metatarso - metatarsal Articulations. The metatarsal bones 
are connected together, except the first, at their bases by Dorsal, Plantar, and 
Interosseous Ligaments; and all 5 are connected at their digital extremities 
by the Transverse Metatarsal Ligament. 
Describe the remaining Articulations of the Foot. The metatarso- 
phalangeal and the phalangeal articulations are similar to those in the hand, 
each having an Interior or Plantar, and 2 Iateral Ligaments. The extensor 
tendons of the foot supply the places of posterior ligaments. THE MUSCLES AND FASCIAE. 
67 
THE MUSCLES AND FASCLE. 
What are the Muscles? They are the active organs of locomotion, formed 
of bundles of reddish fibres endowed with the property of shortening themselves 
upon irritation, which is called muscular contractility, and chemically consisting 
of syntonin, or muscular fibrin. 
How are the Muscles divided ? Into 2 great classes, (1) Voluntary, Striped, 
or Muscles of animal life, comprise those which are under the control of the 
will. (2) Involuntary, Unstriped, or Muscles of organic life, are those which 
are not under the control of the will. 
Voluntary Muscular Fibre consists of fasciculi about y inch in diameter, 
each surrounded by a tubular membranous sheath, the perimysium; and marked 
by fine striae passing around them in curved parallel lines about 'nc'h 
apart. These fasciculi are formed offibrilla:, each about yu-Jtrty inch thick, 
also striated, presenting the appearance of a row of minute particles, the 
“sarcous elements” of Bowman, and surrounded by cellular tissue, the sarco- 
lemma. 
Involuntary Muscular Fibre consists of flattened fusiform or spindle-shaped 
fibres, averaging about y^ inch in breadth, consisting of elongated cells, and 
bound together in bundles by areolar tissue. These fibres are found in the 
alimentary canal, in the posterior wall of the trachea, in the bronchi, the ducts 
of certain glands, in the ureters, bladder, urethra, genitalia of both sexes, walls 
of all arteries and most veins and lymphatics, in the iris and ciliary muscle, 
and in the skin. 
What are Tendons and Aponeuroses ? Tendons are white, glistening cords 
or bands formed of white fibrous tissue almost entirely, have few vessels and 
no nerves, and serve to connect the muscles with the structures on which they 
act. Aponeuroses are fibrous membranes, of similar structure and appearance, 
and serve the same purpose. 
What are Fasciae ? They are laminae of variable thickness which invest 
(fascia, a bandage) the softer structures. The superficial fascia is composed 
of fibro-areolar tissue, and is found beneath the skin almost over the whole 
body. The deep fascia is of aponeurotic structure, dense, inelastic, and fibrous, 
ensheathing the muscles and affording some of them attachment, also the vessels 
and nerves, and binding down the whole into a shapely mass. 
To what Structures are Muscles attached ? To the periosteum and peri- 
chondrium of bone and cartilage, to the subcutaneous areolar tissue, and to 
ligaments. In the latter case only are their tendons in direct contact with the 
tissue on which they are to act. 
How many Muscles are Double-bellied ? Five,—the occipito-frontalis, 
biventer cervicis, digastric, omo-hyoid, and the diaphragm. 68 
ANATOMY. 
Describe each Muscle of the Body, giving its Origin, Insertion, Action, 
and Nervous supply. 
Occipito-frontalis,« from the external two-thirds of the superior curved line 
of the occipital bone and the mastoid process of the temporal; also from the 
pyramidalis nasi, corrugator supercilii, and orbicularis palpebrarum fibres,— 
into an aponeurosis or “galea capitis,” which covers the vertex of the skull. 
Action, chiefly as a muscle of facial expression. Nerves, facial, supraorbital, 
small occipital. 
Attollens Aurem, from the occipito-frontalis aponeurosis,—into the pinna of 
the ear superiorly. Action, to raise the pinna. Nerve, small occipital branch 
of the cervical plexus. 
Attrahens Aurem, from the lateral cranial aponeurosis,—i7ito the helix of the 
ear anteriorly. Action, to draw the pinna forwards. Nerves, facial, and 
auriculo temporal branch of the inferior maxillary. 
Retrahens Aurem, from the mastoid process of the temporal bone,—into the 
concha. Action, to retract the pinna. Nerve, facial. 
Orbicularis Palpebrarum, from the internal angular process of the frontal bone, 
the nasal process of the superior maxillary, and the borders of the tendo 
oculi,—into the skin of the eyelids, forehead, temple, and cheek, blending 
with the occipito-frontalis and the corrugator supercilii. Action, to close the 
eyelids. Nerve, facial. 
Corrugator Supercilii, from the inner end of the superciliary ridge of the 
frontal bone,—into the orbicularis palpebrarum. Action, to draw eyebrow 
downwards and inwards. Nerve, facial. 
Tensor Tarsi (Horner’s muscle), from the crest of the lachrymal bone,—into 
the tarsal cartilages by two slips. Action, to compress the puncta lachry- 
malia against the globe of the eye, and to compress the lachrymal sac. 
Nerve, facial. 
Levator Palpebrae Superioris, from the lesser wing of the sphenoid,—into the 
upper tarsal cartilage. Action, to lift the upper lid. Nerve, 3d cranial, or 
motor oculi. 
Rectus Superior, from the upper margin of the optic foramen and the sheath 
of the optic nerve,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, to rotate the eyeball 
upwards. ATerve, 3d cranial. 
Rectus Inferior, from the ligament of Zinn,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, 
rotates the eyeball downwards. A'erve, 3d cranial. 
Rectus Internus, from the ligament of Zinn,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, 
rotates the eyeball inwai'ds. Nerve, 3d cranial. 
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 
69 
Rectus Externus, by 2 heads, the tipper from the outer margin of the optic 
foramen, the lower from the ligament of Zinn and a bony process at lower 
margin of the sphenoidal fissure,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, to rotate 
the eyeball outwards. Nerve, 6th cranial, or abducens. 
Between the 2 heads of the external rectus pass the 3d, nasal branch of the 
5th, and the 6th cranial nerves, and the ophthalmic vein. 
Obliquus Superior, from about a line above the inner margin of the optic, 
foramen, its tendon passing through a “ pulley ” near the internal angular 
process of the frontal bone and thence beneath the rectus superior,—into 
the sclerotic coat at right angles to the insertion of the rectus superior. 
Action, to rotate the eyeball on its antero-posterior axis. Nerve, 4th cranial, 
or patheticus. 
Obliquus Inferior, fro?n the orbital plate of the superior maxillary,—into the 
sclerotic coat below the insertion of the external rectus and at right angles 
thereto. Action, to rotate the eye cn its antero-posterior axis. Nerve, 3d 
cranial. 
Pyramidalis Nasi/ from the occipito-frontalis,—into the compressor naris. 
Action, to depress the eyebrow. Nerve, facial. 
Levator Labii Superioris Alaeque Nasi/ from the nasal process of the 
superior maxillary bone,—into the cartilage of the ala of the nose and into 
the upper lip. Action, to elevate the upper lip, and dilate the nostril. 
Nerve, facial. 
Dilator Naris Anterior, from the cartilage of the ala,—into the border of its 
integument. Action, to dilate the nostril. ATerve, facial. 
Dilator Naris Posterior, from the nasal 
notch of the superior maxillary and 
the sesamoid cartilages,—into the in- 
tegument at the margin of the nostril. 
Action, to dilate the nostril. Nerve, 
facial. 
Compressor Naris,<i from the superior 
maxillary above the incisive fossa,— 
into the fibro-cartilage of the nose, 
being continuous with its fellow and 
the pyramidalis nasi aponeurosis. Ac- 
tion, to dilate the nostril. Nerve, facial. 
Compressor Narium IVlinor, from the 
aiar cartilage,—into the skin at the 
end of the nose. Action, to dilate the 
nostril. Nerve, facial. 
Fig. 37. 70 
Depressor Alae Nasi, from the incisive fossa of the superior maxillary,—into 
the septum and ala of the nose. Action, to contract the nostril. ATerve, 
facial. 
Levator Labii Superioris,/from the lower margin of the orbit,—into the 
upper lip. Action, to elevate the lip. Nerve, facial. 
Levator Anguli Oris,'’ from the canine fossa of the superior maxillary,—into 
the angle of the mouth. Action, as named. Nerve, facial. 
ANATOMY. 
Zygomaticus Major/ from the malar bone,—into the angle of the mouth. 
Action, to raise the lip outwards. Nerve, facial. 
Zygomaticus Minor,g from the malar bone anteriorly,—into the angle of the 
mouth, blending with the levator labii superioris. Action, to raise the iip 
outwards. Nerve, facial. 
Levator Labii Inferioris"* (Levator Menti), from the incisive fossa of the in- 
ferior maxillary bone,—into the integument of the chin. Action, as named. 
Nerve, facial. 
Depressor Labii (Quadratus Wienix), from the external oblique line 
of the inferior maxillary bone,—into the lower lip. Action, as named. 
Nerve, facial. 
Depressor Anguli Oris« (Triangularis Menti), from the external oblique line 
of the inferior maxillary,—into the angle of the mouth. Action, as named. 
ATerve, facial. 
Orbicularis Oris/’ by accessory fibres (accessorii orbicularis superioris and in- 
ferioris, and naso-labialis) from the nasal septum and the superior and in- 
ferior maxillary borders,—into the buccinator and other adjacent muscles, 
forming the sphincter of the mouth. Action, to close the mouth. Nerve, 
facial. 
Buccinator,/ from the posterior alveolar processes of both the maxillary 
bones and the pterygo-maxillary ligament,—into the orbicularis oris. Ac- 
tion, to compress the cheeks. Nerves, facial, and the buccal branch of the 
inferior maxillary. 
Risorius, from the fascia over the masseter muscle,—into the angle of the 
mouth. Action, the laughing muscle. Nerve, facial. 
Masseter/ from the anterior two-thirds and the inner surface of the zygoma 
and the malar process of the superior maxillary,—into the angle, ramus, and 
coronoid process of the lower jaw. Action, to raise the back part of the 
lower jaw ; a muscle of mastication. Nerve, inferior maxillary. 
Temporal, from the temporal fossa and temporal fascia,—into the coronoid 
process of the inferior maxillary. Action, to bring the incisor teeth together; 
the biting muscle. Nerve, inferior maxillary. MUSCLES OK THE EAR AND NECK. 
71 
internal Pterygoid, from the pterygoid fossa of the sphenoid bone, and the 
tuberosity of the palate,—into the angle and inner surface of the ramus of 
the jaw, as high as the dental foramen. Action, raises and draws for- 
ward the lower jaw; a triturating muscle of mastication. Nerve, inferior 
maxillary. 
External Pterygoid, by 2 heads, the upper, from the pterygoid ridge on the 
greater wing of the sphenoid, the lower from the external pterygoid plate, 
and the tuberosities of the palate and superior maxillary bones,—into a 
depression in front of the condyle of the inferior maxillary, and the inter- 
articular fibro-cartilage. Action, to draw the jaw forwards; a triturating 
muscle of mastication. Nerve, inferior maxillary. 
Between the two heads of the external pterygoid muscle passes the internal 
maxillary artery. 
MUSCLES OF THE EAR. 
Tensor Tympani, from the under surface of the petrous portion of the tem- 
poral bone, the cartilaginous Eustachian tube, and its own osseous canal,— 
into the handle of the malleus. Action, to draw the membrana tympani 
tense. Nerve, branch from otic ganglion. 
Laxator Tympani Major, from the spinous process of the sphenoid and the 
cartilaginous Eustachian tube,—through the Glasserian fissure to the neck 
of the malleus just above the processus gracilis. Action, to relax the mem- 
brana tympani. Nerve, tympanic branch of the facial. 
Laxator Tympani Minor, from the back of the external meatus,—passes be- 
tween the layers of the membrana tympani into the handle of the malleus 
and processus brevis. Action, to relax the membrana tympani. Considered 
a ligament by many anatomists (the lig. mallei posticum). 
Stapedius, from the interior of the pyramid,—through the orifice at its apex 
into the neck of the stapes. Action, to depress the base of the stapes. 
Nerve, filament from the facial. 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 
Platysma Myoides, from the clavicle, the acromion, and the fascia covering 
the pectoral, deltoid, and trapezius muscles,—into the lower jaw, the angle 
of the mouth, and the cellular tissue of the face. Action, to wrinkle the 
skin, and depress the mouth. Nerves, facial and superficial cervical. 
Sterno-cleido-mastoid,11 by two heads from the sternum12 and the clav 
icle13 at its inner third,—into the mastoid process of the temporal bone, 
and the superior curved line of the occipital. Action, to depress and 
rotate the head. Nerves, spinal accessory, and branches of the cervical 
plexus. 72 
ANATOMY. 
Between the sternal and 
clavicular origins is a 
fossa, the fonticulus 
gutturis, which rises 
and falls during la- 
bored breathing. 
Sterno-hyoid,14 from 
the posterior surface 
of the sternum and 
the sternal end of the 
clavicle, — into the 
body of the hyoid 
bone. Action, to de- 
press the hyoid bone. 
Nerve, a branch from 
the communicating 
loop between the de- 
scendens and com- 
municans noni. 
Sterno-thyroid,15y)w« the posterior surface of the sternum and the cartilage 
of the 1st rib,—into the oblique line on the ala of the thyroid cartilage. 
Action, to depress the larynx. Nerve, a branch from the communicating 
loop between the descendens and communicans noni. 
Fig. 38. 
Thyro-hyoid,16 from the oblique line on the thyroid cartilage,—into the 
body and greater cornu of the hyoid bone. Action, to elevate the larynx. 
Nerve, hypoglossal. 
Omo-hyoid,1718 from the upper border of the scapula and the transverse 
ligament,—into the body of the hyoid bone. It has a tendon in its centre 
which is bound down to the cartilage of the 1st rib by a loop of the deep 
cervical fascia. Action, to depress the hyoid bone, and draw it backwards. 
Nerve, branch from the communicating loop between the descendens and 
communicans noni. 
Digastric, by 2 bellies, the posterior one1 from the digastric groove of the 
mastoid process of the temporal bone; the anteriors from a fossa on the 
inner surface of the inferior maxillary, near its symphysis,—into a central 
tendon3 which perforates the stylo-hyoid muscle, and is bound down to the 
body of the hyoid bone by an aponeurotic loop. Action, to raise the hyoid 
bone and tongue. Nerves, facial, and mylo-hyoid branch of the inferior dental. 
Stylo-hyoid,4 from the styloid process of the temporal bone near its base,— 
into the body of the hyoid bone. Action, to elevate and retract the hyoid 
bone. Nerve, facial. This muscle is perforated by the digastric. 73 
Mylo-hyoid,5 from the mylo-hyoid ridge of the lower jaw,—into the body of 
the hyoid bone and a fibrous raphe in the median line running from the hyoid 
bone to the chin. Action, elevates the hyoid bone and draws it forwards, 
also forms the floor of the mouth. Nerve, mylo-hyoid branch of inferior 
dental. 
Genio-hyoid,6 from the inferior genial tubercle of the inferior maxillary,— 
into the body of the hyoid bone. Action, same as the mylo-hyoid. Nerve, 
hypoglossal. 
Genio-hyo-glossus, from the superior genial tubercle of the inferior maxillary, 
—into the body of the hyoid bone, the side of the pharynx, and the whole 
length of the under surface of the tongue, forming a fan-like muscle. Action, 
to retract and protrude the tongue. Nerve, hypoglossal. 
Hyo-glossus8 (the basio-kerato-chondro-glossus), from the body of the hyoid 
bone, its lesser cornu, and the whole length of its greater cornu,—into the 
side of the tongue. Action, to draw down the side of the tongue. Nerve, 
hypoglossal. 
Stylo-glossus,9 from the styloid process and the stylo-maxillary ligament,— 
into the side of the tongue and the hyo-glossus muscle. Action, to elevate 
and retract the tongue. Nerve, hypoglossal. 
Lingualis, lies between the hyo-glossus and the genio-hyo-glossus, from the 
base to the tip of the tongue, along its under surface; some of its fibres being 
attached to the hyoid bone. Action, to elevate the centre of the tongue. 
Nerve, chorda tympani. 
Inferior Constrictor, from the sides of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages,— 
into the fibrous raphe of the pharynx. Action, to contract the pharyngeal 
calibre. Nerves, glosso-pharyngeal, pharyngeal plexus, and external laryn- 
geal. 
Middle Constrictor, from the cornua of the hyoid bone and the stylo-hyoid 
ligament,—into the pharyngeal raphe. Action, to constrict the pharynx. 
Neri’es, glosso-pharyngeal, pharyngeal plexus. 
Superior Constrictor, from the lower third of the margin of the internal 
pterygoid plate and its hamular process, the contiguous part of the palate 
bone, the tendon of the tensor palati, the pterygo-maxillary ligament, part 
of the alveolar process of the lower jaw and the side of the tongue,—into 
the pharyngeal raphe and the pharyngeal spine of the occipital bone. 
Action, to constrict the pharynx. ATerves, glosso-pharyngeal, pharyngeal 
plexus. 
Stylo-pharyngeus,10 from the inner side of the base of the styloid process,— 
into the constrictor and palato-pharyngeus muscles, and the thyroid car- 
MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 74 
tilage. Action, to elevate the pharynx. Nerves, glosso pharyngeal, pharyn- 
geal plexus. The former nerve crosses this muscle in passing to the tongue. 
Levator Palati, from the under surface of the apex of the petrous portion of 
the temporal bone and from the Eustachian tube,—into the posterior surface 
of the soft palate. Action, to elevate the soft palate. Nerve, facial, through 
the Vidian and petrosal. 
Tensor Palati, from the scaphoid fossa of the sphenoid bone and the Eusta- 
chian tube,—reflected around the hamular process,—into the anterior surface 
of the soft palate, and the horizontal portion of the palate bone. Action, to 
tense the palate. Nerve, a branch from the otic ganglion. 
Azygos Uvulae, from the posterior nasal spine of the palate bone, and from 
the soft palate,—into the uvula. Action, possibly to raise the uvula. Nerve, 
facial, through the Vidian and petrosal. This muscle is wrongly named, as 
it is double. 
Palato-glossus (anterior pillar of the fauces), from the anterior surface of the 
soft palate laterally,—into the side and dorsum of the tongue. Action, con- 
strictor isthmi faucium. Nemes, palatine branches of Meckel’s ganglion. 
Palato-pharyngeus (posterior pillar of the fauces), from the soft palate,—into 
the side of the pharynx and the posterior border of the thyroid cartilage, 
having joined the stylo-pharyngeus. Action, to close the posterior nares. 
Nerves, palatine branches from Meckel’s ganglion. 
Rectus Capitis Anti'cus Major, fro7n the anterior tubercles of the transverse 
processes of the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae by 4 slips,—into the 
basilar process of the occipital bone. Action, to flex the head. ATerves, 
sub-occipital and deep branches of cervical plexus. This muscle is a con- 
tinuation of the scalenus anticus. 
Rectus Capitis Anti'cus Minor, from the anterior surface of the lateral mass 
of the atlas, and the root of its transverse process,—into the basilar process 
of the occipital bone. Action, to flex the head. Nerves, sub-occipital and 
deep branches of the cervical plexus. 
Rectus Lateralis, from the upper surface of the transverse process of the atlas, 
—into the jugular process of the occipital bone. Action, to draw the head 
laterally. Nerve, sub-occipital. 
Longus Colli, 3 portions,—the superior oblique, from the anterior tubercles of 
the transverse processes of the 3d, 4th, and 5th cervical vertebrae, into a 
tubercle on the anterior arch of the atlas:—inferior oblique, from the bodies 
of the first 2 or 3 dorsal vertebrae, into the transverse processes of the 5th 
and 6th cervical:—vertical portion from the bodies of the lower 3 cervical 
and upper 3 dorsal vertebrae, to the bodies of the 2d, 3d, and 4th cervical. 
ANATOMY. MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX AND EPIGLOTTIS. 
75 
Action, to flex the cervical vertebrae and slightly to rotate them. Nerves, 
branches from the lower cervical. 
Scalenus Anti'cusi10 from a tubercle on the upper surface of the 1st rib,— 
into the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae, from the 3d to the 6th 
inclusive. Action, to flex the neck laterally, or to raise the 1st rib. Nerves, 
branches from the lower cervical. (See Fig. 38.) 
Scalenus Medius,22 from the upper surface of the 1st rib, behind the sub- 
clavian groove,—into the transverse processes of the lower 6 cervical 
vertebrae. Action, same as scalenus anticus. Nerves, branches from the 
lower cervical. 
Scalenus Posti'cus,21 from the outer surface of the 2d rib,—into the posterior 
tubercles on the transverse processes of the lower 2 or 3 cervical vertebras. 
Action, to flex the neck laterally, or to elevate the 2d rib. Nerves, branches 
from lower cervical. 
MUSCLES OF THE LARYNX AND EPIGLOTTIS. 
Crico-thyroid, from the front and side of the cricoid cartilage,—into the lower 
and inner borders of the thyroid cartilage. Action, to elongate and make 
tense the vocal chords. Nerve, superior laryngeal. 
Crico-arytenoideus Posticus, from the cricoid cartilage posteriorly,—into the 
outer angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. Action, to rotate the 
arytenoid cartilages outwards and open the glottis, while keeping the vocal 
chords tense. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Crico-arytenoideus Lateralis, from the upper border of the cricoid cartilage 
laterally,—into the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. 
Action, to rotate the arytenoid cartilages inwards and close the glottis. 
Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Thyro-arytenoideus, from the receding angle of the thyroid cartilage and the 
crico-thyroid membrane,—into the base and anterior surface of the arytenoid 
cartilage. Action, to shorten and relax the vocal chords by approximating 
the cartilages. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Arytenoideus, from the posterior surface and outer border of one arytenoid 
cartilage,—into the corresponding parts of the opposite cartilage, filling up 
the posterior concave surface of these cartilages. Action, by approximating 
the arytenoids, to close the back part of the glottis. Nerves, superior and 
recurrent laryngeal. 
rhyro-epiglottideus, from the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage,—’into the 
■ margin of the epiglottis and the aryteno-epiglottidean fold. Action, a de 
pressor of the epiglottis. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 76 
ANATOMY. 
Aryteno-epiglottideus Superior, from the apex of the arytenoid cartilage,— 
into the aryteno-epiglottidean folds. Action, to constrict the superior laryn- 
geal aperture. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Aryteno-epiglottideus Inferior, from the arytenoid cartilage anteriorly,—inU 
the sacculus laryngis and the margin of the epiglottis. Action, to compress 
the sacculus laryngis. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 
First layer (2)—Trapezius. Latissimus Dorsi. 
Second layer (3)—Levator Anguli Scapula:. Rhomboideus Major and Minor. 
Third layer (3)—Serratus Posti'cus Superior. Serratus Posti'cus Inferior. 
Splenitis Capitis et Colli. 
Fourth layer (11)—in 4 sets, viz.— 
Lumbar (1)—Erector Spince. 
External (3). 
Sacro lumbalis. 
Musculus Accessorius 
ad Sacro-lumbalem. 
Cervicalis Ascendens. 
Middle (3). 
Longissimus Dorsi. 
Transversalis Colli. 
Trachelo-mastoid. 
Internal (4). 
Spinalis Dorsi. 
Spinalis Colli. 
Biventer Cervicis. 
Complcxus. 
d'ifth layer (12)—6 having the word spinal in them, viz.— 
Semi-spinalis Dorsi. 
Semi-spinalis Colli. 
Multifidus Spince. 
Rotatores Spince. 
Supra -spin ales. 
Inter-spinales. 
Inter-transversales. 
Rectus Capitis Posti'cus Major. 
Rectus Capitis Posti'cus Minor. 
Obliquus Capitis Superior. 
Obliquus Capitis Inferior. 
Extensor Coccygis. 
Trapezius,1 from the inner third of the superior curved line of the occipital 
bone, the ligamentum nuchae,2 the spinous processes of the last cervical and 
all the dorsal vertebrae, and the supra-spinous ligament,—into the outer third 
of the posterior border of the clavicle, the superior margin of the acromion 
process, the whole length of the superior border of the spine of the scapula,3 
and a tubercle at its inner extremity. Action, to draw the head backwards. 
Nerves, spinal accessory, cervical plexus. 
Ligamentum NuchM,from the external occipital protuberance,—to the spines 
of the cervical vertebrae, from the 2d to the 7th inclusive. 
Latissimus Dorsi,4 by an aponeurosis from the spines of the 6 lower dorsal 
and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae, the supra-spinous ligament, the crest 
of the ilium, and the 3 or 4 lower ribs,—into the bicipital groove of the 
humerus. Action, the cursor ani muscle, drawing the arm downwards 
and backwards; or raising the lower ribs and drawing the trunk forwards 
Nerves, the subscapular. MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 
77 
Levator Anguli Scapulae,10 by 4 slips from the transverse processes of 3 or 
4 upper cervical vertebrae,—into the posterior border of the scapula. Action, 
as named. Nerves, branches from the 5th cervical and the cervical plexus. 
Fig. 39. 
Rhomboideus Minor,11 from the ligamentum nuchas and spines of the 7th 
cervical and 1st dorsal vertebrae,—into the smooth surface at the root of the 
spine of the scapula. Action, to draw the scapula backwards and upwards. 
Nerve, 5th cervical. 
Rhomboideus from the spines of the 4 or 5 upper dorsal vertebrae 
and the supra-spinous ligament,—into the scapula at the root of its spine 
and inferior angle, by a tendinous arch. Action, to draw the scapula up 
wards and backwards. Nerve, 5th cervical. 78 
ANATOMY. 
Serratus Posti/cus Superior, from the ligamentum nuchse, and spines of the 
7th cervical and 2 or 3 upper dorsal vertebras,—into the upper borders of 
the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th ribs, by 4 digitations. Action, to raise ribs in in- 
spiration. Nerves, external posterior branches of the cervical nerves. 
Serratus Posti'cus Inferior,16 from the spines of the last 2 dorsal and first 3 
lumbar vertebrae,—into the lower borders of the 4 lower ribs, by 4 digi- 
tations. Action, to depress these ribs in expiration. Nerves, external 
branches of the dorsal nerves. 
Splenius Capitis 13 et from the lower half of the ligamentum nuchae, 
the last cervical and 6 upper dorsal spines, and the supra-spinous ligament, 
—the S. capitis into the mastoid process and a rough surface below the supe- 
rior curved line of the occipital bone,—the S. colli into the transverse processes 
of the 3 or 4 upper cervical vertebrae. Action, to draw the head backwards 
and the neck erect. Nerves, external posterior branches of the cervical nerves. 
Erector Spinae,1 the sacro-iliac groove, and by the lumbo-sacral tendon 
from the sacral, lumbar and 3 lower dorsal spines, the iliac crest, and the 
posterior eminences of the sacrum,—divides into the sacro-lumbalis2 and 
longissimus dorsi3 muscles. Action, to erect the spine and bend the trunk 
backwards. Nerves, external posterior branches of the lumbar nerves. 
Sacro-lumbalis,2 from the erector spinae,—into the angles of the 6 lower 
ribs. Action, as the erector spina:. Nerves, branches of the dorsal. 
Musculus Accessorius ad Sacro-lumbalem,2 from the angles of 6 lower 
ribs,—into the angles of 6 upper ribs. Action, as the erector spinae. Nerves, 
branches of the dorsal. 
Cervicalis Ascendens,5 from the angles of 4 or 5 upper ribs,—into the 
transverse processes of the 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae. Action, 
to keep the neck erect. Nerves, branches of the cervical. 
Longissimus Dorsi,3 from the erector spinae,—into the transverse and 
articular processes of the lumbar vertebrae, into the tips of the transverse 
processes of all the dorsal vertebrae, and into from 7 to 11 ribs between 
their tubercles and angles. Action, as the erector spinae. Nerves, branches 
of the lumbar and dorsal nerves. 
Transversals Colli,6 from the transverse processes of the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 
6th dorsal vertebrae,—into the transverse processes of the 5 lower cervical.9 
Action, to keep the neck erect. Nerves, cervical branches. 
Trachelo-mastoid,7 from the transverse processes of the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th 
dorsal vertebrae, and the articular processes of the 3 or 4 lower cervical,— 
into the posterior margin of the mastoid process. Action, to steady the 
head. Nerves, branches of the cervical. MUSCLES OF THE BACK 
79 
Spinalis Dorsi, from the last 2 dorsal and 
first 2 lumbar spines,—into all the remaining 
dorsal spines. Action, to erect the spinal 
column. Nerves, branches of the dorsal. 
Spinalis Colli, from the 5th and 6th cervical 
spines, sometimes from the 1st and 2d 
dorsal,—into the spine of the axis, or the 
3d and 4th cervical spines. Action, to 
steady the neck. Nerves, branches of the 
cervical. [This muscle is frequently ab- 
sent.] 
Biventer Cervicis, from the transverse pro- 
cesses of 2 to 4 upper dorsal vertebrae,— 
into the superior curved line of the occipi- 
tal bone. [Is but a portion of the com- 
plexus muscle.] 
Complexus,8 by 7 tendons from the tips of 
the transverse processes of the 7th cervical 
and 3 upper dorsal vertebrae, and from the 
articular processes of the 4th, 5th, and 6th 
cervical,—into the inner depression between 
the curved lines of the occipital bone. Ac- 
tion, to retract and rotate the head. Nerves, 
suboccipital, great occipital, and branches 
of the cervical nerves. 
Semispinalis Dorsi,10 from the transverse 
processes of the dorsal vertebrae, from 
about the 5th to the nth,—into the last 2 
cervical and 4 upper dorsal spines. Action, to erect the spinal column. 
Nerves, branches of the dorsal nerves. 
Semispinalis Colli,11 from the transverse processes of the 4 upper dorsal 
vertebrae, and the articular processes of the 4 lower cervical,—into the 2d, 
3d, 4th, and 5th cervical spines. Action, to erect the spinal column. Nerves, 
branches of the cervical. 
Multifidus Spinae,"5 from the back of the sacrum, posterior superior spine of 
the ilium, posterior sacro-iliac ligaments, articular processes of lumbar and 
cervical vertebrae, and the transverse processes of the dorsal,—into the 
laminae and spines of the next 4 vertebrae above. Action, to erect and rotata 
the spinal column. Nerves, posterior spinal branches. 
Fig. 40. 80 
ANATOMY. 
Rotatores Spinse (i I), from the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae, 
from the 2d to the 12th inclusive,—each into the lamina of the next dorsal 
vertebrae above. Action, to rotate the spinal column. Nerves, branches of 
the dorsal. 
Supra-spinales, lie on the spinous processes in the cervical region. Nerves, 
branches of the cervical. 
Inter-spinales placed in pairs between the spines of contiguous vertebrae, 6 
pairs in the cervical region, 3 in the dorsal, 4, sometimes 6, in the lumbar. 
Nerves, posterior spinal branches. 
Inter-transversaies,18 placed between the transverse processes of contigu- 
ous vertebrae, 7 in the cervical region, 12 in the dorsal, and 4 in the lumbar. 
Nerves, posterior spinal branches. 
Rectus Capitis PostPcus Major,13 from the spine of the axis,—into the infe- 
rior curved line of the occipital bone and the surface below. Action, to 
rotate the head. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Rectus Capitis PostPcus Minor,12 from the tubercle on the posterior arch 
of the atlas,—into a rough surface between the foramen magnum and the 
inferior curved line of the occipital bone. Action, to draw the head back- 
wards. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Obliquus Capitis Inferior,15 from the spinous process of the axis,—almost 
horizontally to the transverse process of the atlas. Action, to rotate the 
atlas and cranium. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Obliquus Capitis Superior,14 from the transverse process of the atlas;— 
upwards and inwards into the occipital bone between the curved lines. 
Action, draws the head backwards. Nerves, sub- and great occipital. 
Extensor Coccygis, from the last bone of the sacrum or first of the coccyx,— 
into the lower part of the coccyx, posteriorly. Action, as named. Nerves, 
posterior sacral branches. 
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN. 
External Oblique,12 from 8 lower ribs by 8 fleshy digitations,—into the an- 
terior half of the outer lip of the crest of the ilium, and by a broad aponeu- 
rosis,13 into the ensiform cartilage, linea alba, symphysis, and spine of the 
pubes, and the pectineal line. Its aponeurosis is continuous with that of the 
pectoralis major above, and below it forms Poupart’s14 and Gimbernat’s 
ligaments, and by the separation of its fibres, the external abdominal ring.15 
Action, to compress the viscera, and flex the thorax on the pelvis, and vice 
versd. Nerves, lower intercostal, ilio-hypogastric, and ilio-inguinal. 
Internal Oblique,18 from the lumbar fascia, the anterior two-thirds of the 
middle lip of the crest of the ilium, and the outer half of Poupart’s liga- MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN. 
81 
ment,—into the cartilages of 4 lower ribs : by its aponeurosis into the linea 
alba; and leaving an arched border^0 over the spermatic cord, by the con- 
joined tendon19 with the transversalis into the pubic crest and the pectineal 
line. Its aponeurosis splits at the rectus abdominis for its upper three-fourths, 
one layer passing in front, the other behind that muscle, to unite again at the 
linea alba; for its lower one-fourth it passes in front of the rectus. Action 
and Nerves, same as the external oblique. 
Fig. 41. 
Transversalis, from the outer one-third of Poupart’s ligament, the anteriot 
two-thirds of the inner lip of the crest of the ilium, the cartilages of 6 lower 
ribs, and an aponeurosis from the spines and transverse processes of the 
lumbar vertebrae,—by its aponeurosis into the linea alba, and by the con- 
joined tendon19 with the internal oblique, into the pubic crest and the 
pectineal line. Its aponeurosis passes behind the rectus abdominis for its 
upper three-fourths, in front of that muscle for its lower one-fourth. 82 
ANATOMY. 
Lumbar Fascia, or vertebral aponeurosis of the transversalis, divides into 3 
leaflets, the anterior and middle being attached to the apices of the transverse 
processes of the lumbar vertebrae, the posterior leaflet to the apices of their 
spines. The anterior and middle leaflets enclose the quadratus lumborum 
muscle, the middle and posterior enclose the erector spinae. 
Rectus Abdominis,16 by 2 tendons from the pubic crest and the ligaments 
covering the symphysis,—into the cartilages of the 5th, 6th, and 7th ribs. It 
lies in a sheath formed by the aponeuroses of the internal oblique and trans- 
versalis muscles for its upper three-fourths, and is crossed by 2 to 5 tendinous 
lines, the Linece Transversce. At its outer border is a similar line placed 
vertically, the Linea Semilunaris, formed by the aponeurosis of the internal 
oblique at its point of division. Action, to flex the thorax on the pelvis and 
vice versa, also to compress the abdominal viscera. Nerves, same as the 
external oblique. 
Pyramidalis,17 lies in front of the rectus, but in the same sheath, arises from 
the front of the pubic bone and the anterior pubic ligament,—into the linea 
alba, half-way to the umbilicus. Action, a tensor of the linea alba. Nerves, 
same as the external oblique. 
Quadratus Lumborum,19 Fi«-40 from the ilio-lumbar ligament, adjacent 2 inches 
of the crest of the ilium, and transverse processes of the lower 3 lumbar ver- 
tebrae,—into one-half of the lower border of the last rib, and the transverse 
processes of the last 3 lumbar vertebrae. Action, to flex the thorax laterally 
on the pelvis and vice versa. Nerves, anterior branches of the lumbar. 
MUSCLES OF THE THORAX. 
External Intercostals (n), each from the outer lip of the groove in the in- 
ferior costal border,—into the upper border of the next rib below, directed 
obliquely downwards and forwards. Action, to raise and evert the ribs in 
inspiration. Nerves, intercostal. 
Internal Intercostals (i i), each from the inner lip of the groove in the in- 
ferior costal border,—into the upper border of the rib below, directed 
obliquely downwards and backwards. Action, at sides of thorax to depress 
the ribs in expiration; anteriorly they raise the costal cartilages. Nerves, 
intercostals. 
Infra-costales (io), obliquely from inner surface of I rib,—into the inner 
surface of the 1st, 2d, or 3d rib below. Action, muscles of inspiration. 
Nerves, intercostal. 
Triangularis Stemi, from the inner surface of the ensiform cartilage, inner 
surfaces of costal cartilages of 3 or 4 lower true ribs, and lower sides of the MUSCLES OF THE PERINEUM. 
83 
sternum,—into the lower border and inner surfaces of the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 
5th costal cartilages. Action, to draw down the cartilages in expiration. 
Nerves, intercostal. 
Levatores Costarum,17 Fis-40 (12), each from the transverse process of a dorsal 
vertebra,—into the upper surface of the next rib below, near its angle. 
Actior#to raise the ribs. Nerves, intercostal. 
Diaphragm, from the ensiform cartilage,4 inner surfaces of 6 or 7 lower ribs, 
ligamenta arcuata,5 and by its crura8 10 from the bodies of the lumbar ver- 
tebrae, from the 2d to 
the 4th on the right 
side, the 2d and 3d on 
the left,—into the cen- 
tral or cordiform ten- 
don.2 3 Action, the 
great muscle of respi- 
ration and expulsion. 
Nerve, the phrenic. 
Openings of the Dia- 
phragm. The Aortic,11 
in the middle line pos- 
teriorly, and behind 
the diaphragm; trans- 
mits the aorta, vena 
azygos major, and tho- 
racic duct, occasionally 
the left sympathetic 
nerve. The (Esopha- 
geal,u in the muscular structure, transmits the oesophagus and the pneumo- 
gastric nerves. The Opening for the Vena Cava13 is the highest, and has 4 
tendinous margins. The Right Crus9 transmits the sympathetic and greater 
and lesser splanchnic nerves of that side. 7'he Left Crus,10 the greater and 
lesser splanchnic nerves of the left side and the vena azygos minor. 
Descent of the Diaphragm. Its central tendon does not descend during in- 
spiration, being connected with the deep cervical fascia by the fibrous 
pericardium. 
Fig. 42. 
MUSCLES OF THE PERINEUM. 
Sphincter Ani,4 from the tip of the coccyx and superficial fascia,—into the 
tendinous centre of the perineum. Action, to close the anus. Nerve, 
hemorrhoidal branch of the pudic. 84 
ANATOMY. 
Internal Sphincter, a. mascula* ring, half an inch broad, about an inch from 
the margin of the anus; is an aggregation of the involuntary circular fibres 
or the intesdne. 
Fig. 43. 
Sphincter Tertius of Hyrtl, from the sacrum, encircling the rectum about 4 
inches above the anal orifice. [Demonstrated by Hyrtl, Nelaton, and Vel- 
peau, but denied by most anatomists.] 
Accelerator Urinae,1 from the central tendon of the perineum and the median 
raphe in front,—Hires spread over the bulb, corpus spongiosum, corpus 
cavernosum,17 and dorsal vessels. Action, to accelerate the flow of urine, 
and erect the penis. Nerve, perineal branch of pudic. 
Erector Penis,'2 from the inner surface of the tuberosity of the ischium, the 
crus penis, and pubic ramus,—into the crus penis laterally and inferiorly. 
Action, to maintain erection. Nerve, perineal. 
Transversus Perinei,3 from the ascending ramus of the ischium,—into the 
central tendon of the perineum. Action, to draw tense the central tendon. 
A'erve, perineal. 
Levator Ani,5 from the body and ramus of the pubes posteriorly, pelvic fascia, 
and the spine of the ischium,—into the tendinous centre of the perineum, 
,sides of the rectum (and vagina), apex of the coccyx, and a fibrous raphe 
extending from the coccyx to the anus. Action, to support the lower end of 
the rectum and vagina and the bladder, and assist in forming the floor of the 
pelvis. Nei-ves, inferior hemorrhoidal and 4th sacral. 
Compressor Urethrae, from the upper part of the ramus of the pubes,—into 
its fellow of the opposite side after encircling the membranous portion of the 
urethra. Action, stop-cock muscle. Nerve, perineal. MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM. 
85 
Coccygeus? from the spine of the ischium and the lesser sacro-sciatic liga- 
ment,—into the margin of the coccyx and the side of the last sacral segment. 
Action, to support the coccyx, and close the outlet of the pelvis posteriorly. 
Nerve, 5th sacral, anterior division. 
Sphincter Vagina* (in the female), from the central tendon of the perineum, 
—into the corpora cavernosa and body of the clitoris. Represents the accel- 
erator urinse of the male. 
Erector Clitoridis (in the female), replaces the erector penis. 
MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARM. 
Pectoralis Major, front the sternal one-half of the clavicle, by an aponeu- 
rosis from the front of the sternum as low as the 6th or 7th rib, the cartilages 
of all the true ribs, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique,—the fibres 
converge, cross and are inserted by a flat tendon into the external bicipital 
ridge of the humerus, having crossed the bicipital groove. Action, to draw 
the arm forwards and downwards; also to elevate the ribs in forced inspira- 
tion. Nerves, anterior thoracic. 
Pectoralis Minor, from the 3d, 4th, and 5th ribs, and the intercostal aponeu- 
rosis,—into the coracoid process of the scapula. Action, to depress the 
point of the shoulder, also to elevate the ribs in forced inspiration. Nerves, 
anterior thoracic. 
Subclavius, the cartilage of the 1st rib,—into the under surface of the 
clavicle, in a groove about its middle 3d. Action, to draw the clavicle 
downwards. Nerve, a branch from the 5th and 6th cervical. 
Serratus Magnus, by 9 digitations from the 8 upper ribs (the 2d rib having 
2) and from the intercostal aponeurosis,—into the whole length of the inner 
margin qf the posterior border of the scapula. Action, to elevate the ribs 
in inspiration, also to raise the point of the shoulder. In lower animals 
the great sling-muscle, slinging the body between the upper extremities. 
Nerve, posterior thoracic. 
Deltoid, from the outer one-third of the anterior and superior surfaces of the 
clavicle, the outer margin and upper surface of the acromion, and the whole 
lower border of the spine of the scapula,—into a prominence on the outer 
side of the shaft of the humerus, about its middle. Action, to raise the arm. 
Nerve, circumflex. 
Subscapularis, from the inner two-thirds of the subscapular fossa,—into the 
lesser tuberosity of the humerus. Action, to rotate the head of the humerus 
inwards. Nerves, subscapular. 
Supra-spinatus, from the inner two-thirds of the supra-spinous fossa,—inte 
the upper facet of the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Action, to sup- 
port the shoulder-joint, and to raise the arm. Nerve, supra-scapular. 86 
ANATOMY. 
Infra-spinatus, from the inner two-thirds of the infra-spinous fossa,—into 
the middle facet on the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Action, to rotate 
the humerus outwards. Nerve, supra-scapular. 
Teres Minor, from the upper two-thirds of the dorsal surface of the axillary 
border of the scapula,—into the lowest facet on the greater tuberosity of 
the humerus, and the bone below. Action, to rotate the humerus outwards. 
Nerve, circumflex. 
Teres Major, from the dorsal aspect of the inferior angle of the scapula,— 
into the internal bicipital ridge of the humerus. Action, to assist the latis- 
simus dorsi. ATerve, subscapular. 
Coraco-brachialis,11 from the apex of the coracoid process2 of the scapula, 
—mto a ridge on the inner side of the shaft of 
the humerus, about its middle. Action, elevates 
the humerus forwards and inwards. Nerve, mus- 
culo-cutaneous, which perforates this muscle. 
Biceps15 (Biceps Flexor Cubiti). Long head8 
from the upper margin of the glenoid cavity, 
short headu from the apex of the coracoid 
process,2 in common with the coraco-brachi- 
alis,—into the back of the tuberosity of the 
radius, and the fascia of the forearm.20 
Action, to flex and supinate the forearm, and 
to make tense its fascia. A'erve, the musculo- 
cutaneous. 
Brachialis Anti'cus,17 from the lower half of 
the shaft of the humerus anteriorly and later- 
ally, embracing the insertion of the deltoid,9— 
into the base of the coronoid process of the 
ulna.19 Action, a flexor of the forearm. 
ATei-ves, musculo-cutaneous and musculo-spiral. 
Triceps16 (Triceps Extensor Cubiti), by three 
heads, the outer and inner from the posterior 
surface of the shaft of the humerus, the outer 
above, the inner below the musculo-spiral 
groove; the middle or long head from a de- 
pression below the glenoid cavity of the scapula, 
—mto the upper end of the olecranon process 
of the ulna. Action, to extend the forearm 
Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
Fig. 44. MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM. 
87 
Subanconeus, from the humerus above the olecranon fossa,—into the poste' 
rior. ligament of the elbow-joint. Action, probably a tensor of the ligament. 
Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM. 
Muscles of the forearm (20), arranged in groups of five and threes. (Pancoast.J 
.Anteriorly, 5 flexors, 2 pronators, 1 tensor of palmar fascia:— 
Flexor Carpi Radialis. 
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris. 
Flexor Longus Pollicis. 
Pronator Radii Teres. 
Pronator Quadratus. 
Palmaris Longus. 
Flexor Sublimis Digitorum Perforatus Manis. 
Flexor Profundus Digitorum Perforans Manis. 
Posteriorly (12), in 4 sets of threes:— 
Supinator Longus. 
Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior. 
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevior. 
Extensor Ossis Metacarpi Pollicis. 
Extensor Prinii Internodii Pollicis. 
Extensor Secundi Internodii Pollicis. 
Extensor Indicis. 
Extensor Communis Digitorum 
Extensor Minimi Digiti. 
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris. 
Anconeus. 
Supinator Brevis. 
Pronator Radii Teres,4 by 2 heads, one froiti above the internal condyle of 
the humerus, the common tendon, fascia, and the intermuscular septum; the 
other from the inner side of dhe coronoid process of the ulna,—into a rough 
ridge on the outer side of the shaft of the radius, about its middle. Action, 
to pronate the hand. Nerve, median, which passes between the 2 heads 
of the muscle. 
Flexor Carpi Radialis$ from the internal condyle by the common tendon, the 
fascia, and intermuscular septa,—into the base of the metacarpal bone of the 
index finger. Action, to flex the wrist. Nerve, median. 
Palmaris Longus,6yr0w the same origin as the flexor carpi radialis,—into the 
annular ligament and the palmar fascia.9 Action, to make the palmar fascia 
tense. ATerve, median. 
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris,9 by 2 heads, one from the internal condyle by the 
common tendon, the other from the inner margin of the olecranon, the 
upper two-thirds of the posterior border of the ulna, and the intermuscular 
septum,—into the pisiform bone, the annular ligament, and the base of the 
5th metacarpal bone. Action, to flex the wrist. Nerve, ulnar. 
Flexor Sublimis Digitorum (Perforatus),7 by 3 heads, one from the inner 
condyle by the common tendon, the internal lateral ligament, and the inter 
muscular septum; the 2d from the inner side of the coronoid process; the 
3d from the oblique line of the radius,—into the lateral margins of the second 88 
ANATOMY. 
phalanges by 4 tendons which are split for the passage 
of the deep flexor tendons. Action, to flex the second 
phalanges. Nerve, median. 
Flexor Profundus Digitorum (Perforans), from the 
upper two-thirds of the shaft of the ulna, a de- 
pression on the inner side of the coronoid process, 
and the interosseous membrane,—into the bases of 
the last phalanges, by 4 tendons which perforate 
the tendons of the superficial flexor. Action, to. 
flex the phalanges. Nerves, ulnar, and anterior 
interosseous. 
Flexor Longus Pollicis, from the upper two-thirds 
of the shaft of the radius, and the interosseous 
membrane,—into the base of the last phalanx of 
the thumb, which it flexes. Nerve, anterior inter- 
osseous. 
Pronator Quadratus, frof)i the oblique line on the 
lower one-fourth of the ulna, and the internal body 
of the ulna,—into the lower one-fourth of the ex- 
ternal border of the shaft of the radius. Action, to 
pronate the hand. ATerve, anterior interosseous. 
Supinator Longus,13 from the upper two-thirds of the 
external condyloid ridge on the humerus, and the 
intermuscular septum,—into the base of the styloid 
process of the radius. Action, to supinate the hand. 
Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior/’ from the lower one-third of the external 
condyloid ridge on the humerus, and the intermuscular septum,—into the 
base of the metacarpal bone of the index on its radial side. Action, 
to extend the wrist. Nerve, musculo-spiral. 
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevior,/ from the external condyle by the common 
tendon, the external lateral ligament, and the intermuscular septa,—into the 
radial side of the base of the 3d metacarpal bone.r Action, to extend the 
wrist. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Extensor Communis from the external condyle by the common 
tendon, the deep fascia, and the intermuscular septa,—into the 2d and 3d 
phalanges of all the fingers, by 3 tendons, one of which divides into two. 
Action, to extend the fingers. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Fig. 45 MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM. 
P'xtensor Minimi Digiti ,i from the common tendor and the intermuscular 
septa,—into the 2d and 3d phalanges of the little finger, with the tendon 
derived from the common extensor. Action, as 
named. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris f from the common tendon, 
the middle one-third of the posterior border of the 
ulna, and the fascia of the forearm,—into the base 
of the 5th metacarpal bone. Action, to extend the 
wrist. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
from the external condyle of the humerus, 
posteriorly,—into the side of the olecranon, and 
upper one-third of the posterior surface of the shaft 
of the ulna. Action, to extend the forearm. Nerve, 
the musculo-spiral. 
Supinator Brevis, from the external condyle of the 
humerus, the external lateral and orbicular liga- 
ments, and an oblique line on the ulna,—into the 
inner surface of the neck of the radius, the outer 
edge of its bicipital tuberosity, and the oblique line. 
Action, to supinate the hand. Nerve, posterior in- 
terosseous, which pierces it. 
Extensor Ossis Metacarpi Pollicis,14 from the pos- 
terior surfaces of the shafts of the radius and ulna, 
and the interosseous ligament,—into the base of the 
metacarpal bone of the thumb. Action, to extend 
the thumb. Nerve, posterior interosseous. 
Extensor Primi Intemodii Pollicis,” from the pos- 
terior surface of the shaft of the radius and the in- 
terosseous membrane,—into the base of the 1st 
phalanx of the thumb. Action, to extend the thumb. Nerve, posterior 
interosseous. 
Extensor Secundi Intemodii Pol lie is, from the shaft of the ulna poste- 
riorly and the interosseous membrane,—into the base of the last phalanx 
of the thumb. Action, to extend the thumb. Nerve, posterior inter- 
osseous. 
Extensor Indicis, from the shaft of the ulna posteriorly and the interosseous 
membrane,—into the 2d and 3d phalanges of the index finger with thg 
tendon of the common extensor. Action, to extend the index finger. Nervi, 
posterior interosseous. 
Fig. 46. 90 
ANATOMY. 
Anterior Annular Ligament, frotn the pisiform and unciform bones,—1« 
the tuberosity of the scaphoid and the ridge on the trapezium. It is pierced 
by the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, and beneath it pass the tendons 
of the superficial and deep flexors and the flexor longus pollicis, also the 
median nerve. It is continuous with the palmar fascia and the fascia of the 
forearm. 
Posterior Annular Ligament,* from the ulna, cuneiform, and pisiform 
bones and the palmar fascia,—to the margin of the radius and the ridges on 
its posterior surface. It has 6 canals for the passage of the extensor tendons, 
each lined by a synovial membrane. It is continuous with the fascia of the 
forearm. 
Palmar Fascia, ensheathes the muscles of the hand, and divides into slips for 
the four fingers, each slip dividing and forming tendinous arches for the 
passage of the flexor tendons. 
FASCLE OF THE HAND. 
Abductor Pollicis,11 from the ridge of the trapezium and annular ligament,— 
into the radial side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the thumb. Action, to 
draw the thumb from the median line. Nerve, median. 
Opponens Pollicis, from the *palmar surface of the trapezium and annular 
ligament,—into the radial side of the metacarpal bone of the thumb, for its 
whole length. Action, as a flexor ossis metacarpi pollicis. Nerve, median. 
Flexor Brevis Pollicis,12 from the trapezium, annular ligament, trapezoid, os- 
magnum, base of the 3d metacarpal, and the sheath of the tendon of the 
flexor carpi radialis,—into both sides of the base of the 1st phalanx of the 
thumb, by two tendons, each of which has a sesamoid bone in it. Action, 
to flex the thumb. Nerves, median and ulnar. 
Adductor Pollicis, from the whole palmar surface of the 3d metacarpal bone, 
—into the ulnar side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the thumb, and the 
internal sesamoid bone. Action, to draw the thumb towards the median 
line. Nerve, ulnar. 
Thenar Eminence, or ball of the thumb, is formed by the above-named 4 
muscles. The following first 4 form the Hypo-thenar Eminence. 
Palmaris Brevis,10 from the annular ligament and palmar fascia,—into the 
skin on the inner border of the palm of the hand. Action, to corrugate the 
skin of the hand. Nerve, ulnar. 
Abductor Minimi Digiti, from the pisiform bone and the tendon of the flexor 
carpi ulnaris,—into the ulnar side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the little 
finger. Action, as named. Nerve, ulnar. 
MUSCLES OF THE HAND. MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH. 
91 
Flexor Brevis Minimi from the tip of the unciform process and the 
annular ligament,—into the base of the ist phalanx of the little finger, wuh 
the preceding muscle. Action, as named. Nerve, ulnar. 
Opponens Minimi Digiti, from the unciform process and annular ligament,— 
into the whole ulnar margin of the 5th metacarpal bone. Action, a flexor 
of the 5th metacarpal bone. Nerve, ulnar. 
Lumbricales (4), from the tendons of the deep flexor,—into the expanded 
tendons of the common extensor, on the dorsi of the phalanges. Action, 
probably to flex the ist phalanges. Nerves, median and ulnar. 
Dorsal Interossei (4), by 2 heads from the adjacent sides of the metacarpal 
bones,—into the bases of the ist phalanges of the index, middle, and ring 
fingers, the middle finger having two. Action, abductors of the fingers from 
the median line. Nerve, ulnar. 
Palmar Interossei (3), from the palmar surfaces of the 2d, 4th, and 5th meta- 
carpal bones,—into the bases of the 1st phalanges of the same fingers. 
Action, adductors of the fingers. ATerve, ulnar. 
MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH. 
Psoas Magnus,11 from the bodies, transverse processes, and intervertebral 
substances of the last dorsal and all the lumbar vertebrae,—into the lesser 
trochanter of the femur, by a common tendon with the iliacus. Action, to 
flex and rotate the femur outwards, also to flex the trunk and pelvis on the 
thigh. Nerves, anterior lumbar branches. 
Psoas Parvus, from the bodies of the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae, 
and the intervertebral substance,—into the ilio-pectineal eminence, and the 
iliac fascia. Action, when present it is a tensor of the iliac fascia. Nerves, 
anterior lumbar branches. 
Iliacus,10 from the iliac fossa, inner margin of the iliac crest, ilio-lumbar 
ligament, base of the sacrum, anterior spinous processes of the ilium and 
the notch between them, and from the capsule of the hip-joint,—into the 
outer side of the tendon of the psoas magnus. Action, the same as the 
psoas magnus. Nerve, anterior crural. 
Fascia Lata, the deep fascia of the thigh, extends from Poupart's ligament 
to the prominent points around the knee-joint, and from the margin of the 
sacrum and coccyx around the limb to the pubic arch and pectineal line. 
It sends two strong intermuscular septa down to the linea aspera, and con- 
tains the Saphenous Opening, which is formed by the reflected margins of 
its pubic and iliac portions. Poupart's Ligament is made by the knife, and 
is only the line of junction between the aponeurosis of the external oblique 92 
ANATOMY. 
muscle and the fascia lata; extending from the anterior superior spine of 
the ilium to the spine of the pubic bone. 
Tensor V aginae Femoris,4 from the anterior part of 
the outer lip of the iliac crest, and the anterioi 
superior spinous process,—into the fascia lata later- 
ally, for one-fourth down the thigh. Action, a 
tensor of the fascia lata. Nerve, superior gluteal. 
Sartorius,5 from the anterior superior spine of the 
ilium2 and half of the notch below it,—into the 
upper internal surface of the shaft of the tibia. 
Action, to flex and cross the legs. Nerve, anterior 
crural. 
Quadriceps Extensor, includes the rectus, vastus 
internus and externus, and the crureus muscles. 
Its tendon contains the patella. 
Rectus Femoris,6 by two tendons, the Straight from 
the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, the Reflected 
from a groove above the brim of the acetabulum, 
—into the tuberosity of the tibia by the tendon9 
common to this and the next 3 muscles. Action, to 
extend the leg. Nerve, anterior crural. 
Vastus Externus,7 from the anterior border of the 
great trochanter and the whole length of the linea 
aspera,—into the tuberosity of the tibia, by the 
common tendon. 
Vastus Internus8 and Crureus are one muscle, arising 
from the inner lip of the linea aspera and nearly 
the whole of the shaft of the femur in front and 
laterally from the trochanters down to within the 
lower one-fourth of the bone,—into the tuberosity of the tibia by the common 
extensor tendon. Action, to extend the leg. Nerve, anterior crural. 
Fig. 47. 
Subcrureus, from the lower part of the femur anteriorly,—into the synovial 
pouch behind the patella. Action, to draw up the synovial sac. Nerve, 
anterior crural. 
Gracilis,15 from the inner margin of the rami of the pubes and ischium,—into 
the inner surface of the shaft of the tibia below the tuberosity. Action, to 
flex and adduct the leg. Nerve, obturator. 
Pectineus,12 from the ilio-pectineal line, and the bone in front thereof, also 
from an expansion of Gimbernat’s ligament,—into the rough line extending MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH. 
93 
from the trochanter minor to the linea aspera. Action, to flex the thigh 
and rotate it outwards. Nerves, obturator, accessory obturator, and anterior 
crural. 
Adductor Longusf from the front of the pubes,—into the middle third of 
the linea aspera. Action, to adduct the thigh and flex it. Nerve, obturator. 
Adductor Brevis, from the descending ramus of the pubes,—into the upper 
part of the linea aspera. Action, to adduct and flex the thigh. Nerve, 
obturator. 
Adductor Magnus,14 from the rami of the pubes and ischium, and the outer 
margin and under surface of the tuberosity of the ischium,—into the rough 
line leading from the great trochanter to the linea aspera, the whole length 
of the linea aspera, and by a tendon into the tubercle above the inner con- 
dyle of the femur. Action, to adduct the thigh 
and rotate it outwards. Nerves, obturator and 
great sciatic. This muscle is pierced by 4 aper- 
tures for the 3 superior perforating and the profunda 
arteries, and about the lower one-third of its 
insertion an angular interval is left therein, the 
lower opening of Hunter’s canal, for the passage 
of the femoral vessels into the popliteal space. 
Gluteus Maximus/ from the superior curved line 
of the ilium, the crest behind it, the last piece of 
the sacrum, the side of the coccyx and the great 
and posterior sacro-sciatic ligaments,—into the 
fascia lata and the rough line leading from the 
great trochanter to the linea aspera. Action, to 
extend and abduct the thigh and rotate it out- 
wards, also to maintain the trunk erect. Nerves, 
inferior gluteal and a branch from the sacral 
plexus. 
Gluteus Medius,<* from the ilium between the su- 
perior and middle curved lines, the crest between 
them and the fascia of the part,—into the oblique 
lines on the great trochanter. Action, its posterior 
fibres rotate the thigh outwards, its anterior fibres 
rotate inwards. It also abducts the thigh and 
draws it forwards, and assists to maintain the trunk 
erect. Nerve, superior gluteal. 
Gluteus Minimus,8 from the ilium between the middle and inferior curved 
lines, and the margin of the great sacro-sciatic notch,—into the anteriol 
Fig. 48. ANATOMY. 
border of the great trochanter. Action, to rotate the thigh inwards, also 
to abduct and draw it forwards, and to maintain the trunk erect. Nerve, 
superior gluteal. 
Pyriformis,9 by 3 digitations from the front of the sacrum, from the margin 
of the great sacro-sciatic foramen and the great sacro-sciatic ligament,—into 
the upper border of the great trochanter,7 having passed through the great 
sacro-sciatic foramen. Action, ar. external rotator of the .thigh. Nerves, 
branches from the sacral plexus. 
Obturator Interims,11 from the posterior bony margin of the obturator 
foramen and the inner surface of the obturator membrane,—into the great tro- 
chanter,7 passing through the lesser sacro-sciatic notch. Action, an external 
rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches from the sacral plexus. 
Gemellus Superior,10 from the outer surface of the spine of the ischium,— 
into the great trochanter, being blended with the tendon of the obturator 
internus. Action, an external rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches from 
the sacral plexus. 
Gemellus Inferior,1'2 from the tuberosity of the ischium,—into the tendon 
of the obturator internus and the great trochanter. Action, an external 
rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches from the sacral plexus. 
Obturator Extemus, from the anterior 
inner bony margin of the obturator fora- 
men, and the inner two thirds of the 
anterior surface of the obturator mem- 
brane,—into the digital fossa of the 
femur at the inner base of the great 
trochanter. Action, an external rotator 
of the thigh. Nerve, obturator. 
Quadratus from the tuberosity 
of the ischium,—into the upper part of 
the linea quadrati on the trochanter 
major posteriorly. Action, an external 
rotator of the thigh. Nerves, branches 
from the sacral plexus. 
Biceps,16 by 2 heads, the Long Headd from 
the tuberosity of the ischium posteri- 
orly, the Short Head,? from the outer 
lip of the linea aspera, and the inter- 
muscular septum,—into the outer side 
of the head of the fibula; its tendon embracing the external lateral ligament 
of the kne«> joint, and forming the Outer Hamstring, the tendons of the semi- 
Fig. 49. MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 
95 
tendinosus, semi-membranosus, gracilis, and sartorius, forming the Inne> 
Hamstring. Action, to flex the leg and rotate it outwards. Nerve, great 
sciatic. 
Semi-tendinosus,y front the tuberosity of the ischium by a tendon4 common 
to it and the long head of the biceps, and from the adjacent aponeurosis,— 
into the shaft of the tibia at its upper and inner surface, its tendon curving 
around the inner tuberosity. Action, to flex the leg upon the thigh. Nerve, 
great sciatic. 
frotn the tuberosity of the ischium above the origin 
the above-named muscles,—into the inner tuberosity of the tibia; its tendon 
dividing into 3 parts, one over the popliteus muscle, and another forming 
the posterior ligament of the knee-joint. Action, to flex the leg, and rotate 
it inwards. Nerve, great sciatic. 
External Rotators of the Hip-joint are 13j4>—the 3 ad’uctors, pyriformis, a 
obturators, 2 gemelli, quadratus femoris, pectineus, psoas magnus, iliacus, sar- 
torius, and posterior half of the gluteus medius. 
Internal Rotators of the Hip-joint are 2]/2,—the tensor vaginae femoris, gluten* 
minimus, and the anterior half of the gluteus medius. 
MUSCLES OF THE LEG. 
Muscles of the leg arranged in groups of threes. (Pancoast.) 
Tibialus Anticus. Tibialus Posticus. 
F.xtensor Proprius Pollicis. Flexor Longus Pollicis. 
Extensor Longus Digitorum. Flexor Longus Digitorum. 
Gastrocnetnius. Peroneus Longus. 
Soleus. Peroneus Brevis. 
Plantaris. Popliteus. Peroneus Tertius. 
Tibialis Anti'cus3 (Flexor Tarsi Tibialis), from the outer tuberosity and upper 
two thirds of the shaft of the tibia externally, the interosseous membrane, 
deep fascia, and intermuscular septum,—through the inner canal in the 
anterior annular ligament into the inner and plantar surface of the internal 
cuneiform bone, and the base of the ist metatarsal. Action, to flex the tarsus 
on the leg, and elevate the inner border of the foot. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Extensor Proprius Pollicis,5 from the middle two-fourths of the fibula ante- 
riorly and the interosseous membrane,—through the 2d canal in the anterioi 
annular ligament,—into the base of the last phalanx of the great toe. Action, 
to extend that toe. Nerve, anterior tibia!. 
Extensor Longus Digitorum,4 from the outer tuberosity of the tihia, the upper 
three-fourths of the shaft of the fibula anteriorly, interosseous membrane, 
deep fascia, and intermuscular septa,—into the 2d and 3d phalanges of P * ANATOMY. 
4 lesser toes, by 4 tendons which pass over the dorsum of the foot, from the 
outer canal in the anterior annular ligament. Ac- 
tion, to extend the lesser toes. Nerve, anterior tibial 
Peroneus TertiusB (Flexor Tarsi Fibular'is), from the 
outer lower one-fourth of the fibula, interosseous 
membrane, and intermuscular septum,—into the 
base of the 5th metatarsal bone. This muscle is 
a part of the last named, and passes through the 
same canal in the annular ligament. Action, to 
flex the tarsus. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Gastrocnemius, by 2 heads from the condyles of 
the femur, and the supra-condyloid ridges,—unites 
with the tendon of the soleus to form the tendo 
Achillis, into the posterior tuberosity of the os calcis. 
Action, to extend the foot. Nerve, internal popliteal. 
Soleus, from the head and upper one-half of the 
shaft of the fibula posteriorly, the oblique line of 
the tibia, and the tendinous arch,—unites w'ith the 
tendon of the gastrocnemius as the tendo Achillis 
(see above). Action, to extend the foot. ATerve, 
internal popliteal. 
Plantaris, from the outer bifurcation of the linea 
aspera, and posterior ligament of the knee-joint, 
by a very long, delicate tendon,—into the posterior 
surface of the os calcis. Action, to extend the foot. 
Nerve, internal popliteal. 
Popliteus,6 from a depression on the external condyle 
of the femur, and the posterior ligament of the knee- 
joint,—into the inner two-thirds of the triangular surface on the shaft of 
the tibia posteriorly and above the oblique line. Action, to flex the leg. 
Nerve, internal popliteal. 
Flexor Longus Pollicis,9 from the lower two-thirds of the shaft of the fibula 
internally, the interosseous membrane, fascia, and intermuscular septum,— 
through grooves in the tibia, astragalus, and os calcis,—into the base of the 
last phalanx of the great toe. Action, to flex the great toe. Nerve, poste- 
rior tibial. 
Flexor Longus Digitorum,7 from the shaft of the tibia posteriorly and 
below the oblique line, and the intermuscular septum,—passes behind the 
inner malleolus in a groove13 with the tibialis posticus,—into the bases of 
Fig. 50. FASCIVE OF THE FOOT. 
97 
the last phalanges of the lesser toes by 4 tendons which 
perforate the tendons of the flexor brevis digitorum. 
Action, to flex the phalanges and extend the foot. Nerve, 
posterior tibial. 
Tibialis PostPcus,8 by two processes between which pass the 
anterior tibial vessels, from the upper one-half of shaft of 
the tibia posteriorly, the upper two-thirds of the shaft of the 
fibula internally, the interosseous membrane, deep fascia, 
and intermuscular septa,—passes behind the inner malle- 
olus in a groove 13 with the long flexor, into the tuberosity 
of the scaphoid and internal cuneiform bones. Action, to 
extend the tarsus, and invert the foot. Nerve, posterior 
tibial. 
Peroneus Longus,10 from the head of the fibula and the 
upper two-thirds of its shaft externally, the deep fascia, 
and intermuscular septa,—passes behind the outer malleo- 
lus in a groove with the peroneus brevis, through a groove 
in the cuboid bone, to the outer side of the base of the 
1st metatarsal bone. Action, to extend and evert the foot. 
Nerve, musculo-cutaneous. 
Peroneus Brevis,11 from the middle one-third of the shaft 
of the fibula externally, and the intermuscular septa,— 
passes behind the external mal’eolus in a groove with 
the long peroneal, into the dorsum of the base of the 5th 
metatarsal bone. Action, to extend the foot. Nerve, 
musculo-cutaneous branch of external popliteal. 
Fig. 51. 
FASCIAE OF TIIE FOOT. 
Anterior Annular Ligament, consists of vertical and horizontal portions, 
is attached to the lower ends of the fibula and tibia, the os calcis and the 
plantar fascia. It contains 5 sheaths lined by synovial membranes for the 
tendons of the extensor muscles, that of the extensor proprius pollicis pass- 
ing beneath it, as also the anterior tibial vessels and nerve. 
Internal Annular Ligament, frern the inner malleolus to the os calcis, 
converting 3 bony grooves into canals lined by synovial membranes for the 
flexor tendons and the posterior tibial vessels and nerve. 
External Annular Ligament, from the outer malleolus to the os calcis, 
binding down the peronei tendons in one synovial sac. 
Plantar Fascia, the densest in the body, divided into a central and two 
lateral portions, and attached to the inner tuberosity of the os calcis, divides 
into 5 processes, 1 for each toe, and several intermuscular septa. 98 
ANATOMY. 
MUSCLES OF THE FOOT. 
Extensor Brevis Digitorum, the only muscle on the dorsum of the foot, 
arises from the os calcis externally, the astragalo-calcanean and the anterioi 
annular ligaments,—by 4 tendons, I into the 1st phalanx of the great toe, 
and the others into the outer sides of the long extensor tendons of the 2d, 
3d, and 4th toes. Action, to extend the toes. Nerve, anterior tibial. 
Muscles on the sole of the foot (19), by layers:— 
1st Layer. 
Flexor Brevis Digitorum. 
Abductor Pollicis. 
Abductor Minimi Digiti. 
2d Layer. 
Flexor Accessorius. 
Lumbricales (4). 
3d Layer. 
Flexor Brevis Pollicis. 
Flexor Brevis Minimi Digiti. 
Adductor Pollicis. 
Transversus Pedis. 
Pancoast’s Tri. 
-angle, the low- 
est in the body. 
4th Layer. 
Interossei (4 Dorsal, j Plantar). 
Abductor Pollicis,« from the inner tuberosity of the os calcis, the internal 
annular ligament, plantar fascia, and intermuscular septum,—into the inner 
side of the base of the 1st phalanx of the great toe. Action, to abduct the 
great toe. Nerve, internal plantar. 
Flexor Brevis Digitorum,/ from the inner tuberosity of the os calcis, the 
plantar fascia and intermuscular septa,—into the sides of the 2d pha- 
langes of the lesser toes by 4 tendons which 
are perforated for the long flexor tendons. 
Action, to flex the lesser toes. Nerve, internal 
plantar. 
Abductor Minimi from the outer tuber- 
osity and under surface of the os calcis, the 
plantar fascia and the intermuscular septum,— 
into the base of the 1st phalanx of the little toe 
with the tendon of its short flexor. Action, to 
abduct the little toe. Nerve, external plantar. 
Flexor Accessorius, by 2 heads, from the os 
calcis and the calcaneo-scaplioid and long 
plantar ligaments,—into the tendon of the flexor 
longus digitorum. Action, accessory flexor of 
the toes. Nerve, external plantar. 
Lumbricales.c (4), from the long flexor tendons 
—into the inner side of the second phalanges 
of the lesser toes. Action, accessory flexors. 
Nerves, internal plantar to the two internal, 
external plantar to the others. 
Fig. 52. THE HEART. 
99 
Flexor Brevis from the cuboid and external cuneiform bones, and the 
prolonged tendon of the tibialis posticus,—into both sides of the base of the 
1st phalanx of the great toe, by 2 portions, of which one blends with the 
abductor pollicis, the other with the adductor pollicis. Action, to flex the 
great toe. Nerve, internal plantar. 
Adductor Pollicis, from the tarsal ends of the three middle metatarsal bones, 
and the sheath of the tendon of the peroneus longus, —into the base of the 
1st phalanx of the great toe, externally. Action, to adduct the great toe. 
Nerve, external plantar. 
Flexor Brevis Minimi Digiti/ from the base of the 5th metatarsal bone and 
the sheath of the tendon of the peroneus longus,—into the base of the 1st 
phalanx of the little toe externally. Action, to flex the little toe. Nerve, 
external plantar. 
Transversus Pedis, from the under surface of the head of the 5th metatarsal 
bone, and the transverse ligament of the metatarsus,—into the outer side of 
the 1st phalanx of the great toe, blending with the tendon of the adductor 
pollicis. Action, to adduct the great toe. Nerve, external plantar. 
Dorsal Interossei (4), each by two heads from the adjacent sides of two meta- 
tarsal bones,—into the base of the 1st phalanx of the corresponding toe. 
Action, to abduct the toes. Nerve, external plantar. 
Plantar Interossei/ (3), from the shafts of the 3d, 4th, and 5th metatarsal 
bones,—into the bases of the 1st phalanges of the__same toes. Action, to 
adduct the toes towards the median line. Nerve, external plantar. 
THE HEART. 
What is the Pericardium ? It is a conical membranous closed sac, con- 
taining the heart and the roots of the great vessels. It lies behind the sternum 
and between the pleurae, its apex upwards, its base below and attached to the 
central tendon of the diaphragm. It is composed of an outer fibrous coat, 
and an inner serous one; the latter consisting of two portions, a parietal layer, 
lining the inner surface of the fibrous coat, and a visceral layer, which is re- 
flected over the heart and vessels. The serous portion secretes a thin fluid, 
about i drachm in quantity normally, for the lubrication of its surfaces. The 
fibrous coat is prolonged on the outer surfaces of the great vessels, except the 
inferior vena cava, and becomes continuous with the deep layer of the cervical 
fascia. 
Describe the Endocardium. It is a serous membrane which lines the 
inner surface of the heart, forming by its reduplications the cardiac, aortic, 
and pulmonary valves, and continuous with the lining membrane of the great 
vessels. 100 
ANATOMY. 
Describe the Heart. It is a hollow muscular organ, conoidal in shape, 
placed obliquely in the chest between the lungs, base upwards, apex towards 
the left and front, corresponding to the interspace between the 5th and 6th 
costal cartilages, one inch inside of and two inches below the left nipple. In 
the adult its size is about 5 inches by by and from 8 to 12 oz. in 
weight. 
What are the Cavities of the Heart ? They are 4 in number, an 
auricle and a ventricle on each side of the heart, separated by a longitudinal 
muscular septum, and indicated on the external surface of the organ by grooves, 
named, from their contiguous cavities, as the Auriculo-ventricular Groove trans- 
versely, and the Inter- Ventricular Groove longitudinally. 
Describe the Right Auricle. It is larger than the left, can hold about 2 
fluidounces, its walls being about 1 line in thickness. It receives the venous 
blood by the superior and inferior vense cavce and the coronary sinus, and 
presents interiorly the following points for examination: — 
Appendix Auriculce, a conical pouch projecting from the auricle to the front 
and left, its margins being dentated. 
Openings of the superior and inferior venae cavee and the coronary sinus, the 
latter having a valve in two segments. 
Foramina Thebesii, several minute orifices, the mouths of veins from the 
substance of the heart. 
Tubercle of Lower, a very small projection on the right wall, supposed to 
influence the direction of the blood-current. 
Eustachian Valve, at the anterior margin of the inferior vena cava; large in 
the foetus, to direct the blood to the foramen ovale. 
Fossa Ovalis, a depression on the inner wall, and the situation of the foramen 
ovale in the foetus. 
Annulus Ovalis, the oval margin of the fossa ovalis. 
Musculi Pectinati, muscular columns on the inner surface of the appendix 
and the inner wall of the auricle. 
Auriculo-ventricular Opening, communicates with the right ventricle, is oval, 
about an inch broad, surrounded by a fibrous ring, and is guarded by the 
tricuspid valve. 
Describe the Right Ventricle. Its form is conical, its cavity containing 
about 2 fluidounces, its apex above the apex of the heart, and it presents in- 
teriorly the following, viz.— 
Tricuspid Valve, consists of 3 triangular segments connected by their base5 
with the auriculo-ventricular orifice, and by their sides with each other, 
the largest being on the left side. 
Chordce 'Tendime, delicate tendinous cords which connect the margins and 
lower surfaces of the tricuspid valve with the column*. THE HEART, 
101 
Columnce Carnece, muscular columns projecting from the surface of the ven- 
tricle, of which 3 or 4, called Columnce Papillares, give attachment to the 
chordae tendinae. 
Semilunar Valves, are 3 in number, and guard the orifice of the pulmonary 
artery, each about the middle of its free margin has a fibro-cartilaginous 
nodule, the Corpus Arantii, which more perfectly closes the orifice. 
Opening of the Pulmonary Artery, at the superior and internal angle of the 
ventricle, the Conus Arteriosus. It is circular in form, surrounded by a 
fibrous ring, and is guarded by the semilunar valves. 
Sinuses of Valsalva, are 3 pouches, one behind each valve, between it and 
the commencement of the pulmonary artery. 
Describe the Left Auricle. Its walls are about 11/2 lines in thickness, 
its capacity rather less than 2 fluidounces, has an appendix auriculae, and 
receives the arterialized blood from the lungs. It presents the following in- 
ternally ::— 
Openings of the Pulmonary Veins, are 4 in number, sometimes 3, as the two 
left veins frequently end in a common opening. 
Left Auriculo-ventricular Opening, is smaller than the right one. 
Musculi Pectinati, on the inner surface of the appendix. 
Depression, corresponding to the fossa ovalis in the right auricle. 
Describe the Left Ventricle. 
It is longer, thicker, and more coni- 
cal than the right, projecting towards 
the posterior aspect. Its walls" are 
the thickest of those in the heart, 
being twice as thick as those of the 
right ventricle. Its interior presents 
rite following:— 
Aortic Opening, is small and cir- 
cular, placed in front and to 
the right of the auriculo-ven- 
tricular, a segment of the mitral 
valve being between them. It 
is surrounded by a fibrous ring, 
and guarded by semilunar 
valves. 
Mitral Valve,c consists of two 
unequal-sized segments, and is 
attached to the fibrous ring which surrounds the auriculo-ventriculai 
opening. Its margins are connected with the ventricular walls by Chorda 
Tendinced and Musculi Papillares. 
Fig. 53. 102 
ANATOMY. 
Semilunar Valves, guard the aortic orifice, and are larger and stronger than 
those on the right side. 
Sinus Aortici, or sinus of Valsalva, a pouch between each valve and the 
beginning of the aorta. 
Columnar Carnecef are smaller and more numerous than on the right side; 
the Musculi Papiilares are but two in number. 
Describe the Structure of the Heart. The muscular fibres take origin 
from the four fibrous rings at the auriculo-ventricular and aortic openings. 
The fibres of the auricles are arranged in two layers, a superficial and a deep 
one, the latter having looped fibres and annular fibres. In the ventricles the 
fibres are superficial and deep, the latter being arranged circularly, the former 
spirally, coiling inwards at the apex of the heart into a whorl-like form, the 
vortex. 
THE ARTERIES. 
What are the Arteries ? Cylindrical vessels which carry arterial blood to 
the body from the heart. Those going to the lungs with the returning veins, 
form the Lesser or Pulmonic Circulation. The aorta with its branches and the 
returning veins, constitute the Greater or Systemic Circulation. The arteries 
anastomose or communicate freely with each other everywhere throughout the 
body, permitting the establishment of collateral circulations. 
Describe the Structure of the Arteries. They are dense, very elastic, 
preserving their cylindrical form, and are composed of 3 coats, an Internal or 
serous; a Middle, which is of muscular and elastic tissue; and an External, 
of connective tissue. They are generally included in a fibro-areolar invest- 
ment, the Sheath, which also encloses the accompanying veins. The larger 
arteries are nourished by the Vasa Vasorum, blood-vessels which ramify in the 
external and middle coats; and are supplied with nerves, the Vaso-motor, 
derived from both the sympathetic and cerebro-spinal systems, and forming 
intricate plexuses on the larger trunks. 
What are the Capillaries ? Minute vessels forming a network throughout 
the tissues of tire body between the terminating arteries and the commencing 
veins. Their average diameter is about the of an inch, and their walls 
consist of a transparent homogeneous membrane continuous with the innermost 
layer of the arterial and venous walls. 
[In the following pages, main branches are in italics, sub-branches in Roman.] 
Describe the Aorta. It is the main trunk of the systemic arteries, com- 
mencing at the aortic opening of the left ventricle of the heart, arching back- 
wards over the roof of the left lung into the thorax, where it descends on the 
left of the spinal column, and after passing through the aortic opening in the 
diaphragm, it terminates in the right and left common iliac arteries opposit# THE ARTERIES. 
103 
the 4th lumbar vertebra. It is divided into the arch, the thoracic aorta, and the 
abdominal aorta; and the arch is subdivided into the ascending,5 transverse,6 and 
descending 12 portions. The upper border of the arch is generally situated about 
an inch below the upper margin of the sternum. The branches of the aorta are,— 
From the Arch,—2 CoronaryI Left Common Carotid.10 
InnominateI Left Subclavian.u 
From the Thoracic,—Pericardiac. CEsophageal. 20 Intercostal. 
Bronchial. Posterior Mediastinal. 
From the Abdominal,—2 Phrenic. 
Gastric. 
Hepatic. 
Splenic. 
2 Spermatic. 
Inferior Mesenteric. 
8 Lumbar. 
Sacra Media. 
2 Common Iliac. 
Cceliac Axis. 
Superior Mesenteric. 
2 Supra-renal. 
2 Renal. 
Describe the Coronary Arteries. They are 2 
in number, a right and a left,4 arise from the aorta 
behind the semilunar valves and run in the ver- 
tical grooves of the heart, the left artery in front, to 
supply the tissue of that organ. 
Describe the Innominate.7 It arises from the 
summit of the arch of the aorta, is \ l/2 inch long, 
and divides behind the right sterno-clavicular joint 
into the Right Common Carotid9 and Right Subcla- 
vian,8 these arteries on the left side of the body aris- 
ing directly from the arch of the aorta.1011 It some- 
times sends off a Middle Thyroid (artery of 
Neubauer) which may arise directly from the 
arch of the aorta. The innominate is sometimes 
absent, and not infrequently varies in length from 
an inch to two or more. 
Describe the Common Carotid. Arising differently (see above), the two 
carotids are similarly described, except that the left is longer and deeper than 
the right one. Their course is indicated by a line drawn from a point midway 
between the angle of the lower jaw and the mastoid process to the sterno- 
clavicular articulation. At the lower part of the neck they are separated only 
by the width of the trachea, and they are each contained in a sheath of the 
deep cervical fascia with the internal jugular vein externally and the pneumo- 
gastric nerve between the artery and vein. On the front of the sheath lies the 
descendens noni nerve (descending branch of the 9th or hypoglossal). The 
artery lies beneath the inner border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, and is 
crossed about its middle by the omo-hyoid muscle and the middle thyroid vein. 
Fig. 54- 104 
It is also crossed above by the facial, lingual, and superior thyroid veins, below 
by the anterior jugular vein, and on the left side often by the internal jugular 
vein. It bifurcates, at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, 
into the External and Internal Carotids, of which the internal is the most re- 
mote from the median line. 
ANATOMY. 
Name the Branches and Sub-branches of the External Carotid Ar- 
tery.2 (Fig. 55.) It has 8 branches, as follows, viz.— 
Superior Thyroid,* arising below the greater cornu of the hyoid bone. 
Muscular. 
Glandular. 
Hyoid. 
Superficial Descending. 
Superior Laryngeal. 
Crico-thyroid. 
Lingual,5 under the hyo-glossus muscle to the tongue. 
Hyoid. Dorsalis Linguae. Sublingual. Ranine. 
THE RIGHT INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARTERY 
Fig. 56. 
Fig. 55 
Facial,6 crosses the lower jaw at the anterior angle of the masseter. 
Inferior or Ascending Palatine. 
Tonsillar. 
Submaxillary. 
Submental.7 
Muscular. 
Inferior Labial. 
2 Coronary.89 
Lateralis Nasi. 
Angular. THE ARTERIES. 
105 
Occipital,10 lies in the occipital groove of the temporal bone. 
Muscular. 
Auricular. 
Inferior Meningeal. 
Arteria Princeps Cefvicis.13 
Cranial Branches, over 
the occiput. 
Posterior Auricular,14 ascends under cover of the parotid gland. 
Stylo-mastoid. Auricular. Muscular. Glandular. 
Ascending Pharyngeal, lies on the rectus capitis ahticus major. 
External Branches. Pharyngeal and Meningeal Branches. 
Temporal,15 the smallest of the termini of the external carotid, begins in 
the parotid gland, crosses the zygomatic arch, and divides into anterior11 
and posterior temporal.16 
Transverse Facial.15 Middle Temporal.17 Anterior Auricular. 
Internal Maxillary,4 the other terminal branch of the external carotid,1 
is divided into three portions, Maxillary,4 Pterygoid,5 and Spheno-maxil- 
lary,6 which respectively give off the following branches: (Fig. 56.) 
Deep Auricular, to the 
tragus and canal. 
Tympanic,7 entering 
the Glaserian fissure. 
Middle Meningeal.8 
Small Meningeal.9 
Inferior Dental,10 divides 
into Incisor and Mental. 
Deep Temporal, 
ant. and posterior. 
Pterygoid Branches, 
to those muscles. 
Masseteric, to the 
masseter muscle. 
Buccal, to the bucci- 
nator muscle. 
Alveolar.11 
Infra-orbital.12 
Descending Palatine.13 
Vidian.16 
Pterygo-palatine.15 
Spheno-palatine or Nasal.14 
Describe the Internal Carotid Artery. It ascends in front of the transverse 
processes of the three upper cervical vertebrae, and close to the tonsil, traverses 
the carotid canal in the temporal bone, and after piercing the dura mater by the 
anterior clinoid process, divides into its terminal branches. Its branches are 
the 
Tympanic, enters the tympanum from the carotid canal, and anastomoses 
on the membrana tympani with the tympanic branch of the internal max- 
illary, the stylo-mastoid, and the Vidian arteries. 
Arteria Receptaculi, numerous small vessels going to the walls of the sinuses, 
the Gasserian ganglion and the pituitary body; one of them, to the dura 
mater, is called the Anterior Meningeal. 
Ophthalmic, arises from the cavernous portion, enters the orbit through the 
optic foramen, terminating at the inner angle of the eye into the frontal 
and nasal branches. It gives off,— 
Lachrymal. 
Arteria Centralis Retinae. 
Muscular Branches. 
Long Ciliary. 
Short Ciliary. 
Anterior Ciliary. 
Supraorbital. 
Posterior Ethmoidal. 
Anterior Ethmoidal. 
Palpebral. 
Nasal. 
Frontal. 
Anterior Cerebral, joined to its fellow by the anterior communicating branch, 
about 2 lines long. ANATOMY. 
Middle Cerebral, in the fissure of Sylvius ; divides into 3 branches, anterior, 
median, and posterior. 
Anterior Choroid, to the choroid plexus, corpus fimbriatum, etc. 
Posterior Communicating, anastomoses with the posterior cerebral, a branch 
of the basilar. 
What is the Circle of Willis? An anastomosis at the base of the brain, 
between the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, to equalize 
the cerebral circulation. The 2 Vertebral arteries join to form the Basilar, 
which ends in 2 Posterior Cerebral. These are connected with the Internal 
Carotid by the 2 Posterior Communicating. The circle is completed by the 
connection of the 2 Anterior Cerebral branches of the internal carotid through 
the short Anterior Communicating artery. 
Describe the Subclavian. It arises on the right side from the innominate, 
on the left side from the arch of the aorta, 
and is divided into 3 portions by the 
scalenus anticus, which crosses it just ex- 
ternal to the origin of the thyroid axis, 
viz.—the parts internal, behind, and ex- 
ternal to that muscle. At the outer border 
of the 1st rib, the subclavian becomes the 
axillary artery. Its upper border is a little 
above the clavicle, and it is separated from 
the subclavian vein by the scalenus anticus 
at its origin from the first rib. Its branches 
are all given off from its first portion, ex- 
cept the Superior Intercostal, which on 
the right side arises from the second por- 
tion. 
Vertebral,6 passing up the neck, through 
the foramina in the transverse pro- 
cesses of six cervical vertebrae, and enters the skull by the foramen 
magnum, where it joins its fellow to form the Basilar Artery. Its 
branches are— 
Fig. 57. 
Lateral Spinal Branches. 
Muscular Branches. 
Posterior Meningeal. 
Anterior Spinal. 
Posterior Spinal. 
Inferior Cerebellar. 
The Basilar, formed by the junction of the vertebrals, gives off on each 
side a transverse, anterior, and superior cerebellar, and ends in the two 
posterior cerebral. (See Circle of Willis, above.) THE ARTERIES. 
107 
Thyroid Axis,8 at once divides into the three following branches:— 
Inferior Thyroid} to the thyroid gland, giving off,— 
Laryngeal Branch. 
Tracheal Branches. 
(Esophageal Branches. 
Ascending Cervical.9 
Transversalis Colli}1 divides beneath the margin of the trapezius into— 
Superficial Cervical. Posterior Scapular. 
Suprascapular,12 to the shoulder-joint and the dorsum of the scapula, anas- 
tomosing there with the posterior- and sub-scapular. 
Internal Mammary}'* arises opposite the thyroid axis, descends upon the 
costal cartilages, and ends at the 6th interval, in the musculo-phrenic and 
superior epigastric, the latter anastomosing with the deep epigastric branch 
of the external iliac. Its branches are the— 
Comes Nervi Phrenici, 
or Superior Phrenic. 
Mediastinal. 
Pericardiac. 
Sternal. 
Anterior Intercostal. 
Perforating. 
Musculo-phrenic. 
Superior Epigastric. 
Superior Intercostal,14 gives off branches in the intercostal spaces to the 
posterior spinal muscles and to the spinal cord. 
Profunda Cervicis,10 supplies the muscles of the back of the neck, 
and anastomoses with the arteria princeps cervicis of the occi. 
pi tab 
Describe the Axillary.5 It is the continuation of the subclavian, extend- 
ing from the edge of the 1st rib to the lower margin of the armpit muscles, 
where it becomes the brachial. It has 7 branches, viz.— 
Superior Thoracic, to the pectoral muscles and walls of the thorax. 
Acromial Thoracic, branches are thoracic, acromial, descending. 
Thoracica Longa, to the muscles of the chest and mammary gland. 
Thoracica Alaris, a small branch to the axillary glands. 
Subscapular, to the inferior dorsum of the scapula. Its branches anastomose 
with the supra- and posterior scapular, and are the— 
Subscapular. Dorsalis Scapulae. Median Branch. 
Posterior Circumflex, to the deltoid muscle and the shoulder-joint. 
Anterior Circumflex, to the joint and the head of the bone, anastomosing 
with the posterior circumflex and acromial thoracic. 
Describe the Brachial. It is the continuation of the axillary from the 
lower margin of the teres major tendon to its bifurcation into the radial and 
ulnar, which is usually about one-half inch below the bend of the elbow. 
The median nerve crosses it from the outside to the inside at its centre. Its 
branches are the— 
Superior Profunda, winds over the arm in the musculo-spiral groove, giving 
off the posterior articular to the elbow anastomosis. 108 
ANATOMY. 
Nutrient Branch, enters the nutrient canal. 
Inferior Profunda, to the elbow-joint anastomosis. 
Anasiomotica Magna, anastomoses with the posterior articular, inferior pro- 
funda, anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent. 
Muscular Branches, to the muscles in the course of the artery. 
Describe the Radial. It extends from the bifurcation of the brachial to the 
deep palmar arch, and gives off the following branches respectively, in the fore- 
arm, the wrist, and the hand, viz.— 
Radial Recurrent. 
Muscular. 
Superficialis Voice. 
Anterior Carpal. 
Posterior Carpal. 
Metacarpal. 
Dorsalis Pollicis. 
Dorsalis Indicis. 
Priticeps Pollicis. 
Radialis Indicis. 
Perforantes. 
Interossece. 
Name the Branches of the Ulnar. It extends from the division of the 
brachial to the superficial palmar arch. It has 8 branches, viz.— 
Anterior Ulnar Recurrent. 
Posterior Ulnar Recurrent. 
Muscular. 
Anterior Carpal. 
Posterior Carpal. 
Deep or Communicating 
Branch. 
Digital. 
Interosseous 
Anterior. 
Posterior. 
Describe the Palmar Arches. The Superficial Palmar Arch is that part 
of the ulna artery lying in the palm of the hand, and anastomosing with 
the superficialis volse from the radial, and a branch from the radialis indicis, at 
the root of the thumb. It gives off 4 branches, the digital, to the sides of the 
fingers, except the inside of the index finger, which is supplied by the radialis 
indicis. The Deep Palmar Arch is formed by the palmar portion of the radial 
artery anastomosing with the deep or communicating branch of the ulna. It 
gives off the radialis indicis, palmar interosseae, perforating and recurrent 
branches. 
Describe the Thoracic Aorta. It begins on the left of the spine, at the 
lower border of the 3d dorsal vertebra, and ends at the aortic opening in the 
diaphragm directly in front of the last dorsal vertebra. Its branches are as 
follows :— 
Pericardiac Branches, irregular in number and origin. 
Bronchial, also vary in number and origin; generally one on the right side 
and two on the left. They nourish the lungs. 
(Esophageal, 4 or 5, anastomose on the oesophagus with branches of the in- 
ferior thyroid, phrenic, and gastric. 
Posterior Mediastinal, numerous small vessels. 
Intercostals, usually 10 on each side, each dividing into an anterior and a 
posterior branch. The anterior divides again into two along the adjacent 
borders of the ribs, supplying the intercostal muscles and anastomosing with branches of the internal mammary and axillary. The posterior divides 
into a spinal branch going to 
the vertebrae and the spinal 
cord, and a muscular to the 
muscles of the back. 
Describe the Abdominal 
Aorta. It begins where the 
thoracic ends, and terminates at 
the 4th lumbar vertebra in the 
common iliacs. Its branches are 
as follows:— 
Cceliac Axis,2 arises oppo- 
site the margin of the dia- 
phragm, runs forwards for 
half an inch and divides 
into the Gastric, Hepatic, 
and Splenic arteries, occa- 
sionally giving off one of 
the phrenics. 
Gastric,3 supplies the stomach 
along its lesser curvature, 
anastomosing with the aortic, 
oesophageal, splenic, and he- 
patic branches. 
Hepaticf divides in the trans- 
verse fissure of the liver into 
the right and left branches, 
to the lobes of that organ; 
also the— 
THE ARTERIES. 
109 
Fig. 58. 
Pyloric. 
Cystic. 
Gastro-epiploica Dextra 
Pancreatico-duodenalis. 
Splenic,5 the largest branch of the cceliac axis, passes by a very tortuous 
course to the spleen, giving off the following:— 
Gastro-duodenalis 
Pancreaticae Parvae. 
Pancreatica Magna. 
Gastric (vasa brevia). 
Gastro-epiploica Sinistra. 
Phrenic} one on each side, but usually only one arises from the aorta, the 
other springing from either the ceeliac axis or the renal artery. They go 
to the under surface of the diaphragm. 
Superior Mesenteric,9 supplies the small intestine, caecum, ascending and 110 
ANATOMY. 
transverse colon. Arising about one-fourth inch below the coeliac axis, 
it arches forwards, downwards, and to the left, giving off— 
Inferior Pancreatico duodenal. 
Vasa Intestini Tenuis. 
Ueo-colic. 
Colica Dextra and Media. 
Inferior Mesenteric,u supplies the descending colon, sigmoid flexure, and 
most of the rectum, giving off the following branches:— 
Colica Sinistra. Sigmoid. Superior Hemorrhoidal. 
Supra-renalf arise one on each side, opposite the origin of the superior 
mesenteric, passing to the supra-renal capsules. 
Renal,7 one from each side, just below the preceding, pass to the kidney, at 
the hilum having the middle place between the ureter behind and the 
renal vein in front. U. A. V. (you ’ave!) 
Spermatic,10 one on each side, in the male through the inguinal canal to 
the testes; in the female to the ovaries, uterus, and the skin of the labia 
and groins. 
Lumbar,8 usually 4 on each side, analogous to the intercostals. They each 
divide into two branches, the— 
Dorsal, giving off a spinal branch. Abdominal. 
Middle Sacral,12 arises just at the bifurcation of the aorta; it descends along 
the sacrum and coccyx, giving off numerous branches. 
Describe the Common Iliac Arteries. They extend from the bifurcation 
of the aorta at the 4th lumbar vertebra to near the lumbo-sacral articulation, 
where they each divide into the external15 and internal iliac.14 They are 
about 2 inches in length, the right being a little longer than the left one, and 
each is crossed by the ureter, just before its bifurcation. 
Describe the Internal Iliac.14 It is about \x/2 inches long, and extends 
from the lumbo-sacral articulation to the great sacro-sciatic notch, where it 
divides into an anterior and a posterior trunk. From the anterior trunk are 
given off from above downwards, the— 
Superior Vesical, the remaining pervious part of the foetal hypogastric artery. 
It sends branches to the vas deferens and the ureter; and one, the Middle 
Vesical, to the base of the bladder. 
Obturator, through the canal in the obturator foramen to the thigh, where it 
divides into an internal and external branch. Within the pelvis it gives 
off an iliac, vesical, and a pubic branch. In one out of t,x/2 cases this 
artery arises from the epigastric. 
Inferior Vesical, to the bladder, prostate gland, and vesicuke seminales. In 
the female this artery is called the Vaginal. 
Middle Hemorrhoidal, to the rectum. 
Uterine, in the female, anastomosing with the ovarian. 111 
Internal Pudic, the smaller of the terminal branches of the anterior trunk, 
supplies the external generative organs» Its branches in the pelvis are 
numerous and small, in the perineum they are— 
THE ARTERIES. 
Inferior Hemorrhoidal. 
Superficial Perineal. 
Transverse Perineal. 
Artery of the Bulb. 
Artery of the Corpus Cavernosum. 
Dorsal Artery of the Penis. 
Sciatic, the other terminal branch, supplies the muscles on the back of the 
pelvis. Its branches are as follows:— 
Muscular Branches. 
Hemorrhoidal Branches. 
Vesical Branches. 
Coccygeal. 
Inferior Gluteal. 
Comes Nervi Ischiadici. 
Muscular, external 
to the pelvis. 
Articular Branches. 
The Posterior Trunk gives off the following:— 
Ilio-lumbar, dividing into lumbar and iliac branches. 
Lateral Sacral, superior and inferior on each side. 
Gluteal, the continuation of the posterior trunk, divides into a superficial and 
a deep branch, to the glutei muscles, the skin over the sacrum, and the 
hip-joint. Before dividing it gives a nutrient branch to the ilium, and 
some muscular branches. 
Describe the External Iliac. It extends to beneath the centre of Poupart’s 
ligament, where it enters the thigh and becomes the Femoral Artery, lying be- 
tween the femoral vein on the inside and the anterior crural nerve on the out- 
side—V.A.N. Its branches are, small muscular and glandular, and— 
Epigastric, which usually arises a few lines above Poupart’s ligament, passes 
between the peritoneum and the transversalis fascia, to the sheath of the 
rectus which it perforates, and ascends behind that muscle, to anastomose 
by numerous branches with the terminal branches of the internal mam- 
mary and inferior intercostal. It gives off— 
Cremasteric. Pubic. Muscular Branches. 
Circumflex Iliac, arises opposite to the epigastric, passes along the crest of 
the ilium to anastomose with the ilio-lumbar, gluteal, lumbar, and epigas- 
tric arteries. 
Describe the Femoral Artery. It extends from Poupart’s ligament to the 
opening in the adductor magnus, where it becomes the popliteal artery. Its 
course corresponds to a line drawn from a point midway between the anterior 
superior spine of the ilium and the symphysis pubis, to the inner side of the 
inner condyle of the femur. It lies in a strong fibrous sheath with the femoral 
vein, but divided from the latter by a fibrous partition. It bisects Scarpa’s 
triangle in the upper part of its where it is superficial, and rests on the 
inner margin of the psoas, which separates it from the capsule of the hip-joint- 
Its branches are as follows : — 112 
ANATOMY. 
Superficial Epigastric,c to the superficial fascia of the abdomen. 
Superficial Circumflex Iliac,J to the skin 
over the iliac crest. 
Superficial External Pudicfi to the integu- 
ment of the lower abdomen, penis, and 
scrotum. 
Deep External Eudicfi to the skin of the 
scrotum and perineum. 
Profunda Femoris/ arises posteriorly about 
I or 2 inches below Poupart’s liga- 
ment, and descends to the lower third of 
the back of the thigh, giving off the fol- 
lowing branches:— 
Ext. Int. Circumflex./ 
3 Perforating/ 
Muscular Branches, k to the sartorius and 
vastus internus. 
Anastomotica Magna, arises from the femo- 
ral in Hunter’s canal, and divides into a 
superficial and deep branch, the latter 
anastomosing around the knee-joint with 
the superior external and internal articu- 
lar arteries, and the recurrent tibial. 
Describe the Popliteal Artery. It extends 
from the opening in the adductor magnus to the 
lower border of the popliteus muscle, where, 
having passed behind the knee-joint, it divides into the anterior and posterior 
tibial arteries. Its branches are as follows :— 
Fig. 59. 
Superior Muscular Branches. 
Inferior Muscular, or Sural. 
Cutaneous Branches. 
Superior External Articular. 
Superior Internal A rticularJ 
Azygos Articular. 
Inferior External Articular. 
Inferior Internal Articular. 
These are distributed around the knee-joint in a free anastomosis. 
The azygos branch perforates the posterior ligament of the joint to reach the 
internal ligaments and the synovial membrane. 
Describe the Anterior Tibial Artery. It extends from the bifurcation 
of the popliteal to the front of the ankle-joint, where it becomes the Dorsalis 
Pedis. It passes between the two heads of the tibialis posticus, over the upper 
edge of the interosseus membrane and along its anterior surface, resting on THE ARTERIES. 
113 
the tibia for its lower one-third. It is accompanied by the anterior tibial nerve 
close to it externally, and is crossed below by the tendon of the extensor pro- 
prius pollicis. Its branches are— 
Recurrent Tibial. Muscular. External and Internal Malleolar. 
Describe the Dorsalis Pedis Artery. It is the continuation of the ante- 
rior tibial, extending from the front of the ankle-joint to the 1st interosseous 
space, where it terminates in the Dorsalis Hallucis and the Communicating. 
The anterior tibial nerve lies close to its outer side. Its branches are as 
follows:— 
Tarsea, passing outwards along the tarsus. 
Metatarsea, giving off 3 interossese, and they 7 digital. 
Dorsali's Hallucis, to the great toe and the inner side of the second toe by 
its 3 digital branches. 
Communicating, which dips down into the sole of the foot in the ist inter- 
osseous space of the metatarsus, to inosculate with the external plantar; 
and gives off 2 digital branches to the plantar surface of the great and 
second toes. 
Describe the Posterior Tibial Artery. It is a large vessel, extending 
from the bifurcation of the popliteal along the back of the tibia to the fossa 
below the inner malleolus, where it divides into the Internal and External 
Plantar. The posterior tibial nerve crosses it a short way below its origin and 
then lies close to its outer side for the rest of its course. Its branches are as 
follows:— 
Peroneal, along the fibular side, giving off the anterior peroneal, muscular 
branches, and the nutrient artery of the fibula. 
Nutrient of the Tibia, the largest nutrient artery of bone. 
Muscular Branches, to the posterior muscles of the leg. 
Communicating, a branch to the peroneal artery. 
Internal Calcanean Branches, to the heel and sole of the foot. 
Describe the Internal Plantar. This artery is the smallest of the termi- 
nating branches of the posterior tibial, and passes along the inner side of the 
foot and great toe. 
Describe the External Plantar Artery. It sweeps across the plantar 
aspect of the foot in a curve, the convexity of which is directed outwards and 
forwards; and at the interval between the bases of the ist and 2d metatarsal 
bones it inosculates with the communicating branch from the dorsalis pedis, 
forming the Plantar Arch, or the Stirrup Anastomosis. It gives off numerous 
muscular branches, and the— 
Posterior Perforating, 3 small branches passing through the 3 outer interos 
seous spaces. 114 
ANATOMY. 
Digital, 4 oranches supplying the sides of the 3 outer toes and the outer 
side of the 2d toe ; its inner side, together with the great toe, being sup- 
plied by the Digital Branches of the Dorsalis Pedis Communicating. 
Describe the Pulmonary Artery. It alone of the arteries carries venous 
blood, which it conveys from the right side of the heart to the lungs. It is 
only about 2 inches long, and nearly all within the pericardium; arising from 
the right ventricle in front of the ascending aorta, passing upwards and back- 
wards to the under surface of the arch of the aorta, where it bifurcates, and is 
connected to the aorta by a fibrous cord, the remains of the ductus arteriosus 
of the foetus. Its terminal branches are the— 
Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries, the latter being the shorter of the two; 
pass horizontally outwards to the roots of their respective lungs, where each 
divides into two branches, which again and again subdivide to ramify through- 
out the lung tissue and end in the capillaries of those organs. 
Describe the Anastomosis around the Shoulder-joint. It is formed by 
the following 8 arteries, viz.— 
ARTERIAL ANASTOMOSES. 
Posterior Scapular, br. of transv. colli. 
Subscapular, br. of axillary. 
Dorsalis Scapulce, br. of subscapular. 
Infraspinous, br. of dorsalis scapulae. 
Suprascapular, br. of thyroid axis. 
Ant. Circumflex, br. of axillary. 
Post. Circumflex, br. of axillary. 
Acromial, br. of acromio-thoracic. 
What Arteries Anastomose around the Elbow-joint? The— 
Superior Profunda, br. of brachial. 
Inferior Profunda, br. of brachial. 
Anastomotica Magna, br. of brachial. 
Posterior Articular, br. of superior 
profunda. 
Radial Recurrent, br. of radial. 
Recurrent Interosseous, br. of posterior 
interosseous. 
Anterior Ulnar Rectirrent, br. of ulnar. 
Posterior Ulnar Recurrent, br. of ulnar. 
What Arteries Anastomose around the Hip-joint ? They are the 
Gluteal, Ilio-lumbar, and Circumflex Iliac, with the External Circumflex. 
Obturator and Sciatic, with the Internal Circumflex. 
Comes Nervi Ischiadici, with the Perforating branches of the Profunda. 
Name the Arteries Anastomosing around the Knee-joint. The— 
Descending, br. of ext. circumflex. 
Anastomotica Magna, br. of femoral. 
Inferior Perforating, br. of profunda. 
Superior Ext. Articular, br. of popliteal. 
Sup. Int. Articular, br. of popliteal. 
Inf. Ext. Articular, br. of popliteal. 
Inf. Int. Articular, br. of popliteal. 
Recurrent Tibial, br. of anterior tibial. 
How is the Collateral Circulation established after Ligature of the 
Carotid or Subclavian ? By the following anastomoses, viz.— 
Superior Thyroid, br. of external carotid, with the Inferior Thyroid, br. of 
the thyroid axis, from the subclavian. THE VEINS, 
115 
Arteria Princeps Cervicis, br. of occipital, from the external carotid, with 
the Vertebral, br. of subclavian, and the Profunda Cervicis, br. of the 
superior intercostal, from the subclavian. 
What is the Longest Anastomosis in the Body? That between the 
subclavian and the external iliac by the anastomosis of the Superior Epigastric. 
br. of the internal mammary, with the Deep Epigastric, br. of the external 
iliac. 
[The circle of Willis has been described on page 106; the palmar and plantar 
arches on pages 108 and 113 respectively; and the anastomosis on the mem- 
brana tympani on page 105.] 
THE VEINS. 
What are the Veins ? Vessels carrying blood towards the heart. Their 
walls are composed of 3 coats, an internal, serous; a.middle, muscular; and 
an external, fibrous. They all carry carbonized or venous blood, except the 
pulmonary veins, wjjich bring oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart. 
The deep veins accompany the arteries, generally in the same sheath, and are 
given the same names. The secondary arteries, as the radial, ulnar, brachial, 
etc., have each two veins, called Vena Comites. The superficial veins are 
usually unaccompanied by arteries, and lie, as a rule, between the layers of 
the superficial fascia, terminating in the deep veins. Many veins are so irreg- 
ular in their origin that they cannot be accurately described; they all anasto- 
mose with each other much more freely than do the arteries. 
What are Sinuses ? Thej are venous channels, differing from veins in 
structure, but answering the same purpose. Those of the cranium are formed 
by the separation of the layers of the dura mater. 
How are the Veins divided? Into the Pulmonary, Systemic, and Portal 
Systems; the latter being an appendage of the systemic, its capillaries rami- 
fying in the liver. 
What Veins have no Valves? The venae cavse, hepatic, portal, renal, 
uterine, ovarian, cerebral, spinal, pulmonary, umbilical, and the very small 
veins. 
Name the principal Veins of the Head and Neck. They are the— 
(1.) Exterior veins. (2.) Veins of the diploe and cranium. 
Facial. 
Temporal. 
Internal Maxillary. 
Temporo- maxillary. 
Posterior Auricular. 
Occipital. 
Veins of the Diploe. 
Cerebral and Cerebellar. 
Superior Longitudinal Sinus. 
Inferior Longitudinal Sinus. 
Straight Sinus. 
Circular Sinus. 
Transverse Sinus. 
Cavernous Sinus. 
Occipital Sinus. 
Superior Petrosal Sinus 
Inferior Petrotal Sinus. 
Lateral Sinus- 116 
ANATOMY. 
(3.) Veins of the neck draining the above-named. 
p,xternal Jugular,6 terminating in the subclavian vein.4 
Posterior External Jugular, opens into the external jugular. 
Anterior Jugular1 enters the subclavian vein near the external jugular. 
Lnternal Jugular,5 formed by the junction of the two last-named sinuses at the 
jugular foramen, and uniting with the subclavian vein to form the innomi- 
nate, at the root of the neck. In its course it receives the facial, lingual, 
pharyngeal, superior and middle thyroid veins, and the occipital. 
Vertebral, descends the foramina in the transverse processes of the cervical 
vertebrae, and empties into the innominate vein. 
Name the Veins of the Upper Extremity. They are in two sets, super- 
ficial and deep. The deep follow the arteries, generally as vense comites, 
beginning in the hand as Digital, Lnterosseous, and Palmar veins, they unite 
in the Deep Radial and Ulnar which unite to form the Vena: Comites of the 
brachial artery at the bend of the elbow. The superficial veins lie in the 
superficial fascia; they are as follows:— . 
Radial 
Median 
Median Cephalic. 
Cephalic. 
Basilic. 
Axillary 
Vein. 
Anterior and Posterior Ulnar... 
Median Basilic. 
Lnternal Mammary.. 
Lnferior Thyroid. 
Lntercostal, 
Name the principal Veins of the Thorax. They are as follows, viz.— 
Bronchial. 
Mediastinal. 
Pericardiac. 
Right Azygos [major). 
Left Lower Azygos (minor). 
Left Upper Azygos (minimus). 
What are the Azygos Veins ? They supply the place of the vense cavse in 
the region where these trunks are deficient, being connected with the heart. 
The Right Azygos11 begins by a branch "from the right lumbar veins usually, 
passes through the aortic opening in the diaphragm, and ends in the superior 
vena cava, having drained 9 or 10 right lower intercostals, the vena azygos 
minor, the right bronchial, oesophageal, mediastinal, and vertebral veins. The 
Left Lower Azygos18 begins by a branch from the left lumbar or renal, passes 
the left crus of the diaphragm, crosses the vertebral column and ends in the 
right azygos, having drained 4 or 5 lower intercostals. The Left Upper Azygos 
drains 2 or 3 left intercostals and empties into either of the other two. It is 
often wanting, its place being filled by the left superior intercostal vein.21 
Name the Spinal Veins. They may be arranged into 4 sets, as follows, 
viz.— 
Medulli-spinal, the veins of the spinal cord, which lie in plexus form between 
the pia mater and arachnoid. They unite into 2 or 3 small trunks near 
the base of the skull, which terminate in the inferior cerebellar veins or 
in the petrosal sinuses. THE VEINS. 
117 
Vtnce Basis Vertebrarum, empty into the anterior longitudinal. 
Longitudinal, in two plexuses, anterior and posterior, running the whole 
length of the spinal canal. The posterior join the dorsi-spinal veins, the 
anterior empty into the vertebral, intercostal, lumbar, and sacral veins in 
their various regions. 
Dorsi-spinalform a plexus around the 
spines, processes, and laminae of all the 
vertebrae. They empty into the vertebral, 
intercostal, lumbar, and sacral veins in 
their respective regions. 
Describe the Subclavian Vein. It is the 
continuation of the axillary, extending from 
the outer marg;n of the 1st rib to the sterno- 
clavicular articulation, where it unites with the 
internal jugular to form the innominate vein. 
At the angle of junction enters the thoracic 
duct on the left side of the body and the right 
lymphatic duct on the right side. In its course 
it receives the external and anterior jugular 
veins and a branch from the cephalic. 
Describe the Venae Innominatae. The 
two innominate veins are each formed by the 
union of the subclavian and internal jugular, 
and unite below the ist costal cartilage to 
form the superior vena cava. The Right In- 
nominate3 is about 11/2 inch long, and receives, 
besides its constituent branches, the right in- 
ternal mammary, right inferior thyroid, and 
right superior intercostal veins. The Left In- 
nominate3 is about 3 inches long, and in its 
course it receives the vertebral, inferior thy- 
roid, internal mammary, and superior inter- 
costal veins of the left side. 
Describe the Superior Vena Cava.1 It is 
a short trunk about 2y2 or 3 inches in length, formed by the union of the venae 
innominatae, and receives all the blood from the upper half of the body, termi- 
nating in the right auricle of the heart. It is half covered by the pericardium, 
and receives the vena azygos major and small pericardiac and mediastinal veins. 
Name the Principal Veins of the Lower Extremity. They are in two 
sets, superficial and deep. The deep are the Vence Comites of the anterior and 
Fig. 6o. 118 
ANATOMY. 
posterior tibial and peroneal arteries, which collect the blood from the deep 
parts of the foot and leg, and unite in the— 
Popliteal, which becomes the Femoral, and it the External Iliac in the same 
manner as the respectively-named arteries. 
The superficial veins of the lower extremity are the— 
Internal or Long Saphenous, on the inside of the leg and thigh, enters the 
femoral at the saphenous opening 11/2 inch below Poupart’s ligament. In 
its course it receives the following:— 
Cutaneous Branches. 
Superficial Epigastric. 
Superficial Circumflex Iliac. 
Communicating Branches. 
Pudic. 
External or Short Saphenous, formed by branches from the dorsum and outer 
side of the foot, it ascends behind the outer malleolus, up the middle of 
the back of the leg, and empties into the popliteal vein. 
Describe the Internal Iliac Vein.10 It is formed by the venae comites of the 
branches of the internal iliac artery, except the umbilical. It terminates with 
the external iliac, at the sacro-iliac articulation, to form the common iliac vein. 
It receives the following veins 
Gluteal. 
Sciatic. 
Lnternal Pudic. 
Obturator. 
Hemorrhoidal and Vesico- 
prostatic, in the male. 
Uterine and Vagi- 
nal Plexuses, in 
the female. 
Describe the Common Iliac Veins.11 They are each formed by the union 
of the two iliac veins as above described, and unite between the 4th and 5th 
lumbar vertebrse to form the inferior vena cava, the right common iliac being 
the shortest of the two. Each receives the Ilio-lumbar, sometimes the Lateral 
Sacral, and the left one in addition the Middle Sacral Vein, which sometimes 
ends in the vena cava. 
Describe the Inferior Vena Cava.8 It extends from the junction of the two 
common iliac veins, passing along the front of the spine, through the tendinous 
centre of the diaphragm, to its termination in the right auricle of the heart. 
It receives the following veins:— 
Lumbar P 
Right Spermatic.13 
Renal 
Supra-renal. 
Phrenic. 
Hepatic.16 
Describe the Portal System. The portal system is formed by the Superior 
and Inferior Mesenteric, Splenic, and Gastric Veins, which collect the blood 
from the digestive viscera, and by their union behind the head of the pan- 
creas form the Portal Vein, which enters the transverse fissure of the liver, 
where it divides into 2 branches, and these again subdivide, ramifying through- 
out that organ, therein receiving blood also from the branches of the hepatic 
artery. Its contents enter tht* inferior vena cava by the hepatic vein. The 
portal vein is about 4 inches long, receives the Gastric and Cystic Veins, and is THE ABSORBENTS. 
119 
formed by the union of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins, the inferior 
mesenteric joining the splenic, which also receives one of the gastric, the other 
emptying into the portal. 
Name the Cardiac Veins. They return the blood from the tissue of the 
heart into the right auricle. They are the— 
Great Cardiac Vein. 
Posterior Cardiac Vein. 
Anterior Cardiac Veins. 
Vena Thebesii. 
Coronary Sinus, is a dilatation of the great cardiac vein, receiving the pos- 
terior cardiac and an oblique vein from the left auricle. 
Describe the Pulmonary Veins. They alone of the veins carry arterial 
blood, beginning in the capillaries of the lungs, forming a single trunk for 
each lobule, which, uniting into a single trunk for each lobe, form two main 
trunks from each lung which open separately into the left auricle. Sometimes 
the 3 lobe-trunks of the right lung remain separate to their termination in the 
auricle, and not unfrequently a common opening serves for the 2 left pulmo- 
nary veins. 
THE ABSORBENTS. 
What are the Lymphatics ? They are very delicate, transparent vessels, 
formed of three coats like arteries and veins, found in nearly every part of the 
body, except the brain, spinal cord, eyeball, cartilage, tendons, membranes of 
the ovum, placenta, umbilical cord, nails, cuticle, hair, and bone. They are 
nourished by nutrient vessels, and have valves, but no nerves, so far as known. 
They convey lymph to the blood. 
What are the Lacteals ? They are the lymphatics of the small intestine, 
conveying the chyle therefrom into the blood. 
What are the Lymphatic Glands ? Small solid bodies placed in the 
course of the absorbent vessels, and found chiefly in the mesentery, along the 
great blood-vessels, in the mediastina, axilla, neck, front of the elbow, groin, 
and popliteal space. The lymphatics and lacteals before entering these glands 
break up into smaller branches, the afferent vessels, which form a plexus in 
the gland, and pass out as efferent vessels to unite again in one trunk. They 
also contain spheroidal bodies about inch in diameter. These glands 
are named after the regions in which they are situated, as the axillary, inguinal, 
mesenteric, etc. 
Describe the Thoracic Duct. It is the main channel for the lymph and 
chyle from the whole body except the right arm and lung, right side of the 
head, heart, neck, and thorax, and the convex surface of the liver. It begins 
in the Receptaculum Chyli, in front of the 2(1 lumbar vertebra, passes through 
the aortic opening in the diaphragm, and at the upper border of the 7th cer 120 
ANATOMY. 
rical vertebra it curves forwards, outwards, and downwards, terminating in the 
left subclavian vein at its junction with the internal jugular. 
Describe the Right Lymphatic Duct. It is about an inch long, termi- 
nating in the right subclavian vein at its union with the internal jugular, and 
draining the lymphatics of those parts which are not connected with the tho- 
racic duct. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
How is the Nervous System divided? Into the Cerebrospinal, or 
nervous system of animal life; and the Sympathetic, or nervous system of 
organic life. 
What is the Structure of the Nervous tissue ? It is formed of two 
substances essentially different from each other, the White or fibrous, and the 
Gray or vesicular matter. Chemically these contain phosphorized fat, albumen, 
and water. A third form, the Gelatinous, is yet a subject of disagreement 
among authorities. 
Describe the White Nerve-matter. It is composed of a number of tubes, 
each consisting of a central Axis-cylinder, surrounded by the White Substance 
of Schwann, and this again enclosed in the tubular membrane, or Nerve-sheath. 
The whole arrangement is precisely analogous to that of a submarine telegraphic 
cable. A bundle of such tubes is invested by a covering, the Neurilemma, or 
perineurium, and is called a Nerve, and is nourished by a minute capillary 
system of blood-vessels. 
How do Nerves terminate ? Sensory nerves end peripherally as plexuses 
in their end-organs in the tissues. Motor nerves end peripherally in muscles 
as plexuses, or plates. Their central termination is not yet understood. 
Of what does the Cerebro-spinal system consist? Of the brain, the 
spinal cord, the ganglia, and the cranial and spinal nerves. 
THE BRAIN 
What are the Membranes of the Brain ? The dura mater, the arach- 
noid, and the pia mater. 
Describe the Dura Mater. It is a dense fibrohs membrane lining the 
interior of the skull, and forming the internal periosteum of the cranial bones. 
It is continuous with the dura mater of the spinal cord, and is attached to 
many parts of the base of the skull. It presents the following for exami- 
nation :— 
Falx Cerebri, an arched process sent into the longitudinal fissure of the brain, 
contains in its upper and lower margins the superior and inferior longi- 
tudinal sinuses. Tentorium Cerebelli, a lamina of dura mater supporting the posterior lobes of 
the brain, and covering the upper surface of the cerebellum. It incloses 
the lateral and superior petrosal sinuses. 
Falx Cerebelli, projects between the lateral lobes of the cerebellum, from the 
tentorium to the foramen magnum. 
Pacchionian Bodies, clusters of white granulations situated on the outer 
and inner surfaces of the dura mater, in the superior longitudinal sinus, 
and on the pia mater, found only after the 7th year, and of unknown 
function. 
THE BRAIN. 
121 
Describe the Arachnoid. It is the serous sac which forms the middle 
membrane, having a visceral and a parietal layer, the latter being reflected 
over the interior surface of the dura mater. The Anterior Sub-arachnoid Space 
is the interval between it and the pia mater of the brain at the base, where it 
is extended across between the two middle lobes. The Posterior Sub-arachnoid 
Space is a similar interval between the hemispheres of the brain and the me- 
dulla oblongata. These spaces communicate together across the crura cere- 
bri ; and also with the general ventricular cavity, by an opening in the lower 
boundary of the 4th ventricle ; and contain the cerebro-spinal fluid which forms 
a water-bed for the nervous centres. The sac of the arachnoid also contains a 
serous fluid in small quantity. 
What is the Pia Mater ? It is the vascular membrane, being supplied by 
the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. It covers the sur- 
face of the brain, dipping down into all the sulci, and forms the velum inter- 
positum and choroid plexus of the 4th ventricle; and contains lymphatics and 
nerves. 
How is the Brain divided ? Into the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, 
and medulla oblongata. Its average weight in the male adult is 49y2 oz.,in 
the female 44 oz., of which the cerebrum is about seven-eighths. The ex- 
treme weights in 278 male cases were 65 oz. and 34 oz.,—in 191 female cases, 
56 oz. and 31 oz. 
Describe the principal Lobes and Fissures of the Cerebrum. Each lateral 
half of the cerebrum, or hemisphere, has the following 5 lobes and 8 fissures, 
besides many of less importance. 
Frontal Lobe, bounded internally by the longitudinal fissure, below by the 
fissure of Sylvius, and posteriorly by the fissure of Rolando. 
Parietal Lobe, extending down to the fissure of Sylvius, and antero-poste- 
riorly from the fissure of Rolando to the parieto-occipital. 
Occipital L.obe, behind the parieto-occipital fissure. 
Temporo-sphe?ioidal Lobe, lying in the middle fossa of the skull, and bounded 
in front by the fissure of Sylvius. 122 
Central Lobe, or Island of Reil, lies in the fissure of Sylvius, covered by the 
frontal and temporo-sphenoidal lobes. 
Longitudinal Fissure, separating the two hemispheres. 
Fissure of Sylvius, at the base of the brain, extending outwards on each 
side, and dividing into 2 branches, an ascending and a horizontal one. 
It lodges the middle cerebral artery. 
Fissure of Rolando, on the superior surface, extending from the longitudi- 
nal fissure about its centre, downwards and forwards towards the fissure 
of Sylvius, separating the frontal and parietal lobes. 
Parieto-occipital Fissure, extends from the longitudinal fissure outwards for 
about an inch between the parietal and occipital lobes. It is better 
marked in a longitudinal section of the brain. 
Calloso-marginal Fissure, above the gyrus fornicatus on the inner surface of 
the hemisphere. 
Transverse Fissure, between the middle lobe and the crus cerebri, at the 
base of the brain. It admits the pia mater to the lateral ventricle. 
Calcarine Fissure, also seen on the inner surface, extending from the lower 
end of the parieto-occipital fissure outwards to the posterior border of the 
occipital lobe. 
First Temporo-sphenoidal Fissure, below the fissure of Sylvius, on the lateral 
surface of the brain. 
ANATOMY. 
Name the principal Convolutions of the Cerebrum. The superior 
and inner surfaces of each hemisphere are formed of convolutions (gyri) with 
intervening furrows (sulci) of various depths, both gyri and sulci being formed 
of gray matter thus arranged to enable it to present a great extent of surface. 
The convolutions are not uniform in all brains as to arrangement, nor are they 
symmetrical in the two hemispheres. The most constant are the following;— 
Gyrus Fornicatus, the convolution over the corpus callosum, seen on the 
inner surface, arching from before backwards. 
Convolution of the Longitudinal Fissure, along the edge of that fissure on 
the superior surface, curving over the front and back of each hemisphere, 
to the base of the brain. 
Ascending Frontal, lies in front of the fissure of Rolando. 
Ascending Parietal, lies behind the fissure of Rolando. 
Angular Gyrus, or Pli Courbe, around the posterior end of the first temporo- 
sphenoidal fissure. 
Many other convolutions are named by writers on the localization of cere- 
bral functions, such as the temporo-sphenoidal, occipital, supra-marginal con- 
volutions, etc. Their names will be found sufficiently explanatory of their 
several locations. The Cuneus, Precuneus, and Paracentral Lobule are names THE BRAIN. 
123 
given to the regions between the calcarine, parieto-occipital, and calloso-marginal 
fissures, the last-named locality lying in front of the last-named fissure. 
Name the Points in view on the Inferior Surface of the Brain. From 
before backwards, excluding the cranial nerves, are the following:— 
Longitudinal Fissure, its anterior portion. 
Corpus Callosum, the great transverse commissure of the brain. 
Lamina Cinerea, a thin, gray layer, beneath the optic tracts. 
Fissure of Sylvius, between the anterior and temporo-sphenoidal lobes. 
Anterior Perforated Space, for vessels to the corpora striata. 
Optic Commissure, formed by the junction of the optic tracts. 
Tuber Cinereum, a gray lamina behind the optic commissure, forming part 
of the floor of the 3d ventricle. 
Infundibulum, a hollow process, connecting the pituitary cavity with the 3d 
ventricle in the foetus. 
Pituitary Body, a vascular bi-lobed body, of glandular structure, projects 
from the infundibulum into the sella turcica of the sphenoid. 
Corpora Albicantia, two round, white eminences, united together; they are 
the anterior crura of the fornix folded on themselves. 
Posterior Perforated Space (Pons Tarini'), for vessels to the optic thalami. 
Crura Cerebri, or cerebral peduncles, connect the cerebrum with the cere- 
bellum, spinal cord, and medulla oblongata; containing the fibres passing 
to the basal ganglia. They, with the optic tracts, form the boundaries of 
the Inter-peduncidar Space. 
Pons Varolii, to be described separately. [See page 127.] 
What Ganglia are comprised in the Brain ? Besides the gray matter of 
the cerebral hemispheres, of the cerebellum, and of the medulla oblongata, 
there are the following at the base of the brain:— 
Olfactory Bulbs. 
Corpora Striata. 
Optic Thalami. 
Tubercula Quadrigemina. 
Tuber Annulare. 
Describe the Basal Ganglia. They are as follows, viz.— 
Olfactory Btilbs are the ganglia of the sense of smell, lie one on each side of 
the median line, upon the cribriform plate of the ethmoid, and are connected 
with the hemispheres by the Olfactory Tracts. 
Corpora Striata, the motor ganglia, are situated in the floor of the lateral 
ventricles, and therefore within the hemispheres. Each corpus striatum 
has a— 
Caudate Nucleus,—the intraventricular part. 
Lenticular Nucleus,—the extraventricular part. 
Internal Capsule,—divides these two parts. 
Optic Thalami, the sensory ganglia, are in the floor of the lateral ventricles, 124 
ANATOMY. 
behind the corpora striata. Each thalamus opticus is divided into an anterioi 
tubercle seen in the lateral ventricle, and a posterior tubercle beneath the 
fornix. 
Corpora .Quadrigemina, or Optic Lobes (2 nates and 2 testes), lie beneath the 
posterior lobes, near the union of the cerebrum and cerebellum. They form 
two single ganglia for vision. [Described under Meso-cephalon.] 
Tuber Annulare, a ganglion in the substance of the pons Varolii, the seat of 
indistinct sensation probably. 
Name the Commissures of the Brain. These connecting bands number 19 
in all, of which 10 are longitudinal, and 9 transverse in direction, viz.— 
Longitudinal Commissures. 
Olfactory Tracts. 
Taenia Semicircularis. 
Crura Cerebri. 
Processes e Cerebello ad Testes. 
Peduncles of the Pineal Gland. 
Fornix. 
Infundibulum. 
Lamina Cinerea. 
Gyrus Fornicatus. 
Fasciculus Unciformis. 
Transverse Commissures. 
Anterior Commissure of 3d ventricle. 
Middle Commissure of 3d ventricle. 
Posterior Commissure of 3d ventricle. 
Corpus Callosum. 
Optic Commissure. 
Pons Varolii. 
Fornix, is a transverse commissure as 
well as a longitudinal one. 
Posterior Medullary Velum. 
Valve of Vieussens. 
What are the Ventricles of the Brain ? They are 5 cavities, each of which 
is situated as follows :— 
Two Lateral Ventricles, within the substance of the hemispheres. 
Third Ventricle, between the optic thalami, on the base of the brain. 
Fourth Ventricle, between the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. 
Fifth Ventricle, between the two lateral, in the septum lucidum. 
Ventricle of the Corpus Callosum, so called, is merely the space between the 
upper surface of that commissure and the margins of the hemispheres 
above (labia cerebri). 
The Foramina of Monroe connect the two lateral ventricles with the 3d; the 
Iter e Tertio ad Quartam Ventriculum, or aqueduct of Sylvius, connects the 
3d with the 4th. 
Describe and bound the Lateral Ventricles. They each have 3 Cornua, the 
anterior, middle, and posterior, and are bounded as follows:— 
Roof,—the corpus callosum. 
Floor,—the corpus striatum, taenia semicircularis or horny band of Tarinus, 
optic thalamus, choroid plexus, corpus fimbriatum, and the fornix. 
Internally,—the septum lucidum. 
Externally, behind and in front,—the brain substance. THE BRAIN. 
What are the parts above-named ? Some, as the corpus striatum, optic 
thalamus, etc., have been described already; the others are— 
Corpus Callosum, the great transverse commissure, arching backwards to 
become continuous with the fornix, reflected below, forming the Peduncles 
at the entrance of the fissure of Sylvius; and marked above by a depres- 
sion, the Raphl, and longitudinal elevations, the Strice Longitudinales or 
Nerves of Lancisi. 
Tcenia Semicircularis, consists of commissural fibres between the corpus 
striatum and the optic thalamus. 
Choroid Plextis of Veins, is the margin of a fold of pia mater which enters at 
the transverse fissure, passes up the descending cornu, passes through the 
foramen of Monroe, and as the Velum Interpositum spreads out over the 
roof of the 3d ventricle. 
Corpus Fimbriatum, or Tcenia Hippocampi, is a white band, the edge of the 
posterior pillar of the fornix. 
Fornix, is a commissure situated beneath the corpus callosum, but continuous 
with it posteriorly, the Septum Lucidum separating them in front. It is of 
triangular form with the apex in front. Its Anterior Crura curve down- 
wards to the base of the brain, are there reflected, forming the Corpora 
Albicantia, and end in the optic thalami, Its Posterior Crura pass down 
the descending horns of the lateral ventricles, as the Hippocampi Majores. 
The Lyra is a series of markings on its under surface. 
Septum Lucidum, consists of 2 layers of white and gray matter, lined by 
epithelium; is placed vertically between the lateral ventricles, from the 
raph6 of the corpus callosum above to the fornix below. The cavity in 
its centre is the 5th ventricle. 
Describe the Cornua of the Lateral Ventricles. The Anterior Cornu 
curves over the anterior end of the corpus striatum into the anterior lobe. 
The Posterior Cornu curves downwards and inwards in the occipital lobe, 
and contains a smooth eminence, the Hippocampus Minor. The Middle Cornu 
descends into the middle lobe to the transverse fissure at the base of the brain, 
curving backwards, outwards, downwards, forwards, and inwards (B. O. D. 
F. I.). On its floor are the following:— 
Hippocampus Major, the doubled-in surface of the gyrus fornicatus. 
Pes Hippocampi, rounded eminences at the end of the hippocampus. 
Pes Accessorius, or Eminentia Collateralis, between the hippocampi, at the 
junction of the middle and posterior cornua. 
Corpus Fimbriatum, a continuation of the posterior pillar of the fornix. 
Choroid Plexus of Veins, a process of pia mater, already described. 
Fascia Dentata, the gray serrated edge of the middle lobe. 
Transverse Fissure, at the extremity of the cornu, extending to the median 126 
ANATOMY. 
line, between the hippocampus major and the optic thalamus. It opens 
at the base of the brain between the middle lobe and the crus cerebri, 
and admits the pia mater to the middle cornu. 
Describe and bound the Third Ventricle. It is a mere fissure, situated 
between the optic thalami in the median line. It communicates with the 
lateral ventricles above by the foramina of Monroe, and with the 4th ventricle 
behind by the iter e tertio ad quartam ventriculum. It is crossed by 3 bands, 
the anterior, middle, and posterior commissures, the middle one being of gray 
matter, the others of white. In the foetus its cavity communicates with the 5th 
ventricle, and through the infundibulum with the cavity of the pituitary body. 
It is bounded as follows :— 
Roof,—the velum interpositum, and above it the fornix. 
Floor,—the parts comprised in the interpeduncular space at the base of the 
brain, viz.—the lamina cinerea, tuber cinereum, infundibulum, corpora 
albicantia, and posterior perforated space. 
Anteriorly,—the anterior crura of the fornix, and the anterior commissure 
of the ventricle. 
Posteriorly,—the posterior commissure, and the iter e tertio, etc. 
Laterally,— the optic thalami and the peduncles of the pineal gland. 
Describe and bound the Fourth Ventricle. The fourth, or ventricle of 
ihe cerebellum, lies between the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum. It is 
considered by some to be a dilatation of the central canal of the spinal cord, 
and is enclosed posteriorly by the pia mater; an opening in which admits the 
entrance and exit of the sub-arachnoid fluid from the sub-arachnoidean space of 
ihe brain and spinal cord, and a fold of the pia mater called the Choroid 
Plexus. It also communicates with the 3d ventricle by the iter e tertio, etc. 
Its boundaries are as follows:— 
Roof,—the valve of Vieussens, and the cerebellum. 
Anteriorly,—the medulla oblongata, and the pons Varolii. 
Posteriorly,—the cerebellum. 
Laterally,—the processus e cerebello ad testes, the posterior pyramids and 
the restiform Oodies of the medulla oblongata. 
Floor,—the posterior median fissure of the medulla, the orifice of the cen- 
tral canal of the cord, the locus ceruleus and taenia violacea (both of blue 
color), the fasculi teretes (2 spindle-shaped elevations) and eminences of 
origin of certain nerves. 
Describe the Fifth Ventricle. It is situated between the two layers of the 
septum lucidum, and therefore between the lateral ventricles. Its roof is formed 
by the corpus callosum, and in the foetus it communicates with the 3d ventricle 
by an opening between the pillars of the fornix. It usually contains fluid. THE BRAIN. 
127 
What is the Meso-cephalon ? It comprises the parts which connect the 
cerebrum with the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata, and includes the 
following structures, viz :— 
Pons Varolii, a great transverse commissure seen at the base of the brain 
in front of the medulla. Its fibres connect the hemispheres of the cere- 
bellum with each other and the medulla. 
Crura Cerebri, or Peduncles of the Cerebrum, extend from the/j5ons to the 
corpora striata and optic thalami, and consist of the Peduncular Fibres 
which pass from the medulla to the ganglia named, and thence upwards 
to the gray matter of the hemispheres as the Corona Kadiata. Each crus 
contains in its centre a mass of gray matter called the locus niger. 
Valve of Vieussens, is a thin lamina forming the roof of the iter e tertio ad 
quartam ventriculum, and stretched between the two processus e cerebello 
ad testes. Its Frenulum is a ridge descending on its upper part from the 
corpora quadrigemina. 
Corpora Quadrigemina, or Optic Lobes, are 4 spherical eminences placed 
together above the valve of Vieussens, and behind the 3d ventricle be- 
neath the posterior border of the corpus callosum. The anterior pair are 
called the Nates, the posterior, the Testes, and they are connected with the 
optic thalami and optic tracts by 4 bands, their Brachia; and with the 
cerebellum by a white cord on each side, the Processus e Cerebello ad Testes. 
They form two ganglia for the centre of vision. 
Pineal Gland, is a small conical reddish body situated between the nates, on 
which it rests. Its 4 peduncles connect it with the anterior crura of the 
fornix, and the optic thalami. It is very vascular, and has a small cavity 
(said to communicate with the 3d ventricle) which contains a viscid fluid, 
and some concretions formed of the phosphates of lime, magnesia, and 
ammonia, etc., called the Acervulus Cerebri. 
Describe the Medulla Oblongata. This ganglion is the upper enlarged 
part of the spinal cord, extending from the upper border of the atlas to the 
pons Varolii. Its posterior surface forms the floor of the 4th ventricle, its 
anterior surface rests on the basilar groove of the occipital bone. It is divided 
into two lateral halves by the Anterior arid Posterior Median Fissures, and con- 
tains gray matter scattered throughout it, from which the cranial nerves from 
the 5th to the 12th inclusive arise entirely or in part. In it are supposed to lit 
the centres for the vaso-motor and the cardiac nerves, also centres of respira- 
tion, phonation, deglutition, mastication, and expression. On each side it pre- 
sents the following,— 
Anterior Pyramid, formed by the anterior and lateral columns of the spinal 
cord. 128 
ANATOMY. 
Olivary Body, behind the pyramid, from which it is separated by the groove 
of the hypoglossal nerve. It contains a capsule of gray matter in its cen- 
tre, the Corpus Denlatum. 
Lateral Tract, continuous with the lateral column of the spinal cord, lies 
behind the olivary body and in front of the restiform. 
Restiform Body, the posterior lateral portion of the medulla, also called the 
Fasciculus Cuneatus. 
Posterior Pyramid, or Fasciculus Gracilis, the most posterior portion, is 
formed by the posterior median column of the spinal cord. It diverges 
from its fellow at the apex of the 4th ventricle and forms the lateral 
boundary of the Calamus Scriptorius. 
What is the Cerebellum ? It is that portion of the brain situated in the 
Inferior occipital fossae, beneath the posterior lobes of the cerebrum. It is an 
oblong flattened ganglion, divided into two lateral hemispheres, and a central 
portion, the Vermiform Process. 
Name the Fissures of the Cerebellum. They are 3 in number,—2 ver- 
tical and 1 horizontal, viz.— 
Lncisura Cerebelli Anterior. 
Lncisura Cerebelli Posterior. 
Great Horizontal Fissure, from which 
secondary fissures originate. 
Name the Points on the surfaces of the Cerebellum. They comprise 15 
lobes, 2 commissures, and 3 projections, as follows;— 
On the upper surface of each hemisphere,— 
Anterior or Square Lobe. Posterior or Semilunar Lobe. 
On the under surface of each hemisphere, from before backwards,— 
Flocculus, Sub-pedtmcular Lobe, or Pneumogastric Lobule. 
Amygdala Lobe, or Tonsil, projects into the 4th ventricle. 
Digastric Lobe. Slender Lobe. Posterior Lnferior Lobe. 
On the vermiform process are the— 
Lobulus Centralis. 
Monticulus Cerebelli. 
Commissura Simplex. 
Pyramid. 
Uvula. 
Commissura Brevis. . 
superiorly. 
inferiorly. 
The Vallecula, or valley of the cerebellum, is the central depression on its 
under surface between the two lateral hemispheres. 
Name the Peduncles of the Cerebellum, They are 3 in number on each 
side, and from below upwards are as follows:— 
Processus e Cerebello ad Medullam, to the medulla oblongata. 
Processus e Cerebello ad Pontem, connect the hemispheres. 
Processus e Cerebello ad 7'estes, to the cerebrum. 
Describe the Gray Matter of the Cerebellum. It occupies the surface of THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
129 
the mass in laminated shape, and is traversed by curved furrows, between the 
laminae. A vertical section gives an appearance called the Arbor Vita. 
Corpus Dentatum, is a capsule of gray matter in the centre of the white 
and is open anteriorly. It is sometimes called the ganglion of the cere- 
bellum. 
THE SPINAL CORD. 
Describe the Spinal Cord. It is that part of the cerebro-spinal axis which 
is situated in the spinal canal. Its length is about 16 inches, terminating at 
the lower border of the 1st lumbar vertebra in the Cauda Equina. It is cylin- 
drical in general form, with 2 enlargements, one in the cervical region, the 
other in the lumbar. It is composed of gray and white matter, the gray being 
inside (instead of outside, as in the cerebrum), and arranged so as to present 
a crescentic appearance in horizontal section, joined by a transverse commis- 
sure, and forming, by their extremities, the Anterior and Posterior Horns, from 
which regions respectively the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves 
have their apparent origin. 
Membranes of the cord are 3, as in the brain,—dura mater, arachnoid, 
and pia mater. The Dura Mater is not adherent to the spinal column, 
but is connected thereto by fibrous tissue. The Arachnoid is arranged as 
on the brain, its sub-arachnoid space being filled with its fluid, for the 
protection of the cord. The Pia Plater has a fibrous band on each side, 
the ligamentum denticulatum, connecting it to the dura mater by some 20 
serrations. 
Fissures, number 8,—the anterior and posterior median, the anterior and 
posterior lateral on each side, and the two posterior intermediary in the 
cervical region. 
Columns, are 8 in number, 4 on each side of the cord,—an anterior, lateral, 
posterior, and posterior median. The Anterior is continuous with the 
anterior pyramid of the medulla; the Lateral, with the lateral column of 
the medulla; the Posterior, with the restiform body; the Posterior-median, 
with the posterior pyramid. 
Central Canal, or Ventricle of the Cord, extends through its entire length in 
the foetus and in some adults, but is usually closed except for one-half inch 
below its orifice in the floor of the 4th ventricle. 
THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
Describe each Cranial Nerve, stating its function, apparent and deep 
origin, foramen of exit, principal branches and distribution. There are 
12 pairs of cranial nerves (9 according to Willis), of which those from the 6th 
to the 12th inclusive have their deep origi-n wholly or in part from the floor of 
the 4th ventricle. They are the— 130 
ANATOMY. 
ist, Olfactory, nerve of smell, 
a rises by 2 roots from the anterior 
cerebral lobe and I root from the 
middle lobe, deeply from the optic 
thalamus, island of Reil, corpus 
striatum, and anterior commis- 
sure ; exit by 20 branches through 
the cribriform plate, to the Schnei- 
derian membrane. Its bulb is a 
lobe of the cerebrum. 
2d, Optic, nerve of sight,—arises 
from the optic commissure2 and 
tracts, deeply from the optic thal- 
amus, corpora geniculata,and cor- 
pora quadrigemina; exit through 
the optic foramen to the retina. 
[This nerve and the Optic Tract are 
more fully described at the end of the 
volume, under the sub-title, Vessels 
and Nerves of the Eye.] 
3d, Motor Oculi,7 motor of the eye, 
■—arises from the crus cerebri, deeply from the floor of the iter e tertio ad quartam 
ventriculum; exit through the sphenoidal fissure, to all the muscles of the orbit 
except the superior oblique and 
the external rectus, also to the iris. 
4th, Patheticus,8 motor of the eye, 
—arises from the outer side of the 
crus, deeply from the valve of 
Vieussens; exit through the sphe- 
noidal fissure, to the superior ob- 
lique muscle of the eye. 
5th, Trigeminus,9 nerve of sensa- 
tion, motion, and taste,—arises by 
two roots,—from the side of the 
pons Varolii,5 deeply from the 
pyramidal body (motor root), 
lateral tract of the medulla, the 
pons, and cerebellum (sensory 
root). Exit of ophthalmic divb 
sion by the sphenoidal fissure; 
of superior maxillary by the fora- 
men rotundum ; of inferior max 
Fig. 61. 
Fig. 62. THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
131 
illary division and motor root, by the foramen ovale. The Gasserian gan- 
glion,5 is situated on the sensory root at the origin of its three divisions. 
Ophthalmic Division,6 goes to the forehead, eyelids, lachrymal gland, con- 
junctiva, iris, ciliary ganglion, and the nose. Its branches are— 
Frontal.9 Lachrymal.10 Nasal.n 
Superior Maxillary Division,7 goes to the temple, cheek, lower eyelid, 
nose, lip, upper teeth, and to Meckel’s ganglion, thence to the palate. Its 
branches are the— 
Orbital 20 
Spheno-palatine. 
Posterior Dental.16 
Anterior Dental,7 8 
Infraorbital.15 
' Palpebral. 
Nasal. 
k Labial. 
Inferior Maxillary Division,8 includes the motor branch, and is therefore 
a nerve of common sensation, motion, and special sense (taste). Its motor 
filaments go to the muscles of mastication; its sensory to the auditory meatus, 
to the otic and submaxillary ganglia, the anterior part of the tongue, the 
cheek, teeth, and the lingualis muscle (sensation). Its branches are the— 
Masseteric. 
Deep Temporal (2). 
Buccal. 
Pterygoid. 
Auriculo-temporal.26 
or Posterior Division, 
having 8 sub-branches. 
Gustatory .23 
' Mylo-hyoid.28 
Dental Brs. 
Incisor. 
. Mental.25 
Inferior Dental.24 
6th, Abducens,10 motor of the eye,—arises from the medulla oblongata, deeply 
from the floor of the 4th ventricle; exit by the sphenoidal fissure, to the ex- 
ternal rectus muscle of the eye. 
7th, Facial, or Portio Dura,11 motor of the face, ear, palate, and tongue,— 
arises from the groove between the olivary and restiform bodies of the 
medulla, deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle. Exit by internal audi- 
tory meatus, through the aqueductus Fallopii, and stylo-mastoid foramen, to 
the muscles of expression, the tongue, muscles of the ear and palate, etc. 
It communicates with the carotid and meningeal plexuses, the spheno-palatine 
(Meckel’s) and the otic ganglia, the auditory, great auricular, pneumogastric, 
glosso-pharyngeal, and 5th nerves. Its chief branches are the— 
Great Petrosal, to Meckel’s ganglion. 
Small Petrosal, to the otic ganglion. 
External Petrosal, to the meningeal plexus. 
Tympanic, to the muscles of the tympanum. 
Chorda Tympani, to the tongue, etc. 
Posterior Auricular, to auricle and occiput. 
Digastric. Stylo-hyoid. 
' Temporal. 
Malar. 
Temporo-facial. 
Buccal. 
Supra-maxil 
_ Infra-maxil. 
Cervicofacial. 
8th, Auditory, or Portio Mollis of the 7th,11 nerve of hearing,—arises 
just external to the facial, deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle; exit by 
the internal auditory meatus, to the internal ear. Its branches are two, the— 
Vestibular, to the vestibule. Cochlear, to the cochlea. 
[This nerve is fully describe*! at page 225, infra.] 132 
ANATOMY. 
9th, Glosso-pharyngeal,12 nerve of sensation and taste,—arises from the me- 
dulla oblongata behind the olivary body, deeply from the floor of the 4th 
ventricle; exit by the jugular foramen, to the back of the tongue (taste), the 
middle ear, the tonsils, and pharynx. Branches are— 
Tympanic (Jacobson’s). 
Carotid. 
Pharyngeal. 
Muscular. 
Tonsillar. 
Lingual. 
10th, Pneumogastric, or Par Vagum,12 the auriculo-laryngo-pharyngo-oesoph- 
ago-tracheo-pulmono-cardio-gastro-hepatic nerve. A nerve of sensation and 
motion, probably receiving its motor influence from its spinal accessory. It 
arises from the medulla behind the olivary body and below the 9th nerve, 
deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle; exit by the jugular foramen, to the 
parts indicated by the above euphonious appellation, supplying sensation to the 
external ear and larynx, motion to the other parts. Its branches are the— 
Auricular (Arnold’s). 
Pharyngeal. 
Superior Laryngeal. 
Recurrent Laryngeal. 
Cervical and Lhoracic Cardiac. 
Ant. and Post. Pulmonary. 
tEsophageal. 
Gastric. 
Hepatic. 
nth, Spinal Accessory12 (to the pneumogastric),—motor nerve,—arises by a 
double origin (i) from the lateral tract of the medulla, deeply from near the 
floor of the 4th ventricle; (2) from the lateral tract of the cord by several 
filaments, as low as the 6th cervical nerve, deeply from the anterior gray 
horn of the cord. Exit by jugular foramen, its spinal portion having first 
entered by the foramen magnum, to the sterno-cleido-mastoid and trapezius 
muscles, communicating with the pharyngeal and laryngeal nerves by its 
accessory portion in the same sheath with the pneumogastric; also with the 
2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th cervical nerves by its spinal portion. Its branches are 
indicated by the above-described distribution. 
12th, Hypo-glossal,13 (Nonus or 9th of Willis), motor of the tongue,—arises 
by 10 to 15 filaments from the groove between the pyramidal and olivary 
bodies of the medulla oblongata, deeply from the floor of the 4th ventricle; 
exit by the anterior condyloid foramen, to the thyro- and genio-hyoid, the 
stylo-,hyo-, and genio-hyo-glossus muscles; and by the descendens nonibranch 
to the sterno-hyoid, sterno-thyroid, and omo-hyoid muscles. It communi- 
cates with the pneumogastric, sympathetic, 1st and 2d cervical, and gustatory 
nerves. Its branches of distribution are the— 
Descendens Noni. Muscular. Thvro-hyoid. 
What Nerves enter the Cranium before passing out of it ? The spinal 
portion of the Spinal Accessory, and the Nasal branch of the Ophthalmic. 
The first enters by the foramen magnum, and then leaves by the jugular fora- 
men. The second enters from the orbit by the anterior ethmoidal foramen, 
and leaves by the nasal slit at the side of the crista galli. THE SPINAL NERVES. 
133 
THE SPINAL NERVES. 
Describe the Spinal Nerves. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, of which 
the cervical number 8, the dorsal 12, the lumbar 5, the sacral 5, and the coc- 
cygeal 1. The 1st cervical escapes above the 1st vertebra, each of the others 
below the corresponding vertebra through the intervertebral foramina. Each 
nerve arises by 2 roots, an anterior motor root, and a posterior sensory one, 
the latter having a ganglion on it. These unite, and the nerve then divides into 
2 branches, both having motor and sensory fibres. The posterior branches are 
small and generally unimportant; they supply the muscles and integument of 
the back. The anterior branches supply the neck, front, and sides of the 
trunk, and the extremities, uniting in various regions to form plexuses from 
which important nerve-trunks originate. 
How is the Cervical Plexus formed and distributed ? It is formed 
by the anterior branches of the first 4 cervical nerves, and rests on the levator 
anguli scapulae and scalenus medius muscles. Its branches (10) comprise 4 
superficial to the integument of the head and neck, and the following deep 
branches, viz.— 
Phrenic. Communicans Noni. 2 Muscular. 2 Communicating. 
Describe the Phrenic Nerve. It arises by 3 heads from the 3d, 4th, and 
5th cervical, descends across the front of the scalenus anticus, crossing the sub- 
clavian and internal mammary arteries in the middle mediastinum, and is dis- 
tributed to the inferior surface of the diaphragm. It is often called the Inter- 
nal Respiratory Nerve of Bell. It sends filaments to the pericardium and 
and communicates with the plexuses of the sympathetic in the abdo- 
men. 
Describe the formation and distribution of the Brachial Plexus. It 
is formed by the union of the 4 lower cervical nerves and the 1st dorsal. The 
5th, 6th, and 7th unite into one trunk externally to the scalenus medius, as also 
do the 8th cervical and 1st dorsal behind the same muscle. Below the line of 
the clavicle both these trunks bifurcate ; the two adjacent branches unite be- 
hind the axillary artery making the Posterior Cord, and the remaining 2 form 
the Outer and Inner Cords, referred to the artery. Each of these cords bifur- 
cates, but the 2 adjacent branches of the outer and inner cords unite over the 
artery, to form the Median Nerve, leaving 4 other branches, the Ulnar, Mus- 
culo-cutaneous, Musculospinal, and Circumflex Nerves, the last 2 being de- 
rived from the posterior cord. 
The branches of the brachial plexus are as follows, viz.— 
Above the clavicle are given off 4, the— 
Communicating, completing the phrenic nerve. 
Muscular, to the longus colli, scaleni, rhomboidei, and subclavius muscles. 134 
ANATOMY, 
Posterior, or Long Thoracic, external respiratory nerve of Bell, to the ser»n- 
tus tnagnus, arising from the 5th and 6th cervical. 
Suprascapular, from the 1st trunk of the plexus, to the scapular muscles. 
Below the clavicle are 12, the,— 
2 Anterior Thoracic, from outer and inner cords to the pectoral muscles. 
j Subscapular, from the posterior cord, to the subscapularis, teres major, 
and latissimus dorsi muscles. 
Circumflex, from the posterior cord, to the muscles and integument of the 
shoulder, and the shoulder-joint. 
Musculo-cutaneous, from the outer cord, to the forearm externally, piercing 
the coraco-brachialis muscle. 
Internal Cutaneous, from the inner cord, to the arm and forearm. 
Lesser Internal Cutaneous (nerve of Wrisberg), from the inner cord to the 
inner side of the arm. Is sometimes wanting, sometimes connected with 
the intercosto-humeral. 
Median, from outer and inner cords, passes between the two heads of the pro- 
nator radii teres, supplying the pronators, flexors, first 2 lumbricales, and 
the integument of the thumb, fingers, and the radial side of the palm. 
Its branches are all in the palm, the— 
Muscular. Anterior Interosseus. Palmar Cutaneous. 
Ulnar, from the inner cord, passes between the two heads of the flexor carpi 
ulnaris at the inner condyle of the humerus, supplying the elbow- and 
wrist-joints, several muscles, and the palmar and dorsal integument of the 
little finger and half of the ring finger. Branches are the— 
2 Articular. 
Muscular. 
Cutaneous. 
Dorsal. 
Superficial Palmar. 
Deep Palmar. 
Musculo-spiral, from the posterior cord, accompanies the superior profunda 
artery and vein in the spiral groove of the humerus, and at the external 
condyle it divides into the radial and posterior interosseus nerves. Its 
branches are— 
Muscular. Cutaneous. Radial. Posterior Interosseous. 
The Radial supplies the outer side and ball of the thumb, and the dorsal 
integument of fingers. 
The Posterior Interosseus supplies all the muscles on the back of the fore- 
arm except 3, and also sends a filament to the wrist-joint. 
What is the Intercosto-humeral Nerve? It is the lateral cutaneous branch 
of the 2d intercostal (anterior branch of the 2d dorsal) ; it pierces the external 
intercostal muscle and crosses the axilla, joining with a filament from the lesser 
internal cutaneous (nerve of Wrisberg), and supplying the skin of the upper 
half of the inside of the arm. THE SPINAL NERVES. 
135 
Describe the Lumbar Plexus. It is formed by communicating loops from 
the anterior branches of the first 4 lumbar nerves, in the following manner. 
From the First lumbar nerve are given off the— 
Ilio-hypogastric, to the abdominal and gluteal regions. 
Ilio-inguinal, to the inguinal region and the scrotum. 
Communicating Loop, to the second lumbar nerve. 
Fiom the Second lumbar nerve are given off the— 
External Cutaneous, to the integument of the outside 
of the thigh. 
Genito-crural, to the spermatic cord and front of the 
thigh. 
Communicating Branch, to the third lumbar nerve. 
From the Third and Fourth lumbar nerves are given 
off the following by a branch of origin from each, 
vii.— 
Obturator, through the obturator foramen to the ex- 
ternal obturator and adductor muscles and the hip- 
and knee-joints. 
Accessory Obturator (often absent), to the pectineus 
and hip-joint. 
Communicating, from the 3d lumbar to the 4th. 
Communicating, from the 4th lumbar to the 5th. 
Anterior Crural, which descends through the psoas 
muscle, and beneath Poupart’s ligament to the 
thigh, where it divides into an anterior and pos- 
terior division. Its branches are,— 
Fig. 63. 
To the Iliacus muscle. 
To the Femoral artery. 
Middle and Internal Cutaneous. 
Long Saphenous. 
Muscular. 
Articular. 
Describe the Sacral It is formed by the 
anion of the upper 4 sacral with the 5th lum- 
bar and a loop from the 4th, the two latter forming the 
Lumbosacral Cord.a It lies upon the pyriformis muscle 
and gives off the following 5 branches, viz.— 
Superior Glutealp from the lumbo-sacral cord, sup- 
plies the glutei and tensor vaginae femoris. 
Muscular Branches, to the pyriformis, obturator internus, gemelli, and quad- 
ratic femoris muscles. 
Pttdicp escapes by the great sacro-sciatic foramen, crosses the ischiatit 136 
ANATOMY. 
spine, and re-enters the pelvis by the lesser sacro-sciatic foramen, supply 
ing the perineum, anus, and genitalia. 
Small Sciatic,/ to the gluteus maximus, and integument of the perineum, 
scrotum, and back of the thigh and leg. 
Great Sciatic,g the largest nerve of the body, and the direct continuation 
of the sacral plexus, escapes by the great sacro-sciatic foramen, sends an 
Articular Branch to the hip-joint, Muscular branches to the adductor 
magnus, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and biceps muscles, and ter- 
minates in the Externalh and Internali Popliteal nerves, generally about 
the lower one-third of the thigh. 
Describe the External Popliteal Nerve. It passes from the bifurcation of 
the great sciatic along the outer side of the popliteal space, gives off Articular 
and Cutaneous branches, and about an inch below the head of the fibula it 
divides into the— 
Anterior Tibial,«* supplying the extensors, and the integument of the adja- 
cent sides of the great and 2d toes. 
Musculo-cutaneous,n by 2 branches (internal and external) to the peroneal 
muscles, the integument of the ankles, and the dorsal integument and 
sides of all the toes, except the outer side of the little toe and the ad- 
joining sides of the great and 2d toes. 
Describe the Internal Popliteal Nerve. It is the largest of the two, and 
descends along the middle of the back of the leg, becoming the Posterior 
Tibialk at the lower border of the popliteus muscle, and dividing into the 
External and Internal Plantarl below the inner malleolus. Its branches are 
as follows:— 
Articular, 3 in number, to the knee-joint. 
Muscular, to the gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, and popliteus. 
External or Short Saphenous,P formed by a filament from both popliteal 
nerves, supplies the integument of the little toe and outer side of the foot. 
Muscular, to the tibialis posticus, flexor longus pollicis, and flexor longus 
digitorum. 
Plantar Cutaneous, to the skin of the heel and inner sole of the foot. 
Internal Plantar, to the inner plantar muscles, sole of the foot, and the 
plantar integument of the inner toes. 
External Plantar, to the external plantar muscles, and the plantar integu- 
ment of the outer toes. 
What is the Sympathetic Nerve? It consists of a series of ganglia situated 
on each side of the vertebral column, connected together and to the cerebro 
THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
137 
spinal system by intervening cords, beginning in the ganglion of Ribes on the 
anterior communicating artery, and ending in the ganglion impar, in front of 
the coccyx. 
Name the Ganglia of the Sympathetic in the Cranium and its vicinity, 
They are 9 in number, as follows: — 
Ganglion of Ribes, on the anterior communicating artery. 
Ganglion of Laumonier, on the internal carotid artery. 
Ciliary, or Ophthalmic Ganglion, in the orbital cavity. 
Spheno-palatine (Meckel's) Ganglion, in the spheno-maxillary fossa. 
Otic (Arnold’s) Ganglion, under the foramen ovale. 
Submaxillary Ganglion, above the submaxillary gland. 
Ganglion of Cloquet, in the incisive fossa, on the naso-palatine nerve. 
Ganglion of Bidder, below the foramen spinosum, on the middle meningeal 
artery. 
Ganglion of Bochdalek, on a branch between the spheno-palatine ganglion 
and the anterior dental nerve at their junction. 
Describe the Ganglia connected with the 5th Cranial Nerve. There 
are 4 such, each having a motor, a sensory, and a sympathetic root, viz.— 
Ciliary, or Ophthalmic Ganglion, is situated in the orbit, between the optic 
nerve and the external rectus muscle. Its sensory root is derived from the 
nasal branch of the ophthalmic, its motor root from the 3d nerve, its 
sympathetic root from the cavernous plexus. Its branches are the short 
ciliary nerves, and are distributed to the ciliary muscle and the iris. 
Spheno-palatine, or Meckel's Ganglion, is a large ganglion situated in the 
spheno-maxillary fossa. Its sensory root is derived from the superior 
maxillary, its motor root from the facial by the Vidian and large petrosal, 
its sympathetic root from the carotid plexus, by the carotid branch of the 
Vidian. Its branches are the— 
Ascending. 
Anterior Palatine. 
Posterior Palatine. 
Middle Palatine. 
Superior Nasal. 
Naso-palatine. 
Pharyngeal, or 
Pterygo-palatine. 
Otic Ganglion {Arnold's), is situated on the inferior maxillary nerve, imme 
diately below the foramen ovale. Its sensory root is derived from the 
auriculo-temporal branch of the inferior maxillary; its motor root from 
the internal pterygoid branch of the same, also from' the facial and glosso- 
pharyngeal by the small petrosal; its sympathetic root from the middle 
meningeal plexus. Its branches are distributed to the tensor palati and 
tensor tympani muscles. 
Submaxillary Ganglion, is situated above the submaxillary gland. Its sen- 
sory root is derived from the gustatory branch of the inferior maxillary, 138 
ANATOMY. 
its motor root from the facial by the chorda tympani, its sympathetic root from 
the facial plexus. Its branches are distributed to the submaxillary gland, its 
duct, and the mucous membrane of the mouth. 
What Nerves appear on removing the Gasserian Ganglion ? The 
three Petrosal branches of the 7th nerve (see page 131), lying on the petrous 
portion of the temporal bone, and communicating with the sympathetic system 
as follows, viz., the— 
Large Superficial Petrosal,3 (Great Petrosal),—a branch of the 7th nerve, 
from its geniculate ganglion,2 (intu- 
mescentia gangliformis), which passes 
through the hiatus Fallopii, and 
thence through the foramen lacerum 
medium to the Vidian canal, where 
it joins the large deep petrosal 
from the carotid plexus, to form 
the Vidian nerve, as which it goes 
to Meckel’s ganglion (page 137), 
forming its motor root. 
Small Superficial Petrosal,4 (Small Pe- 
trosal), immediately external to the 
preceding, going from the geniculate 
ganglion of the 7th to the otic gan- 
glion, and lying directly over the tensor 
tympani muscle. 
External Superficial Petrosal,5 (External Petrosal),—going from the 7th to 
the sympathetic plexus on the middle meningeal artery.6 
Fig. 64. 
Describe the Cervical Ganglia. They are 3 in number on each side, of 
which the superior is the largest, communicate with each other, and are as fol- 
lows, viz.— 
Superior Cervical Ganglion, lies behind the carotid sheath opposite the 2d 
and 3d cervical vertebrae. Its branches are distributed to the carotid, 
cavernous, and pharyngeal plexuses, and one of its internal branches is 
the superior cardiac nerve going to the cardiac plexus. 
Middle Cervical Ganglion, on the superior thyroid artery, opposite the 5th 
cervical vertebra,’and gives off the middle cardiac nerve to the cardiac 
plexus, also communicating branches. 
Inferior Cervical Ganglion, on the superior intercostal artery, between the 
neck of the 1st rib and the transverse process of the 7th cervical vertebra. 
It gives off several communicating branches and the inferior cardiac nerve 
to the cardiac plexus. THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
139 
What are the other Ganglia of the Sympathetic ? There are 
on each side of the vertebral column 11 or 12 dorsal ganglia, 4 or 5 
lumbar, 5 sacral, besides the single coccygeal Ganglion Impar in which 
terminates the double chain. Connected with the viscera are many ganglia, 
from which branches ramify around the arteries in plexuses named from 
their locations. 
Describe the Splanchnic Nerves. They are 3 in number on each side, 
and are derived from branches of the 6 lower thoracic ganglia, as follows, 
viz.— 
Great Splanchnic, from branches of the 6th to the 10th, connecting with the 
upper six, passes through the posterior mediastinum, perforates the crus 
of the diaphragm, to the semilunar ganglion. 
Lesser Splanchnic, from the loth and 1 ith, passes through the diaphragm 
with the great splanchnic, to the coeliac plexus. 
Smaller or Renal Splanchnic, from the last thoracic ganglion, also perforates 
the diaphragm, and ends in the renal and coeliac plexuses. 
Describe the Solar Plexus. This plexus, called also the “ abdominal 
brain,” is a network of nerves and ganglia, chiefly formed by the splanchnic 
nerves and the right pneumogastric. It lies behind the stomach, and in front 
of the aorta and the crura of the diaphragm, surrounding the coeliac axis and 
the root of the superior mesenteric artery. Its two largest ganglia are the 
Semilunar Ganglia situated in front of the crura of the diaphragm. From it 
are derived branches which form Plexuses over most of the abdominal arteries, 
as follows :— 
Phrenic. 
Cccliac. 
Gastric. 
Hepatic. 
Splenic. 
Suprarenal. 
Renal. 
Spermatic. 
Superior Mesenteric. 
Inferior Mesenteric. 
Describe the Carotid and Cavernous Plexuses. They are two plexuses 
of the sympathetic, situated on the internal carotid artery, the Carotid lying on 
the outer side of the artery, as it lies by the side of the body of the sphenoid 
bone; and the Cavernous being on the inner side of the artery, below its last 
bend, in the upper portion of the cavernous sinus. The— 
Carotid Plexus,—is connected by numerous filaments with the 6th nerve 
and the Gasserian ganglion, and furnishes the Large Deep Petrosal to 
unite with the large superficial petrosal of the facial, to form the Vidian 
nerve ; also the Small Deep Petrosal, to join the tympanic plexus prob- 
ably. 
Cavernous Plexus,—communicates with the 3d and 4th nerves and the 
ophthalmic division of the 5th, and gives a branch to the Ciliary ganglion 
in the orbit. 140 
ANATOMY. 
Mention some other Plexuses of the Sympathetic system. They 
are very numerous; besides those already mentioned, the most important are 
the following:— 
Tympanic Plexus,—described under Nerves of the Tympanum. 
Meningeal Plexus, on the middle meningeal artery. 
Facial Plexus, surrounding the facial artery. 
Cardiac Plexuses, the deep in front of the bifurcation of the trachea, the 
superficial in front of the right pulmonary artery; the first named lies 
behind the arch of the aorta, the latter beneath it. 
Coronary Plexuses, anterior and posterior, accompanying respectively the 
left and right coronary arteries. 
Aortic Plexus, on the sides and front of the aorta between the superior and 
inferior mesenteric arteries. 
Hypogastric Plexus, on and between the common iliac arteries; supplying 
the viscera of the pelvic cavity. 
Inferior Hypogastric or Pelvic Plexuses, two in number, one on each side 
of the rectum and bladder. Their branches are the— 
Inferior Hemorrhoidal Plexus. 
Vesical and Prostatic Plexuses. 
Vaginal Plexus. 
Small Cavernous Nerve. 
Large Cavernous Nerve. 
Uterine Nerve. 
What is the Vidian Nerve ? It has generally been described as a branch 
of the spheno-palatine (Meckel’s) ganglion (see p. 137), running backwards 
through the Vidian canal, and dividing into a Petrosal Branch to the Facial 
nerve, and a Carotid Branch to the carotid plexus of the Sympathetic. Tt is 
now, however, more correctly described as a short nerve of communication, 
between the Facial and the Sympathetic on the one hand, and the Spheno- 
palatine Ganglion on the other, supplying that ganglion with its motor and 
vaso motor roots. It is formed by the junction of the— 
Large Superficial Petrosal, Br. of the Facial (p. 138), with the— 
Large Deep Petrosal, Br. of the Carotid Tlexus (p. 140], which occurs in 
the cartilage filling in the foramen lacerum medium (p. 35). It then enters 
the Vidian Canal (p. 20), in the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, pass- 
ing through which to finally jo'n the posterior part of the spheno-palatine gan 
glion (p. 137). Some filaments, the— 
Upper Posterior ATasal Branches,—are apparently given off from the Vidian 
in the canal, to the septum and roof of the no e; but they are really 
branches from the ganglion, bound up in the same sheath with the Vidian 
nerve. VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
What is a Viscus ? Viscus, gen. visceris, pi. viscera, is a term which is 
applied to any internal organ of the body. The Viscera are the organs con- 
tained in the three great cavities—cranium, thorax and abdomen—with their 
appendages. Of these the Heart and Brain have been described, with the 
circulatory and nervous systems respectively. [See pp. 99, 120; also the 
Com pend of Physiology in this series.] 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 
What is the Alimentary Canal ? A musculo-membranous tube, from 25 
to 30 feet in length, extending from the mouth to the anus, lined throughout 
with mucous membrane, furnished with several accessory organs, and perform 
ing the functions of ingestion, digestion, and egestion. 
Name its Subdivisions. They are the Mouth, Pharynx, CEsophagus, 
Stomach, Small Intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) and Large Intestine 
(caecum, colon and rectum). The first three lie above the diaphragm, the rest 
below it. 
Name the Accessory Organs of Digestion. They are—the Teeth, 
Salivary glands (parotid, sub-maxillary, sub-lingual), Liver, Pancreas and 
Spleen. 
THE TEETH. 
What are the Teeth ? They are 32 organs of digestion (20 being tempo- 
rary, or milk teeth), situated one-half in each jaw, imbedded in the alveolar 
processes, and partly surrounded by the Gums, which are composed of fibrous 
tissue and covered with mucous membrane. In each half of each jaw there 
are— 
Temporary Teeth (5)—2 Incisors, 1 Canine, 2 Milk-molars. 
Permanent Teeth (8)—2 Incisors, I Canine, 2 Bicuspids, 3 Molars. 
What are their General Characteristics ? Each tooth presents a— 
Crown, or Body,—the part seen projecting above the gum. 
Neck,—the constricted portion between the crown and the fang. 
Fang, or Root,—imbedded in the alveolus ; and surrounded by the periodental 
membrane or periosteum lining the alveolus. 142 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Pulp-cavity,—in the interior, opening at the apex of the fang for the entrance 
of vessels and nerves. 
State the Characteristics of each class of Teeth. 
Incisors, or Cutters.—Crown chisel-shaped, beveled posteriorly. Fang single, 
long, thickest antero-posteriorly. 
Canines, or Tearers,—Crown thick and conical. Fang longest and thickest 
of all the teeth, forming a projection on the alveolar arch. The 2 upper 
canines are the “ eye-teeth.” 
Bicuspids,—Crown has 2 cusps. Fang single but grooved deeply, showing a 
marked tendency to bifurcate. 
Molars, or Grinders,—Crown large, low and 
cuboid in shape, has 4 cusps on upper molars, 
5 on the lower ones. Fangs multiple, usually 
3 on the first two upper molars, 2 on the first 
two lower ones; the third molar of either jaw, 
having but one fang, is called the “ wisdom 
tooth,” and is the smallest of the three. 
The 2d or jd Te7nporary Molar is larger than the 
first. 
Describe the Structure of a Tooth. Each 
consists of— 
Dentine or Ivory,1—composed of tubules sur- 
rounded by the inter-tubular tissue or Matrix, 
and opening into the pulp cavity. It resembles 
compact bone in appearance and in composi- 
tion, consisting of 28 parts Animal matter and 
72 Earthy matter. The Tubules are delicate 
wavy canals, diameter about of an inch, 
which branch outwardly and anastomose with 
each other, forming concentric shadings or 
Sckreyer's Lines. 
Enamel,3—covers the crown ; consists of very 
dense tissue, which contains but 3 x/2 per cent, of 
animal matter. It is covered by a very delicate 
epithelial cuticle, Nasmyth's Membrane, which 
when intact withstands the action of acids. 
Crusta Petrosa or Cementp—the enamel of the fang; is a layer of true 
bony tissue, containing lacunae, canaliculi, and Haversian canals. 
Pulp,—fills the pulp-cavity and is prolonged into the dental tubules; is soft, 
vascular, and sensitive; and consists of connective and fibrous tissue, 
Fig. 65. THE TEETH. 
143 
nucleated cells, blood-vessels and nerves. The cells are caudate and 
anastomose with each other, those situated superficially being termed 
Odontoblasts. 
What Arteries and Nerves supply the Teeth ? The Arteries are 
derived from the inferior dental, and from the alveolar and infraorbital 
branches of the internal maxillary. The Nerves are derived from the inferior 
dental branch of the inferior maxillary division of the 5th, and also from the 
anterior and posterior dental branches of the superior maxillary division of 
the same nerve. 
When do the Temporary Teeth appear ? Their eruption begins 
about the 7th month after birth, with the central incisors, and ends with the 
appearance of the second molars, about the age of two years. The lower 
teeth slightly antedate the upper. Their formula is as follows : — 
Mo. 
Mo. 
Ca. 
In. 
In. 
In. 
In. 
Ca. 
Mo. 
Mo. 
Upper... i 
I 
I 
I 
1 
1 
1 
I 
I 
I sss 10') 
— V =2C 
Lower... i 
I 
I 
I 
1 
1 
1 
I 
I 
I = 10J 
24 
12 
18 
9 
7 
7 
9 
18 
12 
24 months. 
When do the Permanent Teeth appear ? The first molars appear 
about the end of the 6th year, followed by the incisors about the 7th or 
8th year, the bicuspids from the 9th to the 10th year, the canines about the 
1 ith or 12th year, the second molars from the 12th to the 13th year, and the 
third molars from the 17th to the 25th year. Those of the lower jaw are 
slightly in advance of the corresponding upper ones. Their formula is as 
follows:— 
Wis. Mo.Mo. Bi. 
Bi. Ca. In. 
In. In In. Ca. Bi. 
Bi. Mo. Mo.Wis. 
j Upper. 
I I I I 
Ill 
I I I I I 
i i i i — i61 
r32' 
i i i i = 16) 
io 6 12 18 years. 
(Lower. 
I I I I 
18 12 6 io 
III 
9 ii 8 
I I I I I 
7 7 8 ii 9 
What is the greatest Number of Teeth at one time in the jaws, and 
when ? Forty-eight, namely, all the temporary and permanent teeth except 
the third molars,—occurring between the 5th and 7th years of age. 
Describe the Development of the Teeth. They arise from the mucous 
membrane covering the maxillary arches, in which, about the 6th foetal week, 
appears a depression, the Primitive Dental Groove, from the floor of which 
arise papillae of mucous membrane to form the pulp of the milk-teeth. 
In the Follicular Stage, membranous septa form across the groove, and its 
margins become thick and prominent. 
The Saccular Stage extends from the 13th week to the 16th, and is marked 
first by the projection of the papillae from the follicles, next by the growth of 
the follicular margins, the formation of processes or Opercula thereon, which 
meet and close in the papillae; and finally by the closing in of the dental 144 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
groove by the union of its margins. A Cavity of Reserve for each tooth is 
then formed by the closure of the secondary dental groove, from the floor of 
which another papilla arises to form the germ of the permanent tooth. 
The dental pulps now take the forms of teeth, a thin lamina of dentine 
appears and increases from without inward, the enamel organ and membrane 
are formed, and when calcification has advanced sufficiently, the pressure of 
the teeth Causes the absorption of the gum above them, the septa ossify and 
the eruption of the teeth occurs. The Cement is formed from the periodental 
membrane, at a later period of life. 
THE MOUTH. 
Describe the Mouth. It is an oval cavity formed by the lips, cheeks, 
jaws, palate and tongue, forming the superior portion of the alimentary canal, 
and opening posteriorly into the pharynx by the fauces. It presents the teeth 
(already described), the tongue (to be described), and also the— 
Hard Palate, formed by the palate processes of the superior maxillary and 
palate bones, and covered with mucous membrane; forms the roof of the 
mouth. 
Soft Palate, formed by 5 muscles on each side, viz., the levator palati, tensor 
palati, palato-glossus, palato-pharyngeus, and the azygos uvulae; —the 
latter forming with its fellow the Uvula, a descending muscular projection. 
Anterior Pillars of the Fauces,—arch downwards and forwards to the base of 
the tongue, and contain the palato-glossi muscles. 
Posterior Pillars of the Fauces,—arch downwards and backwards to the sides 
of the pharynx, and contain the palato-pharyngei muscles. 
Isthmus Faucium,—the space bounded by the pillars, the free border of the 
palate, and the base of the tongue. 
Tonsils,—are small, elongated, glandular bodies, situate done on each side of 
the fauces, between the anterior and posterior pillars. Each has 12 or 15 
openings on its surface leading to 
follicular depressions within the 
gland, and lies close to the inter- 
nal carotid artery. 
Openings of Steno's Ducts,—from 
the parotid glands, are situated 
internally one on each cheek, 
opposite the 2d upper molar tooth. 
Openings of Wharton's Ducts,— 
from the sub-maxillary glands, 
one at each side of the frenum of 
the tongue. 
Fig. 66. THE TONGUE. 
145 
Openings of the Ducts of Rivinus,—8 to 18 on each side from the sublingual 
glands, near the frenum of the tongue. The longest is the Dtict op 
Bartholine, which opens into the duct of Wharton. 
Where are the Salivary Glands ? The Parotid Gland1 lies below and 
in front of the external ear,—the Sub maxillary* and Sub-lingual5 Glands 
lie in the corresponding fossae on the inner surface of the inferior maxillary 
bone. [See Fig. 66.] 
Describe the Tongue. The tongue consists of extrinsic and intrinsic 
muscles, a hyo glossal membrane and a mucous membrane, a median fibrous 
septum, vessels and nerves. Its Base is attached to the hyoid bone, the epi- 
glottis, the soft palate and the pharynx. Its Under Surface is attached to the 
hyoid bone and the inferior maxillary. Its mucous membrane is reflected 
over the floor of the mouth to the inner surface of the gums, forming in front 
a fold, the Frenurn Lingua. 
The Tongue presents— 
Filiform Papilla, along its sides, closely packed in rows. 
Fungiform Papilla,2 scattered over the anterior two-thirds of its dorsum. 
Circumvallate Papillap 7 1° 12 in number, in two rows, iorming a V at 
the base of the tongue, meeting at the Foramen Lacutn, which contains 
the central papilla. 
Follicular Glands, posteriorly to the circum- 
vallate papillae. 
Racemose Glands, over the dorsum, sides, and 
under surface. Beneath the tip they form 
two small oblong masses. 
Extrinsic Muscles, are the stylo-, hyo-, genio- 
hyo-, and palato-glossus muscles. [See pp. 
73. 74-] 
Intrinsic Muscles, are the several fibres of the 
lingualis muscle,—superior, inferior, trans- 
verse and perpendicular. 
Name the Arteries of the Tongue. They 
are the— 
Lingual, branch of the external carotid,—with its 
branches, the— 
Dorsalis linguae. Sub-lingual. Ranine. 
Sub-mental, branch of the facial,—anastomoses 
with the sub-lingual. 
Ascending Pharyngeal, branch of the external carotid,—sends some small 
branches to the pharynx and tongue. 
Fig. 67. 146 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
What Nerves are distributed to the Tongue ? The— 
Gustatory Branch of the gth,—to the mucous membrane of the sides and 
anterior two-thirds of the tongue, endowing it with general sensibility. 
Chorda Tympani Branch of the yth,—joins the gustatory, and is distributed 
to the same region, being the nerve of taste for the anterior two-thirds of the 
tongue. 
Lingual Bratiches of the qth or Glosso-pharyngeal,—to the mucous membrane 
of the base and sides of the tongue, being the nerve of taste for its poste- 
rior third. 
Hypoglossal, or 12th,—to the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue, 
being its nerve of motion. 
Superior Laryngeal Branch of the 10th or Pneumogastric,—sends a few 
fibres to the base of the tongue from its internal branch. 
What special Anatomical Features are presented by the Mouth ? 
They are as follows, viz.—the— 
Hamular Process of the Sphenoid Bone,—may be felt behind the last upper 
molar tooth ; also the Internal Pterygoid Plate, and part of the Pterygoid 
Fossa. 
Coronoid Process,— of the lower jaw, its anterior border. 
Posterior Palatine Artery,—at inner side of the last upper molar tooth, and 
in front of the hamular process. 
Gustatory Nerve,—very near the last lower molar tooth. 
Pterygo-maxillary Ligament,—felt as a fold posteriorly to the last lower 
molar tooth. 
THE PHARYNX. 
Describe the Pharynx. It is a conical, musculo-membranous bag, about 
4inches long, hung base up from the basilar process of the occipital bone, 
and extending to the lower border of the cricoid cartilage posteriorly, or the 
5th cervical vertebra, where it becomes continuous with the oesophagus.5 It 
forms the part of the alimentary canal which lies behind the mouth, being 
incomplete in front. 
What are its Relations ? It is connected with— 
Posteriorly,— the longus colli and recti capitis antici muscles, and by loose 
areolar tissue to the first 5 cervical vertebrae. 
Laterally,— the styloid processes and their muscles, the pterygoid muscles, the 
internal carotid arteries, the internal jugular vein, the 8th, 9th, and the 
sympathetic nerves. 
Near its Apex,—the lobes of the thyroid gland, the common carotid and 
lingual arteries, the sterno hyoid muscle, and the lingual nerves. THE CESOPHAGUS, 
147 
What are its Anterior Attachments ? 
The internal pterygoid plate, pterygo maxillary 
ligament, lower jaw, base of the tongue, cor- 
nua of the hyoid bone, stylo-hyoid ligament, 
thyroid and cricoid cartilages of the larynx. 
Fig. 68. 
Name the Openings into the Pharynx. 
They are 7, viz.— 
2 Posterior Nares, 
2 Eustachian Tubes. 
Mouth. 
Larynx. 
(Esophagus. 
Describe its Structure. The pharynx is 
composed of 3 coats,—a mucous, a muscular 
and a fibrous, the latter lying between the 
otht r two, and sometimes called the Pharyn- 
geal Aponeurosis. The mucous coat is covered 
with ciliated columnar epithelium above the 
level of the floor of the nares —below that 
level by squamous epithelium; and contains 
simple follicular glands, also compound folli- 
cular and racemose glands, the latter being 
most numerous in the upper part, between the 
two Eustachian tubes. 
Name its Muscles, Arteries and Nerves. 
Its— 
Muscles, 5, —are the Superior, Middle and 
Inferior Constrictors, Stylo-pharyngeus, and 
Palato Pharyngeus. [See pages 73, 74.] 
Arteries number 4, as follows,— 
Superior Thyroid Branches. 
Ascending Pharyngeal. 
Branches of 
Ext. Carotid. 
Pterygo-palatine. 
Descending Palatine. 
Branches of the Internal Maxillary. 
Nerves,—Branches of the Pharyngeal Plexus, which is formed by the 
pharyngeal branches of the pneumogastric, glosso-pharyngeal, superior 
laryngeal, and superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic. 
Describe the CEsophagus. It is a musculo-membranous tube, about c. 
inches long, extending from the 5th cervical vertebra and the lower border of 
the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, through the oesophageal opening in the 
THE CESOPHAGUS. 148 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
diaphragm to the cardiac orifice of the stomach, opposite the 9th dorsal 
vertebra, where it terminates. It lies in the neck, between the trachea and 
the vertebral column, resting in part on the longus colli muscle; then 
inclining to the left side it reaches the posterior mediastinum behind the left 
bronchus. 
Describe its Structure. The CEsophagus has three coats, a— 
Mucous,—in thick longitudinal folds, containing compound racemose glands, 
and covered with a thick layer of squamous epithelium. 
Cellular,—forms a loose connection between the other two coats, and con- 
tains the oesophageal vessels. 
Muscular,—having longitudinal fibres externally, circular fibres internally, 
which are continuous with the fibres of the stomach below, and with those 
of the inferior constrictor muscle above. 
Name its Vessels and Nerves. The CEsophageal— 
Arteries, are chiefly branches from the thoracic aorta. 
Veins, empty into the vena azygos minor. 
Nerves, are branches of the pneumogastric and the cervical sympathetic, form- 
ing the CEsophageal Plexus. 
THE STOMACH. 
Describe the Stomach. It is the principal organ of digestion, pyriform 
in shape, of musculo-membranous structure, about 12 inches long by 4 inches 
in average diameter, held in position by the lesser omentum, and situated 
diagonally across the upper abdomen, in the epigastric and right and left hypo- 
chondriac regions, above the transverse colon, below the liver and diaphragm. 
It presents for examination a— 
Fundus or Splenic End, c—connected to the spleen by the gastro-splenic 
omentum. (See under Peritoneum.) 
Pylorus or Lesser End,—lies 
in contact with the anterior 
wall of the abdomen, the 
under surface of the liver, 
and the neck of the gall- 
bladder, i s position being 
near the end of the carti- 
lage of the 8th rib. 
Greater Curvature,d —is con- 
vex, and is connected to the 
colon by the gastro-colic 
omentum. (See under Peri- 
toneum.) 
Fig. 69. THE STOMACH. 
149 
Lesser Curvature, * —is concave, and connected to the liver by the gastro- 
hepatic omentum, and to the diaphragm by the gastro phrenic ligament. 
(Esophageal Orifice, t>—is situated between the fundus and the lesser curva- 
ture. It is funnel-shaped, and the highest part of the organ. 
Pyloric Orifice, k—opens into the duodenum, land is guarded by the circu- 
lar muscular fibres of the pylorus, which are aggregated into a circular 
ring, projecting into the cavity, and with its covering fold of mucous 
membrane, forming the Pyloric Valve. 
Describe its Structure. The Stomach has 3 coats, a— 
Mucous Coat, g—lined with columnar non-ciliated epithelium, covered with 
polygonal Alveoli, of an inch in diameter, containing the orifices of the 
Gastric Follicles. When the stomach is contracted the mucous membrane lies 
in longitudinal folds or Ruga, h one of which aids in forming the valve at 
the pyloric orifice. 
Cellular or Sub-mucous Coat,—contains the gastric vessels. 
Muscular coat,/— consists of longitudinal, circular, and oblique fibres. The 
Longitudinal are continuous with those of the oesophagus and small intes- 
tine, and are the most superficial. The Circular lie deeper, and over the 
whole organ; they form a sphincter valve around the pyloric orifice. (See 
above.) The Oblique 
Fibres lie deepest, 
forming two sets around 
the oesophageal open- 
ing, in continuation ol 
the circular fibres of 
the oesophagus. 
The Serous Invest- 
ment of the stomach is 
derived from the perito- 
neum, and covers the 
whole external surface, 
excepting the points 
where the gastro-splenic, 
greater and lesser omenta 
are attached. It is usu- 
ally, but incorrectly, described as a fourth coat of the stomach. 
Describe the Gastric Glands. They are of 3 kinds, the— 
Peptic Follicles,—situated all over the stomach, but most numerous towards 
the splenic end,— are tubules lined with columnar epithelium in their upper 
one-fourth, and filled with nucleated cells in their deepest parts. 
Fig. 70. 150 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Simple Solitary Glands are found scattered along the lesser curvature, and 
near the pyloric end. 
Name the Vessels and Nerves of the Stomach. Its Arteries are the 
Gastric’1, arising from the Coeliac Axis. 
Pyloric'3, 
Right Gastro-epiploic11, 
Branches of the Hepatic Artery. 8 
Left Gastro-epiploic1 7, 
Vasa Brevia16, 
Branches of the Splenic Artery.14 
Veins, terminate in the splenic and portal veins. 
Nerves, are terminal branches of the right and left pneumogastrics, and branches 
of the semilunar ganglia of the sympathetic, forming the Gastric Plexus. 
THE SMALL INTESTINE. 
Describe the Small Intestine. It is a convoluted, tubular, digestive 
organ, about 20 feet in length, held to the spinal column by the mesenteric 
portion of the peritoneum, and divided into 3 parts, the— 
Duodenum,—about 12 fingers (10 inches) long, ascends for 2)4 inches to 
the under surface of the liver and the 
neck of the gall-bladder,—descends 
for 3)4 inches in front of the right 
kidney,—and passes transversely for 4 
inches to the left, across the spinal 
column, to the left side of the second 
lumbar vertebra, where the superior 
mesenteric artery crosses its junction 
with the jejunum. The duodenum 
has no mesentery, is partially covered 
with peritoneum, and surrounds the 
head of the pancreas. Into its descending portion open the ductus 
communis and the pancreatic duct. 
tejunum,—about two-fifths of the rest of the small intestine, its coils lying 
around the umbilical region. It is named from the fact that it is tsually 
found empty (jejunus) after death. 
Ileum,—comprises the remainder of the small intestine,; is named from its 
twisted course, lying below the umbilicus, and terminating in the right 
iliac fossa, at the ileo-caecal valve, or valve of Bauhin. 
What Coats has the Small Intestine ? Three, a mucous, a sub-mucous 
or cellular, and a muscular coat. Its peritoneal investment is sometimes de- 
scribed as a fourth coat, but incorrectly. The— 
Fig. 71. THE LARGE INTESTINE. 
151 
Mucous Membrane,—is covered with columnar non-ciliated epithelium, and 
thrown into crescentic transverse folds, the Valvulce Conniventes, or valves 
of Kirkring. It also presents numerous vascular projections or Villi, each 
formed of basement membrane, epithelium, a lacteal vessel, a capillary 
plexus, granular corpuscles, and longitudinal muscular fibres, and number- 
ing about four millions in the whole length of the intestine. 
Cellular Coat,—contains the vessels of the intestine, and connects the other 
two coats together. 
Muscular Coat, consists of external longitudinal and internal circular 
fibres, the former being thinly distributed along the bowel, the latter form- 
ing a thick layer, but not making Complete rings. 
Describe the Glands of the Small Intestine. The mucous membrane 
of the small intestine contains— 
Crypts of Lieberkiihn, or Simple Follicles,—are minute tubular depressions, 
found all over the intestine and also in the stomach. 
Brunner s Glands, are small conglomerate glands, found only in the duo- 
denum and the first part of the jejunum, being most numerous near the 
jyiorus. In structure they resemble the pancreas. 
Solitary Glands— are lymphoid organs, situated throughout the intestine, 
hough most numerous at the lower portion of the ileum. They are agmi- 
lated into some 20 or 30 oval patches, named— 
1‘eyer's Patches,— on the surface opposite to the nesenteric attachmc its, 
some of which are as much as 4 inches in length. They are most numer- 
ous and largest in the ileum, and are most developed during digestion. 
THE LARGE INTESTINE. 
Describe the Large Intestine. It is about five feet long, of large calibre, 
sacculated, consists of the same coats as the small intestine, the mucous being 
smooth, and without villi, the muscular having its longitudinal fibres collected 
into 3 narrow bands, producing a pouching of the tube. It presents the fol- 
lowing parts and points, viz.— 
Cecum, or Caput Cieciim Coli,c—a dilated blind pouch behind the entrance 
of the small intestine.** It is the beginning of the large intestine, lies in 
the right iliac fossa, and is two-thirds covered by peritoneum. 
Appendix Vermiformis, 6—a blind prolongation about 3 to 6 inches long, 
narrow and worm-like, directed backwards and upwards from the lower 
part of the caecum, being retained by a fold of the peritoneum. 
Ileo-cacal Valve, or Valve of Bauhin,—guards the entrance of the small 
intestine, being formed by two crescentic folds of the mucous and cellular 
coats and circular muscular fibres, each covered with villi on the side 
toward the ileum, but smooth on the csecal side. 152 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Ascending Colon,—extends upwards to the under surface of the liver, where 
it forms the Hepatic Flexure of the Colon. 
Transverse Colon, d- crosses the abdominal cavity just below the liver, gall- 
bladder, stomach and spleen, to th« 
left hypochondrium, where it ter- 
minates in the Splenic Flexure oj 
the Colon. 
Descending Colon, e—passes down- 
wards in front of the left kidney to 
the left iliac fossa, where it forms 
the— 
Sigmoid Flexure of the Colon,/— 
curved like an f, first upwards, then 
downwards; extending from the 
crest of the left ileum to the left 
sacro-iliac synchondrosis. 
Rectum, a—from the last-named point 
to the anus; is 6 to 8 inches long, 
not sacculated, and, though not 
straight, is straighter than the rest 
of the gut. It curves laterally to 
the middle of the sacrum, and back- 
wards about an inch above its ter- 
mination at the Anus, i where it is 
distended into a pouch. This lower inch has no peritoneal investment. 
Appendices Epiploicce,—are small pouches of peritoneum containing fat, and 
found along the colon and part of the rectum. They are due to the incom- 
pleteness of the investment of the gut by peritoneum. 
Sphincters of the Rectum are 3,—the sphincter ani, internal sphincter and 
sphincter tertius of Hyrtl. (See ante, pp. 83, 84.) 
Folds of Houston,— three semilunar transverse folds, one in the upper part of 
the rectum on the right side, another about the middle on the left side, and 
the third in front, opposite the base of the bladder. 
Fig. 72. 
What Glands are found in the Large Intestine ? The Follicles of 
Lieberkiihn are more numerous here than elsewhere, also a few Solitary 
Glands and Peyer's Patches in its upper portion. The glands of Brunner 
are absent, the villi and valvulse conniventes are almost wanting. 
State the Principal Relations of each of the three parts of the 
Rectum. They are as follows, viz.— 
Upper Part (4 inches),—lies on the left pyriformis muscle and the left THE LIVER. 
153 
sacral plexus; and to its left lie the left ureter and branches of the left 
internal iliac artery. 
Middle Part (3 inches), in the male subject lies just behind the trigonum 
vesicae and the vesicuke seminales, and close below the under surface of 
the prostate gland. In the female it is adherent to the central portion of 
the posterior wall of the vagina. 
Lower Part (1 inch),—is surrounded by the 3 sphincters and the levator 
am muscle, and is separated by the perineum from the membranous por- 
tion and bulb of the urethra in the male, from the vagina in the female. 
THE LIVER. 
Describe the Liver. It is the largest gland in the body, weighing from 
3 to 4 pounds, measuring transversely about 12 inches, antero posteriorly 6 
inches, in greatest thickness 3 inches. It is situated in the right hypochon- 
drtac, epigastric and part of the left hypochondriac regions; has 5 fissures 5 
lobes, 5 ligaments, and 5 sets of vessels, and is invested by peritoneum, except 
for a small space at the attachment of the coronary ligament. It is also sur- 
rounded by a fibrous coat which is continuous at the transverse fissure with the 
capsule of Glisson. Its— 
Upper Surface— is convex, in relation with the under surface of the dia- 
phragm and 6 or 7 lower ribs, and is divided into two lobes by the sus- 
pensory or broad ligament. 
Under Surface (I lg. 73), is concave, covers the stomach, duodenum, hepatic 
flexure of colon, 
right kidney and 
supra renal capsule, 
and is divided into 
5 lobes by 5 fissures. 
Anlerior Border, c — 
sharp and notched 
opposite the fundus 
of the gall-bladder 
and the round and 
falciform ligaments. 
It corresponds to the 
lower border of the 
ribs and costal carti- 
lages, descending a little lower during deep inspiration and in the upright 
posture. 
Bosterwr Border,d-r°unded, and deeply grooved (sometimes channeled) 
Fig. 73. 154 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the 5 Ligaments of the Liver. Four are folds of peritoneum; 
one, the round ligament, is the obliterated umbilical vein and ductus venosus 
of the foetus. The— 
Suspensory or Falciform Ligament, j—called also the Broad and the Lon- 
gitudinal Ligament,—is a sickle-shaped double fold reflected over the 
round ligament, and is attached to the sheath of the right rectus muscle 
as low as the umbilicus, and to the diaphragm. 
Coronary LAgament,ff—is_a double fold, containing firm areolar tissue in 
its interspace, and extending from the posterior border of the liver to the 
diaphragm. 
Lateral Ligaments, 2,—are the triangular extremities of the coronary 
ligament. 
Round Ligament,i-—ascends in the free margin of the suspensory ligament 
from the umbilicus to the longitudinal fissure, in which it is continued to 
the vena cava. 
Describe the 5 Hepatic Fissures. They are all situated on its under 
surface, and separate the 5 lobes, one from another. They are the— 
Longitudinal Fissure,h—its anterior two-thirds, in front of the transverse 
fissure, is called the Umbilical Fissure, from containing the umbilical 
vein ; its posterior one-third is the Fissure of the Ductus Venosus, lodg- 
ing the slender cord which represents that foetal vessel. 
Transverse Fissure,o—about 2 inches long, running from the longi- 
tudinal towards the right; and transmit the portal vein, hepatic artery, 
bile-duct, lymphatics and nerves, surrounded by the Capsule of Glisson. 
Fissure of the Gall bladder,v—on the right of the longitudinal fissure, and 
nearly parallel with it, extending from the anterior border, backwards to 
near the right end of the transverse fissure. 
Fissure for the Vena Cava,—extends inwards from the posterior border, 
where it joins the fissure for the ductus venosus; and gives exit to the 
hepatic veins which here join the vena cava. This fissure is occasionally 
a complete foramen. 
Describe the 5 Hepatic Lobes. Three are mere lobules, formed from 
he right lobe by the smaller fissures. The— 
Right Lobe,a—is much the largest, and presents the three small fissures 
and two depressions, one anteriorly for the colon, the other posteriorly 
for the kidney. 
Left Lobep—is divided from the right by the longitudinal fissure, and rests 
upon the stomach. 
Lobulus Qiiadratus,*— in front of the transverse fissure, and between the 
umbilical fissure and that for the gall bladder. 155 
Lobulus Spigelii,y—behind the transverse fissure, and between the fissure 
for the ductus venosus and that for the vena cava. 
Lobulus Caudatusp—a connecting ridge from the lobulus Spigelii to the 
right lobe; it separates the transverse fissure from the fissure for the vena 
cava, and forms the roof of the foramen of Winslow. 
THE LIVER. 
Describe the 5 Hepatic Vessels. They are the — portal vein/ hepatic 
artery,? hepatic duct,./ and lymphatics, situated in the transverse fissure, and 
surrounded by the capsule of Glisson,—also the hepatic veins in the fissure 
fcr the vena cava. The— 
Portal Vein,*—formed by the superior and inferior mesenteric, splenic 
and gastric veins (all the main veins of the abdomen except the renal), 
is about 4 inches long. It enters the transverse fissure of the liver, where 
it divides into two branches, and these again divide and subdivide to 
ramify throughout the gland. Its branches are the 
Right Portal. 
Left Portal. 
Vaginal Branches. 
Inter-lobular Veins.1 
Lobular Veins.3 
Intra-lobular Veins.4 
Lobular Plexus. 
(Fig- 74-) 
Hepatic Veins,—are the continuations of the intra-lobular, beginning as the 
Sub-lobular Veins beneath 
each lobule, and entering the 
inferior vena cava in the fis- 
sure for that vessel. 
Hepatic Artery,'1—the nutrient 
vessel of the liver; arises 
from the cceliac axis, enters 
the transverse fissure, and di- 
vides into branches which 
supply the cellular tissue, the 
walls of the vessels, and the 
investing membranes of the 
liver, also forming a plexus in 
each lobule which anasto- 
moses with the terminal 
branches of the portal vein. 
Hepatic Duct,—about I yz inch 
long; is formed in the trans- 
verse fissure by the union ol 
the two main biliary ducts, from the right and left lobes. It joins tin 
cystic duct from the gall-bladder to form the Ductus Communis Choiedo 
chus. (See next page.) 
Fig. 74. 156 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Lymphatics,—accompany the blood vessels in two sets, a superficial set and 
a deep one. 
What Nerves supply the Liver? Branches of the Hepatic Plexus, 
which is formed by branches derived from the left pneumogastric, right phrenic 
and solar plexus. 
Describe the Structure of the Liver. The substance of the liver is 
composed of numerous 
Lobules,1 of polygonal 
shape, and about -fo of 
an inch in diameter, clus- 
tered around the sub- 
lobular branches of the 
hepatic veins, and con- 
nected together by con- 
nective tissue,3 blood 
vessels, ducts,2 and lym- 
phatics. Each lobule 
consists of— 
Hepatic Cells, — each 
about the of ar. 
inch in diameter, 
having a nucleus and 
nucleolus, yellow coloring matter, glycogen granules, and oil globules. 
Fig. 75 
Lobular Veins,3—forming a plexus in the lobule. 
Intra-lobular Vein,4—in the centre of each lobule. 
(See Figs. 74, 75.) 
Plexuses,—of lymphatics, nerves, and bile-ducts. 
What is the Capsule of Glisson ? The areolar tissue which surrounds 
the hepatic vessels in the transverse fissure, and accompanies them in their 
course throughout the substance of the liver. It is continuous with the fibrous 
covering of the organ. 
How may the Portal Veins be distinguished from the Hepatic, on 
section of the Liver ? The portal veins remain closed, being surrounded 
by the capsule of Glisson. The hepatic veins gape open, being adherent to 
the liver substance. 
Describe the Gall-bladder. It is a pear-shaped bag, 3 to 4 inches 
long, an inch in greatest diameter, holding from 8 to 12 fluid drachms, 
invested by peritoneum on its under surface and fundus, formed of a fibro- 
muscular coat and lined by a mucous one, lying in a fissure on the under 
surface of the liver, dose to its anterior border, and directed obliquely down- 
wards, forwards, and to the right. Its— THE PANCREAS. 
157 
Fundus,—touches the abdominal wall immediately below the 9th costal 
cartilage, and is completely invested by peritoneum. 
Neck,—coils twice upon itself, and empties into the Cystic Duct, which is 
about an inch long, and joins with the Hepatic Duct to form the Ductus 
Communis Cholddochus. 
What is the Ductus Communis Choledochus ? A fibro-muscular tube, 
covered by peritoneum and lined with mucous membrane, about 3 inches in 
length, formed by the junction of the Cystic and Hepatic ducts, and emptying 
its contents (bile) into the descending part of the duodenum at a point about 
3 inches from the pyloric orifice of the stomach, generally in common with 
the duct of the pancreas. The three ducts above-named are often called the 
Biliary Ducts. 
THE PANCREAS 
Describe the Pancreas. Ihe Pancreas is a racemose gland, about 7 
inches long, of a grayish-white color, situated behind the stomach and in front 
of the first lumbar vertebra. Its structure resembles that of the salivary 
glands, being composed of reddish-yellow lobules, united by cellular tissue, 
vessels and ducts, and ending in closed pouches surrounded by a capillary 
plexus. The— 
Pancreatic Duct, or Duct of Wirsung, 5—extends the whole length of the 
gland, and opens into the 
duodenum about 3 inches 
below the pylorus, by an 
orifice common to it and 
the ductus communis chol6- 
dochus. 
Head, or Right Extremity, 1 
is surrounded by the curve of the duodenum, the ductus communis chole- 
dochus and the pancreatico-duodenal arteries. 
Tail, or Left Extremity,4—lies above the left kidney and in contact with 
the lower end of the spleen. 
Body 3 — is in relation anteriorly with the ascending layer of the transverse 
meso colon, the posterior wall of the stomach and the transverse colon; 
posteriorly with the aorta, portal vein, inferior vena cava, splenic vein, 
origin of the superior mesenteric artery, crura of the diaphragm, left kid- 
ney and supra-renal capsule, and the left quadratus lumborum muscle. 
Arteries, are the— 
Pancreatica Magna, and Pancreaticse Parvae, from the splenic. 
Pancreatico-duodenalis,—branch of the hepatic artery. 
Inferior Pancreatico-duodenalis,—branch of the sup. mesenteric. 
Fig. 76. 158 
Veins,—open into the splenic and mesenteric veins. 
Nerves,—from the solar plexus, forming a Splenic Plexus. 
What is the Lesser Pancreas ? A lobe of the head of the pancreas; 
sometimes detached therefrom, in which case it opens by a duct into the 
duodenum about an inch above the orifice of the pancreatic duct. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
THE DUCTLESS GLANDS. 
Name the so-called Ductless Glands. They are the Spleen, Supra- 
renal Capsules, Thyroid and Thymus Glands. The first two are in the abdo- 
minal cavity, the thyroid gland is in the front of the trachea, and the thymus 
gland is in the anterior mediastinum of the thorax. These organs have no 
excretory ducts, and their functions are unknown. 
Describe the Spleen. The spleen is a soft, spongy and very vascular 
organ, about 5 by 3 by 2 inches, from 6 to 10 ounces in weight, and situated 
deeply in the left hypochondrium, embracing the cardiac end of the stomach, 
to which it is connected by the gastro-splenic omentum. Its— 
Outer Surface,— is convex, corresponds to the 9th, 10th and nth ribs, 
and is in relation with the inferior surface of the 
diaphragm. 
Inner Surface,—is concave, and embraces the cardiac 
or splenic end of the stomach. 
Borders,—the anterior is thin and often notched; the 
posterior is thick and lies on the left kidney. 
Suspensory Ligament,—attaches the upper extremity to 
the diaphragm, and is a fold of peritoneum. 
Ililum,—a vertical fissure about the middle of the con- 
cave surface. It is pierced by the vessels, lymphatics 
and nerves. 
Peritoneal, or Serous Coat,—covers the whole organ, except at the attach- 
ments of the suspensory ligaments and the gastro-splenic omentum. 
Fibro-elastic Coat, or Tunica Propria,—is reflected at the hilum upon the 
vessels, and gives off numerous bands (trabecula), which bound the 
lacunar spaces (areolce) of the organ. 
Malpighian Corpuscles,—are lymphoid sphenoidal expansions of the 
outer coat of the small arteries, and average in diameter about the fa 
of an inch. They are attached to the arterioles of the organ in groups 
of 6 or 8, and are usually pierced by an artery. Their reticulum is slender 
and open, densely filled with lymphoid corpuscles, and well supplied 
with capillaries. They have no capsule. 
THE SPLEEN. 
Fig. 77. THE THYROID GLAND. 
159 
Splenic Substance or Pulp,—a soft, pulpy, brown-red mass, surrounding the 
Malpighian corpuscles, and contained in the areolae. It consists of a 
delicate net-work of connective-tissue corpuscles, containing pigment- 
granules (disintegrated blood-corpuscles), granular albuminous matter, 
nucleated and non-nucleated cells, and free nuclei, also red blood- 
corpuscles in every stage of metamorphosis. These are denominated 
the colored and colorless elements. 
Splenic Artery,—is large and tortuous, and divides at the hilum into 5 or 6 
branches, each supplying a segment of the organ, and terminating either 
directly in the venous radicles, or in the lacunar spaces. 
Splenic Vein,—arises by radicles partly from the capillaries, partly from the 
lacunar spaces, and empties into the portal vein. 
Nerves,—are derived from the semi-lunar ganglion of the solar plexus and 
the right pneumogastric, forming the Splenic Plexus. 
THE THYROID GLAND. 
Describe the Thyroid Gland. It is a bi-lobed organ, about 3 inches in 
length, situated on the sides of the upper 2 or 3 rings of the trachea, and con- 
sisting of minute closed vesicles containing a yellow-colored fluid, surrounded by 
a dense plexus of capillaries, and connected together by areolar tissue. Its— 
Isthmus,—connects the lower third of each lobe together, passing in front 
of the trachea. It is occasionally absent. 
Pyramid,—is a third lobe, which sometimes arises from the left lobe, or 
from the left upper border of the isthmus. 
Levator Glandules Thyroidece,—are muscular bands occasionally found 
extending from the body of the hyoid bone to the isthmus of the gland or 
its pyramid. 
Name the Arteries of the Thyroid Gland. They are very large, anas- 
tomose freely, and are the— 
Superior Thyroid,—branch of the external carotid, arising therefrom below 
the greater cornu of the hyoid bone, and giving off the following branches, 
viz.— 
Muscular. 
Glandular. 
Hyoid. 
Superficial Descending. 
Superior Laryngeal. 
Crico-thyroid. 
Middle Thyroid, Artery of Neubaner, or Arteria Thyroidea Ima,—is 
occasionally found arising from the innominate artery or directly from 
the arch of the aorta, passing upwards along the front of the trachea. 
Inferior Thyroid, branch of the thyroid axis, gives off— 
Laryngeal Branch. 
Tracheal Branches. 
(Esophageal Branches. 
Ascending Cervical. 160 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Enumerate the Veins and Nerves of the Thyroid Gland. The 
Veins form a plexus in front of the gland and the trachea, giving rise to the— 
Superior Thyroid Vein, i . , , T , . 
. } open into the Internal Tugular Vein. 
Middle Thyroid Vein. j 1 J & 
Inferior Thyroid Vein, opens into the Innominate Vein. 
JVerves—are branches of the pneumogastric, and of the middle and 
inferior ganglia of the sympathetic. 
THE THYMUS GLAND. 
What is the Thymus Gland ? It is a temporary organ, attaining its 
full size about the age of 2 years, then being about 2 inches long, 1 )/2 inch 
broad, 3 lines thick, and weighing about half an ounce. It subsequently 
atrophies, and has almost disappeared at puberty. It is situated in the anterior 
mediastinum and the neck, behind the sternum and the sterno-hyoid and 
sterno-thyroid muscles, extending from the level of the 4th costal cartilage to 
the lower border of the thyroid gland. In the mediastinum it rests upon the 
pericardium, and is separated by the thoracic fascia from the arch of the aorta 
and the great vessels. 
Describe its Structure. The Thymus gland consists of two lateral lobes 
(sometimes a third), together forming a pyramidal mass. It is surrounded by 
a fibrous capsule and is divided by Trabeculce into primary and secondary 
lobules, which consist of meshes of delicate retiform tissue closely packed 
with lymph-corpuscles, and pervaded with capillaries. The so-called Central 
Cavity and Primitive Linear Tube, are deceptive appearances of the multi- 
plying cells in the interior of the gland. 
Name its Vessels and Nerves. The Thymus— 
Arteries,—are derived from the internal mammary, superior and inferior 
thyroid, subclavian and carotid. They ramify on the surface of each lobule, 
having smaller twigs converging toward the centre. 
Veins,—open into the left innominate and the thyroid. 
Lymphatics,—consist of intralobular and interlobular plexuses, and open into 
the anterior mediastinal glands. 
Nerves,—are very minute and derived from the pneumogastric and the sym 
pathetic. 
What are the Supra-Renal Capsules ? They are two small, crescentic, 
shaped bodies, situated one on each kidney. Each presents a small fissure or 
Hilum anteriorly, from which its vein emerges, and consists of a— 
Fibrous Capsule,—which is very thin, closely adherent, and sends numerous 
septa inwards. 
THE SUPRA-RENAL CAPSULES. THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. 
161 
Cortical Substance,—composed of columnar and rounded cells, held together 
in layers by a fibrous stroma. 
Medullary Substance,—is darker than the cortical portion, and pulpy. 
Consists of cells in groups, supported by a delicate stroma, and believed 
by some anatomists to be prolonged into nerve fibres. 
What are their Relations ? Their bases rest on the upper front parts of 
the kidneys, their posterior surfaces on the crura of the diaphragm, about the 
level of the ioth dorsal vertebra. The— 
Anterior Surface,—of the right capsule is covered by the liver; that of the 
left one by the spleen and pancreas. 
Superior Surface,—of each is in relation internally with the great splanchnic 
nerve and semilunar ganglion. 
Name their Vessels and Nerves. The Lymphatics of these bodies 
open into the lumbar glands, but are very imperfectly known. Their— 
Arteries,—are the Supra-renal Branches of the aorta, renal, and inferior 
phrenic arteries, forming a dense capillary plexus in the cortical portion 
of the organ. 
Veins,—of each open into a single trunk, the Supra-renal Vein, which on 
the right side of the body empties into the inferior vena cava, on the left 
side into the left renal vein. 
Nerves,—are chiefly derived from the solar and renal plexuses, with some 
filaments from the phrenic and pneumogastric nerves, forming a compli- 
cated network in the medullary substance of the organ, and having 
numerous small ganglia developed upon them. 
THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY 
What is the Abdomen ? An oval cavity, situated between the thorax 
above and the pelvis below, invested by peritoneum internally, and containing 
the— 
Stomach. 
Intestines. 
Liver. 
Gall-bladder. 
Spleen. 
Pancreas. 
Kidneys and Ureters. 
Supra-renal Capsules. 
Bladder (when distended.) 
Uterus (during pregnancy.) 
Abdominal Aorta. 
Inferior Vena Cava. 
Receptaculum Chyli. 
Thoracic Duct. 
Solar Plexus, etc. 
Name the Boundaries of the Abdomen. Above, it is bounded by the 
diaphragm;—below, by the brim of the pelvis;—posteriorly, by the vertebral 
column, and the fasciae covering the psoae and quadrati lumborum muscles;— 
anteriorly and laterally, by the transversalis fascia, the lower ribs, and the 
venter of the ilium. 162 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
What Openings are found in its Walls ? They are the— 
Openingfor'the Vena Cava,— in the diaphragm. 
Aortic Opening,—behind the diaphragm, for the aorta, vena azygos minor, the 
thoracic duct, and occasionally the left sympathetic nerve. 
(Esophageal Opening,—in the diaphragm, for the oesophagus, and the pneumo- 
gastric nerves. 
Umbilical Opening,—in the anterior wall, transmitting the umbilical vessels in 
the foetus, but obliterated after birth, leaving a puckered depression, the 
Umbilicus. 
Intemial Abdominal Ring,—on each side, half an inch above Poupart’s liga- 
ment, for the passage of the spermatic cord in the male, and the round 
ligament of the uterus in the female. 
Femoral or Crural Ring,—on each side, just below Poupart’s ligament; for 
the passage of the femoral vessels. This opening is closed by the Septum 
Crurale. (See Femoral Hernia.) 
Name the Regions of the Abdomen. The Abdomen is divided into 9 
regions, by two horizontal lines,—one between the cartilages of the 9th ribs, 
another between the crests of the ilia,—and 2 vertical lines from the cartilages 
of the 8th ribs to the centre of Poupart’s ligament. The 9 regions thus formed 
are named the— 
Right Hypochondriac. 
Right Lumbar. 
Right Lnguinal. 
Epigastric. 
Umbilical. 
Hypogastric. 
Left Hypochondriac. 
Left Lumbar. 
Left Lhguinal. 
Fig. 78. 
What Parts are contained in each 
Region ? 
Right Hypochondriac Region,—contains 
the right lobe of the liver, gall-bladder, 
duodenum, hepatic flexure of the colon, 
upper part of the right kidney, and the 
right supra-renal capsule. 
Epigastric Region,—contains the right 
two-thirds of the stomach, left lobe and 
lobus Spigelii of the liver, hepatic 
vessels, coeliac axis, solar plexus, pan- 
creas, and parts of the aorta, inferior vena 
cava, vena azygos, and thoracic duct. 
Left Hypochondriac Region,—contains the 
splenic end of the stomach, spleen, tail 
of the pancreas, splenic flexure of the 
colon, upper half of the left kidney and 
its supra-renal capsule. THE PERITONEUM. 
Right Lumbar Region,—contains the ascending colon, lower halt of the right 
kidney, and part of the small intestine. 
Umbilical,—contains the transverse colon, transverse duodenum, part of the 
great omentum and mesentery, and part of the small intestine. 
Left Lumbar Region,—contains the descending colon, lower half of the left 
kidney, and part of the small intestine. 
Right Inguinal Region,—contains the right ureter, csecum, appendix vermi 
formis, and the spermatic vessels of that side. 
Hypogastric Region,—contains part of the small intestine, the bladder in 
children and when distended in adults, and the uterus during pregnancy. 
Left Inguinal Region,—contains the left ureter and spermatic vessels, and the 
sigmoid flexure of the colon. 
THE PERITONEUM. 
What is the Peritoneum ? A serous membrane, forming a closed sac, 
its parietal layer lining the walls of the abdomen and pelvis, its visceral layer 
being reflected more or less completely over all the abdominal and pelvic 
viscera. Its free surface is covered with squamous epithelium, and is smooth, 
moist, and shining Its attached surface is connected to the viscera and the 
parietes of the abdomen by the sub-peritoneal areolar tissue. 
Is the Peritoneum always a closed sac ? No ! In the female it is con 
tinuous with the mucous lining of the Fallopian tubes, which at their free 
extremities open into its cavity. 
Name the Divisions of the Peritoneum. The— 
Greater Sac,—extends over the anterior two-thirds of the liver, behind and 
above the stomach, below, behind, and in front of the great omentum, and 
below the meso-colon. 
Lesser Sac, or Cavity of the Great Omentum,— extends behind and below the 
liver and stomach, above the meso-colon, and within the great omentum. 
What is the Foramen of Winslow? A constriction of the peritoneal 
cavity connecting the two sacs, situated behind the right free border of the gastro- 
hepatic or lesser omentum, and formed by the gastric and hepatic arteries as 
they curve around to the coeliac axis. Its boundaries are as follows, viz.— 
Anteriorly,—the lesser omentum, containing the duodenum, hepatic artery. 
portal vein, and the ductus communis cho!6dochus. 
Posteriorly,—the inferior vena cava, and the right crus of the diaphragm. 
Superiorly,—the lobus Spigdii of the liver. 
Inferiorly,—the hepatic artery, curving forwards from the coeliac axis 
What passes through the Foramen of Winslow ? Nothing. 164 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
What are the Omenta or Epiploa ? They are folds of peritoneum con- 
necting the stomach with other organs, and are 3 in number, namely, the— 
Gastro-colic or Great Omentum,14—consists of four layers of peritoneum, 
the most anterior and posterior of which 
belong to the greater sac, the two inter- 
nal to the lesser sac. The two anterior 
layers descend from the stomach and the 
spleen, over the small intestines, and 
then ascend as the posterior layers, to 
enclose the transverse colon. 
Fig. 79. 
Gastro-hepatic or Lesser Omentum,—con- 
sists of two layers of peritoneum, the 
upper belonging to the greater sac, the 
lower to the lesser sac. It extends from 
the transverse fissure of the liver to the 
lesser curvature of the stomach, and con- 
tains in its right free margin the— 
Hepatic Artery. 
Portal Vein. 
Lymphatics. 
Ductus Communis Chol6dochus. 
First part of the Duodenum. 
Hepatic Plexus of Nerves. 
Gastro-splenic Omentum,—connects the 
stomach with the spleen, and is con- 
tinuous by its lower border with the 
great omentum. It contains the Splenic 
Vessels and the Vasa Brevia. 
What are the Mesos or Mesenteries ? Folds of peritoneum connect- 
ing the various parts of the intestinal canal (except the duodenum) to the 
abdominal walls. Each one contains the vessels of the part which it sup- 
ports. They are the— 
Mesentery proper.19 Meso-ccecum. ATeso-colon.2 8 Meso-rectum. 
What Ligaments are formed by the Peritoneum ? They are 17 folds 
of peritoneum which support certain organs, viz.— 
1 Gastro-pkrenic,—from the stomach to the diaphragm. 
4 Hepatic—the longitudinal, coronary, and 2 lateral ligaments of the liver. 
5 Vesical,-—the false ligaments of the bladder. 
6 Uterine,—2 vesico-uterine, 2 recto-uterine, and 2 lateral or broad liga- 
ments of the uterus. 
I Splenic,—the suspensory ligament of the spleen. THE LARYNX. 
165 
Name the Viscera covered by Peritoneum. They are the— 
LiveP (almost wholly). 
Stomach2 (almost wholly). 
Spleen. 
Duodenum5 (first part). 
Small Intestine A 
Transverse Colon A 
Sigmoid Flexure. 
Rectum (upper l/f). 
Ovaries. 
Uterus.8 
Name the Viscera partially invested by Peritoneum. The— 
Duodenum5 (descending and 
transverse portions). 
Ccecum. 
Ascending Colon. 
Descending Colon. 
Rectum7 (middle third). 
Vagina9 (upper part). 
Bladder10 (posterior wall) 
What Viscera have no Peritoneal Investment ? The— 
Rectum7 (lower third). 
Bladder10 (neck, base and 
anterior surface). 
Pancreas.6 
Kidneys. 
Supra-renal Capsules. 
Vagina9 (lower part). 
What are the Appendices Epiploicae ? Pouches of peritoneum situated 
along the colon and upper third of the rectum, and filled with fat. They are 
chiefly found along the transverse colon. 
A Demonstration of the Peritoneum is best made with a large bag of 
mosquito-netting, sewn up along all four sides, and having a central slit to 
represent the incision usually made in the laparotomy operation. Sponges of 
various sizes will represent the various organs, and may be pushed into folds 
of the bag and tied in by string, wholly covered or partially covered, as the 
vase may be, for each. Professor Pancoast used this method of demonstration 
in his lectures, making the subject perfectly clear to many who never under- 
stood it before. • 
ORGANS OF VOICE AND RESPIRATION. 
THE LARYNX. 
What is the Larynx ? A musculo-membranous-cartilaginous box placed 
between the trachea and the base of the tongue, and constituting the essential 
organ of voice. 
Name its Cartilages. They are nine in number, 3 single and 3 in pairs, 
viz.— 
Thyroid Cartilage. 
Cricoid Cartilage. 
Epiglottis. 
2 Arytenoid Cartilages. 
2 Cuneiform Cartilages. 
2 Cornicula Laryngis. 166 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the Thyroid Cartilage. The Thyroid or shield-like cartilage 
consists of two Alee or wings/ united in front at an acute angle, the highest 
portion of its front being called the Pomum Adami, Adam’s apple. Its— 
Inner Surface,—gives attachment to the true and false vocal cords, the 
epiglottis, thyro-arytenoid and thyro-epiglottidean muscles, and the thyro- 
epiglottic ligament. 
Outer Surface,—affords attachment to the sterno- 
thyroid, thyro-hyoid and inferior constrictor mus- 
cles ; the first two being attached along its oblique 
ridge. 
Upper Border,—is curved irregularly, and gives at- 
tachment to the thyro-hyoid membrane. 
Lower Border,—gives attachment to the crico-thyroid membrane in the 
median line and on each side to the crico-thyroid muscle. 
Posterior Border of each wing ends above and below in Cornua (horns), 
and gives attachment to the stylo- and palato-pharyngeus muscles. 
Superior Cornu of each side affords attachment to the thyro-hyoid ligament. 
Inferior Cornu of each side articulates with the cricoid cartilage by a small 
oval facet. (See « and Fig. 80.) 
Fig. 80. 
Fig. 81. 
Describe the Cricoid Cartilage. The Cricoid, or ring-like cartilage, is 
placed below the thyroid, with its narrow part to the 
front. It has on each side 2 Articular Facets, one on the 
upper margin posteriorly for the arytenoid cartilage, and 
one near the lower margin for the inferior cornu of the 
thyroid cartilage. Its— 
Outer Borders,—give attachment to the crico-arytenoideus 
posticus muscle, and the longitudinal fibres of the oesophagus. 
Upper Border,-*-eddoxfe attachment to the crico-thyroid membrane and the 
crico-arytenoidei laterales muscles. 
Lower Border,—is connected to the upper ring of the trachea by fibrous 
Describe the Arytenoid Cartilages. The Arytenoid, or pitcher like 
cartilages, are 2 in number, pyramidal-shaped, and situated on the upper mar- 
gin of the cricoid cartilage posteriorly, closing in the back of the larynx. 
Each cartilage has 3 surfaces, 2 angles, a base and an apex. The— 
Anterior Surface,—gives attachment to the false vocal 
chord, and the thyro-arytenoideus muscle. 
Anterior Angle,—gives attachment to the true vocal chord 
and the thyro-arytenoideus muscle. 
Posterior Surface,—has attached to it the arytenoideus. 
Fig. 82. Posterior Angle,—gives attachment to the crico-arytenoideus lateralis and 
posticus muscles. 
Internal Surfaces of each look towards each other. 
Base,—has a facet for articulation with the cricoid. 
Apex,—articulates with the corniculum laryngis. 
THE LARYNX. 
167 
What are the Cornicula Laryngis ? They are 2 small cartilaginous 
nodules attached to the apices of the arytenoid cartilages, and are also called the 
Cartilages of Santorini. To them are attached the aryteno-epiglottidean folds. 
What are the Cuneiform Cartilages ? The Cuneiform, or Cartilages of 
Wrisberg, are 2 rods of yellow elastic cartilage contained in the free bor- 
ders of the aryteno-epiglottidean folds. 
Describe the Epiglottis. The Epiglottis is a cartilaginous lid for the 
larynx. It is leaf-shaped, situated behind the base of the tongue, and attached 
by its apex to the posterior surface of the thyroid cartilage, just below the 
median notch. Its— 
Base,—is free, and curves over the base of the tongue. 
Apex,—is connected to the receding angle of the thyroid cartilage by the 
thyro-epiglottidean ligament. 
Anterior Surface,—is attached to the hyoid bone by the hyo-epiglottic liga- 
ment, and to the tongue by 3 glosso-epiglottidean folds. 
Posterior Surface,—covers the superior aperture of the larynx when food 
passes through the pharynx. 
Lateral Margins,—are connected to the arytenoid cartilages by the aryteno- 
epiglottidean folds. 
Name the Ligaments of the Larynx. They are 19 in number,—3 ex- 
trinsic ligaments, connecting the larynx to the hyoid bone; and 16 intrinsic, 
binding its several cartilages together, viz.— 
Extrinsic Ligaments (3), are the— 
Thyro-hyoid Membrane, bounded laterally by— 
2 Lateral Thyro-hyoid Ligaments, each contain a nodule of cartilage, 
the Cartilago Triticea, 
Intrinsic Ligaments (16) are the— 
Crico-thyroid Membrane. 
2 Crico-thyroid Capsular Ligaments. 
2 Crico-arytenoid Ligaments. 
2 Crico arytenoid Capsular Ligaments. 
2 Superior Thyro-arytenoid (situated in the false vocal chords). 
2 Inferior Thyro-arytenoid (situated in the true vocal chords). 
Hyo-epiglottic Ligament. 
Thyro-epiglottic Ligament. 
3 Glosso-epiglottic Folds. 168 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the Vocal Chords. They are in two sets, the— 
Superior or False Vocal Chords,—containing the superior thyro arytenoid 
ligaments,—extend from the angle of the thyroid cartilage around to the 
anterior surfaces of the arytenoids, and consist of two folds of mucous mem- 
brane, each having a free crescentic margin. 
Inferior or True Vocal Chords,—containing the inferior thyro-arytenoid liga- 
ments,—extend from the angle of the thyroid cartilage around to the ante- 
rior angles of the bases of the arytenoids, and consist of two thin layers of 
mucous membrane covering the ligaments named, each having the thyro- 
arytenoideus muscle external and parallel to it. 
What is the Glottis ? The Glottis or Rima Glottidis is a narrow chink 
or interval between the inferior vocal chords, formed by the projection into 
the cavity of the larynx of these chords and the thyro-arytenoidei muscles. 
Its greatest length is less than an inch, its greatest breadth about half an inch. 
Its form is a narrow fissure of varying size. 
What is the Ventricle of the Larynx? An oval depression on each 
side of the larynx, between the true and false vocal chords, leading up to the 
sacculus laryngis by a narrow opening. 
What is the Sacculus Laryngis ? A blind pouch situated in each 
laryngeal wall at the level of the false vocal chord. It is of conical shape, 
and contains 60 or 70 small mucous glands which secrete a fluid for the 
lubrication of the true vocal chord. The sacculus is covered in by the 
aryteno-epiglottideus inferior muscle internally, and by the thyro-epiglot- 
tideus externally, both muscles compressing it to discharge its contents. The 
Sacculus Laryngis is also called the Sinus of Morgagni, and the lower part 
of the ventricle is sometimes named the Sac of Hilton. 
What class of Epithelium lines the Larynx ? Its mucous membrane 
is covered with Ciliated Epithelium below the level of the superior vocal 
chords, extending in front as high as the centre of the epiglottis. Over the 
rest of the larynx is Squamous Epithelium. 
Describe the Laryngeal Muscles. They are 4 in number on each side 
and one in the median line, viz.— 
Crico-thyroid (2),—from the front and side of the cricoid cartilage/—into 
the lower and inner border of the thyroid.c Action, to tilt the thyroid 
cartilage forwards, thus elongating and making tense the vocal chords. 
Nerve, superior laryngeal. 
Crico-arytenoideus Posticus (2),—from the cricoid cartilage posteriorly,— 
into the posterior angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. Action, 
to rotate the arytenoids outwards and open the glottis, while keeping the 
vocal chords tense. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 169 
Crico-arytenoideus Lateralis d (2),—from the 
upper lateral border of the cricoid cartilage, 
—into the posterior angle of the base of the 
arytenoid. Action, to rotate the arytenoids 
inwards and close the glottis. Nerve, recur- 
rent laryngeal. 
THE LARYNX. 
Fig. 83. 
Thyro-arytenoideuse (2),—from the angle of 
the thyroid cartilage and the posterior surface 
of the crico-thyroid membrane,—into the 
base and anterior surface of the arytenoid. 
Action, to shorten and relax the vocal chords 
by approximating the cartilages, and to com- 
press the sacculus laryngis. Nerve, recurrent 
laryngeal. 
Arytenoideus (1),—from the posterior surface 
and outer border of one arytenoid cartilage,—into the corresponding parts 
of the opposite cartilage; having oblique and transverse fibres, and filling 
up the posterior concave surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages. Action, by 
approximating the arytenoids, to close the back part of the glottis. 
Nerves, superior and recurrent laryngeal. 
A small fasciculus, called the Kerato-cricoideus, is sometimes found below 
the arytenoideus, extending from the cricoid cartilage to the inferior cornu 
of the thyroid. It occurs once in 5 cases, usually on one side only, but 
occasionally on both, and acts to fix the lower horn of the thyroid carti- 
lage backwards and downwards. 
Another small muscle is found frequently, though rarely described in the 
books, the Triticeo-glossus. It arises from the cartilaginous nodule in the 
lateral thyro hyoid ligament, and passes forwards and upwards to enter 
the tongue along with the kerato-glossus muscle. 
Describe the Muscles of the Epiglottis. They are 3 double muscles, 
as follows, viz.— 
Thyro-epiglottideus (2),—from the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage,— 
into the margin of the epiglottis, and the aryteno-epiglottidean fold. 
Action, to depress the epiglottis, and compress the sacculus laryngis. 
Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Aryteno-epiglottideus Superior (2),—from the apex of the arytenoid carti- 
lage,—into the aryteno-epiglottidean fold. Action, to constrict the supe- 
rior aperture of the larynx. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Aryteno-epiglottideus Inferior (2),—from the arytenoid cartilage just above 
the attachment of the superior vocal chord,—into the sacculus laryngis 170 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
and the margin of the epiglottis. Action, to compress the sacculus 
laryngis. Nerve, recurrent laryngeal. 
Name the Arteries and Veins of the Larynx. The— 
Arteries,—are the Laryngeal Branches of the superior and inferior thyroid; 
and the Crico-thyroid Branches of the superior thyroid, which anastomose 
on the crico thyroid membrane with their fellows of the opposite side. 
Veins,—empty into the superior, middle and inferior thyroid veins. 
Describe the Laryngeal Nerves. They are the Superior and Recurrent 
Laryngeal Branches of the pneumogastric, joined by filaments from the spinal 
accessory and the sympathetic. The— 
Superior Laryngeal,—is the nerve of sensation. It enters the larynx by a 
hole in the thyro-hyoid membrane, and supplies the mucous membrane, 
and the crico-thyroid and arytenoideus muscles. It has the following 
branches, namely— 
Recurrent Laryngeal,—is the motor nerve. It winds from before back- 
wards, around the subclavian artery on the right side, around the arch of 
the aorta on the left side, and is distributed to all the laryngeal muscles 
except the crico-thyroid,—giving off, in its course, cardiac, oesophageal, 
tracheal and pharnygeal filaments, and finally anastomosing with the 
superior laryngeal nerve. 
External Laryngeal. 
Internal Laryngeal. 
THE TRACHEA AND BRONCHI 
What is the Trachea? A membrano-cartilaginous, cylindrical tube, 
about 4]/z inches long, and to i inch in diameter, beginning at the lower 
border of the larynx,2 opposite the 5th cervical vertebra, and ending opposite 
the 3d dorsal, by its bifurcation into the two bronchi. It is composed of a 
fibro elastic membrane containing 16 to 20 imperfect cartilaginous rings, con- 
nected by muscular fibres. It is lined with mucous membrane covered with 
ciliated columnar epithelium, and furnished with glands. Its anterior surface 
is convex, its posterior surface flat. 
State its Chief Relations in the Neck and Thorax. 
Anteriorly,—it is covered from above downwards by the— 
Isthmus of the Thyroid Gland. 
Inferior Thyroid Veins. 
Sterno-hyoid Muscle. 
Sterno-thyroid Muscle. 
Manubrium of the Sternum. 
Thymus Gland.. 
Arch of the Aorta. 
Innominate Artery. 
Left Carotid Artery. 
Deep Cardiac Plexus. 
Posteriorly,—it is in relation with the— 
(Esophagus. 
Right Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve. THE LUNGS. 
171 
Laterally,—with the— 
Common Carotid Arteries. 
Thyroid Gland. 
Inferior Thyroid Arteries. 
Recurrent Laryngeal Nerves, 
Pleurae. 
Pneumogastric Nerves. 
Describe the Bronchi. They are two tubes similar in formation to the 
trachea, extending from its bifurcation into the lungs, where they divide and sub- 
divide into bronchial tubes, losing their rings at the 2d or 3d subdivision, whence 
plates of cartilage extend in their walls to their minuter ramifications. The— 
Right Bronchus,—is the widest, and the most horizontal, about 1 inch long, 
has 6 to 8 rings, and divides into 2 main divisions (though its lung has 
3 lobes). 
Left Bronchus,—is the narrowest and most oblique, nearly 2 inches long, 
has 9 to 12 rings, and divides into 3 main divisions (though its lung has 
2 lobes). 
What are the Relations of the Bronchi ? Beginning opposite the 3d 
dorsal vertebra, the right bronchus enters the lung opposite the 4th dorsal 
vertebra, the left bronchus opposite the 5th. The Right Bronchus lies behind 
the vena cava superior and the right auricle of the heart, having the right pul- 
monary artery at first below, then anterior to it, and the vena azygos major 
arching over it from behind forwards. The Left Bronchus passes beneath the 
arch of the aorta and in front of its descending portion, also in front of the 
oesophagus and the thoracic duct, having the left pulmonary artery above and 
in front of it. 
Name the Vessels and Nerves of the Trachea and Bronchi. 
Arteries,—Tracheal Branches of the inferior thyroid (br. of thyroid axis), and 
the Bronchial (brs. of thoracic aorta). 
Veins,—open into the thyroid plexus and the bronchial veins. 
Lymphatics,—terminate in the mediastinal glands. 
Nerves,—are derived from the pneumogastric and its recurrent laryngeal 
branch, also from the sympathetic. 
THE LUNGS. 
Describe the Lungs. The lungs are the two essential organs of respiration, 
contained in the cavity of the thorax, covered by the pleurse, and characterized 
by lightness (sp. gr. 0.345 to 0.746), sponginess, elasticity, and crepitation when 
pressed. They weigh together about 42 ounces, the right lung being the heaviest 
by about 2 ounces. At birth their color is a pinkish-white, mottled as age ad- 
vances by slate colored patches, from the deposit of carbonaceous granules in 
the areolar tissue of the organ. The Right Lung is the largest and has 3 lobes; 
the Left Lung has 2 lobes. Each lung presents for examination an— 172 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Apex,1*—projecting into the neck about an inch above the 1st rib, where it 
is in relation with the subclavian artery and the scaleni muscles. 
Base,16—is broad, concave, and directed obliquely downwards and back- 
wards, resting on the upper convex surface of the diaphragm. 
External Surface,—is convex, smooth, marked by the fissures, and corre- 
sponds in form to that of the thorax. 
Inner Surface,—is concave, the left lung excavated for the heart, the sur- 
face forming part of the walls of the middle mediastinum. 
Fig. 84. 
Root,—is where the bronchi, vessels, and nerves enter the lung, bound 
together by areolar tissue. In front of the root is the phrenic nerve, 
behind it the pneumogastric nerve. Its chief structures are arranged in 
the following manner :— 
From before, backwards. 
Pulmonary veins. 
Pulmonary artery.5 
Bronchus, etc. 
V. A. B. THE LUNGS 
173 
From above, downwards, on 
right side of body. 
Bronchus, etc. 
Pulmonary artery. 
Pulmonary veins. 
B. A. V. 
Pulmonary artery. 
Bronchus, etc. 
Pulmonary veins. 
From above, downwards, on 
left side of body. 
A. B. V. 
Describe the Structure of the Lung. The lung has a serous coat (the 
pleura); a sub-serous, elastic areolar tissue, investing the entire organ, and ex 
tending inwards between the lobules; and the parenchyma, or true lung-tissue, 
composed of— 
Lobules,—zach consisting of several air- 
cells or compartments, arranged around 
the termination of a bronchiole, and 
surrounded by 6 plexuses of pulmon- 
ary and bronchial arteries and veins, 
lymphatics and nerves. Each lobule 
is a miniature lung, pyramidal in form, 
with base outwards, and about inch 
in diameter. 
Alveoli, or Air-cells,—are separated from 
each other by thin septa, are lined 
with pavement epithelium on a base- 
ment membrane, and vary in diam- 
eter from to 7\y inch. [See Fig. 
85] 
Fig. 85. 
Name the Vessels and Nerves of the Lungs. The lungs are nour- 
ished by the bronchial arteries, and supplied with blood for oxygenation by 
the pulmonary arteries. 
Bronchial Arteries,—are derived from the thoracic aorta. 
Pulmonary Arteries,—are derived from the right heart. 
Bronchial Veins,—open on the right side into the vena azygos, on the left 
side into the superior intercostal vein. 
Pulmonary Veins,—open by 4 large orifices into the left auricle of the 
heart, carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. 
Lymphatics,—terminate in the bronchial glands. 
Nerves,—are branches from the pneumogastric and the sympathetic, form- 
ing the Anterior and Posterior Pulmonary Plexuses, from which filaments 
are distributed to each lobule. 174 
VISCERAL ANATOntY. 
What are the Pleurae ? Two delicate serous sacs, one surrounding each 
lung and reflected over the pericardium, the diaphragm, and the inner surface 
of the thorax. 
Where do the Pleurae meet ? For a short space behind the middle of 
the sternum, at the approximation of the anterior borders of the lungs. 
What Names are given to the parts of the Pleurae ? The— 
Pleura Pulmonalis, or Visceral Layer,—covers the lung, and invests that 
organ as far as its root. 
Pleura Costalis, or Parietal Layer,—lines the inner surface of the parietes of 
the chest. 
Cavity of the Pleura,—is the space between the two layers. 
What is the Ligamentum Latum Pulmonis ? The Broad Ligament 
of the Lung is a triangular fold or reflection of pleura, which descends from 
'he root of the lung posteriorly to the upper surface of the diaphragm. 
State the Differences between the Pleurae. The right sac is shorter, 
wider, and reaches higher into the neck than the left. 
Enumerate the Parts in Relation with the Left Pleura. Its— 
Visceral Layer,—is in contact with the left lung. 
Parietal Layer,—is in relation with the vertebral column, the ribs, intercostal 
muscles and vessels, the sternum, the left sympathetic nerve, the diaphragm, 
the arched portion of the subclavian artery, and the origin of the left carotid, 
the left pneumogastric, phrenic and cardiac nerves, the trachea, oesophagus, 
aorta and the pericardium. 
What is the Mediastinum ? It is the space between the two pleurae in 
the median line of the thorax, extending from the sternum to the vertebral 
column, and containing all the thoracic viscera except the lungs. 
THE PLEURiE. 
Enumerate the Contents of each of its Divisions. The— 
Afiterior Mediastinum, contains the— 
Triangularis Sterni Muscle. 
Left Internal Mammary Vessels. 
Middle Mediastinum, contains the— 
Heart and Pericardium. 
Ascending Aorta. 
Superior Vena Cava. 
Posterior Mediastinum, contains the— 
Descending Aorta. 
Azygos Veins. 
Superior Intercostal Veins. 
(Esophagus. 
Origins of the Sterno-hyoid and Sterno-thyroid Muscles. 
Thymus Gland. 
Lymphatics. 
Bifurcation of the Trachea. 
Pulmonary Arteries and Veins. 
Phrenic Nerves. 
Pneumogastric Nerves. 
Splanchnic Nerves. 
Thoracic Duct. 
Lymphatic Glands. THE KIDNEYS. 
175 
THE URINARY ORGANS. 
Where are the Kidneys situated ? Posteriorly in the abdomen, one on 
each side of the spinal column, behind the peritoneum, and extending from 
the level of the Ilth rib to near the crest of the ileum. The right kidney is 
lower than the left. 
State their Dimensions. Each one is about 4 inches by 2 by 1, and 
weighs from 4 to 6 oz. 
Enumerate their Relations. The— 
Anterior Surface of the Right Kidney,—is in relation with the right lobe of 
the liver, descending duodenum, and the ascending colon. 
Anterior Surface of the Left Kidney,—with the tail of the pancreas, descend- 
ing colon, and part of the spleen. 
Posterior Surface,—with the crus of the diaphragm, nth and 12th ribs, psoas 
magnus, quadratus lumborum, and the aponeurosis of the transversalis muscle. 
Superior Extremity,—is capped by the supra-renal capsule. 
Describe the Hilum of the Kidney. The Hilum is a fissure on the inner or 
concave border, leading into the Sinus or cavity of the gland. It contains the— 
Renal Vein,—in front. Renal Artery,—next in order. 
Ureter, or Excretory Duct,—behind and below. 
THE KIDNEYS. 
Describe the Kidney-structure. A vertical section presents the— 
Pelvis or Sinus,6—the cavity, forming the beginning of the ureter 7 or ex 
cretory duct of the gland. Its divisions are 
the 3 Infundibula 5, and these are again 
divided into Calices 4 or pouches, into which 
open the orifices of the pyramids, iooo orifices 
situated on each Papilla. 
Medullary Substance,3—consists chiefly of the 
tubes of Bellini and Henle, arranged in Pyra- 
mids of Malpighi, whose apices project into 
the calices of the pelvis. 
Cortical Substance,2—forms the surface of the 
gland, and consists of uriniferous tubules 
(straight and convoluted), Malpighian bodies, 
blood-vessels, nerves, lymphatics, connective 
tissue, and a granular matrix. It is of a red 
color, and is prolonged down to the pelvis be- 
tween the pyramids, these prolongations being 
named the Columns of Bertin. 
Fig. 86. 176 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the Tubuli Uriniferi. The uriniferous tubes begin at the Mal- 
pighian corpuscles in the Capsules of Muller, and end at the orifices on the 
surfaces of the papilla;. Their various portions are the— 
Convoluted Tubes of Ferrein,—in the cortical substance. 
Looped Tubes of Henle,—descending from the former and ascending into 
the next mentioned. 
Straight Tubes of Bellini,—in the medullary substance, arranged in pyra- 
mids, the Pyramids of Malpighi. 
What are the Pyramids of Ferrein ? They are pyramidal arrangements 
of the tubes of Ferrein at the bases of the pyramids of Malpighi. 
What are the Malpighian Bodies ? They are small red bodies found in 
the cortical substance, each formed by the dilated extremity of a tube of Fer- 
rein, about the inch in diameter, and consisting of the— 
Malpighian Tuft,—a tuft of capillary vessels, the termination of some 
branches of the renal artery a and vein.® 
Capsule of Muller,c—the dilated extremity of a 
tube of investing the Malpighian tuft 
probably by two layers, similar to the pleural 
investment of the lungs. 
How is the Kidney invested ? By a dense 
fibrous Capsule, which is continued inwards at the 
hilum, to line the sides of the sinus and form sheaths 
around the vessels. The kidney is also surrounded 
by a large quantity of fat. 
Enumerate the various Divisions of the Renal 
Vessels. They are all derived from the Renal 
Artery and the Renal Vein, but in their course have 
received different names, as follows, viz.— 
Renal Artery,—branch of the abdominal aorta. Divides into the— 
Primary Branches, 4 or 5,—arising just external to the hilum, again sub- 
divide and enter in the columns of Bertin as the Arterise Propriae Renales, 
which form— 
Arterial Arches,—over the bases of the pyramids, and divide into ascend- 
ing and descending branches. 
Interlobular Arteries, or Ascending Branches,—supply the cortical sub- 
stance, and end in the Stars of Verheyen. (See next page.) 
Arteriolce Redce, or Descending Branches,—supply the medullary pyra- 
mids, ending in venous plexuses therein. 
Afferent Vessels,—to the Malpighian bodies, from the ascending branches. 
Fig. 87. THE URETERS. 
177 
Malpighian Tufts,-—are capillary plexuses within the Malpighian bodies. 
From them arise the— 
Efferent Vessels,—whether arterial or venous, is undecided. They form 
Venous Plexuses,—on the convoluted uriniferous tubes. 
Stars of Verheyen,—are venous plexuses of stellate form, situated on the 
surface of the kidney, beneath its capsule, joining to form the— 
Interlobular Veins,—from the cortical portion; which with the 
Vena Rectce,—from the medullary pyramids, making 
Venous Arches,—over the bases of the pyramids, finally meet in the— 
Vence Proprice Renales,—and they end in the 
Renal Vein,—which empties into the inferior vena cava. 
Whence are the Nerves of the Kidney derived ? From the Renal 
Plexus, which is formed by filaments from the solar plexus and the lesser 
splanchnic nerve. 
THE URETERS. 
What is the Ureter ? The excretory duct of the kidney, forming, by its 
upper expanded portion, the cavity of that gland. It is a musculo-membra- 
nous tube, i6to 18 inches long, as large as a small goose-quill; and ends 
at the base of the bladder, into which it opens obliquely by a constricted 
orifice, about 2 inches from the orifice of its fellow. The ureter commences 
in the— 
Calices,— 7 to 13 small tubes, embracing the papillae of the kidney, and 
joining to form the— 
Infundibula,—3 or 4 in number, which unite in the— 
Pelvis,—a funnel-shaped dilatation of the upper portion of the ureter. 
Describe its Course. It descends obliquely inwards along the posterior 
wall of the abdomen, enters the posterior false ligament of the bladder in the 
male, and that of the uterus in the female, through which it passes forwards 
and inwards to the posterior angle of the trigone vesicse, lying between 
the muscular and mucous coats of the bladder, for about three-fourths 
of an inch. 
What are its Relations ? It lies upon the psoas muscle, behind the peri- 
toneum and below the spermatic vessels, over the common iliac or the external 
iliac artery, behind the ileum on the right side, behind the sigmoid flexure 
on the left. The right ureter lies close to the outer side of the inferior 
vena cava. 
Describe its Structure. The ureter has 3 coats—a fibrous, a muscular, 
and a mucous; the epithelium of the mucous coat is different from that 
of the urethra, the bladder, or the uriniferous tubes, being spheroidal in 
shape. 178 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
THE BLADDER. 
What is the Bladder ? It is the urinary reservoir, a musculo-membra 
nous sac, situated in the anterior portion of the pelvis, behind the pubes. 
When moderately distended it measures about 5 by 3 inches, and holds about 
a pint. Its— 
Summit,—is connected to the umbilicus by the 
Urachus and the obliterated Hypogastric 
Arteries of the foetus, forming three fibrous 
cords, the Superior Ligament of the bladder. 
Body,—is in relation in front with the triangular 
ligament, the symphysis pubis, and the in- 
ternal obturator muscles,—behind it is cov- 
ered by peritoneum, and is in relation 
with the rectum in the male, with the 
uterus and upper part of the vagina in the 
female. Each side is crossed obliquely by 
the obliterated hypogastric artery and the vas 
deferens/ the first passing from below for- 
i wards, the latter from below backwards. 
Fundus or Base,—rests on the second portion of the rectum in the male, on 
the lower part of the cervix uteri and adherent to the anterior wall of the 
vagina in the female. It is partly covered by peritoneum. 
Cervix or Neck,—is constricted and continuous with the urethra.*’ It is sur- 
rounded in the male by the prostate gland,h and is directed downwards 
Fig. 88. 
Name the Ligaments of the Bladder. They number 10, of which 5 
are true ligaments, and 5 are false, the latter being folds of peritoneum. They 
are named as follows,— 
True Ligaments. False Ligaments. 
2 Anterior (pubo-prostatic). 2 Posterior. 
2 Lateral. 2 Lateral. 
Superior (the Urachus, etc.). Superior. 
What is the Urachus ? It is the obliterated remains of a canal, which 
in the embryo connects the bladder with the allantois. It is situated between 
the two obliterated hypogastric arteries, and with them forms the superior liga- 
ment of the bladder, connecting the summit of that organ with the umbilicus. 
What is the Trigonum Vesicae ? (7, Fig. 89.) The Vesical Trigone is 
a triangular space, of pale color, at the base of the bladder interiorly, charac- 
terized by its smooth surface and the intimate adhesion between its mucous 
and muscular coats. Its boundaries are— In Front,—the urethral opening. 
Posteriorly,—a line connecting the orifices 3 of the ureters. 
Laterally,—two ridges of mucous membrane, which extend from the ure 
thral orifice back to the orifices of the ureters. 
THE URETHRA. 
179 
What is the Uvula Vesicae ? (4, Fig. 89.) A small elevation of mu- 
cous membrane projecting from the floor of the bladder into the urethral orifice. 
It is said to be lifted by the anterior fibres of the levator ani muscle. 
Describe the Structure of the Bladder. It has a partial peritoneal in- 
vestment, and its walls are composed of 3 coats,—a muscular, a cellular, and 
a mucous. The— 
Muscular Coat,—consists of 5 sets of fibres, as follows,— 
External and Internal Longitudinal fibres. 
Intermediate Circular fibres, forming a Sphincter Vesica at the neck of 
the bladder. 
Transverse fibres, connecting the orifices of the ureters. 
Muscles of the Ureters, connecting their orifices with the middle lobe of 
the prostate gland. 
Cellular Coat,—connects the other two coats together, and is closely attached 
to the mucous coat. 
Mucous Coat,—is covered with epithelium intermediate in form between the 
columnar and the squamous ; is loosely connected to the muscular coat, 
except at the trigone vesicale and the uvula vesicse, where it is closely 
adherent. 
What Nerves supply the Bladder ? Branches from the hypogastric 
plexus supply its upper part,—from the sacral plexus its base and neck. 
What is the Urethra ? It is the urinary canal from the neck of the 
bladder to the meatus urinarius; in the male it is chiefly within the penis, and 
from 8 to 9 inches in length. 
Enumerate its Divisions. The male urethra is divided into 3 parts,— 
the prostatic, membranous and spongy. 
Describe the Prostatic portion of the Urethra.14 It is that part of 
the canal which pierces the prostate gland,12 is about 1% inch in length, of 
spindle-shape, and is the widest and most dilatable part of the urethra. Its 
floor presents the— 
Vent Montanum, or Caput Gallinaginis,*—an elevation of the mucous 
membrane and its adjacent tissue, inch long, and supposed to contain 
muscular and erectile tissue. 
The Male Urethra. 180 
Prostatic Sinus,11—one on each side of 
the veru montanum, containing the 
orifices of the prostatic ducts. 
Sinus Pocularis, or Uterus Masculinus,9 
—a small cul-de-sac situated at the 
front part of the veru montanum. It 
extends for inch upwards and back- 
wards into the prostate gland, beneath 
its middle lobe. 
Orifices of the Seminal Ducts,—open 
on the margins of the sinus pocularis. 
Describe the Membranous portion 
of the Urethra.15 It is inch long 
above, and ]/% inch along its floor, being 
that part of the canal lying between the 
layers of the triangular ligament of the 
perineum. Its walls are very thin, and 
almost destitute of erectile tissue. It is 
surrounded by the compressor urethrae mus- 
cle, and except the orifice, is the narrowest 
part of the urethral canal. On its sides are 
the- 
Ducts of Cowper's Glands,16—on their 
way to open into the bulb of the 
urethra. (See p. 182.) 
Describe the Spongy portion of the 
Urethra. It is about 6 inches long, and 
has two dilatations, one at each end, named 
respectively the Bulb and the Fossa Na- 
vicularis. The— 
Bulb of the Urethra,18—is the upper 
end of the spongy portion, projects backwards for inch, and contains 
the orifices of CowpeFs glands. 
Fossa Navicularis,—is the lower dilatation of the urethra, and is situated 
within the glans penis. 
Lacuna Magna,—the largest of several orifices of mucous follicles, situated 
on the roof of the fossa navicularis. 
Glands of Littrt,—are numerous mucous glands and follicles, opening into 
the urethral canal, their orifices being directed forwards. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Fig. 89. THE URETHRAL GLANDS. 
181 
Describe the Structure of the Urethra. It has 3 coats, a mucous, a 
muscular, and an erectile. The— 
Mucous Coat,—is continuous with that of the whole urinary tract and the 
ducts of the glands opening therein. Its epithelium is columnar, except 
in the fossa navicularis, where it is squamous. 
Muscular Coat,—consists of a layer of longitudinal fibres of the unstriped 
variety. [For the voluntary muscles of the urethra, see the Compressor 
Urethrae and Accelerator Urinae, page 84.] 
Erectile Coat,—is the corpus spongiosum of the penis, and a thin layer con- 
tinued therefrom around the membranous and prostatic portions. 
Enumerate the Characteristics of the Female Urethra. It is about 
I >4 inch long, imbedded in the anterior wall of the vagina, perforating the 
triangular ligament, and surrounded by the fibres of a compressor urethrae 
muscle. Its diameter is about inch, but it is capable of considerable 
dilatation, being surrounded by softer structures than those around the 
male urethra. 
The Female Urethra. 
THE MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 
THE URETHRAL GLANDS. 
Where is the Prostate Gland ? It encircles the neck of the male 
bladder, its apex touching the deep perineal fascia, its under surface resting on 
the rectum. It is perforated by the urethra and the common seminal ducts, 
and its ducts open into the prostatic portion of the urethra. 
State its Dimensions and Characteristics. It measures about 1% inch 
by 1 inch by inch, weighs about oz., resembles a horse-chestnut in size 
and shape, and consists of three lobes, two being lateral and of equal size, the 
third or middle lobe being a small prominence situated in the notch between 
the lateral lobes. 
Describe its Structure. The prostate gland is composed of glandular 
substance and muscular tissue, inclosed in a fibrous capsule. 
How is it Held in Position ? By the pubo prostatic ligaments of the 
bladder, the posterior layer of the deep perineal fascia, and by the anterior 
portion of the levator-ani muscle. 
Where are Cowper’s Glands ? They are situated between the two layers 
of the deep perineal fascia, one on each side of the membranous portion of 
the urethra, close behind the bulb, and inclosed by the transverse fibres of the 
compressor urethrae muscle. 182 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Where do their Ducts open ? On the floor of the bulbous part of the 
spongy portion of the urethra, after traversing the wall of the urethra for about 
one inch, between its mucous and muscular coats. 
Of what is the Penis composed ? Of a mass of erectile tissue arranged 
in three compartments of cylindrical shape, each surrounded by a fibrous 
sheath which is prolonged inwards, forming numerous bands (trabeculse), 
which divide the compartment into a number of spaces. The compartments 
are named the Corpora Cavernosa 1 and the Corpus Spongiosum,2 the latter 
lying between and beneath the former, like the ramrod of a double-barreled 
gun. 
THE PENIS. 
Describe the Corpora Cavernosa. (19, Fig. 89 ) They lie side by 
side, forming the upper and lateral parts of the 
penis, are joined together along their anterior 
three-fourths, their posterior one-fourth form- 
ing the Crura, which arise from the tuberosi- 
ties of the ischia and their descending rami, 
and meet beneath the symphysis pubis, forming 
two grooves, one above for the dorsal vessels 3, 
4 and nerves,5 the inferior one for the corpus 
spongiosum.2 
Bulb of the Corpus Cavernosum,—is a slight 
enlargement on each crus, near its junction with its fellow. 
Suspensory Ligament,—a fihrous membrane which connects the root of the 
organ to the symphysis pubis. 
Septum Pediniforme,—is a portion of the fibrous septum between the corpora 
cavernosa. This septum extends but two-thirds along the penis, and is 
wanting for its anterior third. 
Fig. 90. 
Describe the Corpus Spongiosum. It is an erectile tube lying in the 
inferior groove between the two corpora cavernosa, having within it the 
urethra, and being expanded at both ends to form the glans penis and the 
bulb. It is composed of trabecular (banddike) structure, derived from a 
fibrous sheath, and containing erectile tissue. The — 
Bulb of the Corpus Spongiosum,—receives the urethra and is surrounded by 
the accelerator urinse muscle. 
Gians Penis,—is the external expansion of the corpus spongiosum, and 
covers by its base the ends of the two corpora cavernosa. Its base pre- 
sents a rounded border, called the Corona Glandis, behind which is a 
deep sulcus, the Cervix. THE TESTES AND THEIR APPENDAGES 
183 
Meatus Urinarius,—the external orifice of the urethra, is situated at the 
summit of the glans penis. 
Prepuce,—a prolongation of the integument of the penis, covering or partly 
covering the glans penis. 
Frenum Preputii,—a fold of mucous membrane lying along the raphe of 
the glans penis, and connecting the prepuce thereto. 
Glands of Tyson,—small lenticular sebaceous glands opening on the corona 
and cervix of the glans, and secreting an odorous sebaceous matter, which 
is easily decomposed. 
Of what does Erectile Tissue consist ? Of an intricate venous plexus, 
supplied by afferent arteries and emptied by efferent veins. Such are the 
essential features of the erectile tissue of the penis, which is lodged in the 
interspaces between the trabeculae of the fibrous structure. 
What are the Helicine Arteries ? They are peculiar vine-like arterial 
branches, which project in a convoluted manner into the venous plexuses in 
the posterior portion of the penis. 
Enumerate the Vessels and Nerves of the Penis. Its— 
Arteries,—are derived from the internal pudic, and are the— 
Artery of the Bulb,—to the corpus spongiosum. 
Artery of the Corpus Cavernosum,—to that structure. 
Dorsal Artery of the Penis,—to the glans, prepuce and skin. 
Veins,—empty into the Dorsal Vein of the Penis, the prostatic plexus and the 
pudic vein. The venous plexuses of the erectile tissue are very intricate, 
and remarkably developed. 
Lymphatics,—the superficial terminate in the inguinal glands; the deep set 
joins the deep lymphatics of the pelvis. 
Nerves,—are derived from the internal pudic nerve, and the hypogastric 
plexus of the sympathetic. 
THE TESTES AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 
What are the Testes ? The Testes or Testicles are the glandular organs 
which secrete the seminal fluid,—two oval bodies suspended obliquely in the 
scrotum by the spermatic cords, each measuring about an inch in diameter, 
and weighing oz. to an ounce. 
What is the Scrotum ? A cutaneous pouch, consisting of 2 layers—the 
integument and the Dart os,—the latter being a contractile vascular tunic, con- 
tinuous with the superficial fascia of the thighs and perineum, and forming a 
septum in the scrotum between the two cavities for the testes. 
Describe the Essential Coats of the Testis. They are 3 in number, 
as follows, viz.: the— 184 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Tunica Vaginalis, the Serous Covering,—having a visceral layer (tunica 
vaginalis propria) and a parietal layer (tunica vaginalis reflexa). It was 
originally derived from the peritoneum, and 
the upper part being obliterated, it remained 
a closed sac. (See 6 Fig. 91.) 
Tunica Albuginea, the Fibrous Covering,— 
formed of white fibrous tissue, and forming 
an incomplete vertical septum within the 
gland, the Corpus Highmorianum or Medi- 
astinum Testis,5 from which fibrous bands 
(trabeculae) cross the gland, dividing its inte- 
rior into spaces for the lobules of the organ. 
Tunica Vasculosa, the Pia Mater Testis,—is 
the vascular tunic, lying beneath the tunica 
albuginea, and giving off numerous pro- 
cesses between the lobules. 
Name the Coverings of the Testicle. From without inwards they are 
6 in number, as follows, the— 
(1) Skin,—of the scrotum, closely adherent to the dartos. 
(2) Dartos,—or superficial fascia. 
(3) External Spermatic Fascia, Intercolumnar Fascia,—derived from the 
margins of the external abdominal ring. 
(4) Cremasteric Fascia,—derived from the lower border of the internal 
oblique muscle. [Called also the Cremaster Muscle.] 
(5) Internal Spermatic Fascia, or Fascia Propria,—the infundibuliform 
process of the transversalis fascia. 
(6) Tunica Vaginalis,6—originally a process of peritoneum. [Shown by 
dots in Fig. 91.] 
Fig. 91. 
Describe the Structure of the Testicle. The glandular structure is 
composed of small, convoluted tubes, the Tubuli Seminiferi,3 (Fig. 92), which 
are collected into Lobules, about 300 in number, from which straight ducts, 
the Vasa Recta,4 enter the mediastinum and form an ascending plexus of 
anastomosing tubes, the Rete Testis,5 which gives off some 12 to 20 ducts, the 
Vasa Efferentia; 6 these perforate the tunica albuginea of the testis, and 
form a number of conical masses, the Coni Vasculosi,7 which together con- 
stitute the Globus Major 7 of the Epididymis.8 
What is the Epididymis ? 8 It is an appendix to the testicle, lying 
along its posterior border, and consists of a single duct about 20 feet in length 
when unraveled, but which is wound upon itself so as to occupy a very small 
space. The— THE TESTES AND THEIR APPENDAGES 
185 
Globus Major?—is formed by the coni vasculosi, 
or efferent ducts of the testis, which therein 
open into the single duct which forms the epi- 
didymis. 
Body?—is formed by the convolutions of the tube, 
held together by fine connective tissue, and is the 
central portion. 
Globus Minor?—the lower expanded portion, 
similarly formed, and connected to the testis by 
fibrous tissue. 
Vasculum Aberrans,11—a narrow tube, sometimes 
found opening into the canal of the epididymis 
near its lower end, and ending in a blind ex- 
tremity. 
Hydatids of Morgagni,—small pedunculated bodies, 
found attached to the epididymis or to the upper 
end of the testicle. One of them is believed to 
be the remains of the duct of Muller. (See Com- 
pend of Physiology, page 131.) 
Fig. 92. 
Describe the Vas Deferens.10 It is the continuation of the epididymis, 
and is the excretory duct of the testicle. Beginning at the globus minor it 
ascends along the back of the spermatic cord to the external abdominal ring, 
where it enters the inguinal canal, and penetrates the abdominal cavity 
through the internal abdominal ring. Descending into the pelvis it passes 
between the bladder and the rectum, along the inner side of the vesicula 
seminalis, and at the base of the prostate gland it joins with the duct of the 
vesicula seminalis to form the ejaculatory duct. The vas deferens is about 
2 feet long, and has a canal of only half a line in diameter. Its walls are 
very dense, making it feel like a piece of wire or whip-cord when grasped 
between the fingers. (2 Fig. 91.) 
Name the Arteries of the Testicle. The Spermatic Artery 1 supplies 
the gland itself; but the coverings of the testicle are supplied by the— 
Superficial External Pudic, ■ 
Deep External Pudic, 
Superficial Perineal,—br. of the Internal Pudic, from the Int. Iliac. 
Cremasteric,—branch of the Epigastric, from the External Iliac. 
—branches of the Femoral. 
Name the Nerves of the Testicle. They are the— 
Ilio-inguinal, 
Ilio- hypogastric, 
Superficial Perineal,—branch of the Internal Pudic nerve. 
-branches of the Lumbar Plexus. 186 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Inferior Pudendal,—branch of the Small Sciatic nerve. 
Genital,—branch of the Genito-crural nerve. 
Describe the Spermatic Cord. It extends from the internal abdominal 
ring to the globus minor of the epididymis, and is about 4 inches long. It 
consists of the following-named 10 structures, bound together by areolar tissue 
and invested by its coverings. These structures are the— 
Vas Deferens. 2 Fig. 91. 
Spertnatic Artery! 
Cremasteric Artery. 
Artery of the Vas Deferens! 
Spermatic Veins. 
Spermatic Plexus of Nerves. 
Branch of the Ilio inguinal Nerve. 
Branch of the Genito-crural Nerve. 
Vasculum Aberrans. 
Lymphatics. 
What is the Pampiniform Plexus ? A venous plexus formed by the 
spermatic veins and branches from the epididymis. It forms the chief mass 
of the spermatic cord, and unites into a single trunk, which on the right side 
empties into the inferior vena cava, on the left side into the left renal vein. 
Describe the Vesiculae Seminales. They are two sacculated, membra- 
nous pouches, serving as reservoirs for the semen, and are filled by the back- 
ing up of that fluid from the vasa deferentia. They are about inches in 
length, and are situated between the base of the bladder and the rectum. 
Their— 
Ejaculatory Ducts,—one on each side, are formed by the junction of the 
vasa deferentia with the ducts of the vesicuke seminales. They are about 
'if inch in length, and terminate in the prostatic portion of the urethra, by 
orifices on the sides of the veru montanum. 
Describe the Descent of the Testes. In early foetal life the testes are 
situated in the abdominal cavity, just below and in front of the kidneys, and 
are each connected to the dartos of the scrotum and the tissues about the in- 
guinal canal by the 3 processes of a cord named the Gubernaculum Testis, 
which is supposed to gradually shorten itself and draw the testis down. At 
the beginning of the 5th month the descent begins; during the 7th month the 
testicle enters the inguinal canal, and ordinarily arrives in the scrotum by the 
end of the 8th month. A process of peritoneum is supposed to be carried 
down in front of the testis; which process, by obliteration of the canal, be- 
comes a separate structure, the Tunica Vaginalis. The structures of the 
inguinal canal are also supposed to be brought down with the testicle, and 
to constitute some of its coverings. THE VULVA. 
187 
FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 
THE VULVA. 
Enumerate the Organs comprised in the Vulva. They are the Mons 
Veneris, the Labia Majora, Labia Minora, Clitoris, Meatus Urinarius, and the 
Orifice of the Vagina. 
Describe the Labia Majora. They are two prominent folds formed of 
skin, mucous membrane, areolar and dartoid tissues;—are joined together at 
the mons veneris, forming the Anterior Commissure, and also in front of the 
perineum, where they form the Posterior Commissure. 
What are the Labia Minora ? The Labia Minora or Nymphre are two 
folds of mucous membrane, lost posteriorly in the labia majora, but anteriorly 
they embrace the clitoris, forming the Prepuce of that organ. 
Describe the other Parts comprised in the Vulva. The 
Mona Veneris,—is the eminence in front of the pubes. It is formed of adi- 
pose tissue, and at puberty becomes covered with hair. 
Clitoris,4—is situated beneath the anterior 
commissure, its Gians only appearing as a 
small rounded tubercle between the anterior 
extremities of the labia minora. It is a 
diminutive penis in all but the urettira, hav- 
ing a body, two crura, a glans, prepuce, 
suspensory ligament and muscles, the erec- 
tores clitoridis. 
Bulbi Vestibuli,3—are two oblong masses extending from the clitoris along 
the sides of the vestibule, and consisting of a venous plexus surrounded by 
a fibrous membrane. 
Pars Intermedia,—is a small venous plexus situated between the glans clito- 
ridis and the bulbi vestibuli. 
Vestibule,—is a triangular depression in front of the vaginal orifice, bounded 
laterally by the labia minora. 
Meatus Urinarius,1—situated in the vestibule, about an inch below the cli- 
toris, and close to the vaginal orifice. 
Orifice of the Vafina,2—is surrounded by the sphincter vaginae muscle, and 
in the virgin is sometimes partly closed by the hymen. 
Hymen,—a fold of mucous membrane situated across the lower part of the 
vaginal orifice, of various shapes, but usually semilunar, the concavity 
upwards. It is frequently absent in virgins, and after sexual intercourse its 
rupture and cicatrization give rise to small eminences along the margin of 
the vaginal orifice, named the Carunculcz Myrtiformes. 
Fig. 93. 188 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Fourcketl*,— a small transverse fold just behind the posterior margin of the 
vaginal orifice. 
Fossa Navicularis,—the space between the fourchette and the posterior com- 
missure of the vulva. 
Glands of Bartholine,—one on each side of the vaginal orifice, their ducts 
opening on the inner sides*of the labia minora. They are the analogues of 
Cowper’s glands in the male. 
THE VAGINA. 
Describe the Vaginh. It is a curved canal extending from the vulva to 
the uterus, placed between the bladder and the rectum. Its length is about 4 
inches along its anterior wall, an inch longer posteriorly, and its walls are 
usually in contact with each other. It is very dilatable, especially at its upper 
part. 
Describe its Structure. The vaginal wall consists of a muscular coat 
externally, a layer of erectile tissue, and a mucous lining covered with squa- 
mous epithelium, and furnished with mucous glands and follicles. The— 
Columns of the Vagina,—are two longitudinal raphes situated along its 
mucous surface, connected by numerous transverse ridges, or Ruga:. 
What are the Relations of the Vagina ? They are— 
Anteriorly,—the urethra and the base of the bladder. 
Posteriorly,—the anterior wall of the rectum, and the recto-uterine fold of 
peritoneum which forms Douglas’ cul-de-sac behind its upper fourth. 
Laterally,—are attached the broad ligaments of the uterus, the levatores ani 
muscles, and the recto-vesical fascia. 
Superiorly,—it is attached to the cervix uteri above the os, and higher on the 
posterior wall than anteriorly. 
THE UTERUS AND ITS APPENDAGES 
Where is the Uterus situated ? In the pelvic cavity, between the bladder 
and the rectum, and above the vagina. 
Describe the Uterus. It is a hollow, pear-shaped, muscular organ, meas 
uring about 3 inches long, 2 inches broad, and 1 inch thick, flattened from 
before backwards, placed base upwards, and forming an angle with the vagina, 
which partially receives its cervix. The— 
Fundus,A —is broad, convex, having walls y inch thick, and is covered by 
peritoneum. 
Body,—is about inch long, walls inch thick, flat anteriorly, convex 
posteriorly, concave laterally, and joined to the bladder by its lower ante- THE UTERUS AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
rior fourth. It is invested by peritoneum posteriorly, and in front for its 
upper three-fourths. 
Cervix, or Neck,—is the lower constricted portion, about inch long, 
walls inch in thickness, and is embraced for to inch by the upper 
extremity of the vagina. 
Cavity of the Body,B—is small and triangular, flattened from before back- 
wards, about l inch in length, and has two lateral Cornua above, and 
a constricted orifice—the Os Internum Uteri—at its lower angle, opening 
into the cavity of the cervix. 
Cavity of the Cervix,—is spindle-shaped, about 1 inch long, and presents 
on its inner surface transverse folds of mucous membrane proceeding from 
a longitudinal fold, giving an appearance named the Arbor Vitse.o 
Os Uteri or Os Tine to,—is a transverse orifice at the lower end of the 
cervical cavity, opening into the vagina, and having an anterior and a 
posterior lip. 
Fig. 94. 
Enumerate the Ligaments of the Uterus. The proper ligaments of 
the uterus are 6 in number,—2 Anterior, or Utero-vesico-pubic, 2 Posterior, or 
Utero-recto-sacral, and 2 Lateral, or Broad Ligaments, all composed of peri- 
toneum. The— 
Broad Ligaments,—pass from the sides of the uterus to the lateral walls 
of the pelvis, and form a septum across the pelvic cavity. They contain, 
between the two folds of peritoneum of which they are composed, the 
Fallopian tubes, the Ovaries, and the so-called Round Ligaments. 
What are the Round Ligaments of the Uterus ? They are two cords, 
composed of areolar and fibrous tissue, muscular fibres, vessels and nerves, 
extending one on each side, from the lateral aspects of the fundus uteri, through 
the inguinal canals, to the labia majora, where they are lost. Each ligament 
lies, for a part of its course, between the two layers of the broad ligament, and 
is covered by a process of peritoneum. (c Fig. 94.) 190 
Canal of Nuck,—is the extension of the above-named process of perito- 
neum into the inguinal canal. It exists in the foetus, and is usually ob 
literated in the adult. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the Uterine Structure. The uterine wall has 3 coats—perito- 
neal, muscular and mucous. Its— 
Peritoneal or Serous Coat,—invests the body of the organ, excepting on its 
lower anterior fourth. 
Muscular Coat,—constitutes the chief bulk of the uterus. It consists of 
bundles of unstriped muscular fibres, disposed in 3 layers interlaced 
together; circular fibres predominating in the cervix, longitudinal fibres 
in the body of the organ. 
Mucous Coat,—is very thick, Tx2- to y inch, and closely adherent to the 
muscular tissue, having no basement layer of connective tissue. It is 
covered with ciliated columnar epithelium, and studded with mucous 
follicles and glands, which are most numerous in the cervix. The latter, 
when distended by their own secretions, form sacs, which Naboth mistook 
for human ova, and hence were named the Ovules of Naboth. 
Enumerate the Uterine Vessels and Nerves. Its— 
Arteries,—are the Uterine, from the anterior trunk of the external iliac, anas- 
tomosing with twigs from the Ovarian—(spermatic branch of the abdominal 
aorta). 
Veins,—accompany the arteries, and in the impregnated state become sinuses. 
They end in the uterine plexuses. 
Lymphatics,—those of the cervix end in the sacral and internal iliac glands, 
those of the fundus in the lumbar glands. 
Nerves,—are derived from the inferior hypogastric and ovarian plexuses, and 
from the 3d and 4th sacral nerves. 
Describe the Fallopian Tubes or Oviducts. They are two tubes, 
each about 5 inches in length, and T inch in calibre, situated in the 
free margin of the broad ligament, and extending from the superior angles 
of the uterus outwards, to terminate in free, trumpet-shaped ends, the 
Fimbriated Extremities,E surrounded by fringe-like processes, the Fimbrice, 
of which one or more are attached to the ovary of that side. Their structure 
is similar to that of the uterus, their mucous lining being continuous with 
the uterine mucous membrane and with the peritoneum. They open by 
one end into the uterus at its cornua, by the other end into the peritoneal 
cavity. 
What are the Ovaries ? Two oval bodies,-F of whitish color, situated in 
the broad ligament, behind and below the Fallopian tubes, one on each side 
of the uterus, to which they are attached by the Ligaments of the OvariesM They each measure about 1 inch by by and are invested by perito- 
neum, except posteriorly. 
THE UTERUS AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
191 
Describe the Structure of the Ovaries. They are composed of a vas- 
cular stroma containing the Graafian Vesicles or Ovisacs, in various stages ol 
development, and are surrounded by a dense fibrous coat, the Tunica Albu- 
ginea. 
Describe the Graafian Vesicles. They are the ovisacs containing the 
human ova, are very numerous (about 70,000 in each ovary), vary in diameter 
from -g-’jj to jtj inch, but after puberty a few are found of from to inch 01 
more. Each vesicle presents an— 
External Coat,—of fibro-vascular structure. 
Ovi capsule,—or internal coat. 
Membrana Granulosa,—a layer of nucleated cells, which at one point are 
heaped up around the ovum in a mature vesicle, forming the Discus Pro- 
ligerus. 
Fluid,—of transparent, albuminous character, containing the ovum in imma- 
ture vesicles. 
What is the Ovum ? It is a spherical mass of protoplasm, about T|5 
inch in diameter when fully developed. It presents a— 
Vitelline Membrane,—also called the Zona Pellucida,—a colorless envelope, 
in which is contained the— 
Vitellus or Yelk,—composed of granules in a fluid substance, one of which 
is called the— 
Germinal Vesicle,—which contains a smaller body named the Germinal 
Spot, measuring about the an * *n diameter. 
What is the Corpus Luteum ? It is a puckered yellow spot in the sub- 
stance of the ovary, produced as a result of the rupture of a Graafian vesicle 
and the discharge of an ovum, probably by the fatty degeneration of the ex- 
travasated blood. The— 
True Corpus Luteum,—is that of pregnancy, and may increase in size, not 
disappearing until full term. 
False Corpus Luteum,—occurs when impregnation has not taken place, and 
is absorbed in about three months. 
What is the Pampiniform Plexus ? A venous plexus near the ovary, 
formed by the veins of that organ. 
Enumerate the Arteries and Nerves of the Ovaries. Their— 
Arteries,—are the Ovarian (or Spermatic), from the aorta, which also supply 
the Fallopian tubes, anastomosing with the uterine arteries. 
Nerves,—are derived from the Spermatic plexus. 192 
What is the Parovarium ? The Parovarium, or Organ of Rosenmiiller, 
is a group of tubules, situated in the broad ligament, between the ovary and 
the Fallopian tube, and converging to a large duct, the Duct of Gartner, 
w'hich ramifies in the broad ligament, and descends along the side of the 
uterus. It is thought to be a remnant of the Wolffian Body of foetal life. 
(See “Reproduction,” in Compend of Physiology.) 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
THE MAMMiE. 
Describe the Mammae. The breasts are two hemispherical eminences, 
situated one on each latero-anterior aspect of 
the chest, extending from the sternum to the 
axilla, and from the 3d rib to the 7th. Each 
breast contains the Mammary Gland and is 
surmounted by the Nipple, around the base of 
which is a zone of colored cutaneous tissue, 
the Areola, pink in virgins, darker in women 
who have borne children. In the male the 
mammae are rudimentary organs, but capable 
of development under special circumstances. 
Describe the Structure of the Mam- 
mary Gland. It is a compound conglomer- 
ate gland, composed of 15 or 20 lobes and 
their ducts,1 with a packing of areolar and 
adipose tissue, and enveloped by a fibrous 
capsule which forms septa between the lobes. 
Each lobe is made up of lobules,2 and these 
again are formed by the aggregation of the 
Acini or terminal vesicles, in which the milk 
is secreted. The — 
Tubuli Lactiferi or Tubuli Galaclophorip—are the excretory ducts of the 
lobes, one for each. They are formed by the junction of the ducts from 
each lobule, and converge towards the areola, beneath which they form 
Ampullce or dilatations, and thence, piercing the nipple, open on its sum- 
mit by separate orifices. 
Fig. 95. 
What is the Circulus Venosus ? An anastomotic venous circle around 
<he base of the nipple, from which larger veins run outwards and terminate in 
the axillary and internal mammary veins. 
Name the Arteries of the Mammae. They are derived from the Tho- 
racic Branches of the axillary, the Intercostals, and the Internal Mammary 
arteries. THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
193 
THE SKIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 
Name the Divisions of the Skin. It is divided into the— 
Epidermis, or Cuticle, 
Superficial Epithelial layers. 
Rete Mucosum, the pigmentary layers. 
Derma, or Cutis Vera, 
the True Skin. 
Papillary Layer,c next below the rete, from which 
it is separated by a homogeneous basement 
membrane. 
Coriumf the deepest portion. 
What Structures lie in and beneath the Skin ? The 
Sensitive Papillce, containing the Tactile Corpuscles in very sensitive parts,— 
in the papillary layer of the Derma. 
Sweat-glands./, g- Hair-roots. 
Sebaceous Glands.* Fat Cells.‘ 
In the Sub-cutaneous Cellular Tissue. 
Ducts of the Sweat-glands. 
Hair-follicles,—into which most of the seba- 
ceous ducts open. 
Ducts of the Sebaceous Glands,—occasionally. 
Perforate both the Derma 
and the Epidermis. 
Describe the Structure of the Epidermis. It is an unorganized epithe- 
lial structure, having no vessels or nerves. The cells of which it is composed 
are agglutinated together in a lami- 
nated arrangement, are flat and dry- 
on the surface, round and softer in the 
central portion, columnar and softest 
in the deepest layers. The lowest 
and softest layers are named the— 
Rete Mucosum,—which is closely 
moulded upon the papillary layer 
of the derma, and contains pig- 
ment cells, to which the color of 
the skin is due. 
Describe the Structure of the 
Derma. The true skin is a highly 
organized, tough yet elastic tissue, and 
serves to protect the parts beneath, to 
perform the functions of excretion and 
absorption, and as the chief seat of the 
sense of touch. It consists of fibro-areo- 
lar tissue, vessels and nerves. The— 
Fig. 96. 194 
Papillary Layer,—situated next to the rete mucosum,is covered with minute 
conical elevations (papillae), inch high inch in diameter at their 
base, very numerous and arranged in parallel curved lines wherever sen- 
sibility is greatest. Each papilla contains a capillary loop or plexus, the 
termination of one or more sensory nerves,—and in highly sensitive parts, 
an oval shaped body, the Tactile Corpuscle. 
Corium,—the lower layer of the derma, is composed chiefly of interlacing 
bundles of white fibrous tissue, in which are mingled some yellow elastic 
fibres, also plain muscular fibres wherever hairs are found,—and lym- 
phatic vessels, blood-vessels and nerves, in plexiform arrangement. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the Nails. They are flat, horny structures, a modification of 
the epidermis, molded upon the derma at the dorsal surface of the terminal 
phalanges of both fingers and toes. Each nail is convex on its outward 
surface, and is imbedded by its Root into a fold of the skin. Its— 
Matrix,—is that portion of the derma directly beneath the nail. It is 
covered with highly vascular papillae. The— 
Lunula,—is a white crescentic portion of the nail nearest to its root, pro- 
duced by the diminution in number and size of the papillae beneath. 
What are the Hairs ? They are also a modified form of the epidermis, 
found over nearly the whole surface of the body, much varied in size and 
color. Each hair consists of a Root and a Shaft. The— 
Root,—is lodged in an involution of the epidermis called the Hair-follicle, 
which sometimes extends into the subcutaneous cellular tissue. The root 
rests on a vascular papilla at the bottom or Bulb of the follicle, which 
supplies it with the material for its growth. 
Shaft,—is the projecting portion of the hair. It consists of a medulla in 
the centre, next a fibrous portion, externally a cortex of thin, flat scales. 
The finest hairs have no medulla. 
Point,—consists of the fibrous portion and the cortex, the medulla being 
wanting. 
Where are the Sebaceous Glands most abundant ? In the scalp, the 
face, around the anus, and the apertures of the nose, mouth and external ear. 
The largest are the— 
Aleibomian Glands,—situated in the eyelids (see Fig. 104). 
Describe the Sebaceous Glands. They are small, glandular bodies 
situated in the coriurn or in the subcutaneous cellular tissue over most of the 
body, but not in that of the palmar surface of the hands nor on the plantar 
surface of the feet. Each gland consists of a single sacculated duct, usually 
opening into a hair follicle, but sometimes ending on the surface of the in- 
tegument. 195 
Describe the Sweat-glands. Each gland consists of a single convoluted 
tube, situated usually in the subcutaneous cellular tissue, and opening on the 
surface of the integument by a spiral duct which pierces the derma and the 
epidermis. It is formed of two coats, an external fibro-cellular, which is con- 
tinuous with the corium, and an epithelial lining, continuous with the epidermis. 
THE NOSE. 
State the probable number of Sweat-glands and their Evaporating 
area. They are estimated as varying, in different parts of the integument, 
from 417 to 2800 to the square inch, giving for the whole body a total of 
nearly two millions and a half, representing an evaporating surface of about 8 
square inches. 
ORGANS OF TASTE. 
What are the special Organs of Taste ? The Taste-buds, small, flask 
shaped bodies, each about inch long, situated in the fungiform and cir- 
cumvallate papillae of the tongue. The seat of the sense of taste lies, how- 
ever, in the mucous membrane covering the dorsum of the tongue, the upper 
portion of the pharynx, the soft palate and the fauces. 
Name the special Nerves of Taste in the Tongue. The— 
Chorda Tympani Branch of the Facial—for its anterior two-thirds; perceiv- 
ing saline, acid and styptic qualities (Flint). 
Lingual Branch of the Glosso-pharyngeal,—for its posterior third; apprecia- 
ting alkaline, metallic, sweet and bitter tastes (Flint). 
What is Sapolini’s view of the Chorda Tympani Nerve ? From re- 
peated dissections, Dr. Sapolini, of Milan, believes the chorda tympani to be a 
separate cranial nerve, having its proximal end in the so-called intermediary 
nerve of Wrisberg, originating in the floor of the 4th ventricle, and termina- 
ting in a dense plexus with the lingual branch of the 5th nerve, in the mus- 
cles of the tongue. He further concludes that the chorda tympani is the nerve 
governing the movements of the tongue in speech, and that the nerves of taste 
are the Lingual Branches of the 5th and 9th nerves. 
THE NOSE. 
[For an osteological description of the Nasal Fossse and Septum, see page 31] 
Where is the Organ of Smell situated ? In the mucous lining of the 
upper portion of the nasal fossse, which is the seat of distribution of the ter- 
minal filaments* of the Olfactory Nerve,d the special nerve of the sense of 
smell. 
What is the Schneiderian Membrane ? The Schneiderian or Pituitary 
Membrane is the mucous membrane of the nasal fossae. It is continuous with 196 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
the mucous lining of the pharynx, Eustachian tube, tympanum and mastoid 
cells; also with that of the frontal,ethmoidal and sphenoidal sinuses/ the 
antrum, nasal duct, and the conjunctiva. It is covered with columnar epithe- 
lium, ciliated throughout most of its extent, provided with mucous glands, and in 
its deeper layer with the— 
Olfactory Cells of Schultze, 
— spind le - sh aped, epi- 
thelial structures grouped 
around and between the 
columnar epithelial cells, 
and joined together by 
their anastomosing pro- 
cesses, to form an intri- 
cate plexus on which the 
terminal fibres of the ol- 
, factory nerve are sup- 
posed to be distributed. 
Fig. 97. 
Name the Arteries of the Nose. They are the— 
Lateralis Nasi,—branch of the facial, to the alse of the nose. 
Nasal of the Septum,—from the superior coronary artery, to the septum. 
Nasal,—branches of the ophthalmic and infra-orbital, to the dorsum and sides 
of the nose. 
Name the Arteries of the Nasal Fossae. They are the— 
Anterior and Poste7'ior Ethmoidal,—from the ophthalmic. 
Spheno-palatine,—branch of the internal maxillary. 
Alveolar,—branch of the internal maxillary, to the antrum. 
What Nerves supply the Nose ? Branches from the facial, infra- 
orbital and infra-trochlear, and a filament from the nasal branch of the 
ophthalmic nerve. 
Olfactory or ist Cranial,e—over the upper third of the septum nasi, and over 
the superior and middle turbinated bones. 
What Nerves supply the Nasal Fossae ? They are the— 
Nasal Branch of the Ophthalmic, S—to the septum and outer walls. 
Anterior Dental Branch of the Superior Maxillary, j—to the inferior meatus 
of the nose and the inferior turbinated bone. 
Sphenopalatine Ganglion,—sends branches to the septum and the superior 
turbinated bone,—the Superior Nasal Br. to the same parts,—the Naso- 
palatine to the middle of the septum,—and the Anterior Palatine to the 
middle and lower turbinated bones. THE EYE. 
197 
[For an osteological description of the Orbit, see page 29 
THE EYE. 
What is the Visual Apparatus ? It comprises the eyeballs and their 
appendages, which collect the luminous impressions,—and the optic nerves, 
which convey these impressions to the brain. 
Describe the Eyeball. It is a spherical organ, situated in the anterior 
part of the orbital cavity, on a cushion of connective tissue and fat, where it is 
retained by its muscles, the optic nerve, the conjunctiva, etc., and protected in 
front by the eyelids and eyebrows. Projecting from its anterior surface is the 
segment of a smaller, transparent sphere, the Cornea. The eyeball has the 
following— 
Diameters,—Antero-posterior, about .95 inch,—Transverse, .92 inch,— 
Vertical, .90 inch,—in the adult. 
Anterior Pole,—is the geometric centre of the cornea. 
Posterior Pole,—is the geometric centre of the fundus. 
Optic Axis,—is an imaginary straight line connecting the poles. 
Visual Axis,—an imaginary straight line from the yellow spot to the object, 
through the nodal point. It cuts the cornea above the optic axis, at an 
angle therewith of 30 to 70, the Visual Angle. 
Nodal Point,—the centre of curvature of the refracting surfaces. 
Equatorial Plane,—an imaginary plane through the centre of the eyeball, 
perpendicular to the axis, dividing the ball or globe into the anterior and 
posterior hemispheres. The Equator is the line where this plane cuts the 
surface of the globe. 
Meridional Planes,—are imaginary planes coinciding with the axis of the 
eyeball. Meridians are the lines where these planes intersect the surface 
of the globe. 
Describe the Tunica Vaginalis Oculi. It is a fibrous capsule, sur- 
rounding the eyeball and the intra-orbital portion of the optic nerve ; arising 
from the optic foramen and being lost anteriorly on the sclerotic. It consists 
of two layers (parietal and visceral) enclosing a lymph-space which communi 
cates with the lymph-space between the sclerotic and choroid coats. The 
tendons of the ocular muscles pierce it. The— 
Capsule of Bonnet,—is the portion of tunica vaginalis posterior to the point 
where the tendons pass through it. This part is loosely attached to the 
eyeball, which rotates in it. 
Capsule of Tenon,—is the portion of the tunica vaginalis anterior to the 
passage of the tendons. [The whole capsule or Tunica Vaginalis is by 
many anatomists named the Capsule of Tenon.] 198 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Fig. 98. 
Name the Tunics of the Eyeball. 
They number 3, and are named as fol- 
lows: the— 
Sclerotic 3 and Cornea,*—the exter- 
nal and protective tunic. 
Uveal Tract,—or vascular tunic, 
comprising the Choroid,4 Ciliary 
body and the Iris,8 within which 
is the— 
Retina,11—the innermost, nervous 
tunic. 
Name the Humors of the Eyeball. 
They also number 3, as follows:— 
Aqueous,2—in the anterior 2 and 
middle 9 chambers. 
Crystalline,—forming the crystal- 
line lens.15 
Vitreous,1*—in the posterior chamber of the eyeball. 
The Sclerotic and Cornea. 
Describe the Sclerotic. The Sclerotic or hard coat is the posterior five- 
sixths of the external tunic of the eyeball, the anterior one-sixth being the 
Cornea. Externally it is of a white color, covered anteriorly by the conjunc- 
tival mucous membrane, posteriorly being continuous with the sheath of the 
optic nerve. Internally its color is brown, and its surface marked by grooves 
for the ciliary nerves. The optic nerve pierces it posteriorly, also the long and 
short ciliary arteries, posterior ciliary veins and short ciliary nerves. In the 
equatorial region it is pierced obliquely by the venae vorticosae, and around the 
corneal border by the anterior ciliary arteries and veins. It is composed of 
connective tissue with elastic fibres, intermixed with pigment cells, and cells 
resembling the corneal corpuscles. It presents for consideration the following 
points, viz.:— 
Thickness,—inch posteriorly, inch anteriorly. 
Lamina Fusca,—a layer of very fine connective tissue, connecting the 
sclerotic with the outer surface of the choroid. 
Lamina Cribosa,—the posterior perforated portion of the sclerotic, which 
at this point is a thin, cribriform lamina. Its largest opening transmits 
the arteria centralis retinae, and is named the Porus Opticus, or Optic 
Canal. 
Sub-conjunctival Tissue,—connects the conjunctiva with the outer surface 
of the sclerotic. THE CORNEA. 
199 
Sulcus,—a slight circular depression around the junction of the sclerotic 
with the cornea. 
Arteries,—from the Ciliary, are few and in a coarse net work, uniting at 
wide intervals, but forming, however, the— 
Posterior Vascular Zone, or Zone of Zinn,—an arterial zone around the 
optic nerve entrance, formed by twigs of the short ciliary going to the 
optic nerve to anastomose with branches of the central artery of the retina, 
forming the only connection between the ciliary and retinal systems. 
interior Vascular Zone,—around the cornea, formed by sub conjunctival 
branches of anterior ciliary vessels. 
Nerves,—none have been yet found in the sclerotic. 
What is the Cornea ? The Cornea, or horny body, is the anterior trans- 
parent projecting portion of the external tunic of the eyeball, forming about 
one-sixth thereof. It is set into the sclerotic as a watch-crystal into its case, is 
of ellipsoidal base, the transverse diameter being the longest, and slightly 
more convex vertically than horizontally. Its— 
Thickness,—is inch at centre, inch at periphery. 
Lndex of Refraction,— 1.342. 
Vessels,—none, except the peripheral zone, inch wide, formed of capil- 
lary loops from Episcleral branches of the anterior ciliary, which termi- 
nate at its circumference ; so that it is practically a non-vascular structure. 
Nerves,—are numerous; 20 or 30 twigs from the Ciliary nerves form an 
intricate plexus throughout its laminated substance. 
Describe the Structure of the Cornea. It consists of five layers,—cen- 
trally the true corneal tissue, having in front an anterior elastic lamina and the 
conjunctival epithelium; behind, a posterior elastic lamina and the epithelial 
lining of the aqueous chamber. The— 
Layer of Conjunctival Epithelium inch thick, consists of two or three 
layers of transparent nucleated cells. 
Anterior Elastic Lamina, also named the Anterior Limiting Layer, the 
Membrane of Bowman or Membrane of Reichert,—is xhm to 5 oVff inch 
thick, a firm, elastic and transparent homogeneous membrane, consisting 
of closely-interwoven fibrils, similar to those in the corneal tissue proper. 
True Corneal Tissue,—inch thick, a transparent, fibrous structure, formed 
of five connective-tissue fibrillae, united in bundles, and these in laminse, 
between which is a semi-fluid cement, filled with Corneal Corpuscles and 
wandering cells. 
Posterior Elastic Lamina, Membrane of Descemet, or Demours,—is, like 
the anterior elastic lamina, a structureless basement membrane, of extreme 
thinness, resisting the action of water, alcohol or acids; very brittle, ex 200 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
ceedingly elastic, and curls up inwardly upon itself, when detached from 
the true cornea. At the corneal margin it breaks up into fibres, which are 
continuous with the ligamentum pectinatum of the iris. 
Posterior Epithelial Layer,—a single layer of flattened, polygonal, trans- 
parent, nucleated cells, forming the endothelium of the membrane of 
Descemet or Demours, and the epithelial lining of the aqueous chamber. 
The Uveal Tract. 
Describe the Choroid. It is the posterior portion of the middle tunic of 
the eyeball, to Tt-ff inch thick, and extends from the optic nerve entrance 
to the ora serrata, a little in front of the equator. It is highly vascular, of 
dark-brown color, connected to the sclerotic by the Lamina Fusca, terminates 
anteriorly in the Ciliary Processes, and is composed of four layers, as follows:— 
Tunica Vasculosa,—externally, consists of the venae vorticosae and the 
larger arterial branches. 
Membrana Ruyschiana, or Chorio-capillaris, the middle layer—consists of 
a fine capillary plexus, formed by the short ciliary vessels. 
Limiting Membrane,—a structureless hyaline membrane, covering the inner 
surface of the capillary layer. 
Pigmentary Layer, internally,—a single layer of hexagonal nucleated cells, 
loaded with pigment of a brown black color, which is absent in albinos, 
and of slight amount in blondes. [Considered by many anatomists the 
10th layer of the retina.] 
Arteries of the Choroid,—are the short posterior ciliary, and recurrent branches 
from the long posterior and anterior ciliary. (See p. 105.) 
Veins,2—unite into 4 or 6 Venae Vorticosae,4 which pass out through the 
sclerotic near its equator. 
Nerves,3—derived from 3d, 5th, and sympathetic, through the long and short 
ciliary nerves. (See p. 137.) 
What are the Ciliary Processes ? They are 70 or 80 folds, formed by 
the anterior prolongation of the middle and internal layers of the choroid on 
the inner surface of the ciliary muscle, being received into corresponding folds 
on the suspensory ligament of the lens. They are about inch in length, 
and form a curtaindike expansion behind the iris. 
Describe the Ciliary Body.5 It is the portion of the uveal tract between 
the choroid and the iris,6 and consists of ciliary muscle covered by choroidal 
stroma and the ciliary processes. The— 
Ciliary Muscle or Muscle of Bowman,—is a ring of involuntary muscular 
fibres, supplied by the 3d nerve; is thickest anteriorly, thin posteriorly. 
Its fibres arise from the corneo-sclerotic junction, and pass backwards to THE UVEAL TRACT. 
201 
be attached to the choroid in front of the retina. Consists of meridional fibres 
drawing the choroid forwards, and circular fibres which relax the zonula 
and permit the lens to become more convex, from its own elasticity. 
Annular Muscle of Muller,—consists of separate circular bundles at the 
anterior internal angle of the ciliary body. 
Circulus Arteriosus Major and Minor,—are arterial circles on the ciliary 
muscle, formed by branches of the long posterior ciliary and anterior 
ciliary arteries. 
What is the Iris 5 ? It is a perforated curtain, suspended in the aqueous 
humor behind the cornea and in front of the lens, and is the anterior portion 
of the middle tunic of the eyeball, being continuous with the ciliary muscle 
and the choroid coat. It is about \ inch wide, inch thick, and is com- 
Fig. 99. 
posed of radiating and circular muscular fibres, a fibrous stroma and pigment 
cells, covered by a layer of irregular cells continuous with those of the mem- 
brane of Descemet. The— 
Pupil— is the central opening in the iris, situated a little to the nasal side 
of the centre, diameter to \ inch. 
Ligamentum Pectination Iridis, or Dollinger's band,—is the suspensory 
ligament of the iris, connecting its ciliary margin with the corneo-sclerotic 
junction. It is formed of strong fibrous prolongations from the membrane 
of Descemet and the posterior surface of the cornea. 
Fontana's Spaces,—are spaces between the prolongations which form the 
ligamentum pectinatum. In some animals, as the ox, they form regular 
canals. 202 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Uvea, or Tapetum,—a layer of purple pigment-cells on the posterior surface 
of the iris, continuous with the pigment layer of the ciliary processes. 
Sphincter Pupillce,—a layer of circular muscular fibres around the pupillary 
margin, supplied by the 3d nerve. 
Dilator Pupillce,—radiating muscular fibres from the pupillary margin toward 
the ciliary border, supplied by fibres of the sympathetic, from the ciliary 
ganglion. [See p. 137-] 
Membrana Pupillaris,—a vascular membrane which covers the pupil in 
the foetus, disappearing about the eighth month,—occasionally permanent. 
It is nourished by the Hyaloid Artery, through the Canal of Stilling (de- 
scribed under the Vitreous Humor). 
Arteries,—are derived from the long and anterior Ciliary, forming the Cir- 
culus Major Iridis at the ciliary border, and the Circuius Arteriosus 
Iridis Minor near the pupillary margin. 
Veins,—empty into those of the ciliary processes and the anterior ciliary veins 
Sinus Circularis Iridis, Canal of Schlemm, or Canal of Fontana,—is a 
minute canal at the internal corneo-sclerotic junction, extending around 
the circumference of the attached border of the iris. It is lined by endo- 
• thelium and encloses a venous plexus, receiving veins from the sclerotic 
and the ciliary plexus. It communicates with the chamber of the aqueous 
humor and with the anterior ciliary veins. 
Nerves of the Iris,—are derived from the 3d, 5th and the sympathetic, 
through the long and short ciliary nerves. The 3d supplies the circular 
fibres, the sympathetic the radiating ones, the 5th being nerves of common 
sensation. 
The Retina. 
What is the Retina ? It is the innermost or nervous tunic of the eye,— 
a delicate, grayish, transparent membrane, about of an inch thick at the 
fundus, inch at the anterior margin. It is formed by a membranous ex- 
pansion of the optic nerve elements, and extends from the termination of that 
nerve nearly as far forwards as the ciliary processes, terminating in a jagged 
margin, the Ora Serrata, though its fibrous stroma is continued as the Pars 
Ciliaris Retina over the ciliary body. The Retina presents for examination 
the following points, viz., the— 
Macula Lulea, or Yellow Spot,—situated on the retina, exactly in the visual 
axis; is an elevated oval spot where vision is very acute, the retina being 
very thin and full of nerve elements closely packed together at the ex- 
pense of its connective tissue. No rods, no nerve-fibre layer here, but 
the cones and ganglion-cells are very numerous. 
Fovea Centralis,—a depression at the centre of the macula lutea, T|-j to -fa 
inch in diameter, in which the sense of vision is most acute. THE RETINA. 
203 
Optic Disc or Papilla,—the point where the optic nerve enters, the central 
artery of the retina piercing its centre. It lies about -fe inch internal to 
and Tit inch below the posterior pole of the eye, and is often called the 
Blind Spot, being the only part of the fundus oculi from which the power 
of vision is absent. 
Pars Ciliaris Retina,—the part of the retinal stroma which is prolonged 
over the ciliary body. It is destitute of nerve-elements. 
Arteries of the Retina,—arise from the Arteria Centralis Retinae (br. of the 
ophthalmic), just behind the optic disc; run chiefly upwards and down- 
wards, accompanied by veins, to terminate in capillary network. No 
vessels exist in the fovea centralis, and only the finest capillaries in the 
macula lutea. 
Describe the Structure of the Retina. It 
is composed of nervous elements, blood-vessels, 
and modified connective tissue resembling the 
neuroglia of the brain, arranged in 9 or 10 
layers, from within outwards, as follows, viz.— 
Membrana Limitans Interna,—a perfectly 
transparent membrane, made up of the 
retinal connective tissue, and lining the 
inner surface of the retina (shown in the 
cut by the lowest line). 
Optic Nerve Fibres,1—composed of the ter- 
minal fibres of the optic nerve radiating 
from the papilla in all directions. They 
consist of the axis-cylinder only. 
Ganglionic Layer,2—a very thin layer of 
large ganglion cells, having large nuclei 
and nucleoli, with branching processes to 
the optic nerve fibres of next layer. 
Internal Molecular Layer,2—fine granules 
intersected by finest nerve fibres and con- 
nective tissue elements. 
Internal Granular Layer,1—small, round 
cells with large nuclei, their processes 
uniting with the ganglion cells. 
External Molecular Layer,2—a very thin 
layer of fine granules and nerve-fibrillse. 
External Granular Layer,2—consists of 
ellipsoid cells, forming a nucleated en- 
largement of Jacob’s membrane. 
Fig. ioo. 204 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
External Limiting Membrane,—a membranous expansion of radial con- 
nective tissue, perforated by foramina (shown in the cut by a line between 
6 and f). 
Rods and Cones, or Jacob's Membrane,’’—the perceptive layer of the retina, 
composed of rods and cones closely packed together, like palisades, the 
termini, probably, of the optic nerve fibres. 
[A tenth layer is described by some anatomists, the pigmentary layer of the 
choroid.8 See ante, p. 200.] 
Name the Essential Elements of the Retinal Structure. 
Principal Elements, are three, as follows, viz.— 
Nerve fibres,—which in the molecular layers break up into very delicate 
plexuses. In their course are found— 
Nerve-cells,—ordinary bipolar or multipolar, and modified ones, the so-called 
granular layers of the retina. 
Terminal Organs,—the rods and cones of Jacob. 
Subordinate Elements, are two, the— 
Modified Connective Tissue,— of spongy nature. 
Vessels,—blood-vessels and lymphatics. 
The Humors. 
What is the Aqueous Humor ? It is a clear, alkaline, serous fluid, com- 
posed of water 96.7, albumen 0.1, chloride of sodium and extractive matters 
3.2, weighing 4 to 5 grains, and filling the anterior and posterior aqueous 
chambers, which communicate with each other when the pupil is dilated 
sufficiently to remove the pupillary margin of the iris from the surface of the 
lens. The— 
Anterior Chamber of the Aqueous Humor,—has the cornea in front and the 
iris behind. 
Posterior Chamber of the Aqueous Humor,—has the iris in front, the lens, 
zonula and ciliary body behind. [The existence of any such space is 
denied by many authorities.] 
Describe the Crystalline Lens. It is a bi-convex, elastic, transparent 
body, enclosed in a capsule, held in place by a suspensory ligament, and situ- 
ated between the posterior aqueous chamber and the chamber of the vitreous 
humor, immediately behind the pupil. Its posterior surface is the most convex, 
and rests in the Hyaloid Fossa of the vitreous. Its — 
Ditnensions and Weight,—diameter, about y% inch,—axis about \ inch,—■ 
weight, 4 to grains,—index of refraction, 1.44. 
Composition,—water 60, soluble albuminous matter 35, insoluble albuminous 
matter 2.5, fat and cholesterine 2 per cent. THE HUMORS OF THE EYE. 
205 
Capsule,—is transparent, elastic, 'nch thick anteriorly, Pos' 
teriorly; has a layer of flat cells between its anterior portion and the lens, 
which, after death, break down into a fluid, the Liquor Morgagni. 
Zonula of Zinn, or Suspensory Ligament,—connects the capsule with the 
ciliary body. It is formed by a splitting of the. 
hyaloid membrane into two layers, one going 
in front of the lens, the other behind. It is 
shown exaggerated in the cut. 
Canal of Petit,—is a triangular space around the 
circumference of the lens, formed by the sepa- 
ration of the two portions of the suspensory 
ligament (shown inflated in the cut). ! 
Processus Zonulce,—are small radiating folds on 
the anterior surface of the suspensory ligament, which are received be- 
tween the ciliary processes. 
Fig. ioi. 
Describe the Structure of the Crystalline Lens. It consists of flattened 
hexagonal fibres, united laterally into lamella;, by serrated edges, and curving 
around the borders of the organ. Its centre or Nucleus is unstratified, and 
denser than the surrounding portion or Cortex. It is unorganized, having no 
vessels or nerves, but receives its nutriment by imbibition from the uveal tract, 
and possibly from the other humors of the eye. 
What is the Vitreous Humor ? The Vitreous Humor or Hyaloid Body 
is an apparently structureless substance, of gelatinous consistence, consisting 
of water with a little albumen and salts, and containing cells, nuclei, and con- 
nective-tissue fdaments. It has no vessels or nerves, and is situated in the 
posterior chamber of the eye, behind the lens, which it supports, as also the 
retina. The— 
Canal of Stilling, Canal of Cloquet, or Hyaloid Canal,—traverses the vit- 
reous humor antero-posteriorly, being the channel for the transmission in 
the foetus of the Hyaloid Artery to the membrana pupillaris. [See ante, 
p. 202.] 
Hyaloid Fossa,—a depression on the anterior surface of the vitreous, receiv- 
ing the posterior convexity of the lens. 
What is the Hyaloid Membrane ? It is a delicate capsule investing the 
vitreous, and supposed to send delicate septa into the substance of that humor. It 
divides anteriorly into two layers, which enclose the Canal of Petit and the Lens, 
forming the suspensory ligament of the latter, or Zonula of Zinn. [See above.] 
The foregoing is the view of most anatomists, but some assert that this 
membrane is identical with the internal limiting membrane of the retina, 
extending only to the ora serrata. [Henle, Iwanoff, etc.] VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Others admit a hyaloid membrane surrounding the vitreous, but deny that 
it splits to enclose the lens, and assign but one layer to the suspensory 
ligament, namely, that in front of the Canal of Petit. [Gray, etc.] 
Describe the Muscles of the Eyeball. They number 6, of which 4 are 
B.ecti and 2 Oblique, as follows:— 
Rectus Superior,5—from the upper margin of the optic foramen and the 
sheath of the optic nerve,—into the sclerotic coat. Action, to rotate the 
eyeball upwards. Nerve, 3d cranial. 
Rectus Inferior,6—from the ligament of Zinn,—into the sclerotic coat. 
Action, rotates the eyeball downwards. Nerve, 3d cranial. 
Rectus Internusf—from the ligament of Zinn,—into the sclerotic coat. 
Action, rotates the eyeball inwards. Nerve, 3d cranial. 
Rectus Externus,‘i—by two heads, the upper from the outer margin of the 
optic foramen, the lower from the ligament of Zinn and a bony process 
Fig. 102. 
at lower margin of the sphenoidal fissure,—into the sclerotic coat.10 
Action, to rotate the eyeball outwards. Nei"ve, 6th cranial, or abducens. 
Between the two heads of the external rectus pass the 3d, nasal branch 
of the 5th, and the 6th cranial nerves, and the ophthalmic vein. 
Obliquus Superior,v—from about a line above the inner margin of the optic 
foramen, its tendon passing through a “pulley” 12 near the internal an- 
gular process of the frontal bone and thence beneath the rectus superior, 
—into the sclerotic coat, at right angles8 to the insertion of the rectus 
superior. Action, to rotate the eyeball on its antero-posterior axis. 
Nerve, 4th cranial, or patheticus. 
Obliquus Inferior,9—from the orbital plate of the superior maxillary,— 
into the sclerotic coat below the insertion of the external rectus and at 
'•'fdit angles thereto. Action,to rotate the eye on its antero-posterior axis. 
Nerve, 3d cranial. THE eye. 
207 
Vessels and Nerves of the Eye. 
What Nerves supply the Muscles of the Eye ? The— 
3d Cranial, or Motor Oculi,—supplies the superior, inferior and internal recti, 
and the inferior oblique muscles. 
4/h Cranial, or Trochlear,—supplies the superior oblique muscle. 
bth Cranial, or Abducens,—supplies the external rectus. 
Describe the Arteries of the Eye. The Eye is supplied by the Oph- 
thalmic and Anterior Cerebral branches of the internal carotid artery, and 
the Infra-orbital branch of the internal maxillary (from the external carotid). 
The— 
Ophthalmic,—arises from the cavernous portion of the Internal Carotid, and 
enters the optic foramen, giving off the following-named branches:— 
Lachrymal,—to the lachrymal gland, the upper eyelid, and the conjunctiva, 
anastomosing with the palpebral arteries. 
Supra orbital,—supplies the superior rectus and levator palpebroe muscles, 
the forehead and pericranial tissues. 
Anterior and Posterior Ethmoidal,—to the dura mater, the nose, the ante- 
rior ethmoidal cells, and the frontal sinus. 
Palpebral,—superior and inferior,— to the eyelids. 
Frontal,—to the tissues of the forehead. 
Nasal,—to the lachrymal sac, and the nose. 
Short Ciliary, 12 or ij,—pierce the sclerotic at the lamina cribosa, supply- 
ing the choroid and the ciliary processes. 
Long Ciliary, 2,—pierce the sclerotic, and pass forwards between it and the 
choroid, to supply the iris, forming two arterial circles thereon, the Cir 
cuius Major Iridis at the ciliary border, and the Circulus Arteriosus Iridis 
Minor near the pupillary margin. 
Anterior Ciliary,—arise from the muscular branches, pierce the sclerotic, 
and join the great arterial circle of the iris. 
Arteria Centralis Retince,—pierces the optic nerve obliquely, and is dis- 
tributed to the retina. 
Muscular Branches, 2,—superior and inferior, supply the muscles of the 
eyeball. 
Anterior Cerebral, branch of the Internal Carotid,—sends nutrient capil- 
laries to the optic nerve. 
Infra-orbital, branch of the Internal Maxillary artery,—sends branches to the 
inferior rectus and inferior oblique muscles, and to the lachrymal gland. 
Name the Principal Lymph-spaces of the Eyeball. The— 
Canal of Schlemm,—around the circumference of the iris. 
Peri choroidal Space,—between the choroid and the sclerotic. 208 
Space of Tenon,—between the globe and its capsule. 
Vaginal Spaces,—between the sheaths of the optic nerve. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
What Veins has the Eye ? It has two main trunks, the Superior and 
Inferior Ophthalmic Veins, which empty into the cavernous sinus, after col- 
lecting the blood from the smaller venous channels through the Vence Vorti- 
cosce of the choroid. The veins of the eye anastomose freely with the facial 
veins, thus permitting the escape of venous blood in either direction. 
Describe the Nerves of the Eye. They are the— 
Nerve of Special Sense,—the Optic, or 2d cranial nerve. 
Motor Nerves,—the 3d, 4th, 6th, filaments of the 5th, and some fibres from 
the sympathetic. 
Sensory Nerve,—the Ophthalmic Division of the 5th, giving off the— 
Lachrymal,—to the lachrymal gland, the conjunctiva, and the integument 
of the upper eyelid. 
- Ganglionic. 
Long Ciliary, 
k. Infra-trochlear. 
Frontal, 
Supra-trochlear. 
Supra-orbital. 
Nasal 
Fig. 103. 
INT.TR0CHLEAR4 
NASAL 
CILIARY BR.—' 
Sympathetic Branches,—arise from the medulla, cilio-spinal region, cavernous 
and carotid plexuses, and join the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th nerves, sending 
filaments to the dilator fibres of the iris, to the muscles of the orbit and lids, 
to the ciliary ganglion, and to the walls of the arteries. APPENDAGES OF THE EYE. 
209 
Short Ciliary,—some 20 in number, arise from the Ciliary Ganglion [See ante, 
page 137], pierce the sclerotic and go to the ciliary muscle, choroid, iris, 
cornea, and to the sheath of the optic nerve. 
Ascending,—from Meckel’s ganglion [See ante, page 137], enter the orbit by 
the spheno-maxillary fissure, going to the optic nerve, the 6th nerve, and the 
ciliary ganglion. 
Describe the formation and course of the Optic Tract. The fibres 
which form the optic tract have their deep origin in the optic thalamus, corpora 
geniculata, and the anterior corpora quadrigemina. The tract winds around the 
crus cerebri as a flattened band, receiving from the crus a few fibres of attach- 
ment, and also fibres from the lamina cinerea and the tuber cinereum. In 
front of the latter body the two tracts join to form the Optic Commissure or 
Chiasm. [See 2 on Fig. 61, page 130.] 
What is the arrangement of the Fibres in the Optic Commissure ? 
As generally described, the fibres undergo a partial decussation, as follows, 
viz., the— 
Decussating Fibres,—are the most numerous. They lie in the centre of the 
commissure, and pass across to the opposite side, connecting the retina of 
each eye with the opposite cerebral hemisphere. 
Longitudinal Fibres,—are the external fibres in the optic tracts, passing 
into the optic nerve of the same side, connecting each retina with the 
cerebral hemisphere of its own side. 
Inter-cerebral Fibres,—situated posteriorly in the commissure, passing from 
one optic tract to the other. 
Inter-retinal Fibres,—lie anteriorly in the commissure, passing from one 
optic nerve to the other, and connecting the retina of one eye with that 
of the other. 
Describe the Optic Nerve. The Optic Nerve proper is the 2d cranial 
nerve, arises from the optic commissure, passes into the orbit by the optic fora- 
men in company with the ophthalmic artery, is pierced by the central artery 
of the retina, and enters the eyeball posteriorly inch inwardly from its axis, 
piercing the sclerotic and choroid coats, and finally expanding in the retina. 
It is surrounded by a tubular process of dura mater, which as the nerve enters 
the orbit, subdivides to form both the sheath of the nerve and the periosteum 
of the orbit. 
Appendages of The Eye. 
What are the Tutamina Oculi ? They are the appendages of the eye, 
including the— 
Eyebrows, or Supercilia. 
Eyelids, or Palpebrse. 
Conjunctiva, or lining membrane. 
Lachrymal Gland, and Ducts. 
Lachrymal Sac. 
Nasal Duct. 210 
Visceral anatomy. 
What are the Eyebrows ? They are arched elevations of the integu- 
ment over the supra-orbital arches, are covered with a row of short hairs, 
and are drawn downwards and inwards by the Corrugator Supercilii muscle. 
[See page 68.] 
Describe the Eyelids. The Palpebrae, or Eyelids, are two thin, movable 
folds, placed in front of the eye, for its protection. The upper lid is the most 
movable one, having its own levator muscle, the Levator palpebrse superioris. 
[See page 68.] The — 
Palpebral Fissure,—is the space between their free margins, its outer and 
inner angles being termed respectively the External Canthus and Inter- 
nal Canthus. 
Lacus Lachrymalis,—is a small triangular space at the internal canthus 
between the lids and the globe. 
Lachrymal Papilla,—on the edge of each lid, about inch from the 
internal canthus. 
Punctuf?i Lachrymale,—a minute orifice on each papilla, and the beginning 
of the lachrymal canal. 
Describe the Structure of the Eyelids. They are composed externally 
of skin, internally of mucous membrane (the palpebral conjunctiva), and be- 
tween these lie areolar tissue, the orbicularis muscle, tarsal cartilage, fibrous 
membrane, Meibomian glands, vessels and nerves. The— 
Orbicularis Palpebrarum Muscle,—is very thin and pale. [See p. 68.] 
Tensor Tarsi, or Horner's Muscle, [See p. 68]—is a portion of the orbicu- 
laris, compressing the punctum and the sac. 
Tarsal Cartilages,—are plates of fibro-cartilage, forming the framework of 
the lids. The upper one is crescentic in shape, the lower one elliptical 
and smaller. 
Tarsal Ligaments,—are fasciae connecting the tarsal cartilages to the cir- 
cumference of the orbit. Externally they connect with the malar bone, 
and are there called the External Canthal Ligaments. 
Tendo Oculi,—connects the inner end of 
each tarsal cartilage to the nasal process 
of the superior maxillary bone. 
Meibomian Glands,1—are sebaceous glands 
imbedded in the tarsal cartilages, 30 to 40 
in the upper lid, 20 to 30 in the lower one. 
They open along the inner edge of the free 
border of each lid, and furnish a sebaceous 
secretion, to prevent adhesion of the lids 
to each other. 
Fig. 104. THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS. 
211 
Eyelashes, or Cilia,—are a double or triple row of short hairs, situated on 
the free margins of the lids; their follicles lying in the connective tissue 
beneath the tarsal cartilages. 
Arteries,—are the Palpebral branches of the ophthalmic artery, forming 
the Superior and Inferior Tarsal Arches, and anastomosing with the 
angular, anterior temporal, lachrymal and transverse facial. 
Nerves,—the 3d, facial and sympathetic to the muscles; the 5th to the skin 
and conjunctiva. 
What is the Conjunctiva ? It is the mucous membrane which lines the 
eyelids, and is reflected over the front of the sclerotic and cornea. It is con 
tinuous with the mucous lining of the Meibomian glands, canaliculi, lachry- 
mal sac, nasal duct, lachrymal duct and gland. The— 
Palpebral Conjunctiva,—consists of connective tissue covered by epithe- 
lium, is traversed by furrows, and has papillae and follicular glands. 
Ocular Conjunctiva,—is very thin and transparent, loosely attached on the 
sclerotic, firmly adherent over the cornea, where it has no vessels in its 
structure. It has very few papillae, and no glands. 
Retro-tarsal or Palpebral Folds,—superior and inferior,—are where the con- 
junctiva is reflected over the globe. They contain prominent papillae, and 
conglomerate glands, called the accessory lachrymal glands. 
Plica Semilunaris, or Semi-lunar Folds,—a crescentic fold of conjunctiva 
at the inner canthus, considered to be the rudiment of the Membrana 
Nictitans or 3d eyelid (of birds). 
What is the Caruncula Lachrymalis ? It is a small, red, conical body, 
situated in the lacus lachrymalis, at the inner canthus of the eye; consisting 
of hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and covered by conjunctiva. It is con- 
nected by tendinous fibres to the capsule of Tenon and to the rectus internus 
muscle. 
Name the parts constituting the Lachrymal Apparatus. They are 
the lachrymal gland and its ducts, the accessory conjunctival glands, the 
canaliculi, lachrymal sac, and nasal duct. 
Describe the Lachrymal Gland. It is an oval gland situated in a fossa 
of the orbital portion of the frontal bone, at the outer angle of the orbit, its 
inferior surface resting on the eyeball, its lower margin or lobe being covered 
by conjunctiva. The— 
Tarso-orbital Fascia,—connects the lachrymal gland to the bony roof of 
the orbit. 
Ducts,—6 to 12 in number; open on the upper and outer portion of the 
palpebral conjunctiva. 
Secretion—(tears),—lubricates the anterior surface of the eyeball. Excess 212 
evaporates, or collects in lacus and 
passes through puncta into canaliculi, 
and so to lachrymal sac, and thence, 
by the nasal duct, into the inferior 
meatus of the nose. 
What are the Canaliculi ? They are 
two minute canals, inch in diameter 
and inch long, which extend from the 
punctum in each lid to the lachrymal sac. 
They are lined with mucous membrane, and 
enveloped by fibres of the tensor tarsi muscle. 
Describe the Lachrymal Sac. It is 
the superior dilated extremity of the nasal 
duct, and is situated in the groove formed by the lachrymal bone and the 
nasal process of the superior maxillary. Its form is oval, flattened antero- 
posteriorly; its dimensions about f inch long and i inch wide. Its fundus is 
crossed by the tarsal ligament, and by the tensor tarsi muscle. Its junction 
with the nasal duct may be interrupted by folds of the lining mucous mem- 
brane. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Fig. 105. 
What is the Nasal Duct ? A membranous canal extending from the 
lachrymal sac to the inferior meatus of the nose. It is about inch long, l/% 
inch in diameter, is contained in the osseous lachrymal canal, curving down- 
wards, backwards and outwards, and its calibre is narrowest about its middle. 
Its mucous lining is thick, and continuous with the Schneiderian membrane of 
the nasal cavity. Surrounding it is a vascular network of connective tissue, 
and outside this, a tendinous sheath. At its lower end a fold of mucous mem- 
brane forms an imperfect valve. 
THE EAR. 
What Bone contains the Auditory Apparatus ? The petrous and mas- 
toid portions of the Temporal bene. [Described on page 16.] 
Name the Divisions of the Auditory Apparatus. The organ of hear- 
ing consists of the following parts, viz.— 
I. External Ear. 
Auricle, or Pinna. 
External Auditory.J&mal. 
Membrana Tympani. 
Cavity of the Tympanum. 
Mastoid Cells. 
Eustachian Tube. 
2. Middle Ear, ox Tympanum.. THE ear. 
213 
3. Internal Ear, or Labyrinth. 
Vestibule. 
Semicircular Canals. 
Cochlea. 
Auditory Nerve. 
The External Ear. 
Describe the Auricle. The Auricle or Pinna is the external irregularly 
shaped appendage, fastened to the malar and temporal bones by elastic fibres. 
It consists of a broad plate of yellow cartilage, deficient in places where its 
parts are joined together by ligamentous tissue, and is covered by perichon- 
drium and integument, the latter containing sebaceous and sweat glands, and 
provided with short, downy hairs. The Auricle presents several elevations 
and depressions, named as follows: — 
Concha,—the central cavity leading into the canal. 
Tragus,—a conical eminence in front of the concha, usually covered with 
hairs along its inferior border. 
Anti-tragus,—a similar projection facing the tragus, from which it is sepa- 
rated by a deep fissure, the Incisura Inlertragica. 
Helix,—the outer curved edge of the pinna, beneath which is a deep groove, 
the Fossa Navicularis. 
Anti-helix,—a curved ridge along the posterior boundary of the concha, 
bifurcating above to enclose a triangular depression, named the Fossa 
Triangularis. 
Lobe or Lobule,—the soft, pendulous portion, composed of integumentary, 
adipose and connective tissues. 
Name the Muscles of the Auricle. The— 
Extrinsic Muscles are the— 
Attolens Aurem, Attrahens Aurem, Retrahens Aurern. 
[These muscles are described on page 68.] 
Intrinsic Muscles are but slightly developed. They are the— 
Tragicus,—lies vertically on the outer surface of the tragus. 
Anti-tragicus, —on the posterior wall of the auditory canal. 
Helicis Major,—vertically on the anterior border of the helix. 
Helicis Minor,—on lateral surface of the root of the helix. 
Transversus Auricula,—on the posterior surface of the auricle, radiating 
outwards from the convexity of the concha. 
Obliquus Auricula,—also on the posterior surface, radiating upwards from 
the convexity of the concha. 
Dilator of Concha,—on the tragus. 214 
Name the Arteries and Nerves of the Auricle. The— 
Arteries,—are derived from the External Carotid. The— 
Posterior Auricular,—a main branch of the external carotid. 
Anterior Auricular, branch of the Temporal br. of the ext. carotid. 
Auricular,—branch of the Occipital branch of the ext. carotid. 
Nerves,—are the— 
Auriculas Magnus,—from the cervical plexus. [See p. 133.] 
Posterior Auricular,—from the facial nerve. 
Auricular,—branch of the pneumogastric (also called Arnold’s nerve). 
Auriculo-temporal,—branch of the inferior maxillary div. of the 5th. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Describe the External Auditory Canal. It is an osseo-cartilagino»» 
tube, about \lf inch long, extending from the concha to the membrana tym 
pani, and curved irregularly in its course. The cartilaginous, or external por 
lion, is about inch long, and deficient posteriorly and above, where it is 
filled by strong fibrous tissue. The canal is lined with integument, having 
numerous hair follicles, sebaceous and ceruminous glands. 
Sulcus Tympanicus,—a groove at the bottom of the canal for the insertion 
of the membrana tympani. It is interrupted above by the— 
Segment of Rivinus,—at the upper part of the sulcus tympanicus, each end 
having an osseous spine, the Spina Tympanica Major and Minor. 
What are the Relations of the External Auditory Canal ? In front. 
the articulation of the lower jaw; below and in front, the. parotid gland; 
behind, the mastoid cells and the transverse sinus; above, the mastoid cells 
and the dura mater of the brain. 
Name its Vessels and Nerves. Its— 
Arteries,—are branches of the Posterior and Deep Auricular. 
Nerves,—are chiefly derived from the Temporo-auricular Branch of the inferiot 
maxillary division of the 5th nerve. 
The Membrana Tympani. 
What is the Membrana Tympani ? The Membrana Tympani, 01 
Drumhead, is an oval, inelastic, semi-transparent membrane, about inch 
in thickness, situated obliquely at the bottom of the external auditory canal, 
which it separates from the cavity of the tympanum. Seen through the canal, 
it is of a delicate blue-gray color, arched inwards, and presenting for consid- 
eration the following points, viz. :—A 
Tubercle,—white in color at the upper border, made by the short process 
of the malleus. 
Stripe,—also white, running downwards from the tubercle, and formed by 
the handle of the malleus. THE MEMBRANA TYMPANI. 
215 
Light-spot,—a triangular reflection, its apex at the tip of 
the malleus-handle, its base extending to the periphery 
of the membrane. It is due to the concavity of the "V 
drumhead. 
Umbo,—or shadow, is the darker central portion. 
Shrapneirs Membrane,—is the upper posterior part of 
the drumhead, where it is somewhat flaccid. 
Rivinian Foramen,—a minute opening supposed to exist 
in the portion called Shrapnell’s membrane. 
In what direction is the Membrana Tympani placed ? Obliquely 
inwards and forwards, almost forming a continuation of the posterior wall of 
the external auditory canal. 
Describe the Structure of the Membrana Tympani. It is composed 
of 3 layers, as follows:— 
External, or Dermoid Layer,—continuous with the integument lining the 
external auditory canal. 
Aliddle Layer, or Lamina Propria,—formed of outer radiating fibres, and 
inner circular ones. Between these two sets of fibres are situated the 
short process and handle of the malleus. 
Internal or Mucous Layer,—is continuous with the mucous lining of the 
tympanum. 
Tendinous Ring [At, Fig. 106),—surrounds the margin of the membrane, 
being received into the sulcus tympanicus. Its anterior and posterior ends 
are shown by v and h in Fig. 106. 
What Structures are presented by its Internal Surface ? A fibrous 
fold descends from the upper portion of the marginal ring, for a short distance 
along the malleus-handle, forming the— 
Anterior and Posterior Pouches,—one on each side of the malleus-handle, 
opening downwards. 
Tendinous Bands,—4 or 5,—converge from the posterior margin to the 
middle of the malleus-handle. 
What Arteries Supply the Membrana Tympani ? The—• 
Deep Auricular, branch of the internal maxillary,—supplies the external layer, 
and forms with the Tympanic Branches a capillary plexus in the middle 
layer, (von Trolsch, Roosa, etc.) 
Tympanic, branches of the internal maxillary and internal carotid arteries,— 
supply the internal layer, and anastomose on the membrana tympani with 
the— 
Vidian and Stylo-mastoid,—branches respectively of the internal maxillary 
and posterior auricular branches of the external carotid. 
Fig. 106. 216 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
What Nerves supply the Membrana Tympani ? The external layer 
contains filaments from the Superficial Temporal branch of the 5th; the inner 
layer is supplied by the Tympanic Plexus. (See Nerves of Tympanum.) 
Describe the Tympanum. The Tympanum, Drum, or Middle Ear, is 
an irregularly-shaped cavity lying between the membrana tympani and the 
internal ear, and communicating with the pharyngeal cavity by the Eustachian 
tube. It contains the ossicles of the tympanum, part of the chorda tympani 
nerve, and air. Its average diameters are about \ inch antero-posteriorly, 
to inch vertically, and to £ inch transversely. 
Name the Points on each wall of the Tympanum. Its— 
Roof,—is very thin, and corresponds to a depression on the anterior surface 
of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 
Floor,—is a thin plate, separating it from the jugular fossa and vein. Has— 
Opening for Jacobson's Nerve,—in the floor. 
Outer Wall,—is formed by the membrana tympani and presents the— 
Iter Chorda; Posterius,—opens close to posterior edge of drumhead, for the 
entrance of the chorda tympani nerve. 
Iter Chorda Anterius, or Canal of Hugier,—opening just in front of the 
drumhead, for the exit of the chorda tympani nerve. (See p. 16.) 
Glaserian Fissure,—opens above and in front of the drumhead, receiving 
the long process of the malleus, the anterior ligament of the malleus, and 
the tympanic artery. (See ante, p. 15.) 
Inner Wall,—is the outer wall of I he labyrinth;—presents the— 
Fenestra Ovalis,—an oval opening, leading into the vestibule, and closed 
by a membrane, to which is attached the base of the stapes. 
Fenestra Rotunda,—a smaller opening, below the fenestra ovalis, leading 
into the scala tympani of the cochlea, and closed by the Membrana Tym- 
pani Secundaria. 
Promonotory,—an elevation corresponding to the first turn of the cochlea, 
situated between the fenestrae and in front of them. 
Ridge of the Aqueducius Fallopii, —above the fenestra ovalis, behind which 
it curves downwards along the posterior wall. 
Pyramid,—a conical eminence containing a canal which communicates with 
the aqueductu; Fallopii and encloses the stapedius muscle. 
Anterior Wall,—presents the— 
Opening of Canal for the Tensor Tympani Muscle,—above, situated on a 
small projection, the Anterior Pyramid. 
Opening of the Eustachian Tube,—next below. These two canals being 
separated by a bony lamina, the Septum Tuba. 
The Tympanum. THE TYMPANUM 
217 
Processus Cochleariformis,—the small end of the septum tuba:, projecting 
into the tympanum. (See p. 17.) 
Posterior Wall, separates it from the mastoid cells, and presents the— 
Openings of the Mastoid Cells. Ridge of the Aqueductus Fallopii, curving 
downwards and nearly vertically. (See above.) 
Describe the Ossicles of the Tympanum. They are three small bones, 
which form a chain across the tympanic cavity, connecting the membrana 
tympani with the fenestra ovalis, and named the— 
Malleits, or Hammer,A—consists of a head, neck, short process, .ong pro- 
cess, or Processus Gracilis, and handle, or Manubrium. The short pro- 
cess and handle are fastened to the middle layer of the drumhead. The 
long process is received into the Glaserian fissure, and the head articulates 
with the head of the Incus. 
Incus, or Anvil,B—has a head, also a long and a short process. The head 
articulates with the head of the malleus, the 
short process with the posterior wall of the 
tympanum, the long process with the head of 
the stapes, by the Os Orbiculare, its convex ex- 
tremity. 
Stapes, or Stirrup,C—presents a head, neck, base 
and crura. Its head articulates with the incus, 
its base rests on the membrane closing the 
fenestra ovalis, its neck receives the tendon of 
the stapedius muscle. 
Name the Ligaments of the Ossicles. They are the— 
Ligamentum Mallei Anterius,—from the spina tympanica major to the neck 
and long process of the malleus. 
Lig. Mallei Externum,—from the border of the Rivinian segment (p. 214), 
to the neck of the malleus. Its posterior fibres are the— 
Lig. Mallei Posticum,—(Laxator tympani minor muscle of Sommering)—is 
simply the posterior group of fibres of the preceding ligament. 
Lig. Mallei Superius,— (Suspensory lig. of the malleus) from the roof of the 
tympanum to the head of the malleus. 
Lig. Incudis Superius,—from the roof of the tympanum to the head of the 
incus (Arnold). 
Lig. Incudis Posticum,—from the posterior wall of the tympanum to the short 
process of the incus. 
Lig. Obturatorium Stapedium,—a thin membrane which closes the opening 
between the crura of the stapes. 
Fig. 107. 218 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Annular Ligament,—connecting the base of the stapes to the margin of the 
fenestra ovalis. 
Capsular Ligaments,—around the articulations between the ossicles them- 
selves, which articulations are lined by synovial membranes, with articular 
cartilages between the contiguous surfaces. 
Name the Muscles of the Tympanum. Three are usually described, 
—the Tensor Tympani, Laxator Tympani, and the Stapedius. A fourth, the 
Laxator Tympani Minor, is now generally omitted, being considered the 
posterior ligament of the malleus by most writers. Many otologists omit 
the Laxator Tympani from the list also. [These muscles are described on 
page 71.] 
What Arteries supply the Tympanum ? The— 
Tympanic,—branch of the internal maxillary, entering the Glaserian fissure, 
anastomosing on the membrana tympani, in a vascular circle, with the Stylo- 
mastoid and Vidian arteries, and the Tympanic br. of the internal carotid. 
Stylo-mastoid,—br. of the posterior auricular br. of the external carotid, en- 
tering at the stylo mastoid foramen. 
Petrosal,—br. of middle meningeal artery, entering by the hiatus Fallopii. 
Tympanic,—br. from the internal carotid artery. (See p. 105.) 
Vidian,—br. of the internal maxillary br. of the external carotid. 
Branches,—from the ascending pharyngeal br. of the external carotid. 
Name the Nerves of the Tympanum. The— 
Tympanic Br. of the Glosso-pharyngeal (Jacobson’s Nerve),—enters the tym- 
panum through its floor, and supplies the two fenestrae and the mucous lin- 
ing of the cavity, helping to form the Tympanic Plexus (see below). 
Ty mpanic Branch of the Facial Nerve,—to the stapedius and laxator tympani 
muscles. 
Branch from the Otic Ganglion,—to the tensor tympani muscle. [This 
ganglion is described on page 137.] 
Chorda Tympani Br. of the Facial,—enters the tympanum by the iter chordae 
posterius, crosses the cavity between the handle of the malleus and the long 
process of the incus, and makes its exit by the iter chordae anterius, after 
passing close along the upper part of the membrana tympani. 
How is the Tympanic Plexus Formed ? By the— 
Tympanic Br. of the Glosso-Pharyngeal,—or Jacobson’s nerve. 
Branch of the Superficial Petrosal, from the Facial,—entering from above. 
Branches from the Carotid Plexus of the Sympathetic,—through the wall 
of the carotid canal. 
The plexus lies in grooves on the inner wall around the promontory, and sup- 
plies the mucous membrane of the tympanum. 219 
the internal ear. 
The Eustachian Tube. 
What is the Eustachian Tube ? It is an osseo-cartilaginous canal, about 
inches long, inch in diameter at tympanic end, inch at pharyngeai, 
which leads downwards and forwards from the tympanic cavity into the 
pharynx. Of its length two-thirds is cartilaginous, one-third osseous. Above 
its bony portion is the canal for the tensor tympani muscle, from which it is 
divided by an osseous lamina, the Septum Tubes. Its— 
Cartilaginous Portion,—consists of two plates of cartilage, their non-ap- 
proximated edges being connected by a membrane. 
Pharyngeal Orifice,—is trumpet-shaped, and situated in the posterior nasal 
space, just above the nasal floor. 
Mucous Membrane,—covered with the ciliated epithelium, and continuous 
with that of the pharynx and the tympanum. 
Describe the Muscles of the Eustachian Tube. They are the— 
Spheno-salpingo-staphylinus,—the abductor or dilator of the tube—is described 
as arising from the sphenoid bone and the cartilage of the tube, and being 
inserted into the convex border of the outer cartilage for its whole length. 
Nerve,—internal pterygoid. 
Levator Veli Palali,—arises from the temporal bone and the cartilage of the 
tube,—into the osseous tube, the cartilage, and the mucous membrane. 
Action, to enlarge the transverse diameter of the tube. Nerve, pneumo- 
gastric. 
Salpingo-pharyngeus,—a thin layer disposed along the median cartilaginous 
plate and the mucous membrane. Action, to fix the median cartilage. 
Called a fascia by some anatomists. 
What Arteries supply the Eustachian Tube ? The— 
Ascending Pharyngeal,—branch of the external carotid. 
Middle Meningeal,—branch of the internal maxillary br. of the ext. carotid. 
Branch,—from the internal carotid artery. 
Name its Nerves. Besides those which supply the muscles of the tube 
(y.e above), it has branches from the— 
Superior Pharyngeal. Glosso-pharyngeal. 
The Internal Ear. 
Name the Parts comprised in the Internal Ear, 
Osseous Labyrinth, consists of the 
Vestibule. 
Semicircular Canals. 
Cochlea. 220 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Utricle. 
Membranous Semicircular CanaL 
Saccule. 
Membranous Cochlea. 
Membranous Labyrinth, comprises the 
Auditory Nerve,—the 8th cranial nerve, or the Portio Mollis of the 7th. 
Organ of Corti,—the terminal auditory apparatus. 
Lnternal Auditory Canal,—by which the auditory nerve enters. 
Describe the general arrangement of the Internal Ear. . It lies in 
:ernal to the tympanum, within the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and 
consists of a series of osseous chambers, the Osseous Labyrinth, containing a 
fluid, the Perilymph, or Liquor Cotunnii, in which lies a membranous repro- 
duction of the chambers, the Membranous Labyrinth, which also contains a 
fluid, the Endolymph, or LJquor Scarpa. Upon the membranous labyrinth 
are distributed the terminal filaments of the auditory nerve, which being 
pended between two fluids, are not only protected from injury, but enabled to 
perceive the most delicate vibrations which may be communicated to the fluids 
surrounding them. 
Describe the Vestibule. It is the common cavity of communication 
between the osseous parts of the internal ear, and measures in vertical diameter 
about inch, laterally about rV inch. It communicates in front with the scala 
vestibuli of the cochlea; and behind (by five openings) with the semicircular 
canals. It presents the following points, viz.:—the—* 
Fenestra Ovalis,—on its outer wall, 
closed by the base of the stapes and 
its annular ligament. 
Fovea Hemispherical—a small circular 
depression on the inner wall, for the 
saccule. 
Macidce Cricosce,—are groups of very 
minute orifices on the inner wall, ad- 
mitting the nerve filaments. 
Crista, or Pyramidal Eminence,—a 
vertical ridge on the inner wall, 
bounding the fovea posteriorly. 
Aqueductus Vestibuli,d—opens behind the crista, ending on the posterior 
surface of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. It contains a small 
blind canal opening by two arms, one into the utricle, the other into the 
saccule; also a small vein. 
Fovea Semi-ellipticap—a small oval depression on the roof, above and be 
Fig. 108. THE INTERNAL EAR. 
221 
hind the fovea hemispherica. It lodges the utricle, and presents a Macula 
Cribosa for the entrance of branches of the vestibular nerve. 
What are the Semicircular Canals ? They are three C-shaped bony 
tubes, each aoout inch in diameter, situated above and behind the vestibule, 
into which they open by 5 apertures. Each canal lies at a right angle with 
the other two. The— 
Superior and Posterior/ Canals,—are each nearly an inch long, vertically 
placed, joined together posteriorly where they open into the vestibule by 
a common orifice.c 
External Canal,g-—is £ inch long, horizontally placed, and directed out- 
wards and backwards. 
Ampulla,—is a flask-shaped dilatation of each canal at one extremity, 
having a diameter of about inch. 
Describe the Cochlea. The Cochlea is a bony tube, about T inch long, 
tapering from to inch in diameter, coiled around a central conical axis 
for turns, and resembling a snail shell in appearance. It measures about 
inch in length and the same in breadth at the base. It is situated in front 
of the vestibule, its apex pointing forwards and outwards, and is separated 
from the carotid canal in front by a thin 
wall. Its— 
Modiolus, a—is the central axis, conical 
in shape, channeled by small canals 
for the passage of arteries and nerves, 
and by a central one, the Canalis 
Centralis Modioli. Its apex is within 
the last coil of the cochlea, and is ex- 
panded into a funnel-shaped lamella, the Infundibulum. 
Lamina Spiralis, b—is a thin, osseous plate, projecting from the modiolus 
half way across the spiral canal, and winding around the modiolus ter- 
minates near the apex in a hook-like or Hamular Process. Its deficiency 
in the last half turn of the cochlea forms the Helicotrema, a space in 
which the scalae vestibuli and tympani unite. (See below.) It consists 
of two laminae, 1, 2, between which pass the filaments of the cochlear 
nerve.10 From its free edge the structures composing the membranous 
cochlea pass to their attachment on the opposite wall of the cavity. (See 
Fig. hi.) 
Spiral Canal,—is the space between the modiolus and the outer wall of the 
cochlea. It makes 2y2 turns,—from left to right in the right ear, from 
right to left in che left ear: an l terminates in the Cupola, a cul-de sac at 
the apex of the cochlea. It is divided, by the osseous lamina spiralis and 
Fig. 109. 222 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
the membranous cochlea, into 2 Scalae,—the Scala Vestibuli6 and the 
Scala TympaniS [Fig. hi.] 
[A third scala is described by many authorities,the Scala Media,* including 
the space occupied by the membranous cochlea. See Fig. hi.] 
Describe the Scala Vestibuli. It is the portion of the spiral canal lying 
above the lamina spiralis and the membranous cochlea; communicates with 
the vestibule below, and with the scala tympani above at the Helicotrema. It 
is filled with perilymph. 
What is the Scala Tympani ? It is the portion of the spiral canal lying 
below the lamina spiralis and the membranous cochlea, communicates with 
the aqueductus cochlea (see below), and with the scala vestibuli at the Heli- 
cotrema. It terminates inferiorly at the fenestra rotunda, and is filled with 
perilymph. 
What is meant by the Helicotrema ? It is a space at the apex of the 
cochlea, formed by the deficiency of the lamina spiralis in the last half turn 
of the same. In this space the two scalse are believed to open, thereby 
communicating with each other. 
What is the Aqueductus Cochleae ? A small canal which begins by a 
small orifice in the lower wall of the scala tympani, and runs in the inner wall 
of the jugular fossa, ending at the edge between the inferior and inner surfaces 
of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. It transmits a vein from the 
cochlea to the jugular vein. 
What Parts are comprised in the Membranous Labyrinth? It 
consists of two membranous sacs, the Utricle1 and Saccule,2 which lie in 
the vestibule, together with the Membranous 
Semicircular Canals,6 and the Membranous 
Cochlea.3, 5 The utricle and saccule com- 
municate with each other indirectly by a 
small canal contained in the aqueductus 
vestibuli. The saccule communicates with 
the membranous cochlea by the Canalis Re- 
uniens,4 and the membranous semicircular 
canals open into the utricle; so that the 
membranous labyrinth presents an uninterrupted channel for the endolymph 
which it contains. 
What is the Utricle ? It is a flattened, elliptical membranous sac, fastened 
to the inner wall of the vestibule in the fovea semi-elliptica. It is filled with 
endolymph, nearly surrounded by perilymph, and communicates with the 
saccule through the small tube in the aqueductus vestibuli. The membranous 
Fig. iio. 223 
semicircular canals open into it by 5 orifices. The wall of the utricle has 
attached to it the— 
Otoliths, or Ear stones,—a powder, consisting of crystals of carbonate of 
calcium, gggg to gggg inch in diameter, held together by a mucoid 
substance. 
Macula Acoustica,—See below, under Saccule. 
THE INTERNAL EAR. 
Describe the Membranous Semicircular Canals. They are 3 canals, 
having the same shape as the osseous ones in which they are contained, being 
fastened thereto by their convex curves, and elsewhere surrounded by peri- 
lymph, except at the ampullae, where they fill the osseous canals. They open 
into the utricle by 5 orifices. 
What is the Saccule ? It is a flask-shaped, membranous sac, about TC 
inch in diameter, attached at one point to the utricle, and also to the fovea 
hemispherica of the vestibule, being elsewhere surrounded by perilymph, and 
containing endolymph. It communicates with the utricle through the small 
canal in the aqueductus vestibuli, and also with the membranous cochlea by 
its neck, the— 
Canalis Reuniens,—about inch long and T|5 inch in diameter, is V- 
shaped, its arms opening respectively into the saccule and the vestibular 
end of the membranous cochlea. 
Macula Acoustica,—is a dense, circular point, T'j inch in diameter, on the 
wall of both the utricle and the saccule, formed by a thickening of the 
connective tissue where the fibres of the vestibular nerve enter it. 
Describe the Membranous Cochlea. This portion of the membranous 
labyrinth, also called the Ductus 
Cochlearis, commences in the lower 
end of the osseous cochlea and send 
at its summit in a closed extremity. 
It is attached on one side to the 
lamina spiralis, on the other side to 
the outer wall of the osseous cochlea. 
It is formed by the Membrana 
Basilaris3 below, the Membrane 
of Reissner 4 on one side, and the 
periosteum of the cochlear wall on 
the outer side, its cross section being 
of a triangular form. It is filled with endolymph, and contains the Organ 
of Corti 9 covered by the Membrana Tectoria.1X The— 
Limbus Lamina Spiralis,—is the soft structure on the edge of the lamina 
spiralis, and lies in the membranous cochlea. It has two lips,—an upper, 
Fig hi 224 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
or Labium Vestibulare, a lower, or Labium Tympanicum, with a furrow 
between them, called the Sulcus Spiralis Internus. 
Membrane of Rtissnerf—extends from the edge of the lamina spiralis to 
the outer cochlear wall, forming the vestibular wall of the membranous 
cochlea Its outer insertion is the Angulus Vestibularis. 
Alembrana Basilaris p—is the tympanic wall of the membranous cochlea, 
extending from the labium tympanicum of the lamina spiralis to the outer 
cochlear wall, where its insertion is called the Ligamentum Spirals p or 
Muscle of Todd and Bowman. On it rests the Organ of Cor tip—cov- 
ered by the — 
Membrana Tectoria,11—extends parallel to the membrana basilaris from 
the labium vestibulare to the outer cochlear wall, where, according to 
some authorities, it is inserted, according to others it is free and rests 
directly on the organ of Corti, perhaps to act as a damper to its 
vibrations. 
Describe the Organ of Corti. It is a peculiar arrangement of cartilagi- 
nous rods and epithelial hair cells, which is supposed to constitute the essential 
organ of hearing.9 It lies on the membrana basilaris 3 and is covered by the 
membrana tectoria.11 The— 
Rods of Corti,—are arranged in two rows, resting, by their pedestals, on the 
membrana basilaris, and uniting with each other 
by their heads, so as to form an arche'd tunnel all 
along the membrane. Number of rods in inner 
row about 6,000, in outer row 4,500. Average 
diameter ot the rods, from to inch. 
Head-plates,—are attached to the heads of the inner 
rods, for the reception of the rods of the opposite 
row. 
Lamina Reticularis—a perforated delicate membrane which extends from 
the articulations ol 
the rods outwards to 
the external wall ol 
the cochlea. 
Auditory Cells,'1—are 
epithelial structures 
covering the inner 
surfaces of the walls and the floor of the membranous cochlea. Those 
which cover the inner rods by a single row number about 3,300, are nu- 
cleated, covered with tufts of cilia, and called the Inner Hair-cells. On 
the outer rods are 3 or 4 rows of similar cells, numbering about 18,000, 
and named the Outer Hair-cells. 
pIG II2 
Fig. 113. THE INTERNAL EAR. 
225 
Rings and Phalanges,]—are very minute structures which connect the 
ciliae of the hair-cells together, and form the Lamina Reticularis. (See 
page 224.) 
Describe the Origin, Course and Distribution of the Auditory 
Nerve. The 8th Cranial Nerve, or Portio Mollis of the 7th pair, arises by 
two roots from the medulla oblongata, one from the floor of the 4th ventricle, 
the other from a nucleus in the processus e cerebello ad medullam. It winds 
around the restiform body, from whichrit receives fibres, and emerges at the 
lower border of the pons, in company with the facial nerve. The two nerves 
pass into the internal auditory canal, at the bottom of which the auditory nerve 
divides into two branches, the vestibular and cochlear nerves. The— 
Vestibular Nerve,—has a ganglionic swelling on it in the internal auditory 
canal, and then divides into 3 branches, which pass through the maculae 
cribosae, and are distributed to the utricle, saccule, and the ampullae of the 
semicircular canals, respectively. 
Cochlear Nerve,—gives off a small branch to the wall between the utricle 
and saccule, and then divides into numerous filaments which passthrough 
the small canals into the modiolus, to form a plexus between the two 
plates of the lamina spiralis, from which filaments pass through the lower 
edge of the lamina to terminate in the spindle-shaped cells of the organ 
of Corti. (See page 224.) 
Intumescentia Ganglioniformis Scarpa,—is the ganglionic swelling on the 
vestibular nerve in the internal auditory canal. 
Ganglion Spirale,—is a ganglion found on each filament of the cochlear 
nerve, just as it enters between the plates of the lamina spiralis. 
What Arteries supply the Labyrinth ? The— 
Internal Auditory Artery, br, of the basilar (from the vertebral),—accom- 
panies the auditory nerve into the internal auditory canal, where it divides 
into vestibular and cochlear branches. 
Stylo-mastoid Artery, br. of the posterior auricular (from the external carotid), 
—sends some small branches to the internal ear. 
Describe the Internal Auditory Canal. It begins by a large orifice on 
the posterior surface of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and runs 
outwards for »/( inch, to end in a blind fossa, the floor of which is marked by 
4 depressions, which are perforated by fine foramina, for the passage of the 
filaments of the auditory nerve to the labyrinth. One of these depressions is 
the— 
Tract us Spiralis Forminosus,—a spiral shaped depression containing a 
number of the above foramina, situated opposi the base of the cochlea 
Macula Cribosce,—are the other 3 depressions. 226 
VISCERAL ANATOMV. 
HERNIA. 
What is a Hernia ? A protrusion of any viscus from its natural cavity. 
The term, when unqualified as to the viscus, is understood to mean a protru- 
sion of the intestines or mesentery, or both, from the abdominal cavity. 
Name the Herniae of most importance anatomically. 
Oblique Inguinal Hernia,—in which the protrusion follows the spermatic 
cord through the inguinal canal; passing to the outer side of the epigastric 
artery, and through both the internal and external abdominal rings. 
Direct Inguinal Hernia,—occurs at Hesselbach’s triangle, escaping to the 
inner side of the epigastric artery, and through the external abdominal ring 
only. 
Femoral Hernia,—in which the protrusion descends through the femoral or 
crural canal. 
INGUINAL HERNIA. 
Where is the Inguinal Canal ? It is a passage in the abdominal wall, 
parallel to Poupart’s ligament, and just above it. It commences at the internal 
abdominal ring 5 and ends at the external abdominal ring,1 being about \]/2 
inch in length. It serves for the passage of the spermatic cord in the male, 
and the roundj ligament of the uterus in the female; and is directed down- 
wards and inwards. The— 
Internal Abdominal Ring,5—is an oval opening in the transversalis fascia, 
formed by the prolongation of this fascia around the cord, as the infundi- 
buliform fascia. It lies ]/2 inch above Poupart’s ligament and midway 
between the anterior superior spine of the ilium and the spine of the 
pubes. It is bounded above and externally by the arched fibres of the 
transversalis muscle; below and internally by the epigastric vessels. 
External Abdominal Ring,1—is a triangular opening in the aponeurosis 
of the external oblique muscle, situated just above and external to the 
crest of the pubes. It is about i inch long, and inch wide, and is 
bounded laterally by its own margins, called the Internal4 and Exter- 
nal5 Pillars of the ring. From these margins is given off the Inter- 
columnar P'ascia, around the cord and testis. 
What are the Boundaries of the Inguinal Canal ? 
Anteriorly,—the Skin, Superficial fascia, External oblique muscle, and the 
Internal oblique for its outer one-third. 
Posteriorly,—the Conjoined tendon, Transversalis fascia, Triangular ligament, 
Sub-peritoneal tissue, and Peritoneum. 
Above,—the arched fibres of the Internal oblique and Transversalis muscles. 
Below,—Poupart’s ligament, and the Transversalis fascia. INGUINAL HERNIA. 
227 
What is Poupart’s Ligament ? The Crural Arch or Poupart’s Lig, 
ment is that portion of the aponeu- 
rosis of the external oblique muscle 
which extends from the anterior 
superior spine of the ilium to the 
spine of the pubes. Its lower por- 
tion 3 forms the external pillar of 
the external abdominal ring,1 and 
its reflection along the pectineal line 
is called Gimbernat's Ligament.2 
Other fibres, reflected behind the 
internal pillar of the ring,4 upward 
to the linea alba, are termed the 
Triangular Ligament. 
What is the Relation of the 
Epigastric Artery to the Internal 
Abdominal Ring ? The Epigas- 
tric artery lies between the trans- 
versalis fascia and the peritoneum, 
passing obliquely upwards and in- 
wards along the lower and inner 
margins of the internal ring.5 
What is the Cremasteric Fascia ? It consists of a series of muscular 
loops, united by areolar tissue, and forming a thin covering over the spermatic 
cord. The muscular fibres (Cremaster muscle) are supposed to have been 
originally part of the Internal oblique muscle, but carried down by the testicle 
in its descent to the scrotum. It does not exist in the female. 
Fig. 114. 
Name the Coverings of Inguinal Hernia. In the oblique form of 
Inguinal Hernia the coverings are— 
1. Skin. 
2. Superficial Fascia,—2 layers. 
3. Intercolumnar Fascia,—from the external abdominal ring. 
4. Cremasteric Fascia,—from the inguinal canal. 
5. Infundibuliform Process of the transversalis fascia,—from the internal 
abdominal ring. 
6. Peritoneum,—the proper hernial sac. 
In the direct form of Inguinal Hernia, the coverings are precisely the same, 
except that the Conjoined Tendon is substituted for the Cremasteric fascia, 
and the Transversalis Fascia for its Infundibuliform process. 
A 7th covering is simetimes enumerated, viz.: the Sub-serous Areolar Tissue, 228 
which would come before the peritoneum in the above list. It is not suffi- 
ciently dense to make an appreciable covering. 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
FEMORAL HERNIA. 
Where and What is the Femoral Canal? The Femoral or Crural 
Canal lies beneath Poupart’s ligament,1 close to the inner side of the femoral 
vein 4 ; and extends from the Femoral Ring to the Saphenous Opening in the 
fascia lata of the thigh. It is a narrow interval between the femoral vein and 
the inner wall of the Crural Sheath or sheath of the vessels. The canal is 
to l/z inch in length; is closed above by the Septum Crurale, below by the 
Cribriform Fascia ; and contains only some loose areolar tissue and a few 
lymphatic vessels. The— 
Femoral or Crural Ring,—is an oval-shaped opening, about inch in 
diameter (larger in the female), 
situated below the internal abdo- 
minal ring 7 and Poup art’s liga- 
ment,1 and between the inner side 
of the femoral vein and the mar- 
gin of Gimberna.’s ligament.5 It 
is closed by the Septum Crurale 
and a small lymphatic gland. The 
arrow in the figure goes into the 
femoral ring. 
Saphenous Opening,'1 — is an oval- 
shaped structure, inch long, f2 
inch wide, situated below the inner 
third of Poupart’s ligament, and 
formed by a reflection inwards of 
the fascia lata around the end of the internal saphenous vein.3 The outer 
margin curves over to the spine of the pubes, and is named the Falci- 
form Process, or Ligament of Burns, its pubic end being often called 
the Ligament of Hey. The inner margin curves upwards behind the 
saphenous vein and under the outer margin, and is blended with the pubic 
portion of tire fascia lata over the pectineus muscle. T he opening is 
covered by the Cribriform Fascia. 
Fig. 115. 
What are the Boundaries of the Femoral Canal ? 
Anteriorly,—Poupart’s ligament, Transversalis fascia, and the Falciform Pro 
cess of the fascia lata. 
Posteriorly,—Iliac fascia, and Pubic portion of the fascia lata. 
Externally,—the Septum covering the femoral vein. 229 
externally,—Transversalis fascia, Iliac fascia, Gimbernat’s ligament, and the 
deep Crural arch. 
FEMORAL HERNIA 
Name the Structures in relation with the Femoral Ring. The— 
Spermatic Cord,—in the male, lies directly above its anterior margin, replaced 
by the round ligament in the female. 
Femoral Vein,4—lies next on its outer side. 
Epigastric Artery,—crosses its upper and outer angle. 
Obturator Artery,—when arising from a common trunk with the epigastric, 
as it does once in subjects, may lie close along its internal and superior 
margins. 
What is the Septum Crurale ? A layer of condensed cellular tissue, 
supporting a lymphatic gland, and perforated for the passage of lymphatic 
vessels. It lies across the femoral ring, and forms one of the coverings to 
any hernia escaping thereby. It is sometimes named the Fascia of Cloquet, 
or Fascia of Cooper. 
Describe the Crural Sheath. It is the sheath which invests the femoral 
vessels below Poupart’s ligament, and is formed by a prolongation of the 
transversalis fascia anteriorly, and the iliac fascia posteriorly. It is divided by 
two septa into 3 compartments, the exterior of which contains the Femoral 
Artery, the middle one the Femoral Vein, while the one most internal is the 
Femoral Canal. The sheath is perforated anteriorly by the genito-crural 
nerve, internally by the internal saphenous vein, and forms one of the coverings 
of a femoral hernia. 
What is the Deep Crural Arch? It is the lower thickened border of 
the transversalis fascia, which arches across the front of the crural sheath, and 
is intimately connected therewith. It seems to be attached externally to the 
centre of Poupart's ligament; internally it is inserted into the pectineal line 
behind the conjoined tendon. 
Name the Coverings of Femoral Hernia. From without inwards its 
coverings are the— 
1. Skin. 
2. Superficial Fascia,—2 layers. 
3. Cribriform Fascia,—from the saphenous opening. 
4. Crural Sheath,—from the transversalis fascia. 
5. Septum Crurale,—from the femoral ring. 
6. Peritoneum,—the proper hernial sac. 230 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
THE PERINEUM. 
What is the Perineum ? It is a triangular space containing the structures 
which close the pelvic outlet anterior to a line drawn between the tuberosities 
of the ischii. Posteriorly to this line the corre ponding space is named the 
Ischio-rectal Fossa. The Perineum is bounded laterally by the rami of the 
pubes and ischia, anteriorly by the symphysis pubis, and posteriorly by the line 
above mentioned, which averages about inches in length. 
[For the Muscles of the Perineum, see ante, p. 83.] 
What Fasciae are met with in the Perineum ? The— 
Superficial Layer of the Superficial Fascia,—is thick, loaded with fat, and 
continuous with the subcutaneous fascia of the thighs. 
Deep Layer of the Superficial Fascia,—is thin but strong, continuous in front 
with the dartos of the scrotum, (?), attached on each side to the rami of the 
pubes and ischium; posteriorly it joins the deep perineal fascia under the 
transversus perinei muscle. It sends inwards a vertical septum which is 
incomplete in front. [This fascia is called by Professor Pancoast the 
“anterior leaflet of the triangular ligament.”] 
Anterior Layer of the Deep Perineal Fascia,—is triangular in shape, and 
extends from the pubic arch and the sub-pubic ligament, laterally to the 
rami of the pubes and ischia, and posteriorly to the central tendinous portion 
of the perineum, where it becomes blended with the deep layer of the 
superficial fascia. It embraces the anterior part of the membranous portion 
of the urethra. [Called by Professor Pancoast, the “ middle leaflet of the 
triangular ligament.”] 
Posterior Layer of the Deep Perineal Fascia,— has the same attachments as 
the anterior layer above described, but in its course it embraces the posterior 
part of the membranous portion of the urethra, and is in connection with 
the apex of the prostate gland. [Called by Prof. Pancoast, the “ posterior 
leaflet of the triangular ligament.”] 
Obturator Fascia,—is the part of the pelvic fascia which covers the obturator 
internus muscle, and is continued on to the levator ani muscle as the Lschio 
rectal or Anal fascia. 
Recto-vesical Fascia,—is the portion of the pelvic fascia which invests the 
internal surface of the levator ani muscle, and the prostate gland, bladder, 
rectum, and vesiculse seminales. 
THE MALE PERINEUM. 
What is Buck’s Fascia ? It is a continuation of the Deep Layer of 
the Superficial Fascia of the Perineum, extending forwards upon the penis, 
and investing that organ completely as far as the glans. It is continuous above with the suspensory ligament of the penis, and is held by some anatomists to 
prove that the deep layer aforesaid is not continuous in front with the dartos 
of the scrotum. This fascia was named from Dr. Buck, an American surgeon, 
who, in 1846, first insisted on the importance of this structure. It modifies the 
direction of urinary infiltration of the perineum, until perforated. 
THE MALE PERINEUM. 
231 
What is the Triangular Ligament of the Urethra ? According to 
some authorities it is the anterior layer of the deep perineal fascia ; according 
to others it includes the posterior layer also. Prof. Pancoast includes in the 
term “ Triangular Ligament" all three layers which are united at the central 
tendinous portion of the perineum, including, therefore, the deep layer of the 
superficial perineal fascia. 
Name the Structures which lie between the Layers of the Deep 
Perineal Fascia. In this space, which by some writers is termed the Cavity 
of the Triangular Ligament, are the— 
Membranous Portion of the Urethra. 
Compressor Urethrce Muscle. 
Pudic Vessels and Nerve. 
Cowper's Glands and Ducts. 
Artery of the Bulb. 
Nerve of the Bulb. 
Plexus of Veins. 
What Structures lie behind the Posterior Layer of the Deep 
Perineal Fascia ? They are the— 
Bladder. 
Prostate Gland. 
Rectum. 
Levator Anti Muscle. 
Ischio-rectal, or Anal Fascia. 
Enumerate the Structures situated between the Anterior Layer of 
the Deep Perineal Fascia and the Deep Layer of the Superficial 
Perineal Fascia. They are as follows, the— 
Crura of the Penis. 
Corpus Spongiosum. 
Bulb of the Urethra. 
Accelerator Urince Muscled 
Erector Penis Muscle.2 
Transversus Perinei Muscle.* 
Transversus Perinei Artery. 
Superficial Perineal Vessels. 
Enumerate the Structures which are divided in the Lateral Opera- 
tion of Lithotomy. If the knife is inserted I inch above the verge of the 
anus, and carried to a point inch below that orifice, and about half-way 
outwards to the tuber ischii (Gross), it will divide the 
Skin and Superficial Fascia (ist Layer). 
Inferior Hemorrhoidal Vessels and Nerves. 
Deep Layer of the Superficial Fascia. 
Superficial Perineal Vessels and Nerves. 
Accelerator Urince Muscle1 (posterior fibres). 
Transversus Perinei Muscle 3 and Artery. 232 
VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
Anterior Layer of the Deep Perineal Fascia. 
Compressor Urethrce Muscle (a few fibres). 
Levator Ani Muscle 5 (anterior fibres). 
Membranous and Prostalic Portions of the Urethra. 
Posterior Layer of the Deep Perineal Fascia. 
Prostate Gland (in part only). 
Neck of the Bladder. 
What Parts are to be avoided in the Lateral Operation of Lith- 
otomy ? They are the— 
Bulb and its Artery,—in front. 
Rectum,—inwardly and posteriorly. 
Pudic Artery,—outwardly. 
Fig. ii6. 
Prostate Gland and Veins,—by not carrying the deep incision too far back- 
wards, the entire division of the left lobe of this gland will be avoided. 
What especial Function does the Female Perineum Perform ? That 
of supporting the posterior wall of the vagina, and thereby aiding materially 
in the support of the whole vagina, uterus and bladder. The— 
Perineal Body,—is the pyramidal-shaped prolongation of the female peri- 
neum upwards between the vagina and rectum. 
THE FEMALE PERINEUM. 
Enumerate the chief points of Difference between the Female 
Perineum and that of the Male. The— 
Orifice of the Vulva, including the vaginal orifice,—perforates the female THE FEMALE PERINEUM 
233 
perineum, its posterior commissure approaching the anal margin within 
about an inch. 
Superficial Fascia,—is incomplete, by reason of its perforation by the orifice 
of the vulva, but consists of two layers, as in the male. 
Deep Perineal Fascia,—being also perforated by the vagina, is less apparent 
than in the male, though presenting two layers, with the urethra perforating 
them, as in the other sex. 
A/uscles,—the Sphincter Vaginae takes the place, in the female, of the 
Accelerator Urinse of the male. 
Prostate Gland is wanting,—but its place is occupied by a number of minute 
glands disposed around the neck of the bladder. APPENDIX TO POTTER’S ANATOMY. 
TABLES AND PLATES 
OF THE 
ARTERIAL AND NERVOUS 
SYSTEMS. 
Anas Anastomoses. 
Ant Anterior. 
Art. or A. . . . Artery. 
Asc . Ascending 
Br Branch. 
Cerv. . . ... Cervical. 
Com Common. 
Commun. . V • Communicating. 
Desc Descending. 
Ext External. 
ABBREVIATIONS 
Inf. Inferior. 
Int Internal. 
L Left. 
M Middle. 
N Nerve. 
PI Plexus. 
Post Posterior. 
R Right. 
Sup Superior. 
Superf. .... Superficial. 
Trans Transverse. 
Note —The arteries in the following plates should be colored red, by painting 
them over with ordinary crimson ink, or water-color paint, using a fine camel’s- 
hair brush for the purpose. 
Copyright, 1890, by P. Blakiston, Son & Co. 236 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
1. 
Pulmonary Artery 
(Plate 1.) 
R. Pulmonary Art. (Plate 3) I 
L. Pulmonary Art. (Plate 3) I 
Numerous branches through- 
out the pulmonary tissue, 
carrying Venous blood. 
R. Coronary 
L. Coronary 
to the muscular tissue of the heart. 
r R. Common Carotid - 
Ext. Carotid (3). 
Int. Carotid (4). 
2. 
Arch of Aorta. 
(Plate 1.) 
Innominate 
Vertebral (5). 
Thyroid Axis (6). 
Int. Mammary (7). 
Sup. Intercostal (8). 
R. Subclavian 
becomes Axillary (9) 
L. Common Carotid, . . Same as R. Common-Carotid. 
L. Subclavian, . . Same as R., continuing as Axillary (9). 
Superior 
Thyroid. 
Hyoid, along lower border of os hyoides. 
Superf. Descending, crosses Com. Carotid. 
Sup. Laryngeal, to larynx and epiglottis. 
Inf. Laryngeal, crosses Crico-thyroid membr. 
Hyoid, along upper border of bone. 
Dorsalis Linguce, to tongue, tonsil, palate, etc. 
Sublingual, to gland, mouth, gums. 
Ranine, under surface of tongue, to tip. 
Lingual. . 
Inf (Asc.) Palatine, 
Br. to soft palate. 
Br. to tonsil. 
3- 
External Carotid. 
(Plate 1.) 
Tonsillar, to tonsil and root of tongue. 
Submaxillary, to gland, skin, muscles. 
Submental | 
Superf. Br. anas. inf. labial. 
Deep Br. to the lip. 
Facial. .. 
Muscular, to pterygoid, masseter, buccinator. 
Inf. Labial, anas, with br. of 7th and 5th N. 
Inf. Coronary, anas, with br. of inf. dental art. 
Sup. Coronary, 
Art. of Septum Nasi. 
Br. to ala of nose. 
Lateralis Nasi, to ala and dorsum of nose. 
Angular, termination of facial trunk. 
Muscular, to digastric, stylo-hyoid, sterno- 
mastoid, etc. 
Occipital. 
Auricular, to back part of concha. 
Inf. Meningeal, to dura mater in post, fossa. 
Superf. Br. anas, superf. 
cervical. 
Deep Br. anas, vertebral, 
and deep cerv. br. of sup. 
intercostal. 
Princeps Cervicis Plate. 1 
Pottei; del. 238 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
Branches (small), to muscles and glands. 
Stylo-mastoid 
anas, with Tympanic of Int. 
Maxil. forming vascular cir- 
- cle around tympanum. 
Post. Auricular. 
Auricular, to cartilage of ear. 
Ascending 
Pharyngeal. 
External Branches, to muscles and nerves. 
Meningeal Branches, to dura mater. 
Pharyngeal Branches, 3 or 4 in number. 
Transverse Facial, lies on the masseter. 
Anterior Auricular Branches, to pinna, etc. 
Middle Temporal, supplies that muscle. 
Anterior Temporal. Its brs. directed backward. 
Posterior Temporal, along side of head. 
3- 
External 
Carotid. 
(Continued.) 
Temporal. 
to memb. tympani, anas.with Stylo- 
mastoid and Vidian arteries. 
Tympanic 
Mid. Meningeal, to dura and cranial bones. 
Small Menitigeal, to dura and Gasserian gang. 
I 
r Mylo-hyoid, in that groove. 
Internal 
Maxillary 
Divisions: 
7. Maxillary. 
2. Pterygoid. 
3. Spheno- 
maxillary. 
Inferior Dental -< 
Incisor, 
-Mental, 
Terminal Brs. 
Deep Temporal (2), under temporal muscle. 
Pterygoid Brs., to pterygoid muscles. 
Masseteric, to deep surface of masseter. 
Buccal, a small br. to buccinator. 
2 
Alveolar 
’ Supr. Dental, to molars, bicuspids. 
Branches, to antrum, gums, etc. 
Infraorbital, has several brs. in canal. 
Post. (Desc.) Palatine, to palate, glands, etc. 
Vidian, to Eustachian tube and pharynx. 
Pterygo-palatine,to Eustach.tube and pharynx. 
3 
Spheno-Palatine 
or Nasal. 
Artery ofSeptum,to septum. 
External Branches (3), to 
the nares, antrum, eth- 
moid and sphenoid cells. ARTERIAL SYSTEM 
239 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continu^d. 
Tympanic, to tympanum by foramen in carotid canal. 
Arteria Receptaculi (several), in cavernous sinus. 
Ant. Meningeal, to dura, anas. mid. meningeal. 
Lachrymal, to that gland, lid, etc. 
Supraorbital, the largest sub-branch. 
1 
Post. Ethmoidal 
Ant. Ethmoidal, has same branches. 
Sup. Palpebral, arch on margin of lid. 
Inf. Palpebral, margin of lower lid. 
Meningeal, to dura. 
Nasal Brs., to nose. 
Ophthalmic. 
Groups, 
1. Orbital. 
2. Ocular. 
(Plate 4.) 
Fig- 2. 
4- 
Internal 
Carotid. 
(Plate 1.) 
Nasal 
Frontal, to muscles, skin 
Dorsalis Nasi, 
Terminal 
Branches. 
Superior, to ocular muscles. 
Inferior, to ocular muscles. 
Muscular 
Ant. Ciliary, to circle on the iris. 
Short Ciliary, 12 or 15, around optic n. 
Long Ciliary, to circles on iris. 
Art. Centralis Retina, to retina. 
2 
Anterior Cerebral 
Ant. Communicating, 2 lines long. 
Middle Cerebral* 
Anterior, to anterior lobe of brain. 
Posterior, to middle lobe of brain. 
Median, to the island of Reil. 
anas, with Post. Cerebral of Basilar, to 
form the circle of Willis. 
Posterior Communicating 
Anterior Choroid, to the choroid plexus, etc. 
THE CIRCLE OF WILLIS. 
Post. Cerebral 
Post. Commun. 
Middle 
Cerebral 
Ant. Cerebral 
Basilar 
Post. Cerebral 
'Post. Commun. 
Middle 
Cerebral 
Arrt. Cerebral 
Ant. Commun. 240 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
Br. to spinal cord and membranes. 
Br. to bodies of Vertebrae posteriorly. 
Lateral Spinal 1 
Muscular Branches, to deep cervical muscles. 
Anterior Spinal, 
Post. Meningeal, ramify between dura mater and skull. 
joins its fellow to form Ant. Median Artery of the 
5- 
Vertebral. 
(Plate 1.) 
Posterior Spinal, to spinal cord and membranes, laterally. 
spinal cord. 
Internal 
External 
to cerebellum, and choroid plexus 
of the 4th Ventricle. 
Inferior Cerebellar 
Transverse Brs. 
Auditory, to that canal. 
Ant. (Inferior) Cerebellar. 
Basilar. 
Superior Cerebellar, to pia mater, pineal gland, etc. 
Post. Choroid,to choroid plexus. 
Branches, to posterior lobes of 
cerebrum, anas, with Ant. and 
Mid. Cerebral Arteries. 
Posterior Cerebral j 
6. 
Thyroid 
Axis. 
(Plate 1.) 
Inferior Thyroid. . 
Laryngeal, to posterior muscles of larynx. 
Tracheal Brs. to trachea, anas. Bronchial. 
(Esophageal Brs. to oesophagus. 
Ascending Cervical, to muscles, spinal cord. 
Superficial Cervical, beneath Trapezius. 
Posterior Scapular, along post, border. 
Transversalis Colli. 
Supra-scapular. . 
Supra-acromial, anas. Acromial Thoracic. 
Communicating, across neck of scapula. 
Comes Nervi Phrenici (Superior Phrenic), to Diaphragm. 
Mediastinal Brs. to connec. tissue, ant. mediastinum. 
Pericardiac Brs. to upper part of pericardium. 
Sternal Brs. to sternum and Triangularis sterni. 
Anterior Intercostals, to 5 or 6 upper intercostal spaces. 
Perforating, to Pectoralis major, mammary gland, etc. 
7- 
Internal 
Mammary. 
(Plate 1 ) 
Musculo-phrenic j 
Ant. Intercostals, to lower spaces. 
Brs. to lower pericardium, Diaphragm, etc. 
Superior Epigastric 
anas. Epigastric of Ext. Iliac, 
supplies Rectus abdominis, etc. 
8. 
Superior 
Intercostal. 
(Plate 1.) 
Profunda Cervicis, ascends along back of neck, to axis; anas, with 
Art. princeps cervicis of Occipital. 
Brs. to ist and 2d intercostal spaces, giving br. to post, spinal mus- 
cles. and one to spinal cord, and anas, with Aortic Intercostals. ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
I. 
Acromial Thoracic 
Superior Thoracic, to Pectoral muscles and wall. 
Thoracic Brs. to Pectorals. 
Acromial Brs. to Deltoid. 
Descending, to both these muscles 
9. 
Axillary. 
(Plate 2 ) 
1 from 1st part. 
2 “ 2d “ 
3 “ 3d “ 
2. 
Thoracica Longa, to Serratus, Pectorals and gland. 
Thoracica Alaris, to glands of axilla. 
Subscapular. 
Infra-spinous. 
. Median. 
Subscapular. 
Dorsalis Scapulce, 
3- 
Anterior Circumflex, 
Main trunk to inf. angle of the scapula. 
around neck of humerus, to Deltoid. 
Br. to shoulder-joint. 
Posterior Circumflex j 
around neck of humerus, to Deltoid 
muscle and shoulder-joint. 
Becomes Brachial (10), at lower margin of tendon of the Teres 
major muscle. 
Superior Profunda, 
Post. Articular, to elbow, and inner side 
of arm. 
Main trunk, in spiral groove oi the 
humerus, to Deltoid, Triceps, etc. 
Nutrient, to nutritious canal of humerus. 
Inferior Profunda, to inner condyle and olecranon. 
10. 
Brachial. 
(Plate 2.) 
Anastomotica Magna, transversely inwards on Brachialis an- 
ticus muscle, anas, with several arteries. 
Muscular, 3 or 4, to muscles in course of artery 
Bifurcates into Radial (ii) and Ulnar (12), about % inch below 
the bend of the elbow. 
Radial Recurrent, anas, branches of Sup. profunda. 
Muscular Brs. to muscles on radial side of arm. 
I. 
Superficialis Voice, 
to muscles of thumb, anas, with Ulnat 
Art. completing Superf. Palmar Arch. 
Ant. Carpal, to wrist-joints, anas. Ant. Carpal of Ulnar. 
to wrist-joints, anas. Post. Carpal of Ulnar. 
Dorsal Interosseous, for 3d and 4th spaces. 
11. 
Radial. 
(Plate 2.) 
1 In forearm. 
2. In wrist. 
3. In hand. 
2. 
Post. Carpal 
Metacarpal, is the First Dorsal Interosseous Branch. 
Dorsales Pollicis (2), laterally on dorsum of thumb. 
Dorsalis Indicis, on radial side of index dorsum. 
Princeps Pollicis, 
2 Brs. forming arch on last phalanx. 
3- 
Radialis Indicis, along radial side of index finger. 
Per/orantes (3) between heads of last Dorsal Interossei. 
Palmar Interossece 
(3 or 4) along Interossei muscles, given 
off by Deep Palmar Arch. 
Forms Deep Palmar Arch in the hand, by inosculating with the 
Communicating from the Ulnar, at the base of the metacarpal 
bone of the little finger. 242 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
Anterior Ulnar Recurrent, ascends in front of inner condyle 
Posterior Ulnar Recurrent, ascends behind inner condyle. 
pierces Interosseous mem- 
brane, descending to back 
of wrist. 
Muscular Branches. 
Nutrient, of both bones. 
Br. on Pronator quadratus. 
Median, along median n. 
Anterior 
Interosseous 
1. 
Interosseous 
Posterior 
Interosseous 
to back of wrist. 
Post. Interosseous Recur- 
rent, to ext. condyle of 
humerus. 
12. 
Ulnar. 
(Plate 2). 
1. In forearm. 
2. In wrist. 
3. In hand. 
Muscular, to muscles on ulnar side of arm. 
Anterior Carpal, to joints, anas. Carpal of Radial. 
2. 
Posterior Carpal, 
f to joints of wrist, anas. Carpal of Radial. 
Br. forming Post. Carpal Arch. 
Deep (Communicating) 
ranas. with termination of Radial 
I Artery, forming the Deep Palmar 
Arch. 
3- 
from convexity of Superf. Palmar Arch, to ulnar 
side of little finger, and adjoining sides of 
ring, middle, and index fingers (rest supplied 
by radial). 
Digital (4), 
Forms Superficial Palmar Arch in palm of hand, by inoscu- 
lating with Superficialis Volae of Radial Artery. 
Bronchial Arteries (3) nutrient vessels of the lungs. 
Qisophageal, (4 or 5) anas. brs. Inf. Thyroid, Phrenic, Gastric. 
Pericardiac, Brs. distributed to the pericardium. 
13- 
Thoracic 
Aorta. 
(Plate 3.) 
' Br. along lower border of rib 
Br. along upper border of rib 
Intercostal 
(20) 
Anterior (Proper) 
\ Spinal, to vertebrae, cord, etc 
l Muscular, to tissues of back 
Posterior Mediastinal, (several) to glands, etc., in mediastinum. 
. Posterior (Dorsal) Plate 2. 
"PottGi- <3el- 244 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
Phrenic 
Internal, to front of thorax and Diaphragm. 
External, to side of thorax. 
to cardiac orifice of stomach, cardiac 
end, then along lesser curvature to 
pylorus, where it anas, with Pyloric 
Br. of Hepatic Art. 
Gastric, 
' Pyloric, to pylorus, anas. Gastric Art. 
Gastro-ep iploica 
Dextra, along 
greater curva- 
ture. 
Pancreatico-duo- 
denalis, to those 
organs. 
Cceliac 
Axis. 
Hepatic 
■ Gastro-duodenalis, ■ 
Cystic, br. R. Hepatic, to gall-bladder. 
Pancreaticce Parvce 
Pancreatica Magna 
to the pancreas. 
Gastric (Vasa Brevia), 5 to 7, to the 
greater curvature of stomach. 
Splenic 
Gastro-epiploica Sinistra, along the 
greater curvature, from left to right. 
„ Terminal Brs enter hilum of Spleen. 
14- 
Abdominal 
Aorta. 
(Plate 3.) 
Inferior Pancreatico-duodenal, to those organs. 
Vasa Intestini Tenuis (12 to 15) form arches in 
mesentery, in several series, from terminal 
arches branches ramify on intestines. 
Superior 
Mesenteric 
Ileo-colic 
f Inferior, anas. Vasa intes. ten. 
t Superior, anas. Colica dextra. 
Colica Dextra 
f Desc. Br. 
Br. 
Arches branching to 
ascending colon. 
Colica Media 
Right 
Left 
Arches, branchi tig to trans- 
verse colon. 
Supra-Renal, to supra-renal capsule. 
Renal. 
Brs. to substance of kidney. 
Small Brs. to capsule, ureter, etc. 
Spermatic (or Ovarian) to testes or ovaries. 
Inferior 
Mesenteric 
' Colica Sinistra 
Sigmoid, across Psoas to that flexure of colon. 
A sc. 
Desc. 
Arches branching to de- 
scending colon. 
[ Sup. Hemorrhoidal, 
Br. to right 
Br. to left 
side of rectum. 
Dorsal 
to muscles, etc., of back. 
Spinal, to canal 
Br. 
Br. 
Arches. 
Lumbar (4) 
Abdominal, between abdominal muscles. 
Bifurcates . . 
Middle Sacral, to coccyx, anas. Lateral Sacral. 
Right Com. Iliac, R. Int. and Ext. Iliac (15, 16). 
Left Com. Iliac, L. Int. and Ext. Iliac (15, 16) 
Bifurcation occurs at 4th Lumbar Vertebra, opposite Umbilicus Plate 3 
Potter, del. 246 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
Superior Vesical 
Art. of Vas Deferens, to that organ. 
Middle Vesical, to base of bladder. 
Inferior Vesical, to base of bladder, prostate gland, etc. 
Middle Hemorrhoidal, to rectum, anas other hem. arteries. 
Brs. to bladder. 
Brs. to ureter. 
Uterine, to neck of uterus 
Vaginal, analogous to Inf. Vesical in male. 
In the female. 
' Iliac, to iliac bone and Iliacus muscle. 
Vesical, backwards to the bladder. 
Pubic, on the back of pubic bone. 
Internal, inner margin obturator foramen. 
15- 
Internal Iliac. 
Anterior 
Trunk. 
(Plate 4.) 
Obturator. 
External, 
outer margin obturator foramen. 
Br. to hip-joint by cotyloid notch 
Inf. (Ext.) Hemorrhoidal, 2 or 3 to anus. 
Superf. Perineal, to scrotum, etc. 
Transverse Perineal, to muscle of same name. 
Artery of the Bulb, large but very short. 
Art. of Corpus Cavernosum, to that body. 
Dorsal Artery of the Penis, thereto. 
Internal 
Pudic. 
Muscular Brs. within the pelvis. 
Hemorrhoidal Brs. to the rectum. 
Vesical Brs. to base and neck of bladder. 
Coccygeal, to back of coccyx. 
Inf. Gluteal (3 or 4) to Gluteus maximus. 
Comes Nervi Ischiadici, along sciatic nerve 
Muscular Brs. to back of hip. 
Articular Brs. to capsule of joint. 
Sciatic. Plate 4*. 
FIG. I, 
FIG. 2. 
BRANCHES OF OPHTHALMIC ARTERY. 
Potter, del. 248 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.-Continued. 
Muscular Brs. within the pelvis. 
Nutrient, of the Ilium. 
Superficial, to Gluteus maximus, etc. 
Gluteal 
15- 
Internal Iliac. 
Posterior 
Trunk. 
Deep 
' Superior, to ant. sup. spine of Ilium. 
. Inferior, to glutei and hip-joint. 
Ilio- Lumbar 
| Lumbar 
Iliac, to Iliacus internus and Ilium. 
to Psoas and Quad, lumborum. 
Spinal Br. to cord and membranes. 
Superior Lateral Sacral, to dorsum of sacrum. 
Inferior Lateral Sacral, to front of sacrum, and coccyx, anas 
with Sacra media, etc. 
Muscular Brs. several, to Psoas and glands. 
16. 
External Iliac. 
(Plate 4.) 
Epigastric 
Cremasteric, to cremaster muscle. 
Pubic, to inner side of femoral ring 
■Muscular, to abdominal muscles and skin. 
Circumflex Iliac. 
betw. Transversalis and Int. oblique. 
Br. anas, with Lumbar and Epigastric 
Becomes Femoral (17) at Poupart’s Ligament. 
Superficial Epigastric, in superf. fascia, to umbilicus. 
Sup erf. Circumflex Iliac, outwards to iliac crest. 
Superf. Ext. Pudic, inwards to skin of penis, scrotum, etc. 
Deep Ext. Pudic, inwards to skin of perineum, etc. 
' Ext. Circumflex 
Asc. Brs. outer side of hip. 
Transverse, to back of hip. 
Descending, as far as knee. 
17. 
Femoral. 
(Plate 4.) 
Ascending, to Adductors, etc. 
Descending, to Adductors, etc. 
Articular, to head of femur. 
Profunda 
Femoris. 
Int. Circumflex 
Perforating 
Superior, pierces Adductor magnus 
Middle ■ 
Nutrient of Femur. 
Muscular (2 to 7), along course of the artery. 
Inferior, pierces Adductor magnus. 
Anastomotica Magna, 
'Superficial Br. to integument. 
Deep Br. to inner side of Knee and joint. 
Becomes Popliteal (18), at opening in Adductor magnus. Plate 5. 
Potter, del. 250 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM—Continued. 
Muscular 
Superior Brs. to Vastus ext. and flexor muscles. 
Inferior or Sural (2), to Gastrocnemius and Plantaris 
18. 
Popliteal. 
(Plate 4 ) 
Cutaneous Brs. to integument of calf. 
Superior Internal Articular, to Vastus int. and joint. 
Superior External Articular, to Vastus ext. and joint. 
Azygos Articular, to synovial membrane of joint. 
Inferior Internal Articular, to head of tibia and joint. 
Inferior External Articular, to front of knee-joint. 
Anterior Tibial (19) 
Posterior Tibial (20) 
at lower border 
Popliteus muscle. 
Bifurcates into 
Recurrent Tibial, on front and sides of knee-joint. 
Muscular Brs. numerous to muscles of leg 
Internal Malleolar, beneath tendon of Tibialis anticus. 
External Malleolar, to outer ankle. 
19- 
Anterior 
Tibia), 
(Plate 5.) 
Tarsea, to tarsal joints and Ext. brev. digit. 
Dorsal Br. 
Dorsal Br. 
Dorsalis Pedis 
Metatarsea 
Dorsalis Hallucis 
| 3 Interossece, 
Br. to inner of great toe. 
Br. to great and 2d toes. 
Communicating, 
anas. Ext. Plantar (Arch). 
2 Digital Brs. 
Ends in the Plantar Arch. 
Anterior Peroneal, pierces interosseous membrane. 
Nutrient of Fibula, to that bone. 
-Muscular Brs. in its course. 
Peroneal 
20. 
Posterior 
Tibial. 
(Plate 5.) 
Muscular, to Soleus, etc., on back of leg. 
Nutrient of Tibia, the largest nutrient artery of bone. 
Communicating Br. to the Peroneal, near its end 
Internal Calcanean Brs. to the heel, and sole of foot. 
Internal Plantar, along inner side of foot. 
Brs. to muscles, fascia and skin. 
Posterior Perforating (3) Branches. 
External Plantar, 
4 Digital, 
Ant. Perforating Branches. 
Ends as the Plantar Arch, anas, 
with Commun. Br. of Dorsalis Pedis. TABLES AND PLATES 
OF THE 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Note.—These Tables are of original arrangement, and are designed to show the 
origin, formation and distribution of each nerve. They are generally self-explanatory. 
That for the 2d Cranial (Optic Nerve) is too long for the width of the page, and breaks 
at the Optic Commissure, which is repeated again where the table continues below. 
Sam’l O. L. Potter. 252 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
ist NERVE,—Olfactory. Function,—smell. Exit,— 
Ethmoidal foramina, 20, 
in cribriform plate of Eth- 
moid bone. 
Ext. /JooLTemp.-sphen. lobe, 
Mid. Root, Olfac. tubercle, 
Int. Root, Gyrus fornicat. 
Ext. Filaments, to outer wall of nasal cavity. 
Mid. Filaments, to root of cavity. 
Int. Filaments, to Septum nasi. 
ist N. 
and Bulb 
2d NERVE,-Optic. 
Optic thalamus 
Corp. geniculata 
Corp. quad. ant. 
.ongitudinal 
decussating 
hter-cerebral 
Function,—sight. 
Exit,—Optic foramen. 
•Fibres < 
Left Optic Tract 
Optic 
or Chiasm. 
Corp. quad. ant. 
Corp. geniculata 
Optic thalamus 
> Fibres - 
r Inter-cerebral 
Decussating 
y Longitudinal 
Right Optic Tract 
• Longitudinal, to temporal y2 of retina 
Decussating, fr. opp. tract to nasal l/2 of ret. 
Inter-retinal, fr. opp. retina to retina 
OpTIC 
Commissure 
or Chiasm, 
Optic N. 
L. Eye. 
2d 
[ Optic N. 
Inter-retinal, fr. opp. retina to retina 
Decussating, fr. opp. tract to nasal % of ret. 
Longitudinal, to temporal of retina. 
R. Eye. 
3d NERVE, Motor Oculi. Function,—motion. Exit,—Sphenoidal fissure. 
Corp. quadrig. 
Valve of Vieus. 
Aqued. of Syl. 
Crus cerebri. 
3d N. 
Sup. Branch, to Lev. palp, sup., Rectus superior. 
Inf. Branch 
to Rectus int., Rect. inf., Inf. oblique, 
motor root to Ciliary Ganglion. 
Supplies all the Ocular muscles, including iris, except Sup. oblique and Ext. Rectus. 
4th NERVE, Trochlear. Function,—motion. Exit,—Sphenoidal fissure 
Aq. of Sylvius, 1 
Valve of Vieus. 
Crus cerebri. 
4th N. 
I to Sup. Oblique on upper (orbital) surface. 
I Branch to Cavernous Plexus of Sympathetic. 
Is the smallest cranial nerve, with the longest nerve-course in the cranial cavity. Plate 6. 
The Cranial Nerves. 
tfFJVerve,- Olfactory. 
( OlfactoryFilaments 
2 ’“l-Yen'er Optic. 
Longitudinal Fibres 
Decussatim/ Fibres 
Jntercewbnil Fibres 
Inter-retinal Fibres 
Po-tter- del. 254 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
5th NERVE,—Trigeminus. 
(See Page 131, ante.) 
Functions, Sensation, Motion, Special sense 
Frontal • 
fSupraorbital. 
1 Supratrochlear. 
(1) Ophthalmic . 
by Sphenoidal 
fissure. 
Lachrymal. 
Ganglionic. 
Long Ciliary. 
Infratrochlear. 
Int. Nasal. 
Ext. Nasal. 
Nasal. 
Origin. 
Nucleus in floor 
of 4th Ventri- 
cle, and side 
of Pons, 
for 
Sensory Root, 
and the Gang- 
lion of Gasser. 
Temporo-malar. 
Spheno-palatine. 
Post. Dental 
In Spheno- 
max. 
Foramen. 
(2) Superior 
Maxillary" 
by For. rotund. 
Mid. Dental. 
Ant. Dental. 
In Canal 
5th N. 
Trigeminus. 
Infra- 
orbital 
( Palpebral. 
I Nasal 
A Labial. 
On 
face. 
Nucleus in floor 
of 4th Ventri- 
cle, and side 
of Pons, 
for 
Motor Root. 
Masseteric.* 
Ant. 
Div. 
Deep Temporal* 
fAnt. Br* 
t Post. F 
Buccal. 
Pterygoid * 
Int. Br.* 
Ext. Br* 
Br. of Communic’ 
Br. of Distribution 
(3) Inferior 
Maxillary. 
by For. Ovale. 
Mid. 
Div 
Lingual < 
' Mylo-hyoid. 
Dental Brs. 
Inferior 
Dental. 
Terminal 
Incisor. 
Mental. 
Ant. Temporal. 
Post. Temporal. 
Sup. Auricular. 
Inf. Auricular. 
Br. of Commun’n. 
to Meat. Auditor, 
to articulation. 
■ Parotid. 
Post. 
Div. 
Auriculo- 
Temporal. 
* Motor Branches, going to the muscles of mastication. Plate 7. 
The (liANi.vi. Nerves . 
5«> Nerve,-Triqe minus. 
PotteT, del 256 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
7th NERVE,—Facial, or Portio Dura. 
(See ante, p. 131.) 
Function,—Motion. 
Branches of Communication. 
In auditory canal. Br. to Auditory N. 
, . , , 
In Aqueduct of 
p .. . 
' Large Petrosal, to Meckel’s Ganglio 
Small Petrosal, to Otic ganglion. 
Ext. Petrosal, to meningeal plexus. 
L Tympanic Br. to ear. 
Origin. 
Nucleus in 
floor of the 
4th Ventricle 
and 
groove 
between 
Olivary and 
restiform 
bodies of 
medulla 
oblongata. 
At exit from the 
Stylo - mastoid 
Foramen 
Br. to Great Auricular (Cerv. Plex.) 
Br. to Auriculo-Temporal (5th). 
Br. to Pneumogastric. 
Br. to Glosso-pharyngeal. 
Br. to Carotid Plexus (Symp.). 
7th N. 
Facial 
On the face . . . Brs. to 5th Nerve. 
In Aqueduct of 
Fallopius . . . 
Tympanic Nerve. 
I Chorda Tympani Nerve. 
Branches of Distribution. 
C Auricular. 
I Occipital. 
Near Stylo - mas- 
toid Foramen. 
Br. to Digastric. 
Br. to Stylo-hyoid. 
Lingual. 
Post. Auricular 
Temporo-facial- 
■ Temporal. 
Malar. 
Infra-orbital. 
On the face * . . 
Buccal. 
Supra-maxillary. 
Infra-maxillary. 
Cervicofacial 
* Forming the Pes Anserinus, or Goose-foot, as these branches are named. Plate 8 
The Geanial Kerves. 
7tl.' Nerve- Fa c i a 1, or* 1*01 *ti a 1) Lira 
REFERENCES 
1. GREAT PETROSAL, TO FORM VIDIAN WITH N95. 
2. SMALL PETROSAL,TO OTIC GANGLION. 
3. EXTERNAL PETROSAL,TO PLEXUS ON MID. MENINGEAL ARTERY. 
4. TYMPANIC BR. TO STAPEDIUS, ETC. 
5. FROM CAROTID PLEXUS, MAKING VIDIAN, WITH N9 I 
6.7. BRS.TO AURICULO-TEMPORAL OF STH 
8. BR TOAURICULAR OF VAGUS. 
M. THE GANGLION OF MECKEL. 
O.A.F. ORIFICE OFAQUEDUCTUS FALLOPII. 
Potter del. 258 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
The Eighth Pair (Willis) includes the 9th Glosso-pharyngeal, 10th Pneumo- 
gastric, and 11th Spinal Accessory,—all of which Exit by thit Jugular Foramen, 01 
Foramen Lacerum Posterius., 
9th NERVE,—Glossopharyngeal. Functions,—Motion, Sensation, Special Sense 
9th NERVE,—Glossopharyngeal. Functions,—Motion, Sensation, Special Sense 
(See ante, page 132.) 
Communica- 
ting Brs. to 
Large Petrosal. 
Small Petrosal 
■ Carotid Plexus. 
Origin. 
A Gray nucleus in 
floor of 4th Vent, 
and 
medulla oblong, 
behind the 
olivary body. 
Tympanic. 
(Jacobson’s N.) 
Distributing 
Brs. to 
Fenestra ovalis. 
Fenestra rotunda. 
• Eustachian tube. 
9th Nerve 
Glosso- 
pharyngeal. 
Carotid Branches. 
Pharyngeal Brs.—to Pharyngeal Plexus. 
Muscular Brs.—to muscles of pharynx. 
Tonsillar Brs.—to Tonsillar Plexus. 
Lingual Brs.—to post. )/$ of tongue, giving taste 
thereto. 
Sensation, 
Motion. 
10th NERVE,—Pneumogastric, or Vagus. 
(See ante, page 132.) 
Functions, 
Origin. 
A nucleus in the 
floor of 4th Vent- 
ricle below that 
of 9th nerve 
and 
groove between 
olivary and 
restiform bodies 
of medulla. 
Auricular (Arnold’s Nerve). 
Pharyngeal. 
Probably comes 
from the Spinal 
Accessory, and 
supplies all the 
laryngeal 
muscles except 
crico-thyroid. 
Sup. Laryngeal 
Ext. Br. 
Int. Br. 
10th Nerve 
Vagus. 
Recurrent or Inf. Laryngeal 
Cervical Cardiac. 
Thoracic Cardiac. 
Ant. Pulmonary. 
Post. Pulmonary. 
Gastric. Intestinal. 
■ Hepatic. Renal. Splenic. 
Terminal Brs. 
Gives sensation to external ear and larynx, motion to other parts, also vaso-motorial, 
inhibitory, trophic and secretory influences. A nerve of deglutition, phonation, respi- 
ration, circulation, and digestion. The Auriculo-Laryngo-Pharyngo-CEsophago- 
Tracheo-Pulmono-Cardio-Gastro-Hepatic-Intestinal-Renal-Splenic Nerve. 
11th NERVE,—Spinal Accessory. 
Function,—Motion. 
(See ante, page 132.) 
Origin. 
The floor of 4th 
Ventricle, and 
gray horn in 
cord, down to 
6th Cervical N. 
Branch to Vagus, ganglion of root. 
Internal, anastomosing with Vagus, is probably 
the Recurrent Laryngeal Br. of the latter nerve. 
nth Nerve 
Sterno-mastoid. 
Trapeziur. 
External, or Muscular, to 
A motor nerve to the muscles named, also probably to the laryngeal also. Plate 9. 
The Craniae Nerves. 
v The 8Hi Pair of Nerves, 
comprising the 
9th or Glosso- pharyngeal, 
10th or Pneumogastric, 
,11 th or Spinal Accessory. 
REFERENCES. 
1. JUGULAR GANGLION OF 9T.M NERVE. 
2. PETROUS GANGLION OF 9T." NERVE. 
3. GANGLION OF THE VAGUS ROOT. 
4. GANGLION OFTHEVAGUS TRUNK. 
5. MEDULLARY PART OF llT.H NERVE. 
6.SPINAL PART O F !ITM NERVE. 
7. SUP CARDIAC BR. JOINING CARDIAC OF SYMPATHETIC. 
8. SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY, ON RIGHTSI DE, ARCH OFTHE 
AORTA,ON LEFT SIDE OFTHF BODY. 
9. FORAMEN MAGNUM,RECEIVING SPINAL PART OF 
THE SPINAL ACCESSORY. 
10. JUGULAR FORAMEN,TRANSMITTING ALLTHREE NERVES 
(SEE ANTE,PAGE35),ALS0 CALLED 
THE FORAMEN LACERUM P0STER1US. 
11. BRANGHES TO HYPOGLOSSAL,SYMPATHETIC 
CERVICAL NERVES, 
12.OLIVARY BODY, (IN BROKEN LINE), 
Potter, del. 2G0 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM—Continued. 
6th NERVE,—Abducens (See ante, page 131). 
Function, 
Motion to Ext 
Rectus of Eye. 
Origin.—Same as 7th, 
a gray nucleus in floor 
of 4th Ventricle, 
and 
lower border of Pons. 
Exit by sphenoidal fissure be- 
tween the two heads of the 
Ext. Rectus muscle of the 
eye. 
No branches. 
6th Nerve, Abducens. 
8th NERVE,—Auditory, or Portio Mollis of the 7TH Pair. 
Function,—Special Sense. 
Origin.—Striae in floor 
and anterior wall of 
the 4th Ventricle, 
and 
winds around the 
restiform body. 
Vestibular, to 
2 Semi-circ. canals. 
Utricle. 
Saccule. 
8th Nerve 
Auditory. 
Post. S.-C. canal. 
Saccule—Utricle Wall. 
Cochlea, and Organ of Corti. 
Cochlear, to 
A nerve of special sense (hearing), fully described on page 225, ante. Its Exit ia 
by the Internal Auditory Meatus, through the Internal Auditory Canal, to the internal 
ear. It is the only cranial nerve which does not leave the cranial wall. 
12th NERVE,—Hypoglossal (Nonus or 9TH of Willis). 
Function,—Motor of tongue, etc 
Gustatory of 5th. 
Sympathetic, 
i, 2, Cervical. 
Vagus. 
Communicating Brs. to j 
Origin.—Nucleus in 
floor of 4th Ventricle, 
and 
groove between the 
pyramidal and 
olivary bodies of 
the medulla. 
Br. to Sterno-hyoid. 
Br. to Sterno-thyroid 
Br. to Omo-hyoid. 
Joins Communicans 
Noni Nerve. 
12th Nerve, 
Hypoglossal 
Descendens Noni, 
Thyro-hoid, to that muscle. 
f Stylo-glossus. 
I Hyo-glossus. 
I Genio-hyoid. 
[ Genio-hyo-glossus. 
Lingual, to 
Exit, by Ant. Condyloid foramen. Plate 10 
The Cranial Nerves. 
Nerve, - Abducens. 
8 Nerve, - 
Auditory. 
12Nerve, - 
Hypoglossal. 
(Nonus or 9f^oi‘Willis.) 
/. Supra-trochlear, St1?' 
2 Infra - trochlear, 
5. Supra orbital, SAll 
/. Auricula ternporafSf1 
S lachrymal, J&' 
6. Temporal, SP <£ 7 th 
7. Malar,. 7thA 77/' 
8. Buaal,S* £ 7fP 
9 Posterior Auricular, 
"Potter, del. 
'to Sumo -hyoid, * £ thyroids 
and. Onto - hyoid/ 262 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
8 Cervical, 12 Dorsal, 5 Lumbar, 5 Sacral, i Coccygeal. 
N. B.—Read from the Black Type outwards to left and right. 
THE SPINAL NERVES, 31 PAIRS. 
to muscles and 
skin of back. 
Ext. Br. 
Int. Br. 
Post. Div, 
Each 
Spinal Nerve 
divides into 
Ant. Division, to 
Plexuses, etc. 
Post Div. of 2d N. 
Post. M. of head, etc. 
Complexus Muscle. 
Skin of occiput. 
1st Cervical 
Nerve. 
Sub-occipital 
Brs. (3) to Recti cap. Muscles 
2 Cerv. N. 
Vagus N. 
Hypogl. N. 
Sup. Cerv. Gang 
Post 
Div. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Commun'g 
Brs. to 
Br. to Occip-atloid artic’n. 
Splenius 
Cerv. ascendens 
Transv.-colli 
Trach-mastoid 
Complexus 
Ext. Branch 
supplying 
Fil. to Sterno-mastoid M. 
Asc. Br. to 1st Cerv. N. 
Desc. Br. to 3d Cerv. N. 
Fil. to Commun. Noni N. 
Occipitalis Minor Nerve. 
Post. 
Div. 
2d 
Cervical 
Nerve. 
Ant. 
Div. 
to 1st Cerv. N. 
Skin of occiput. 
Auricular. 
Int. Br. or 
Great Occip. 
Splenius 
Cerv. ascend. 
Trans, colli 
Trach-mast. 
' A seen. 
Br. 
Auric. Magnus. 
Super-f. Cervical. 
Br. to 2d Cerv. N. 
Br. to Spinal-ac. 
Ext. Br. 
supplies 
Post, 
Div. 
3d 
Cervical 
Nerve. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Integument of 
occiput. 
I Int. Br. 
I to supply 
' Fil. to 4th Nerve. 
Fil. to Lev. ang. scap. 
Supra-clavicular. 
Fil. to Com. Noni N. 
- Fil. to Phrenic N. 
Descen 
Br. 
' Fil. to 3d Cerv. N. 
Fit. to 5th Cerv. N. 
Fil. to Phrenic N. 
Fit. to Scalenus medius. 
-Fil. to Supra-clavic. N. 
Muscles of the Back. 
Post. 
Div. 
4th Cervical 
Nerve. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Anterior 
Branches 
of 
1st Cerv. N. 
2d Cerv. N. 
3d Cerv. N. 
4th Cerv. N. 
Superficial Br. 
Ascending Set (5) to head and shoulder. 
Descending Set (3) Sternal, Clavic. Acrom. 
Communica- 
ting to 
r Vagus. 
Hypogl. 
I-Symp. 
Cervical 
Plexus. 
Internal Set 
Muscular. 
Communic. Noni Nerve. 
Phrenic Nerve. 
Deep Branches 
External Set 
Muscular <4). 
Comm’g to Spinal-ace. N- Plate 11 
THE SPINAL NERVES. 
Cervical Plexus, 
THIS PLEXUS 
THE CERVICAL 
SCALENUS MEDIUS AND 
LEVATOR ANGULl SCAPULAE 
LIES UPON THE 
MUSCLES 
IS COVERED BY THE STER NO-CLEI DO - M ASTOID MUSCLE 
"Potter, del. 261 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS. 
Post. Thoracic N. or 
Ext. Respiratory N. of Bell' 
f to 
Serrat. 
1. mag. 
Above the Clavicle. 
Supra-spinatus. 
Infra-spinatus. 
•Shoulder-joint. 
Supra-scapular, to 
Muscular, to 
Rhomboidei (5,6, Cerv.) 
Subclavius (5, 6, Cerv.) 
Scaleni (6, 7, Cerv.) 
Long, colli (6, 7, Cerv.) 
Lev. ang. scap.(s, Cerv.) 
Outer 
Cord. 
Ant. Div. 
5th 
Cervical 
Nerve. 
Ant. Div. 
6th 
Cervical 
Nerve. 
Ant. Div. 
7th 
Cervical 
Nerve. 
Br. to Phrenic Nerve. 
• Br. to Posterior Cord of Plexus. 
External Ant. Thoracic, to Pect. major. 
Below Clavicle. 
' Muscular. 
Anterior. 
Posterior. 
l. Articular. 
Outer 
Cord. 
External, or 
Musculo- Cutaneous. 
(No. 2.) 
Median Nerve (outer head) (No. 3). 
Brachial 
Plexus. 
Muscular, to 
Scaleni (8, Cerv.) 
Long, colli (8, Cerv.) 
Above Clavicle. 
Ant. Div. 
8th 
Cervical 
Nerve. 
Ant. Div. 
1st 
Dorsal 
Nerve. 
Inner 
Cord. ' 
Br. to Posterior Cord of Plexus. 
Int. Ant. Thoracic, to Pectoral muscles 
Internal Cutaneous (No. 5). 
Lesser Int. Culan. (IV. of IVrisberg). 
Median Nerve (inner head) (No. 3). 
Ulnar Nerve (No. 7). 
Inner 
Cord. . 
' 1st Subscapular, to Subscap. M. 
2d Subscapular, to Lat. dorsi. 
3d Scapular, to Teres major. 
Circumflex, to Deltoid and skin. 
Posterior 
Cord. 
Musculo-Spiral 
(No. io). 
Muscular. 
Cutaneous. 
Radial. 
Post. Interosseous. 
Note.—Nos. 1, 2,3, etc., refer to the next two Tables. T11E Spi NAL Ne HVE S 
Plate 12 
Brachial Plexus 
Filament at 
ICervSZp^ 
1. Three Suh-scapularJVe rues. 
2Internal JJntuhorucio. 
THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS IS 
IN THE NECK AND THE AXILLA, 
LYING BETWEEN THEANTERIOR 
AND MIDDLE SCAL%ll MUSCLES 
AT FIRST,THEN BELOW THE 
SUBCLAVIUSAND UPON THE lfT 
SERRATION OF THE SERRATUS 
MAGNUS AND SUBSCAPULARIS. 
IT IS ON BOTH SIDES OF,AND 
BEHIND THE AXILLARY ARTERY 
IN ITS 2?? PORTION, EXTERNAL 
THERETO IN ITS l?T PORTION. 
Potter del. 266 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
NERVES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 
Terminal Branches of the Brachial Plexus. 
(1) External Anterior Thoracic, to Pectoralis major. 
Coraco-brachialis. 
Biceps. 
Brachialis anticus. 
Muscular, to. 
Outer Cord of the Brachial Plexus. 
Anterior Br. 
Skin of forearm (front). 
Skin of ball of thumb. 
Joins Radial Nerve. 
(2) External or 
Musculo- 
cutaneous. 
Skin of forearm (back). 
Joins Radial Nerve. 
Joins Ext Cutan. Br. of 
Musculo-spiral N. 
Posterior Br. 
Articular Br. 
to Elbow-joint. 
Pronator radii teres. 
Flex, carpi rad. 
Palm, longus. 
Flex. subl. digit. 
Muscular, to. 
In Forearm., 
Anterior 
Interosseous. 
rto Flex. long. poll, 
to Flex. prof, digit. (Ext. %■) 
to Pronat. quadrat. 
Palmar 
Cutaneous. 
Skin of palm. 
Skin of ball of thumb. 
(3) Median 
to Abduct, poll, 
to Opponens poll, 
to Flex. brev. poll. 
Digital, to thumb. 
Digital, to ist finger. 
In the Hand. 
External Br 
Digital, to contiguous sides 
of index, middle and ring 
fingers. 
Filaments to two outer Lum- 
bricales. 
Internal Br. . Plate 13 
The Spinal Nerves. 
Brachial Plexus, 
and Nerves of the Upper Extremity 
c v 
CVI I 
C Nil 
C VIII 
2 > 
§ Di 
’ r° 
D II 
D III  
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
(4) Internal Anterior Thoracic, to both Pectoral muscles. 
Inner Cord of the Brachial Plexus. 
(5) Internal Cutaneous 
Anterior Br. to skin of forearm, inner side. 
Posterior Br. to skin of forearm, inner side. 
(6) Lesser Internal Cutaneous. J 
(IV. of Wrisberg.) 
• Is often wanting, Intercosto-humeral tak- 
ing its place, to post, surface of lowei 
l y of skin of arm. 
In Forearm. 
Muscular, ... to 
Articular, ... to Elbow-joint. 
Flex. carp, ulnaris. 
Flex. prof. dig. (inner y2.) 
Palmar Cutaneous. Skin of front wrist, and palm of hand 
Dorsal Cutaneozis. Skin of back wrist, and fingers. 
(7) Ulnar 
Articular, ... to Wrist-joint. 
In Hand. 
Superficial Brs. to 
Palmaris brevis. 
Skin of i% fingers. 
Muscles of little finger. 
Interossei. 
2 inner Lumbricales. 
Adduc. pollicis. 
Flex. brev. poll, (inner head) 
Deep Brs. ... to 
Posterior Cord of the Brachial Plexus. 
(8) Subscapular (3). 
1st Upper, to Subscapular muscle, 
2d Long, to Latiss. dorsi. 
3d Lower, to Teres major. 
Superior Br. . to 
f Deltoid. 
>• Skin of shoulder. 
(9) Circumflex 
Inferior Br. . to 
r Teres minor. 
Deltoid (post). 
'-Skin of shoulder. 
Triceps, Anconeus. 
Brach. anticus 
Supin. long. 
Ext. carpi, rad. long. 
Muscular, . . to 
Cutaneous, to skin of arm. 
(10) Musculo- 
Spiral. 
■ Radial. 
External Br to skin of thumb. 
I Internal Br. 
f to skin of 3% fingers on 
I radial side of dorsum. 
to all muscles on back of forearm, 
except Anconeus, Sup. long, and 
Ext. carpi radialis long. 
Filaments to wrist-joints. 
Posterior 
Interosseous 1 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
269 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.—Continued. 
N. B—Read from the Black Types outwards to left and right. 
THE DORSAL NERVES. 
Transv. colli. 
Longis. dorsi. 
Trachelo-mast. 
Levat. costar. 
Sacro-lumbal. 
Accessorius. 
Intercos. 
Tri. Ster. 
Ext. Brs. 
*—to 
Muscular. 
Skin of 
Chest, 
Breast, 
Side, 
Back. 
Post. 
Div. 
Each 
6 Upper 
' Dorsal 
L Nerves. 
Ant. Div. 
Thoracic 
Intercostals 
Lateral 
Cutaneous. 
Semi-sp. dorsi 
Multif Spinse 
Skin of back. 
Int. Brs. 
■—m to 
Anterior 
Cutaneous. 
Skin of 
Chest, 
■ Breast. 
Same as above. 
Skin of back. 
Ext. Brs. 
Muscular. 
Intercos. 
Abdom.M 
Post. 
Div. 
Each 
6 Lower 
Dorsal 
Nerves. 
Ant. Div. 
or 
Thoracico- 
abdominal 
Intercostals 
Lateral 
Cutaneous. 
Skin of 
Abdomen, 
etc. 
Same as above 
No br. to skin. 
Recti M. 
Skin of ’ 
Abdomen 
Int. Brs. 
Anterior 
Cutaneous. 270 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE LUMBAR AND SACRAL NERVES. 
(Distribution shown on next Table.) 
An 
External Branch, 
sending filaments 
to the Erector 
spinse and 
Intertransversales 
muscles, and the 
skin of the gluteal 
region, posteriorly. 
The Posterior Division of each of these Nerves has 
1st Lumbar.-; 
Ant. 
Div. 
Nos. 
1, 2, 3, 
Comm. Br. 
to 2d Lum. 
2d Lumbar. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Nos. 
3. 4, 5. 
Comm Br. 
to 3d Lum. 
(1) Ilio-hypogastric 
(2) Ilio-inguinal. 
(3) Genito-crural. 
(4) Ext. Cutaneous 
(5) Ant Crural. 
(6) Obturator. 
(7) Accessory 
Obturator 
(when present.) 
Lumbar Plexus. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Part of 
5. 6, 7. 
Comm. Br. 
to 4th Lum 
An 
Internal Branch, 
sending filaments 
to the Multifid. 
spinse, and skin 
over vertebrae of 
spinal column. 
3d Lumbar. 
Part of 
5, 6. 7> 
Lumbo- 
Sacral 
Cord 
to 5th Lum 
4th Lumbar. 
Ant. 
Div. 
The Posterior Division of each of these Nerves has 
Ant. 
Div. 
Joins the 
Lumbo- 
Sacral Cord 
An 
External Branch, 
forming loop on 
sacrum and great 
Sac-Sciat. lig. to 
supply skin over 
glutei. 
5th Lumbar. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Joins the 
Lumbo- 
Sacral Cord 
and 
2d Sacral. 
1st Sacral. 
2d Sacral. 
Ant. 
Div. 
I Joins with 
[ 1st Sacral. 
Sacral Plexus. 
(1) Super. Gluteal. 
(2) Muscular Brs- 
(3) Small Sciatic. 
(4) Great Sciatic. 
(5) Puaic. 
(6) Articular. 
Joins with 
2d Sacral 
and part 
of the 4th. 
An 
Internal Branch, 
to Multifidus Spinse 
and back part of 
coccyx. 
(the two lower 
nerves.) 
3d Sacral. 
Ant. 
Div 
Br. to 
Plexus, 
Vise. Brs. 
Mus. Brs. 
Fil. to 5th. 
4th Sacral. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Are below the' 
Multifid. Spinse, 
join together in 
loops over back 
of sacrum, 
sending fila- 
ments to skin. 
Post. 
Div. 
5th Sacral. 
Ant. 
Div 
-Br. to skin of coccyx. 
Br. to Coccygeus M. 
■ Br. to Cocc. Nerve. 
Post. 
Div. 
Ant. 
Div. 
A delicate filament, going 
to skin, over coccyx. 
Coccygeal. THE SPINAL NERVES. 
from /^t.h'Dorsal 
Lumbar & Sacral Plexuses. 
Plate 14 
THE LUMBAR PLEXUS lies in the substance of the psoas muscle, 
(lies upon the pyriformis muscle,inthe pelvis, 
THESACRAL PLEXUS< and iscovered bythe pelvic fascia, and the 
I sciaticand pudic arteries 
Potter, ael. 272 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRANCHES 
From the 7 Great Trunks of the LUMBAR PLEXUS. 
(A Continuation of the Table on Page 288.) 
fi). Ilio-hypogastric 
Iliac, to skin of gluteal region. 
Hypogastric, to skin of that region. 
(2). Ilio-inguinal, 
to Internal Oblique Muscle. 
■ to skin of upper and inner thigh, scrotum, penis- 
(3). Genito-crural 
Genital, to Cremaster, scrotum, round ligament. 
Crural, to skin of upper and front thigh. 
(4). External Cutaneous 
Ant. Br. to skin of ant. and outer thigh, above knee. 
Post. Br. to skin of post, aud outer thigh, above knee. 
to Sartorius, and skin of ant. thigh 
above knee. 
Ant. 
Div. 
Mid. Cutaneous. 
Ext. Br. to skin, lateral of knee. 
Post. Br. to skin of inner thigh 
and leg. 
Itit. Cutaneous. 
(5). Anterior 
Crural. 
Long Saphenous. 
to Skin of knee and of front and 
inner leg and foot. 
Post, f Muscular Brs. to muscles on front of thigh, all but 2. 
Div. l Articular Brs. (2) to capsules of knee- and hip-joints. 
Ant. 
Br. 
r Articular Brs. to hip-joint. 
! Muscular Brs. to Adductors, Gracilis and Pectineus. 
t Anastomotic Brs. with Int. Cutan. and Int. Saphenous. 
(6). Obturator. 
Post. 
Br. 
r Articular Brs. to knee-joint. 
Muscular Brs. to Adduc. mag. and Obturator externus. 
Muscular Br. to Pectineus. 
Articular Br. to hip-joiut. 
Cutaneous Br. to skin of thigh and leg. 
(7). Accessory Obturator. 
Occasionally 
present. 
The Lumbar Plexus lies in the substance of the Psoas muscle, in front of the trans- 
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Plate 15 
Distribution of Branches of the 
Lumbar & Sacral 
Plexuses. 
The Spinal Nerves. 
L urnbar Plexus. 
Potter, del. 
Sacral Plexus. 274 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRANCHES 
OF THE SACRAL PLEXUS. 
[Continuation of Table on Page 288.] 
(1). Superior Gluteal, 
Inf. Br. 
Sup. Br. to the Gluteus medius and minimus. 
to the Gluteus medius and minimus, 
to the Tensor vaginae femoris. 
(2). Muscular Branches, to 
Pyriformis, Obturator internus, the two Gemelli, and 
the Quadratus femoris muscles. 
(3). Articular Branches, to the hip joint. 
Inf. Gluteal, 
Gluteus maximus muscle. 
Skin of side of penis, or vulva. 
(4). Small Sciatic. 
Inf .Pudendal, 
Skin of upper and inner thigh, and of scrotum 
or labium. 
Cutaneous, . 
Ascending, to Skin over Glutei. 
Descending, to Skin of post, thigh. 
Articular, ... to the hip-joint. 
(5). Great Sciatic, 
Muscular, to 
Adductus magnus, Biceps. 
Semi-membranosus, Semi-tendinosus. 
External Popliteal or Peroneal. 
Internal Popliteal Nerve. 
Terminal Branches. 
(See next page.) 
-to Skin of anus, scrotum, 
penis and labia, and the 
>• Sphincter ani muscle. 
Perineal, 
Superficial Perineal, 
Muscular, to perineal muscles. 
(6). Pudic. 
Inferior Hemorrhoidal, 
f to Sphincter ani muscle. 
‘ to Skin of anal region 
Dorsal of Penis, 
r Skin of dorsum of penis. 
' Br. to Corpora cavernosa. 
The Sacral Plexus lies in the pelvis upon the Pyriformis muscle, and is covered by 
the Pelvic fascia, and the Sciatic and Pudic Arteries. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
275 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES 
OF THE LEG AND FOOT. 
[Terminal Branches of the Great Sciatic.] 
(1). Articular (3), distributed to the knee-joint. 
(2). Cutaneous (2 or 3), to skin of leg, exteriorly and posteriorly. 
Muscular, to 
front muscles of leg. 
Peroneus tertius. 
External 
Popliteal 
or 
Peroneal 
Nerve. 
(3). Anterior 
Tibial. 
External Br. 
Extensor brevis digitorum. 
Tarsal articulations. 
Internal Br. 
Skin of contiguous sides of great and 
2d toes. 
Muscular, . . 
Peroneus longus and brevis. 
Skin, outer side of foot and ankle. 
Skin, contig. sides, 3d, 4th, 5th toes. 
(4). Musculo- 
cutaneous. 
External Br. 
Internal Br. 
Skin, inner side of foot and ankle. 
Skin, contig. sides, 2d and 3d toes, 
■ and inner side of great toe. 
(1). Articular (3), to knee-joint. 
(2). Muscular, to Gastrocnemius, Plantaris, Soleus, and Popliteus. 
formed by a filament from each of the Popli- 
teal nerves, to skin of outer side of the 
foot and little toe. 
Internal 
Popliteal 
Nerve. 
(3). rtxT. Saphenous, 
Muscular, to 
Flexor longus pollicis, Flexor longus 
digitorum. Tibialis posticus. 
Plantar Cutaneous, to skin of heel and sole. 
Posterior 
Tibial. 
Internal 
Plantar. 
Digital, to skin, 3 inner toes. 
Muscular, to flexors, etc. 
Articular, to tarsus. 
Cutaneous, to sole of foot. 
External 
Plantar. 
Muscular, to Flexor accessorius. 
Superficial, 
r to 1 outer toes. 
Flexor brevis min. dig 
' 4th Interosseous. 
f 3d and 4th Lumbricales. 
I Rest of Interossei. 
Deep Br. 276 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.-Continued. 
THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 
Ganglion of Ribes- 
on the Anterior Communicating Artery. 
In it begins the double chain of gangliated cords enumec 
- ated below. 
f Some to Pneumogastric, Glossopharyngeal, and 
Hypoglossal Nerves. 
External 
Branches 
to join the 
1st, 2d, 
3d, 4th 
Cervical 
Nerves. 
Sup. Brsi 
Ext. Br. forms Carotid Plexus. 
Int. Br. forms Cavernous Plex. 
along Int. Carotid Artery. 
Superior 
Cervical 
Ganglion 
Ascend. Br 
Anterior Branches, to Plexus on Ext. Carotid Artery. 
Pharyngeal, to Pharyngeal Plexus. 
Superior Cardiac Nerve, to Cardiac Plexus, 
goes to Deep PI. on right side, to Superficial’ 
PI. on left side of body. 
Int. Brs. 
Ext. Brs .to 
5th and 6th 
Cerv. N. 
Middle 
Cervical 
Ganglion 
Filaments along Inf. Thyroid Art. to Thyroid 
body and Larynx. 
Mid. Cardiac Nerve, to Deep Cardiac Plexus 
Int. Brs. 
Ext. Brs. to 
7th and 8th, 
Cerv. N. 
Inferior 
Cervical 
Ganglion 
Int. Brs. - 
Filaments along Vertebral Art. to cranium. 
Inf. Cardiac Nerve, to Deep Cardiac Plexus. 
Upper 5 or 6 to Aorta and Vertebral column. 
2d, 3d and 4th to Post. Pulmonary Plexus. 
Lower 6 from the 3 Splanchnic Nerves, thus— 
6-10, Great Splanchnic, to Semi-lunar Gang 
10, 11, Small Splanchnic, to Coeliac Plexus. 
12, Smallest Splanchnic, to Renal Plexus. 
Ext. Brs. to 
12 Dorsal N. 
12 
Thoracic 
Ganglia. 
■Int. Brs. 
4 
Lumbar 
Ganglia. 
f Some to Aortic Plexus. 
) Some to Hypogastric Plexus. 
Ext. Brs. to J 
Lumbar N. 1 
■ Int. Brs 
Ext. Brs. to 
Sacral N. 
4 
Sacral 
Ganglia. 
y Int. Brs 
to Pelvic Plexus. 
to Plexus on Middle Sacral Artery. 
Coccygeal I 
G„ or ! 
Ganglion | 
Impar. J 
In which ends the double chain of gangliated cords enumer- 
ated above, and called The Sympathetic Nervous 
System. 
[For the various connected Ganglia, etc., see ante, pages 137 to 140.] The Sympathe tig 
System ofKkrves. 
Plate 16 
G.= GANGLION. 
P.* PLEXUS. 
A.= ARTERY. 
1.2.3.4. BRAN CHES . 
FROM PNEUMOGASTRIC. 
NERVE TO THE CARDIAC 
PLEXUS. INDEX. 
Note.—Titles which contain the name of a person are entered twice, one entry being 
under the person’s name, the other under that of the structure. 
PAGE 
ABDOMEN i6r 
Abdominal Cavity 161 
Regions 162 
Absorbents 119 
Acervulus cerebri 127 
Acetabulum 4t 
Adenology 9 
Alveoli 11, 23 
of the lungs 173 
Alveolus 141 
Amphiarthrosis 55 
Ampulla of semi-circ. canals. 221 
of the milk-ducts 192 
Anastomoses 114 
Anastomosis, The Stirrup 113 
Anatomy 9 
Angiology 9 
Angle of the jaw 28 
Visual 197 
Angulus vestibularis 224 
Annulus ovalis 10a 
Anti-helix 213 
Anti-tragus 213 
Antrum of Highmore 22 
Anus 152 
Aorta 102 
Apparatus ligam. colli 57 
Appendices epiploicae 152, 165 
Appendix auriculae 100 
Ensiform 38 
vermiformis 151 
Aponeuroses 67 
Aponeurosis, Pharyngeal 147 
Apophysis 10 
Aqueduct of Sylvius 124 
Aqueductus cochleae 17, 35. 222 
Fallopii 216 
vestibuli 16, 35, 220 
Arachnoid of brain 121 
of spinal cord 129 
Arbor vitae 129 
Arch, Crural 227, 229 
Palmar 108 
Plantar 113 
Areola of mammae 192 
Arm 43 
Arnold’s ganglion 137 
. n?rv* : 35,132 
Artenae propriae renales 176 
Arterial anastomoses 114 
Arteries 102 
Helicine 182 
Hepatic 155 
Lingual 143 
PAGE 
Arteries, Pharyngeal 14s 
Sub-lingual 145 
Arteries of the— 
ankle-joint 65 
auditory canal 214 
auricle 2t4 
bone 12 
choroid 200 
elbow-joint 61 
Eustachian tube 2r9 
eye 206 
eyelids 210 
hip-joint 63 
iris 202 
kidney 176 
knee-joint 63 
labyrinth ... 225 
larynx 170 
lung 173 
mammae 192 
membrana tympaui 215 
nasal fossae 196 
nose 196 
oesophagus.. 148 
ovaries 191 
pancreas 157 
penis 183 
pharynx 147 
retina 203 
shoulder-joint 60 
stomach 150 
supra-renal capsules 161 
testicle 185 
thymus gland 160 
thyroid gland 159 
tympanum 218 
uterus 190 
wrist-joint 62 
Arteriolae rectae 176 
Artery 102 
Anastomotica magna ro8, 112 
Aorta 108, 109 
Art. receptaculi 105 
Auricular 105 
Axillary 107 
Basilar 106 
Brachial 107 
Carotid 103, 104, 105 
Cerebral, Anterior 105, 207 
Middle 106 
Choroid, Anterior 106 
Circumflex, Anterior 107 
Posterior 106 
Communicating, Anterior 106 
277 278 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Artery, Communicating, Posterior 106 
Coronary 103 
Digital 114 
Dorsalis hallucis 113 
pedis 113 
Epigastric in, 227 
Superficial 112 
Facial 104 
Femoral m 
Gastric 109 
Gluteal in 
Hemorrhoidal no 
Hepatic 109 
Iliac, Circumflex m 
External in 
Internal no 
Ilio-lumbar in 
Infra-orbital 207 
Innominate 103 
Intercostales 107,108 
Lingual . 104 
Lumbar no 
Mammary 107 
Maxillary, Internal 105 
Meningeal, Anterior . ......... 105 
Mesenteric, Inferior no 
Superior 109 
of Neubauer 103,159 
Obturator no, 229 
Occipital 105 
Ophthalmic 105, 206 
Palmar arches 108 
Peroneal 113 
Pharyngeal, Ascending 105 
Phrenic 109 
Plantar 113 
Popliteal 112 
Profunda femoris 112 
inferior 108 
superior 107 
Pudic in 
External 112 
Pulmonary 114 
Radial 108 
Renal no 
Sacral, Lateral in 
Middle no 
Sciatic..,. hi 
Spermatic no 
Splenic 109,159 
Subclavian 106 
Sub-scapular 107 
Supra-renal no 
Supra-scapular 107 
Temporal 105 
Thoracic, Acromial 107 
Superior 107 
Thoracica alaris 107 
longa 107 
Thyroid.. 104,159 
Inferior 107 
Thyroidea ima 159 
Tibial, Anterior 112 
Transversalis colli 107 
Tympanic 105, 218 
Ulnar 108 
Uterine no 
PAGE 
Artery, Vaginal no 
Vertebral 106 
Vesical no 
Arthrodial joints 55 
Articulation 55 
Atlo-axoid 57 
Carpal 62 
Carpo-metacarpal 62 
Costo-sternal 58 
Costo-transverse 58 
Costo-vertebral 58 
Metacarpo-metacarpal 63 
Metatarso-metatarsal 66 
Occipito-atloid 56 
Occipito-axoid 57 
Phalangeal of foot 66 
of hand 63 
Radio-ulnar 59, 61 
Sacro-coccygeal 59 
Sacro-iliac 59 
Sacro-ischiatic 59 
Sacro-vertebral 59 
Scapulo-clavicular 60 
Sterno-clavicular 60 
Tarsal 53, 65 
Tarso-metatarsal 66 
Temporo-maxillary 57 
Tibio-fibular 65 
Vertebral 56 
Arytenoid cartilages 166 
Atlas 37 
Auricle 213 
Axis 37 
Coeliac 103, 109 
*97 
Visual 197 
Azygos n 
uvulse 74 
ID AND, Dollinger’s 201 
Bartholine, Duct of. 14s 
Glands of. 188 
Bauhin, Valve of. 150, 151 
Bell, Nerve of. 133 
Bellini, Tubes of 176 
Bertin, Columns of. 175 
Bladder 178 
Blastema 12 
Bodies, Malpighian 176 
Pacchionian 121 
Body, Ciliary aoo 
Hyaloid 205 
Olivary 128 
Perineal 232 
Pituitary 123 
Re’stiform 128 
Bone 11 
Astragalus 53 
Clavicle 44 
Coccyx 41 
Cuboid 54 
Cuneiform 49, 54 
Ethmoid 21 
Femur 50 
Fibula 52 
Frontal 11 INDEX. 
279 
PAGB 
Bone, Humerus 45 
Hyoid 53 
Ilium 42 
Incus 217 
Innominate 41 
Ischium 42 
Lachrymal 24 
Malar 24 
Malleus 217 
Maxillary ( Inferior 27 
Superior 22 
Nasal 22 
Occipital 14 
Os calcis 53 
Os magnum 49 
Palate 25 
Parietal 13 
Pectineal 43 
Peroneal 52 
Phalanges of foot 54 
of hand 50 
Pisiform 49 
Pubic 43 
Sacral 4° 
Scaphoid 49. 54 
Scapula 44 
Semilunar 49 
Sphenoid 18 
Stapes 217 
Sternum 38 
Temporal 15 
Tibia 51 
Trapezium..... 49 
Trapezoid 49 
Turbinated 19 
Inferior 26, 31 
Ulna 47 
Unciform 49 
Vomer 20 
Bones of the— 
Body 9 
Carpus 48 
Foot 53 
Hand 4“ 
Head 12 
Leg 5* 
Lower extremity 50 
Metacarpus 49 
Metatarsus 54 
Tarsus 53 
Trunk 36 
Upper extremity 43 
Bones, Unclassified to 
Wormian 10, 33 
Bonnet, Capsule of 197 
Bowman’s membrane 199 
Muscle 200 
Bowman and Todd’s muscle 224 
Brain 120 
Commissures of Brain 124 
Divisions 121 
Points on surface 123 
Ventricles 124 
Weights of average , 121 
Bronchi 17°, *7* 
Brunner’s glands 15* 
Bulb of corpus cavernosum 182 
PAGE 
Bulb of corpus spongiosum 182 
Bulbi vestibuli 187 
Bulbs, Olfactory 123 
Burns, Ligament of 228 
Bursae of knee-joint 65 
Caecum 151 
Calamus scriptorius 128 
Calices of the kidney 175 
Canal, Alimentary 141 
Auditory,External 214 
Internal 225 
Carotid 17 
Central of the Cord 129 
Crural 228 
Dental 22, 28 
Femoral 228 
Hunter’s 93 
Hyaloid 205 
Infraorbital 22, 29 
Inguinal 226 
of the modiolus 221 
Nutrient 52, 53 
Palatine 23 
Sacral 41 
Spiral of the cochlea 221 
for tensor tympani 35 
Vidian 20, 35 
Canal of— 
Cloquet 205 
Fontana 202 
Hugier 16, 35, 215 
Nuck 190 
Petit 204 
Schlemm 202 
Stilling 205 
Canaliculi... 11. 212 
Canalis reuniens 223 
Canals, Semicircular 22i 
Membranous 2^3 
Can thus 2x0 
Capillaries 102 
Capsule of Bonnet 197 
of Glisson 156 
of the lens 204 
of Muller 176 
of Tenon 197 
Capsules, Supra-renal 160 
Caput caecum coli 151 
gallinaginis 179 
Carpus 49 
Cartilage 56 
Cartilages of the larynx 165 
of Santorini 167 
Tarsal 210 
ofWrisberg .... 167 
Cartllago triticea .... 167 
Caruncula lachrymalis 211 
Carunculae myrtiformes 187 
Cauda equina 41, 129 
Cavity, Cotyloid 41 
Glenoid of scapula 45 
of the omentum 163 
Orbital 29 
of reserve 144 
Sigmoid 47 
of the radius 48 280 
PAGB 
Cells, Auditory 224 
Ethmoid 21 
Hepatic 156 
Mastoid 16, 216 
Olfactory of Schultze 196 
Cement 144 
Cerebellum 128 
Cerebrospinal system 120 
Cerebrum 121 
its convolutions 122 
its lobes, fissures, etc 121 
Cervix of the penis 182 
uteri 189 
Chopart’s operation 53 
Chordae tendinae 100 
Choroid tunic 200 
plexus 125 
Cilia 210 
Circle of Willis 106 
Circulus arteriosus 201 
iridis minor 202 
major iridis 202 
venosus 192 
Clavicle 44 
Clinoid 11 
Clitoris 187 
Cloquet, Canal of 205 
Fascia of. 228 
Coccyx 41 
Cochlea, Membranous 223 
Osseous 220 
Cceliac Axis 103, 109 
Collar-bone 44 
Colon 152 
Flexures of 152 
Colurifnae carneae 101 
papillares 101 
Columns of Bertin 175 
of spinal cord 129 
Commissure, Optic 123, 208 
Concha 213 
Condyles 10 
of femur 51 
of humerus 46 
Coni vasculosi 184 
Conjunctiva 211 
Conus arteriosus 101 
Convolutions of cerebrum 122 
Cooper, Fascia of 229 
Coracoid 11 
Corium 194 
Cornea 199 
Cornicula laryngis 167 
Cornua of thyroid cartilage 166 
uteri 189 
of the ventricles 125 
Corona glandis 182 
radiata 127 
Coronoid 11 
Corpora albicantia 123, 125 
cavernosa 182 
quadrigemina.. 124, 127 
striata 123 
Corpus Arantii 101 
callosum 123, 125 
dentatum 128, 129 
fimbriatum 125 
INDEX. 
PAGB 
Corpus Highmorianum 184 
luteum 191 
spongiosum 182 
Corpuscles, Malpighian 158 
Tactile 194 
Corti, Organ of. 224 
Cortical substance 175 
Cotunnius, Liquor of. 219 
Cotyloid 11 
Coverings of the testicle 184 
of hernia 227, 229 
Cowper’s glands 181 
Crest of the ilium 42 
lachrymal 30 
nasal 23 
of the pubes 43 
of the tibia 52 
turbinated 23, 25 
Cricoid caitilage 166 
Crista galli 21 
vestibuli 220 
Crura cerebri 123, 127 
of penis 182 
Crusta petrosa 142 
Crypts of Lieberkiihn 151 
Cuneiform cartilages 167 
Cuneus 122 
Cupola of cochlea 221 
Cuticle 193 
TNARTOS 183 
Dentine 142 
Derma 193 
Dermatology 9 
Descemet, Membrane of 199 
Diaphragm 83 
Diarthrosis 55 
Digestion, Organs of 141 
Disc, Optic 202 
Discus proligerus 191 
Dollinger’s band 201 
Dorsum of scapula 44 
Douglas’ cul-de-sac 188 
Duct of Bartholine 145 
Cystic : 157 
of Gsertner 192 
Hepatic 155, 157 
Lymphatic 120 
of Muller 185 
Nasal 212 
Pancreatic 157 
ofRivinus 145 
ofSteno 144 
Thoracic ; 119 
of Wharton 144 
of Wirsung 157 
Ducts, Biliary 157 
Ejaculatory 186 
Seminal 180 
Ductus cochlearis 223 
communis choledochus 157 
Duodenum 150 
Dura mater of cerebrum 120 
of spinal cord 129 
DAR - 212 
Internal 210 INDEX. 
PAGE 
Earstones 223 
Eminence, Hypothenar 90 
Thenar 90 
Eminentia collaterals 125 
Enamel 142 j 
Enarthrosis., 55 
Endocardium 99 
Endolymph 220 
Endosteum. 11 
Epidermis 193 
Epididymis 184 
Epigastric region 162 
Epiglottis 167 1 
Epiphysis 11 
Epiploa 164 
Equator of eye-ball 197 
Eustachian tube 219 
Eye 197 
Its appendages 209 
Eyeball 197 
Eyebrows 209 
Eyelashes 210 
Eyelids 209 
Fallopian tubes 190 
Fallopius, Aqueduct of 216 
Hiatus of. 35 
Falx cerebelli 121 
cerebri 120 
Fascia, Anal 230 
Buck’s 230 
of Cloquet 229 
of Cooper 229 
Cremasteric 227 
Cribriform 228 
Dentata 125 
Intercolumnar 226 
Ischio-rectal 230 
Lata 91 
Lumbar 82 
Obturator 230 | 
Palmar 90 
Perineal 230, 232 
Plantar 97 
Recto-vesical 230 
Tarso-orbital 211 
of Testis 184 
Fascia 67 
of the perineum 230 
Fasciculus cuneatus 128 
gracilis 128 , 
Fauces 144 
Femur 50 
Fenestra ovalis 216, 220 
rotunda 216 
Ferrein, Pyramids of 176 
Tubes of. 176 
Fibro-cartilage 56 
Fibula 52 ; 
Fimbria 190 
Fimbriated extremities 190 i 
Fissure, Auricular 17, 35 j 
Ethmoidal 34 i 
Glaserian 15, 3S>2I6 ; 
Palpebral 209 
PAGE 
Fissure Pterygo-maxillary 32 
of Rolando 122 
Spheno-maxillary 30, 32 
Sphenoidal 20, 30, 34 
of Sylvius 122 
Transverse 125 
Fissures of cerebellum 128 
of cerebrum 122 
of liver 154 
of spinal cord 129 
Folds, Retro-tarsal 211 
Semi-lunar 211 
Fontana, Canal of. 202 
Spaces of 201 
Fontanelles 33 
Foot S3 
Foramen for Arnold’s nerve 17, 35 
Caecum 12, 34 
Condyloid 35 
Ethmoidal 30, 34 
Incisive 23, 35 
Infra-orbital 22, 35 
Inter-vertebral 36 
for Jacobson’s nerve 17, 35 
Lacerum anterius 20, 30, 34 
medium 35 
posterius 35 
Magnum 14,35 
Mastoid 16, 35 
Mental 27, 35 
of Munroe 124 
Nutrient 47, 48 
Obturator 42 
Olfactory 34 
Ovale 19, 34 
Optic 20, 30, 34 
Orbital 19 
Palatine 25, 35 
Petrosal 35 
Pterygo-palatine 35 
Rivinian 215 
Rotundum. 19, 34 
Sacral 41 
of Scarpa 23 
Spheno-palatine 25 
Spinal 36 
Spinosum 19, 34 
of Stenson 23 
Stylo-mastoid 17, 35 
Supra-orbital 30, 35 
Supra-scapular... 45 
Thyroid 42 
Vesalii 19, 34 
of Winslow 163 
Foramina at the base of the skull 34 
Olfactory 31 
Orbital 29 
Spheno-maxillary 32 
Thebesii too 
Fore-arm 47 
Fornix 125 
Fossa, Canine 22 
Coronoid 46 
Di-gastric 28 
Digital 50 
Glenoid 15 
Hyaloid 204, 20j 282 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Fossa, Incisive 22, 27 
Infra-spinous 44 
Ischio-rectal 230 
Jugular 17 
Lachrymal 29 
Navicularis of vulva 188 
of penis 180 
of auricle 213 
Olecranon 46 
Ovalis 100 
Pterygoid 20 
Scaphoid 20 
Spheno-maxillary 32 
Sublingual 28 
Sub-maxillary 28 
Subscapular 44 
Supraspinous 44 
Temporal 32 
Triangularis 213 
Zygomatic 32 
Fossae, Nasal 31 
of the Skull 34, 35 
Fourchette 188 
Fovea centralis 202 
hemispherica 220 
semi-elliptica 220 
Frenulum 127 
Frenum preputii 183 
GA5RTNER, Duct of. 192 
Gall-bladder 156 
Ganglia, Basal 123 
Cervical 138 
of Fifth nerve 137 
of the Sympathetic 137 
Ganglion, Arnold’s 137 
Gasserian 131, 138 
Impar 137, 139 
Meckel’s 137, 190 
of Ribes 137 
Spheno-palatine 190 
Spirale 225 
Gasser, Ganglion of. 131, 138 
Genesiology 9 
Gimbernat’s ligament 227 
Ginglymus 55 
Gladiolus 38 
Gland, Lachrymal 2x1 
Mammary 192 
Pineal 127 
Prostate 181 
Thymus 160 
Thyroid 159 
Glands of Bartholine 188 
Brunner’s 151 
Cowper’s 181 
Ductless 158 
Gastric 149 
Intestinal 152 
Lachrymal 211 
Littre’s 180 
Lymphatic 119 
Meibomian -194, 210 
Sebaceous 194 
Solitary 151 
Sweat IQS 
of Tyson.,... 183 
PAGB 
Gians clitoridis 187 
penis 182 
Glenoid 11 
Glisson’s capsule 156 
Globus major 184, 185 
minor 185 
Glottis 168 
Gomphosis 55 
Graafian vesicle 191 
Groove, Bicipital... 46 
Infraorbital 23, 29 
Musculo-spiral 46 
Mylo-hyoid 28 
Naso-palatine 27 
Optic 18 
Pterygo-palatine 19 
Gubernaculum testis 186 
Gums 141 
Gyrus, Angular 122 
Fornicatus 122 
TJTAIRS 194 
Hamstrings 94 
Hamular u 
Hand 48 
Haversian canals 11 
system n 
Head of the humerus 45 
of the ulna : 47 
Heart 90 100 
Heel 53 
Helicotrema 221 
Helix 213 
Henle, Tubes of 176 
Hernia 226 
Femoral 228 
Inguinal 226 
Hey, Ligament of. 228 
Operation of 54 
Hiatus Fallopii 16, 35 
Hilton, Sac of. 168 
Hilum of kidney 175 
Hippocampus Major 125 
Minor 125 
Horner’s muscle 68 
Houston, Folds of. 152 
Hugier, Canal of. 16, 35, 216 
Humerus 45 
Humor, Aqueous 204 
Vitreous 205 
Humors of the eyeball 198 
Hunter’s Canal 93 
Hydatids of Morgagni 185 
Hymen 187 
Hypochondrium 162 
Hypogastrium 163 
TLEUM 130 
Ilium 42 
Incisura intertragica 213 
Infundibula of kidney 175 
Infundibulum 13 
of brain 123 
of cochlea 221 
Inguinal regions 163 
Intestine, Large 151 
Small 150 283 
PAGE 
Intumescentia gangliformis Scarpae.. ... 225 
of 7th nerve 138 
Iris 201 
Ischium 42 
Island of Reil 122 
Iter chordae anterius 216 
Iter chordae posterius 216 
Iter e tertio ad quartam ventriculum 124 
Ivory 142 
JACOB’S MEMBRANE 203 
J Jacobson’s nerve 35, 132, 216, 218 
Jejunum 150 
Joint, Ankle 65 
Elbow 61 
Hip 63 
Rotators of the hip-joint 95 
Knee 63 
Shoulder 60 
Wrist 62 
Joints, Motion in 55 
Structures of 55 
TZTDNF.YS 175 
Kirkring’s valves 131 
J ABIA MAJORA 187 
Labium tympanicum 224 
vestibulare 224 
Labyrinth 219,220 
Membranous 222 
Lacteals 119 
Lacuna magna 180 
Lacunae 11 
Lacus lachrymalis 209 
Lamina cinerea 123 
cribrosa 198 
fusca 198 
reticularis 224 
spiralis 221 
Laminae 36 
Lancisi, Nerves of 125 
Larynx 165 
Layer, Dermoid 215 
Ganglionic 203 
Granular 203 
Molecular 203 
Leg—v •. 51 
Lens, Crystalline 204 
Lieberkuhn, Crypts of. 151 
Ligament, Annular 90 
Annular of foot 97 
of Burns 228 
Canthal, External 210 
Conoid 60 
Coronary 64, 154 
Costo-xiphoid 58 
Cotyloid 63 
Crucial of knee-joint 64 
Cruciform 57 
Deltoid 65 
Falciform 154 
Gimbernat’s 227 
Glenoid 60 
of Hey 228 
Ilio-femoral or Y 63 
INDEX. 
PAC.B 
Ligament, Orbicular 61 
Poupart’s 91, 227 
Rhomboid 60 
Round of the liver 154 
of the uterus 189 
Sacro-sciatic 59 
Stellate 58 
Stylo-mastoid 57 
Suspensory of lens 204 
of liver 154 
of penis 182 
of spleen 158 
Transverse 57 
of hip-joint 63 
Trapezoid 60 
Triangular 227 
of perineum 230 
of Zinn 205 
Ligaments 56 
of the Bladder 178 
Broad 189 
Canthal 210 
Check 57 
of the Knee-joint 64 
of the Larynx 167 
of the Liver 154 
of the Ossicles 217 
of the Ovaries , 190 
Peritoneal 164 
of the Scapula 60 
of the Sternum 58 
Tarsal 210 
of the Uterus 189 
Ligamentum latum pulmonis 174 
mucosum 64 
nuchae 76 
patellae 64 
pectinatum iridis 201 
spirale 224 
suspensorium..... 57 
teres 63 
Winslowii 64 
Limbus laminae spiralis 223 
Line, Inter-trochanteric 50 
Popliteal 52 
Linea aspera 51 
ilio-pectinea 42 
quadrati 50 
Liquor Cotunnii 220 
Morgagni 204 
Scarpae 220 
Lithotomy, Structures affected 231 
Littre, Glands of. 180 
Liver 153 
Structure of liver 156 
Lobe of the ear 213 
Lobes of the cerebellum 128 
of the cerebrum 121 
of the liver 154 
Optic 124, 127 
Lobule, of the ear 213 
Paracentral 122 
Lobules of the liver 156 
of the lung 173 
Lobulus caudatus 155 
quadratus 154 
Spigelii 153 284 
INDEX. 
PAGB 
Locus niger 127 
Lower, Tubercle of 100 
Lumbar regions 163 
Lung, Broad ligament of 174 
Lungs 171 
Lunula 194 
Lymphatics 119 
Hepatic 156 
of Lung * 173 
of Penis 183 
of Supra-renal capsules 161 
of Thymus gland. 160 
of Trachea and Bronchi 171 
of Uterus 190 
Lymph-spaces of eyeball 207 
Lyra 125 
A/TACULA ACOUSTICA 223 
Macula lutea 202 
Maculae cribrosae 220 
Malleolar 11 
Malleolus 52, 53 
Malpighi, Bodies of 176 
Pyramids of. 176 
Malpighian Corpuscles 158 
Tuft 176 
Mammas 192 
Manubrium 38 
of the malleus 217 
Marrow of bone 12 
Masses, Lateral of Ethmoid 21 
Mastoid it 
Meatus auditorius externus 16 
internus 35 
nasi 31 
urinarius ; 183,187 
Meckel’s ganglion 137 
Mediastinum 174 
testis 184 
Medulla oblongata 127 
Medullary substance 175 
Membrana basilaris 224 
granulosa 191 
pupillaris 202 
Ruyschiana. 200 
sacciformis 61,62 
tectoria 224 
tympani 214 
secundaria 216 
Membrane of Bowman 199 
of Descemet 199 
Hyaloid 205 
Interosseous 61,65 
iacob’s 203 
.imiting 203 
Pituitary 195 
of Reichert 199 
of Reissner 223 
Schneiderian 195 
Shrapnell’s 215 
Vitelline 191 
Membranes of Brain 120 
of the Spinal Cord 129 
Synovial 56 
Tarsal synovial 66 
Wrist synovial 62 
Meridians of eyeball 197 
PAGB 
Mesenteries 164 
Meso-cephalon 127 
Mesos 164 
Metacarpus 49 
Metatarsus 54 
Modiolus 221 
Mons veneris 187 
Morgagni, Hydatids of. 185 
Sinus of 168 
Mouth 144 
Muller, Capsule of. 176 
Duct of. 185 
Muscle of. 201 
Munroe, Foramen of 124 
Muscle of Bowman. 200 
Ciliary 200 
Cremaster 227 
Dilator papillae 202 
Horner’s 68 
Kerato-cricoideus 169 
Levator glandulae thyroideae 159 
of Muller 201 
Sphincter papillae 202 
of Todd and Bowman 224 
Triticeo-glossus 169 
Muscles 67 
of the abdomen 80-82 
of the arm 85 
of the auricle 213 
of the back 76-80 
Double-bellied 67 
of the ear 71 
of the epiglottis 75, 169 
of the eustachian tube 219 
of the eyeball 68, 205 
of the face 69, 70 
of the forearm 87 
of the foot 98 
of the hand 90 
of the head 68 
of the hip 91 
of the larynx 75, 168 
of the leg 95 
of the neck 71-75 
of the palate 74 
of the perineum 83, 231 
of the pharynx 73, 147 
of the shoulder 85 
of the stomach 149 
of the thigh 91 
of the thorax 82 
of the tympanum ... 218 
Muscular fibre 67 
Musculi pectinati 100 
Myology 9 
Naboth, Ovules of 190 
Nails 194 
Nates of cerebrum 127 
Nasmyth’s membrane 142 
Neck of humerus 45, 46 
Neubauer, Artery of 103 
Nerve 120 
Abducens 131 
Arnold’s 17, 35, 132 
Auditory 131, 225 
Bell’s respiratory 133 INDEX. 
285 
PAGE 
Nerve, Chorda tympani 131, 195, 218 
Circumflex 134 
Cochlear 225 
Crural anterior 135 
Facial 131 
Genito-crural 135 
Glosso-pharyngeal 132 
Hypo-glossal 132 
Ilio-hypogastric 135 
Ilio-inguinal 135 
Intercosto-humeral 134 
Interosseous 134 
Jacobson’s 17, 35, 132, 2x5, 218 
Laryngeal 170 
Maxillary, Inferior 131 
Superior 131 
Median 133, 134 
Motor oculi 130 
Musculo-spiral 134 
Nonus or 9th pair 132 
Obturator 135 
Olfactory 130 
Ophthalmic div. of 5th 131 
Optic 130, 209 
Parvagura 132 
Patheticus 130 
Phrenic 133 
Pneumogastric 132 
Portio dura 131 
Portio mollis 131 
Pudic 135 
Radial 134 
Spinal accessory 132 
Sympathetic 136 
Thoracic 134 
Trigeminus 130 
of tongue movements 195 
Tympanic 218 
Ulnar 134 
Vestibular 225 
Vidian 140 
of Wrisberg 134 
Nerve-fibres, Optic 203 
Nerves of ankle-joint 65 
of auditory canal 214 
of auricle 214 
of bladder 179 
of choroid 200 
Cranial 129 
of elbow-joint 61 
of eustachian tube 219 
of eye 207 
of eyelids 210 
of eye-muscles 206 
Hepatic 156 
of hip-joint 63 
of iris 202 
ofkidney 177 
of knee-joint 63 
ofLancisi 125 
oflarynx 170 
of lung 173 
of membrana tympani 216 
of nasal fossa 196 
of nose 196 
of oesophagus 148 
of ovaries..... 191 
PAGK 
Nerves of pancreas 158 
of penis 183 
Petrosal 131, 138,140 
of pharynx 147 
Popliteal 136 
Sciatic 136 
of shoulder-joint 60 
Spinal 133 
Splanchnic 139 
of spleen 159 
of stomach 150 
ol supra-renal capsules 161 
of taste 195 
of testicles 185 
of thymus gland 160 
Thyroid 160 
of tongue 146 
of trachea and bronchi 171 
of tympanum 218 
of uterus 190 
of wrist-joint 02 
Nervous system..... 12c 
Neurilemma 120 
Neurology 9 
Nipple 192 
Nose 195 
Notch, Cotyloid 42 
Inter-clavicular 38 
Inter-condyloid 51 
Popliteal 52 
Sacro-sciatic 42, 43 
Sigmoid 28 
Supra-orbital 30,35 
Supra-scapular 45 
Nuck, Canal of. 190 
Nymphae 187 
fADONTOBLASTS 12,143 
(Esophagus 147 
Omentum 163, 164 
Opening, Saphenous 91,229 
Opercula 
Optic thalami .....123 
Ora serrata 202 
Orbit 29 
Organ of Corti 224 
of hearing 212 
of Rosenmiiller 192 
of sight 197 
of smell 195 
Organs of generation 181, 187 
of sense 193 
of taste 19s 
Urinary 175 
of voice and respiration 165 
Os orbiculare 217 
planum 21 
tincae 189 
uteri 189 
Ossa innominata 41 
triqueta 33 
Osteology 9 
Ossification 12 
Ossicles of tympanum 217 
Otoliths 223 
Ovaries *90 286 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Oviducts 190 
Ovisacs 191 
Ovules of Naboth 190 
Ovum 191 
PACCHIONIAN BODIES 13 
Palate 144 
Palpebrae 209 
Pampiniform plexus 186 
Pancoast, W. H 49, 50,95, 230 
Pancoast’s triangle 98 
Pancreas 157 
Lesser 158 
Papilla, Lachrymal 209 
Optic 202 
Papillae of skin 194 
Parovarium 192 
Pars ciliaris retinae 203 
intermedia 187 
Peduncles of cerebellum 128 
Pelvis 40 
of the kidney 175 
Penis 182 
Pericardium 99 
Perilymph 220 
Perineum 230 
Female 232 
Periosteum 11 
Peritoneum 163,165 
Peroneus 52 
Pes accessorius 125 
hippocampi 125 
Petit, Canal of 204 
Peyer’s patches 151 
Phalanges 50 
Pharynx . 146 
Pia mater of brain 121 
of spinal cord 129 
of the testes 184 
Pinna 213 
Plane, Equatorial 197 
Meridional 197 
Plantar arch 113 
Plate, Cribriform 21 
Orbital 21 
Perpendicular 21 
Pleurae 174 
Plexus, Brachial 133 
Carotid 139 
Cavernous 139 
Cervical 133 
Choroid 125 
Gastric 150 
Lumbar 135 
Lobular 155 
Pampiniform 186, 191 
Sacral 135 
Solar 139 
Splenic 159 
Tympanic 218 
Plexuses of the sympathetic 140 
Plicourbe 122 
Plica semilunaris 211 
Point, Nodal 197 
Poles of the eyeball 197 
Pomum Adami 166 
PAGE 
Pons Varolii 127 
Tarini 123 
Portal system 118 
Porus opticus 198 
Pouches of membrana tympani 215 
Poupart’s ligament 227 
Precuneus 122 
Prepuce 183 
of the clitoris 187 
Process, Acromion ... 44 
Alveolar 23 
Articular 36 
Auditory 16 
Basilar 14 
Clinoid 18 
Condyloid 28 
Coracoid 44 
Coronoid 28, 47 
Ethmoidal 26 
Falciform 228 
Hamular 20, 24 
of cochlea 221 
Lachrymal 26 
Malar 23 
Mastoid 16 
Maxillary 26 
Mental 27 
Nasal 23 
Odontoid 37 
Olecranon 47 
Olivary 18 
Orbital 24, 26 
Palate 23 
Pterygoid 20, 25 
Sphenoidal 26 
Spinous 36 
Styloid 17, 47, 48, 52 
Transverse 36 
Turbinated 21, 31 
Unciform . 21 
Vaginal 17,19 
Vermiform 128 
Zygomatic 15, 24 
Processes, Ciliary 200 
Clinoid 20 
of Ingrassias 20 
Processus cochleariformis 17,217 
e cerebello ad medullam 128 
ad pontem 128 
ad testes 127,128 
gracilis 217 
zonulae 205 
Promontory of tympanum 216 
Prostate gland 181 
Prostatic urethra 179 
sinus 180 
Pterygoid 11 
Pubes 43 
Punctum lachrymale 209 
Pupil 201 
Pylorus 148, 149 
Pyramid, Anterior 127 
Posterior 128 
of tympanum 216 
Pyramids of Ferrein 176 
of Malpighi 176 
ofWistar 19 INDEX. 
287 
PAGE ! 
DADIUS 48 
Rami of Inferior Maxillary 28 
Ramus of ischium 43 
of the pubes 43 
Receptaculum chyli 119 
Rectum 152 
Regions of abdomen 162 
Reichert, Membrane of 199 
Reil, Island of 122 
Reissner, Membrane of. 223 
Renal vessels 176 
Rete mucosum 193 
testis 184 
Retina 202, 204 
Ribes, Ganglion of. 137 
Ribs 38 
Ridge, Mylo-hyoid 27 
Pterygoid 19 
Rima glottidis 168 
Ring, Abdominal 162, 226 
Crural 229 
Femoral 228 
Rings and phalanges 225 
Rivinus, Duct of. 145 
Segment of. 214 
Rods and cones 203 
of Corti 224 
Rolando, Fissure of. 122 
Rosenmiiller, Organ of 192 
Rostrum n 
of the sphenoid 19 
OAC OF HILTON 168 
Lachrymal 212 
Saccule , 223 
Sacculus laryngis 168 
Sacs of the peritoneum 163 
Sacrum 40 
Santorini, Cartilages of. 167 
Sapolini 195 
Scala media 222 
tympani 222 
vestibuli 222 
Scapula 44 
Scarpa, Foramen of. 23 
Intumentescia gang, of 223 
Liquor of. 220 
Scheyer’s lines 142 
Schindylesis 55 
Schlemm, Canal of. 202 
Schultze, Olfactory cells of. 196 
Schwann, Substance of. 120 
Sclerotic 198 
Scrotum 183 
Segment of Rivinus 214 
Sella Turcica 18 
Septum crurale 228 
lucidum 125 
nasi 31 
pectiniforme 182 
tubse 17, 216 
Sheath, Crural 228, 229 
Shin 52 
Shoulder 43 
Shoulder-blade 44 
Shrapnell’s membrane 215 
Sight, Organ of. 197 
PAGE 
Sigmoid flexure 152 
Silvius, Aqueduct of. 124 
Fissure of...» 122 
Sinus aortici 102 
circularis iridis 202 
of the kidney 175 
of Morgagni 168 
pocularis 180 
Sinuses 115 
Sphenoidal 19 
of Valsalva 101 
Skin T93 
Slit, Nasal 31 
Smell, Organ of. 195 
Space, Inter-peduncular- 123 
Anterior perforated 123 
Posterior perforated 123 
Spaces, Fontana’s 201 
Spermatic cord 186 
Sphincter vesicae 179 
Spinal cord 129 
Spine, Ethmoidal 18 
of the ischium 43 
Nasal 23,25, 31 
of the pubes 43 
of the scapula 44 
of the sphenoid 19 
of the tibia 51 
Spines of the ilium 42 
Spina tympanica 214 
Spinous 11 
Splanchnology 9 
Spleen 158 
Spot, Blind :.. 202 
Germinal 191 
Light 215 
Yellow 202 
Squamous 11 
Stars of Verheyen 177 
Steno’s ducts 144 
Stenson’s foramen 23 
Sternum 38 
Stilling, Canal of. 205 
Styloid 11 
Stomach 148 
Substance of Schwann 120 
Sulci 122 
Sulcus spiralis internus 224 
tympanicus 214 
Surface, Auricular 41, 42 
Trochlear 46 
Sustentaculum tali 53 
Sutura 55 
Suture, Coronal 13 
Lachrymo-ethmo-frontal 30 
Lambdoidal 13 
Palato-maxillary 29 
Sagittal 13 
Spheno-malar 30 
Sutures, Facial , 33 
of the orbit 30 
of the skull 33 
Sympathetic system 120 
Symphysis 55 
of inferior maxillary 27 
Synarthrosis 55 
Synchondrosis 55 288 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Synovia 56 
Synovial membranes 56 
Syndesmology 9 
Taste, Nerves of. 195 
Taste-buds 195 
Tamia hippocampi 125 
semicircularis 125 
Teeth 141,143 
Tendo oculi 210 
Tendons 67 
Tenon, Capsule of. 197 
Tentorium cerebelli 121 
Testes 183 
of the cerebrum 127 
Descent of. 186 
Thebesius, Foramina of. 100 
Thigh 50 
Thorax 38 
Thyroid axis 107 
cartilage 166 
Todd and Bowman’s muscle 224 
Tongue 145, 195 
Tonsils 144 
Torcular Herophili 14 
Trachea 170 
Tract, Lateral 128 
Optic 208 
Uveal 200 
Tracts, Olfactory 123 
Tractus spiralis forminosus 225 
Tragus 213 
Triangle, Pancoast’s 98 
Trigonum vesicse 178 
Trochanters 10 
of femur 50 
T rochlear 11 
Tube, Eustachian 17, 35, 216, 219 
Tuber annulare 124 
cinereum 123 
Tubercle 10 
Genial 27 
of Lower 100 
Tuberosities 10 
of femur 51 
of humerus 45 
of ischium 43 
Maxillary 23 
Tubes of Bellini 176 
ofFerrein 176 
ofHenle 176 
Tubvdi galactopheri f. 192 
lactiferi 192 
seminiferi 184 
uriniferi 176 
Tuft, Malpighian 176 
Tunica albuginea 184 
vaginalis 184 
oculi..... 197 
vasculosa 184,200 
Tunics of eyeball , 198 
Tutamina oculi 209 
Tympanum 216 
Tyson, Glands of 183 
PACK 
TJLNA 47 
w Umbilical region 163 
Umbilicus 162 
Umbo 215 
Urachus 178 
Ureters 177 
Urethra 179 
Bulb of. 180 
Uterus 188 
masculinus 180 
Utricle 222 
Uvea 201 
Uvula 144 
vesicae 179 
■yAGINA 188 • 
* Vaginal n 
Vallecula cerebelli 128 
Valsalva, Sinuses of. toi, 102 
Valve of Bauhin 150,151 
Eustachian 100 
Ileo-caecal 150,151 
Mitral 101 
Tricuspid 100 
ofVieussens 127 
Valves of Kirkring 151 
Semilunar ioi, 102 
Valvulse conniventes 151 
Vas deferens 185 
Vasa efferentia 184 
recta 184 
vasorum 102 
Vasculum aberrans 185 
Vein, Axillary 116 
Basilic 116 
Cephalic 116 
Femoral 118 
Median 116 
Popliteal 118 
Portal n8, 155 
Radial 116 
Splenic 159 
Sub-clavian 117 
Supra-renal 161 
Ulnar 116 
Vena Cava 117,118 
Vertebral 116 
Veins 115, 202 
Azygos 116 
ofbone 12 
Cardiac 119 
Choroid 200 
of the eye 207 
of head and neck 113 
Hepatic 155 
Iliac 118 
Innominate 117 
Jugular 116 
of the kidney 177 
of the larynx 170 
Lobular 155 
of lower extremities 117 
of the lung 173 
of oesophagus 148 
of the pancreas , 158 
Pulmonary 119 
of the penis 183 INDEX. 
PAGB 
Yieussens, Valve of. 127 
Villi . 151 
Viscera 141 
covered by peritoneum 165 
Vitellus *91 
Vocal chords 168 
Vomer 26 
Vortex of the heart 102 
Vulva 187 
Orifice of. 232 
TX7ALLS OF THE TYMPANUM... 216 
* * Wharton’s ducts 144 
Willis, Circle of. 106 
Wings of the sphenoid 19 
Winslow, Foramen of. 163 
Ligament of. 64 
Wirsung, Duct of. 157 
Wistar, Pyramids of 19 
Wormian bones 10 
Wrisberg, Cartilages of. 167 
Nerve of. 134 
■YELK 191 
ylNN, LIGAMENT OF 205 
Zone of 199 
Zonula of. 204 
Zona pellucida 191 
Zone, Peripheral 199 
of Zinn 199 
Vascular 199 
Zonula of Zinn ,'104 
Zygoma 15 
289 
PAGE 
‘Teins, Saphenous 118 
Spinal 116 
of the stomach 150 
of supra-renal capsules 161 
of the thorax 116 
of thymus gland 160 
Thyroid 160 
of trachea and bronchi 171 
Uterine 190 
without valves 115 
Velum interpositum 125 
Vense comites 115 
proprise renales 177 
rectse 177 
vorticosae 200 
Venter of the ilium 42 
of the scapula 44 
Ventricle of the cord 129 
Fifth 126 
Fourth 126 
of the larynx 168 
Third 126 
Ventricles, Lateral 124 
Verheyen, Stars of. 177 
Vertebra prominens 37 
Vertebrae 36 
Veru montanum...., 179 
Vesalius, Foramen of. 35 
Vesical, Germinal 191 
Graafian 191 
Vesiculae seminales 186 
Vestibule 187 
of the ear 220 
Vidian canal 20 
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