Title page missing PREFACE TO THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION. 
The first edition of the United States Dispensatory appeared in 1833, the present edition 
being the eighteenth; a little less than four years has, therefore, on the average elapsed 
between the successive revisions of the work. It is now five years siroe the publication of 
the seventeenth edition, and at no period in the history of the world has there been so much 
activity in the field of Materia Medica and Therapeutics as during these five years. The 
time has, therefore, been for many months fully ripe for the appearance of a new edition of 
the United States Dispensatory, the urgency of the need being emphasized by the extraor- 
dinary discoveries in the field of synthetic remedies, but the work was delayed at least a 
year, waiting for the publication of the British Pharmacopoeia, comments upon this standard 
having always been a feature of the Dispensatory. 
The most laborious work of the editors has been in the consideration of synthetic remedies, 
and, excepting in regard to the British Pharmacctpceia, the greatest amount of change will 
be found in Section II., Part II., of the present volume, which treats of new drugs, nearly 
two hundred articles having been written for this portion of the book. The text of the 
work has everywhere been gone over very carefully for the purpose of condensation. Much 
matter rendered efl’ete by the lapse of time has been altogether elided or greatly condensed, 
especially in the second part of the book. The botany has been thoroughly revised by 
Professor Henry Kraemer, of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, whose knowledge and 
reputation must bring increased authority to this very important division. Professor Busby 
has revised his article on cinchona, so that it retains its original freshness, and remains, we 
believe, the best consideration of the subject extant. 
No material change has taken place either in the nomenclature, in the use of weights and 
measures, molecular formulae, or atomic weights since the last revision. The feature of the 
double indices has been preserved, and the preparation of both is the work of Dr. Horatio 
C. Wood, Jr. 
The partitioning of the labor of the preparation of the book among the editors has been 
as heretofore. The typographical arrangement of the work has undergone no alteration. 
As in the last edition, when a remedy is official in both the United States and the British 
Pharmacopoeias under one name, the letters ££ U. S., Br.” follow the Latin title ; but when drugs 
or preparations substantially the same are official under different names, the Br. is put in 
parentheses—thus, “ U. S. (Br.)”—following the Latin title, whilst the British name is given 
in black letters first among the synonymes. 
Finally, the editors lay before their professional brethren the eighteenth edition of the 
United States Dispensatory, knowing that no labor has been spared to make it worthy of 
its predecessors, and trusting that it will receive from the professions of Medicine and 
Pharmacy throughout the world that generous appreciation which has in the past been to 
the editors at once the highest reward for their labors and the strongest incentive to 
continuous effort. 
Philadelphia, August, 1899. 
iii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
The objects of a Dispensatory are to present an account of medicinal substances in the state 
in which they are brought into the shops, and to teach the modes in which they are prepared 
for use. The importance of these objects, and the general value and even necessity of a work 
of this nature, will not be disputed. It may, however, be a question, how far the wants of the 
medical and pharmaceutical community in this country are supplied by the Dispensatories 
already in circulation; and whether such a deficiency exists as to justify the offer of a new 
one to the public attention. The great merits of the works severally entitled “ The Edinburgh 
New Dispensatory” and “ The London Dispensatory,” the former edited by the late Andrew 
Duncan, M.D., the latter by Anthony Todd Thomson, M.D., are well known wherever the Eng- 
lish language is spoken. Founded, as they both are, upon the excellent basis laid by Lewis, they 
are nevertheless entitled, from the great addition of valuable materials, and the distinctive char- 
acter exhibited in the arrangement of these materials, to be considered as original works; while 
the style in which they have been executed speaks strongly in favor of the skill and industry of 
their authors. But they were calculated especially for the sphere of Great Britain, and are 
too deficient in all that relates exclusively to this country, to admit of being received as stand- 
ards here. In the history of our commerce in drugs, and of the nature, growth, and collec- 
tion of our indigenous medical plants ; in the chemical operations of our extensive laboratories ; 
and in the modes of preparing, dispensing, and applying medicines, which have gradually grown 
into use among us; there is much that is peculiar, a knowledge of which is not to be gained 
from foreign books, and is yet necessary to the character of an accomplished American pharma- 
ceutist. We have, moreover, a National Pharmacopoeia, which requires an explanatory com- 
mentary, in order that its precepts may be fully appreciated, and advantageously put into 
practice. On these accounts, it is desirable that there should be a Dispensatory of the United 
States, which, while it embraces whatever is useful in European pharmacy, may accurately 
represent the art as it exists in this country, and give instruction adapted to our peculiar wants. 
It appears due to our national character that such a work should be in good faith an American 
work, newly prepared in all its parts, and not a mere edition of one of the European Dispen- 
satories, with here and there additions and alterations, which, though they may be useful in 
themselves, cannot be made to harmonize with the other materials so as to give to the whole an 
appearance of unity, and certainly would not justify the assumption of a new national title 
for the book. Whether, in the Dispensatories which have been published in the United States, 
these requisites have been satisfactorily fulfilled, it rests with the public to determine. That 
valuable treatises on Materia Medica and Pharmacy have been issued in this country, no can- 
did person, acquainted with our medical literature, will be disposed to deny. In offering a new 
work to the medical and pharmaceutical professions, the authors do not wish to be considered 
as undervaluing the labors of their predecessors. They simply conceive that the field has not 
been so fully occupied as to exclude all competition. The Pharmacy of continental Europe is 
ground which has been almost untouched; and much information in relation to the natural 
history, commerce, and management of our own drugs, has lain ungathered in the possession 
of individuals, or scattered in separate treatises and periodicals not generally known and read. 
Since the publication of the last edition of our National Pharmacopoeia, no general explana- Preface to the First Edition. 
non of its processes bas appeared, though required in justice both to that work and to the 
public. The hope of being able to supply these deficiencies may , perhaps, oe considered a 
sufficient justification for the present undertaking. 
The Pharmacopoeia of the United States hat been adopted as the basis of thi J d.q>- story, 
It is followed both in it general ox Ision of medico:- , end . i: t ■ ph;d -ai arrn.v.g-m- m ■ 
them under each division. Precedence is, in every instance, given to the names which it 
recognizes, while the explanations by which it fix-* the significance of these names are inserted 
in immediate connection with the titles to which they severally belong. Every article which 
it designates is more or less fully described; and all us processes, after be eg literally copied, 
are commented on and explained wherever comment and explanation appeared necessary. 
Nothing, in fine, bas been omitted which, in the estimation of the authors could serve to 
illustrate its meaning, or promote the ends which it was intended to subserve.. This course of 
proceeding appeared to be due to the national character of the Pharmacopoeia, and to the im- 
portant object of establishing, as far as possible, throughout the United States, uniformity, 
both in the nomenclature and preparation of medicines. In one particular, convenience re 
quired that the plan of the Pharmacopoeia should be departed from. The medicines belonging 
to the department of Materia Medica, instead of being arranged in two divisions corre- 
sponding with the Primary and Secondary Catalogues of that work,.have been treated of in- 
discriminately in alphabetical succession: and the place which they respectively hold in the 
Pharmacopoeia is indicated by the employment of the term Secondary, in connection with the 
name of each of the medicine included in the latter catalogue. 
But, Trough precedence ha* thus been given th the Pharmacopoeia of th United States, 
those of Great Britain have not been neglected. The nomenclature adopted by the different 
British Colleges, and their form las for the preparation of medir no- hr. v been so exte weiy 
followed throughout the United States, that a work intended to represent the present state of 
pharmacy in this country would be imperfect without them; and the fact that the writings 
of British physicians and surgeons, in which their own official terms and preparations ere ex- 
clusively employed and referred to, have an extensive circulation among us, renders s me 
commentary necessary in order to prevent seta ms mistakes. The Pharmacopoeias of London, 
Idinbur: h, and Dublin have, therefore, been incorporated, in ill their essential parts, in- the 
-.reset . ' oriel Their official titles are uniformly given, always in subordination to tho.-e of 
the United States Pharmacopoeia, when they express the same object; but in chief, when, as 
often happens, no corresponding medicine or preparation is recognized by our national stand 
.vd. In the latter case, if different names are applied by different British Colleges to the 
kci-.-c object, that one is generally preferred which is most in accordance with our -own system 
of nomenclature, and the others are given as synouymes. The medicines directed by the 
British Colleges are all described, and their processes either copied at length, or so far explained 
as to be intelligible in all essential particulars. 
Besides the medicinal substances recognized as official by the Pharmacopoeias alluded to, 
sou* others have been described, which, f it er from the lingering rem» ns of former reputation, 
from recent reports u their favor, or from t heir important relation to medicines in general use, 
appear to have claims upon the attention of the physician ami. apothec. ry. Oiqrortnnity has, 
moreover, been ken to introduce incidentally brief accounts of substances u. d in fiber 
countries or in former times, and occasionally noth: d ii medical books; and, tint the re J. r 
iHH-r be able to refer to them when desirous of information, their names have been placed with 
those of the standard remedies in the Index. 
In the description of each medicine, if derived immediately from the animal, vegetable, or 
non oral k lug lom, the attention of the authors has been directed k- U x.urni history, th. place 
of'its growth or production, the method ol collecting and preparing it for market, : com- Preface to the First Edition. 
vii 
mercial history, the state in which it reaches us, its sensible properties, its chemical composi- 
tion and relations, the changes which it undergoes by time and exposure, its accidental or 
fraudulent adulterations, its medical properties and application, its economical uses, and the 
pharmaceutical treatment to which it is subjected. If a chemical preparation, the mode and 
principles of its manufacture are indicated in addition to the other particulars. If a poison, 
and likely to be accidentally taken, or purposely employed as such, its peculiar toxicological 
effects, together with the mode of counteracting them, are indicated; and the best means of 
detecting its presence by reagents are explained. 
The authors have followed the example of Dr. A. T. Thomson, in giving botanical descrip- 
tions of the plants from which the medicines treated of are derived. In relation to all 
indigenous medicinal plants, and those naturalized or cultivated in this country, the advantages 
of such descriptions are obvious. The physician may often be placed in situations, in which it 
may be highly important that he should be able to recognize the vegetable which yields a 
particular medicine; and the apothecary is constantly liable to imposition from the collectors 
of herbs, unless possessed of the means of distinguishing, by infallible marks, the various 
products presented to him. A knowledge of foreign medicinal plants, though of less impor- 
tance, will be found useful in various ways, independently of the gratification afforded by the 
indulgence of a liberal curiosity in relation to objects so closely connected with our daily pur- 
suits. The introduction of these botanical notices into a Dispensatory appears to be peculiarly 
appropriate; as they are to be considered rather as objects for occasional reference than for 
regular study or continuous perusal, and therefore coincide with the general design of the 
work, which is to collect into a convenient form for consultation all that is practically important 
in relation to medicines. The authors have endeavored to preserve a due proportion between 
the minuteness of the descriptions, and their value as means of information to the student; 
and, in pursuance of this plan, have generally dwelt more at length upon our native plants 
than upon those of foreign growth ; but, in all instances in which they have deemed a botanical 
description necessary, they have taken care to include in it the essential scientific character of 
the genus and species, with a reference to the position of the plant in the artificial and natural 
systems of classification ; so that a person acquainted with the elements of botany may be able 
to recognize it when it comes under his observation. 
In preparing the Dispensatory, the authors have consulted, in addition to many of the older 
works of authority, the greater number of the treatises and dissertations which have recently 
appeared upon the various subjects connected with Pharmacy, and especially those of the 
French writers, who stand at present at the head of this department of medical science. They 
have also endeavored to collect such detached facts, scattered through the various scientific, 
medical, and pharmaceutical journals, as they conceive to be important in themselves, and appli- 
cable to the subjects under consideration ; and have had frequent recourse to the reports of 
travellers in relation to the natural and commercial history of foreign drugs. The occasional 
references in the body of the work will indicate the sources from which they have most largely 
drawn, and the authorities upon which they have most relied. In relation to our own commerce 
in drugs, and to the operations of our chemical laboratories, they are indebted for information 
chiefly to the kindness of gentlemen engaged in these branches of business, who have always 
evinced, in answering their numerous inquiries, a promptitude and politeness which merit their 
warm thanks, and which they are pleased to have this opportunity of acknowledging* 
* The authors deem it proper to state that they are peculiarly indebted for assistance to Mr. Daniel B. Smith, 
president of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, to whom, besides much important information in relation to the 
various branches of the apothecary’s business, they owe the prefatory remarks on Pharmacy, which are placed at 
the commencement of the second part of the work, and the several articles, in the Materia Medica, upon Leeches, 
Carbonate of Magnesia, and Sulphate of Magnesia. Preface to the Fir; '. Jri •< >/.. 
It has not been deemed necessary to follow the example of the British Dispensatories, by 
inserting into the work a treatise upon chemistry, under the name of Elem< nts of T‘! sumacy. 
Such a treatise must necessarily he very meagre and it perfect, and, •• systems of chemistry 
are in the hands of every physician and apothecary, would uselessly occupy the place of valu- 
able matter of less easy access. 
The authors may, perhaps, be permitted to observe, in relation to themselves, that they 
have expended much time and labor in the preparation of the work ; have sought diligently fur 
facts from every readily accessible source; have endeavored, by a comparison of authorities, 
and a close scrutiny of evidence, to ascertain the ruth whenever practicable; and have ••sorted 
themselves to the extent of their abilities to render the Dispensatory worthy of public appro- 
bation, both for the quality and quantity of its contents, and the general accuracy of i's 
. statements. They arc conscious, nevertheless, that in so great a multiplicity details, 
numerous errors and deficiencies may exist, and that the faults, of undue brevity in mia- 
cases, and prolixity in others, may not have been entirely a aided; but the venture to hope 
that a candid public will make all due allowances; and they take the liberty to invite, from 
all those who may feel intere sted in the diffusion of sound pharmaceutical knowledge, the com- 
munication of friendly suggestions or criticisms in relation to the objects and execution of the 
work. 
Philadelphia, January, 1833, PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. 
Just fifty years have gone by since Dr. Geo. B. Wood penned the preface to the first edition 
of the United States Dispensatory. Written from a sense of duty, and in the earnest belief 
that to obtain the acceptance of the newly born United States Pharmacopoeia by the Ameri- 
can professions of Medicine and Pharmacy a standard commentary was necessary, the book 
achieved a success which, to its authors, was as unexpected as it was gratifying. During the 
half-century that has elapsed, the work has passed through fourteen editions ; revolutions have 
swept over science, the fate that awaits all men has come to the authors; and yet, with a 
steadiness that is unrivalled in medical literature, the United States Dispensatory has main- 
tained its supremacy, until the copies of it which have been sold are to be numbered by the 
hundreds of thousands, and wherever the English language leads, it follows. Even in the 
last years, when it was sorely in need of revision, the demand for it has not perceptibly dimin- 
ished. Such success as this must depend upon extraordinary qualities in the book. Thorough- 
ness, accuracy, and completeness undoubtedly have had much to do with the result, but we 
conceive that the pre-eminent usefulness of the Dispensatory has rested largely upon the 
peculiar ability of its authors to perceive what facts are useful and essential to a subject, and 
upon their judgment and skill in utilizing and setting forth these facts. 
In attempting the revision of a book which has become so necessary to the American pro- 
fessions, the editors have fully comprehended the difficulties and the importance of their task. 
They all have had the experience and the peculiar growth in the power of appreciating the 
proportionate fitness and importance of facts, which come with successive years of active life 
as teachers. One of them has had the good fortune to have worked through the revisions 
of three editions under the rigid discipline of Dr. Geo. B. Wood, and to have become thor- 
oughly familiar with his methods, not only of work, but also of thought, and with the prin- 
ciples which in his mind were essential to the building up of the Dispensatory. The editors 
come, therefore, to the work not without some especial preparation. Moreover, for the first 
time in the history of the volume, the original plan of Dr. Geo. B. Wood of having three 
editors, one for each branch of the subject-matter, has been realized. 
It is evident that in the revision of a book with a history like that of the present the 
changes should be as few as possible. The editors have constantly borne this principle in 
mind, but circumstances have forced them, whilst strenuously endeavoring to retain the char- 
acteristics and essential features of the work, in great part to remodel it. The alteration in 
the plan of the Pharmacopoeia has necessitated a parallel change in the Dispensatory. The 
first and second parts have therefore been alphabetically collated and formed into Part I. of 
the present edition. Part III. of former editions has been kept isolated as Part II.; because 
were it not for the great gain of space achieved by the use of the small type, two volumes 
would be required to contain the material now compressed between a single pair of covers. 
The amount of new matter added at this revision may be judged of from the fact that whilst 
in the index of the fourteenth edition there were about eleven thousand references, in the 
present index there are more than sixteen thousand titles, including in these, however, German 
ix Pi ■ efacej to ■1 e F{ ft& > i th Ed 4 Ion 
and French synonymes, never before indexed. Paht III. of t'he present volume contains a 
f revision of the Appendix of former editions, with v<b-:-s miscellaneous new matter 
When tbe fourteenth edition of the Dispensatory was published, Dr. G o. B. Wood was 
sub d in putting tL»r;.peut|c< u i thefrm foundation ■■ logical rationalism, b-■■ odd 
not fully apprehend the changes which had occurred in therapeutical m '.hods huing t be 
previous decade. Consequently, in most of the more important articles the sections tre. . - 
of Medical Properties and Uses have had to be rewritten. Tbe revision of these secs ions, is 
well as of tin Botany and Vegetable Materia Mediea, ha,: fallen to the senior editor, Prof. 
H. F. Wood. 
The progress t‘ the last decade has necessitated important chang • in th >s? s<- ;h.ns of be 
Dispensatory which treat of Pharmaceutical Cbemistr , whilst the Pharma- y of the present 
edition is almost entirely new. This part of the revision has been y rmed bj Prof. Jos. P. 
Remington, by whose calculations the official formulas have been adapted to :he use of those 
pharmacists who prefer the system of measuring liquids. The alternative formulas have hee-« 
car fully tested in practice, a:.d w« believe that- they will serve a useful pur post*, d ring the 
transition stage, caused by the adoption of the principle of pwti by weight. 
‘ r. Franklin Bache died in 1864, at the time when the agitation was •commencing in chemical 
science which has ended in the received nomenclature and theory Since the death of its 
chemical author the portions of the Dispensatory especially-Within his province have had no 
pre per revision and adaptation to the needs of t! o day All of the Theoretical mist-ry of 
tbe volume has, therefore, had to be reproduced. T! G part of the work, with tb T- ecology, 
lias been allotted to Prof. S. P. Sadder; and we beli vo that in all points the Dispensatory i: v 
represents the latest solid achievements of chemical science. 
It seems proper to call attention, as novel featu; s of the fifteoi th edition, to the indication 
of the pronunciation of the official titles by diacrhica) marks ; to the complete Hst oi analyst - 
of American Mineral Springs, as far as they have been published, with a number of anal; ses 
of European Springs of note; and to the illustrate . Th» ‘d ug illustrations sie, with three 
minor exceptions, original; and the very accurate representations of microscopical sections 
will, we believe, be. of service to students of structural characteristics. 
L ; conclusion, it sc< bu rtght to state that the revision has been performed slowly and 
with great care, occupying, most of the spare moments of the filters du *ing the last throe 
years. The,present volume may very justly be looked upon as a new book, founded upon the 
old United States Dispensatory Th lave no overw eening sense of their ability: they 
recognise profoundly the immense responsibility that has been laid upon them rut they tsk 
a favorable consideration for their work, because with all patience and toil, and with the lo ve 
of their labor, they have honestly st riven, so far as in them lay. to make the new United States 
Dispensatory worthy of the time when it was universally recognized as the supreme treasure- 
house of pharmacological lore. 
Philadelphia, January, 1883. Pages XI-XII missing GLOSSARY. 
Iff the following Glossary will be found short definitions of many of the terms employed in the Dispensatory to 
designate the medical properties of the remedies: most of the words are commonly employed as nouns, and some- 
times as adjectives. 
Absorbents.—Drugs used to produce absorption of exudates or diseased tissues. 
Abstergents.—Detergents. 
Alteratives.—Medicines used to so modify nutrition as to overcome morbid processes. 
Anesthetics.—Medicines used to produce anaesthesia or unconsciousness. 
Analeptics.—Restorative medicines, or food. 
Analgesics.—Medicines used to allay pain. 
Anaphrodisiacs.—Medicines used to allay sexual feeling. 
Anodynes.—Medicines used to allay pain. 
Antacids.—Medicines used to neutralize acid in the stomach and intestines. 
Anthelmintics.—Medicines used to destroy intestinal worms. 
Antiarthritics.—Medicines used for the relief of gout. 
Antihydropics.—Medicines used for the relief of dropsy. 
Antilithics.—Medicines used for the relief of calculous affections. 
Antiperiodics.—Medicines used for the relief of malarial fevers. 
Antipyretics.—Medicines used for the reduction of bodily temperature in fevers. 
Antiseptics.—Substances which have the power of preventing putrefaction. 
Antispasmodics.—Medicines used for the relief of nervous irritability and minor spasms. 
Antisyphilitics.—Medicines used for the relief of syphilis. 
Antizymotics.—Substances which have the power of killing disease-germs. 
Aperients.—Mild purgatives. 
Aphrodisiacs.—Substances used to increase sexual power or excitement. 
Aromatics.—Medicines characterized by a fragrant or spicy taste and odor, and stimulant to the gastro-intestinal 
mucous membrane. 
Aromatic Bitters.—Medicines which unite the properties of the aromatics and the simple bitters. 
Astringents.—Medicines which have the power of influencing vital contractility and thereby condensing tissues. 
Bitters—Simple.—Medicines which have a bitter taste and have the power of stimulating the gastro-intestinal 
mucous membrane, without affecting the general system. 
Blisters.—Medicines which when locally applied cause inflammatory exudation of serum from the skin, and are 
used as revulsants. 
Calefacients.—Medicines used externally to cause a sense of warmth. 
Cardiac Depressants.—Medicines used to lower the heart’s action. 
Cardiac Stimulants.—Medicines used to increase the heart’s action. 
Carminatives.—Medicines containing a volatile oil used to excite intestinal peristalsis and provoke an expulsion of 
flatus. 
Cathartics.—Purgatives. 
Caustics.—Medicines used to destroy living tissues. 
Cholagogues.—Medicines which provoke a flow of bile. 
Constringents.—Astringents. 
Convulsants.—Medicines which cause convulsions. 
Correctives.—Medicines used to correct or render more pleasant the action of other remedies, especially purgatives. 
Corrigents.—Correctives. 
Demulcents.—Mucilaginous principles which are used in solution to soothe and protect irritated mucous membranes 
or other tissues. 
Deobstruents.—(Term obsolete and not very definite.) Medicines which overcome obstruction; aperients. 
Deodorants.—Substances which destroy or hide foul odors. 
XIII XIV 
Glossary. 
Depilatories.—Substances used to remove hair. 
Depressants.—Sedatives. 
Defresso-Motors.—Medicines which lessen motor activity. 
Depurants.—Medicines which act upon the emunctories so as to cause excretion and thereby purify the system. 
Detergents.—Medicines which cleanse wounds, ulcers, etc. 
Diaphoretics.—Medicines which produce sweating. 
Digestants.—Ferments and acids which have the power of aiding in the solution of food. 
Diluents.—Medicines which dilute secretions and excretions. 
Disinfectants.—Substances which have the power of destroying disease-germs or the noxious properties of decaying 
organic matter. 
Diuretics.—Medicines which increase the secretion of urine. 
Drastics.—Purgatives which cause much irritation. 
Ecbolics.—Medicines which produce abortion. 
Eccoprotics, or Ectoprotics.—Laxatives. 
Emetics.—Medicines which cause vomiting. 
Emmenagogues.—Medicines which stimulate menstruation. 
Emollients.—Substances used to mechanically soften and protect tissues. 
Epispastics.—Blisters. 
Errhines.—Medicines which increase the nasal secretions. 
Escharotics.—Caustics. 
Evacuants.—Medicines which evacuate: chiefly applied to purgatives. 
Excitants.—Stimulants. 
Excito-Motors.—Medicines which increase motor activity. 
Expectorants.—Medicines which act upon the pulmonic mucous membrane and increase or alter its secretions. 
Febrifuges.—Medicines which dissipate fever. 
Galactagogues.—Medicines which increase the secretion of milk. 
Haemostatics.—Medicines which arrest hemorrhages. 
Hydragogues.—Purgatives which cause large watery discharges. 
Hypnotics.—Medicines which cause sleep. 
Laxatives.—Mild purgatives. 
Local Anaesthetics.—Medicines which when applied locally destroy sensation. 
Mydriatics.—Medicines which cause mydriasis, or dilatation of the pupil. 
Myotics.—Medicines which cause myosis, or contraction of the pupil. 
Narcotics.—Powerful anodyne hypnotics. 
Neurotics.—Medicines which act upon the nervous system. 
Nutriants.—Medicines which modify the nutritive processes. 
Nutrients—Substances which nourish. 
Oxytocics.—Medicines which stimulate uterine contractions. 
Peristaltics.—Medicines which increase peristalsis. 
Prophylactics.—Medicines which prevent the taking or development of disease. 
Protectives.—Medicines which protect a part when applied to it. 
Ptyalagogues.—Sialagogues. 
Purgatives.—Medicines which produce copious discharges from the bowels. 
Refrigerants.—Medicines which lessen the bodily temperature. 
Revulsants.—Medicines which by causing irritation draw nervous force and blood from a distant diseased part. 
Rubefacients.—Medicines which cause irritation and redness, and are used as revulsants. 
Sedatives.—Medicines which lower functional activity. 
Sialagogues.—Medicines which e«cite the salivary glands to secretion. 
Somnifacients.—Soporifics. 
Soporifics.—Medicines which cause sleep. 
Sorbefacients.—Medicines which cause absorption. 
Specifics.—Medicines which have a direct curative influence on certain individual diseases. 
Stimulants.—Medicines which increase functional activity. 
Stomachics.—Stimulants to the stomach. 
Styptics.—Haemostatics. 
Sudorifics.—Medicines which produce sweating. 
T.ENICIDES.—Medicines which kill the tape-worm. 
Tonics.—Medicines which permanently increase the systemic tone by stimulating nutrition. 
Vermicides.—Medicines which kill intestinal worms. 
Vermifuges.—Medicines which cause the expulsion of intestinal worms. 
Vesicatories.—Blisters. INDEX OF DISEASES. 
Abortion. 
Black haw, 1451 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Cotton root bark, 668 
Ergot, 517 
European pennyroyal, 1721 
Oil of savine, 964 
Ruta, 1782 
Abrasion. 
Iodoform, 742 
Magnesia, 837 
Abscess. 
Airol, 1554 
Alumnol, 1558 
Borax, 1240 
Chlorine water, 211 
Germander, 1812 
Iodine, 750 
Iodoform, 742 
Oleate of mercury, 912 
Orthoform, 1751 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Acne. 
Euresol, 1669 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Lappa, 775 
Mercuric nitrate, 808 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Sulphurated lime, 303 
Addison’s Disease. 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Adenitis. 
Carbon disulphide, 332 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Ferrous iodide, 1658 
Gold oxide, 1673 
H y drargy rum sozoj odoli- 
cum, 1724 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodol, 1696 
Albuminuria. 
Gallic acid, 50 
Koumys, 1701 
Naphtol, 895 
Strontium lactate, 1295 
Tannalbin, 1807 
See also Bright’s Disease. 
Alcoholism. 
Capsicum, 324 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
253 
Alopecia. 
Dupuytren’s ointment, 1424 
Oil of savine, 964 
Amaurosis. 
Anemone pratensis, (note) 
1117 
Arnica root, 232 
Euphorbium, 1652 
Santonin, 1193 
Amenorrhcea. 
Achillea, 1549 
Aloes, 141 
Aloes and iron, pills of, 1042 
Aloes and myrrh, pills of, 
1042 
Aloes and myrrh, tincture 
of, 1371 
Aloes, compound decoction 
of, 478 
Ammoniated iron, 1560 
Ammoniated tincture of 
guaiac, 1387 
Ammonium chloraurate, 
1674 
Apiol, 1570 
Arnica root, 233 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Bastard dittany, 1639 
Black hellebore, 1681 
Blessed thistle, 1607 
Bromine, 277 
Calendula, 294 
Cantharides, 321 
Caper bush, 1601 
Carduus marianus, 1607 
Castor, 1605 
Catnep, 1605 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Croton oil, 979 
Ferric phosphate, 626 
Ferrous iodide, 1658 
Galbanum, 645 
Gentian, 653 
Germander, 1812 
Ground pine, 1554 
Guaiac, ammoniated tinc- 
ture of, 1387 
Guaiac, tincture of, 1386 
Amenorrhcea. 
Hedeoina, 680 
Indigo, 1693 
Inula, 740 
Leonurus cardiaca, 1707 
Marrubium, 854 
Mug wort, 1 
Myrrh, 892 
Oil of amber, 1802 
Oil of hedeoma, 939 
Oil of savine, 964 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Oxalic acid, 1752 
Parsley, 1570 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Rubia, 1781 
Ruta, 1782 
Sagapenum, 1784 
Santonin, 1193 
Savine, 1174 
Saxifrage, 1768 
Senecio, 1791 
Senega, 1214 
Shepherd’s purse, 1601 
Solanum paniculatum, 488 
Storax, 1306 
Sumbul, 1317 
Tansy, 1353 
Water-pepper, 1589 
Anaemia. 
Bland’s pills, 1046 
Cactus, 1594 
Ferro - manganic prepara- 
tions, 1718 
Ferrous carbonate, 857 
Iron, 634 
Kefir, 1700 
Manganese sulphate, 850 
Manganous iodide, 1718 
Myrrh, 892 
Nuclein, 1744 
Solanum paniculatum, 488 
Strychnine, 1302 
Sumbul, 1317 
See also Chlorosis. 
Anaesthesia, Accidents of. 
Strychnine, 1302 
Aneurism. 
Ferric chloride, 608 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 Index of Diseases. 
Aneurism. 
Lead acetate, 1062 
Nitrated alcohols, 1741 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Zinc chloride, 1474 
Angina. 
See Sore Throat. 
Angina Pectoris. 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Cactus, 1565, 1594 
Chloroform, 382 
Nitrated alcohols, 1741 
Nitroglycerin, 1283 
Pellote, 1565 
Potato, 488 
Salicylbromalidin, 1786 
Anthrax. 
Creolin, 1631 
Cresol, 1630 
Anus, Fissure of. 
Airol, 1554 
Belladonna, 262 
Benzoin, 266 
Cocaine, 428 
Orthoform new, 1751 
Rhatany, 772 
Anus, Prolapsed. 
Balsam-apple, 1731 
Krameria, 772 
Nutgall ointment, 1426 
Oak bark, 1133 
Rye, 1791 
Tannic acid, ointment of, 
1422 
Aphthae. 
Borax honey, 864 
Geranium, 654 
Goldthread, 1623 
Myrrh, 892 
Myrrh, tincture of, 1395 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Sodium sulphite, 1264 
Tannic acid, 102 
See also Stomatitis. 
Apoplexy. 
Ergot, 517 
Ardor Urinae. 
Camphor, 311 
Arsenical Poisoning. 
Antidote, 624, 625 
Arthritis. 
Cadmium sulphate, 1595 
Calcium chloride, 290 
Cantharides, 321 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Mercury, oleate of, 912 
Pyrosal, 1778 
Veratrine, 1447 
Ascaris Lumbricoides. 
Azedarach, 1580 
Cabbage-tree bark, 1593 
Chenopodium, 367 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Cowhage, 1733 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Ruta, 1782 
Santonin, 1193 
Savine, 1174 
Ascaris Vermicularis. 
Aloes, 141 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Naphtalin, 893 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Vinegar, 1548 
Ascites. 
Iodine, 750 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Mercury, 710 
Asphyxia. 
Acetic acid, 19 
Asthma. 
Allyl hydrobromate, (note) 
968 
Allyl tribromide, 1557 
Ammoniac, 153 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Arum, 1577 
Asafetida, 237 
Asclepias syriaca, 239 
Aspidosperma, 244 
Atropine, 247 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Bear’s foot, 1680 
Belladonna, 262 
Bitter candytuft, 1689 
Camphor, 311 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Caruba di guiden, 1603 
Catalpa-tree, 1605 
Chloral, 375 
Chloroform, 381 
Cobweb, 1618 
Colchicum, 437 
Cuckoo flower, 1601 
Delphinium, 1639 
Dracontium, 1641 
Eriodictyon, 519 
Ether, 122 
Eucalyptus, 521 
Euphorbia pilulifera, 1651 
Evening primrose, 1745 
Grindelia, 673 
Honeysuckle, 1712 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Ipecacuanha, 756 
Jerusalem oak, 368 
Laburnum, 1638 
Lobelia, 835 
Lobelia, vinegar of, (note) 
£35 
Menthol, 946 
Nitrated alcohols, 1741 
Nitroglycerin, 1283 
Opium, 1003 
Asthma. 
Opopanax, 1749 
Oxymel of squill, 1005 
Pellote, 1565 
Petroleum, 1763 
Polypodium, 1771 
Potassium cobalto-nitrite, 
1773 
Potassium nitrate, 1108 
Potassium nitrate paper, 
365 
Primrose, 1745 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Pyridine, 1778 
Pyridine tricarboxylic acid, 
1778 
Saxifrage, 1768 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Spider’s web, 1618 
Storax, 1306 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Sumbul, 1317 
Tobacco, 1351 
Tribromallyl, 1818 
Water hemlock, 1745 
Bed-Sores. 
Lead tannate, 1706 
Tannoform. 1808 
Bites, Animal. 
Chromic acid, 44 
Bites, Snake. 
Aeerates decumbens, 1545 
Alcohol, 132 
Ammonia water, 205 
Asclepias verticillata, 238 
Cahinca, 1598 
Cedron, 1606 
Chromic acid, 44 
Euphorbia, 1651 
Goat’s rue, 1668 
Gollindrinera, 1651 
Guaco, 1675 
Liatris spicata, 1707 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Rattlesnake root, 1737 
Senega, 1214 
Simaruba, 1792 
Bladder, Catarrh of. 
See Cystitis. 
Bladder, Irritable. 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 543 
Lupulin, 687 
Peach leaves, 1759 
Triticum, 1411 
Bladder, Spasm of. 
Belladonna root, 262 
Bladder, Ulcer of. 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Uva ursi, 1439 Index of Diseases. 
Blepharitis. 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Red mercuric oxide, oint- 
ment of, 1432 
Blisters. 
Lead carbonate, ointment 
of, 1434 
Lead subacetate, solution 
of, 815 
Boils. 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Lead subacetate, solution 
of, 815 
Menthol, 868 
Mercuric nitrate, solution 
of, 808 
Sulphurated lime, 303 
Yeast, 1608 
Bones, Delayed Union of. 
Calcium phosphate, 293 
Bones, Diseases of. 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Mercurial plaster, 502 
Red mercuric iodide, 702 
Sodium hypophosphite, 
1251 
Brain, Concussion of. 
Arnica root, 232 
Brain, Congestion of. 
Chloral, 375 
Ergot, 517 
Brain, Inflammation of. 
Chloral, 375 
Brain, Softening of. 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Breasts, Inflammation of. 
Anthriscus, 1568 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Stramonium, 1291 
Bright’s Disease. 
Ammonium benzoate, 153 
Arnica root, 233 
Basham’s mixture, 802 
Caffeine, 284 
Chondrus, 384 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Fuchsine, 1666 
Gallic acid, 50 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Horsetail, 1645 
Plyoscine hydrobromate, 
720 
Iron and ammonium ace- 
tate, solution of, 802 
Linseed meal, 787 
Lycopodium, 837 
Bright’s Disease. 
Mallow, 1717 
Oil of theobroma, 975 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Parsley, 1570 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Speedwell, 1826 
Strontium lactate, 1295 
Symphorol, 1806 
Theobromine, 975 
Uva ursi, 1439 
Viola, 1827 
Wild carrot, 1602 
Bi'omidrosis. 
Chromic acid, 44 
Bronchitis. 
Ammonium carbonate, 157 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Antimony and potassium 
nitrate, 181 
Arbor vitae, 1815 
Aspidosperma, 244 
Bitter candytuft, 1689 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Cane juice, 1181 
Caruba di guiden, 1603 
Cheken, 1650 
Chlorphenol, 1615 
Chlorsalol, 1615 
Cocaine, 428 
Cocillana bark, 1619 
Coltsfoot, 1821 
Creosote, 459 
Creosote carbonate, 1629 
Delphinium, 1639 
Ethyl iodide, 1649 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Eucalyptus, 521 
Euphorbia pilulifera, 1651 
European myrtle, 1737 
Garlic, 134 
Garlic, syrup of, 1327 
Grindelia, 673 
Hedge mustard, 1793 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Hydrogen sulphide, 1688 
Iodine, 750 
Ipecacuanha, 758 
Laburnum, 1638 
Larch bark, 1705 
Liverwort, 1682 
Mercury, 710 
Naregamia, 1738 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of santal, 965 
Olibanum, 1748 
Onion, 1748 
Peronin, 1761 
Physostigma, 1028 
Potassium citrate, 1092 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Quebracho, 244 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Saw palmetto, 1790 
Senega, 1214 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Squill, syrup of, 1344 
Sugar, 1181 
XVII 
Bronchitis. 
Tar, glycerite of, 1057 
Terebene, 1356 
Terpin hydrate, 1364 
Thiocol, 1814 
Water hemlock, 1745 
Bronchitis, Chronic. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Chlorine water, 211 
Copaiba, 455 
Cubebs, 468 
Eriodictyon, 519 
Ether, 122 
Eucalvptol, 520 
Eugenia chequen, 1650 
Garlic, 134 
Garlic, syrup of, 1327 
Ipecac and squill, pill of, 
1047 . 
Menthol, 946 
Naphtalin, 893 
Petrolatum, 1018 
Sanguinaria, 1188 
Squill, compound pill of, 
1050 
Strychnine, 1302 
Sumbul, 1317 
Tar, 1057 
Terebene, 1356 
Terpin hydrate, 1364 
Thiocol, 1814 
Tolu, tincture of, 1407 
Bronchocele. 
Bromine, 277 
Iodine, 750 
Potassium bromide, 1084 
Bronchorrh oea. 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Bruises. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Anthriscus, 1568 
Arnica flowers, tincture of, 
1372 
Arnica plaster, 500 
Arnica root, 233 
Calendula, tincture of, 295 
Camphor liniment, 781 
Camphor, spirit of, 1279 
Chaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Hamamelis bark, 680 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Lead subacetate, solution 
of, 815 
Life-everlasting, 1673 
Oil of camphor, (note) 311 
Opium, liniment of, 783 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Soap, 1197 
Soap liniment, 784 
Sodium chloride, 1249 
Solomon’s seal, 1621 
Thiol, 1815 
Vinegar, 1548 Index of Diseases. 
Bubo. 
Aromatic wine, 1827 
Chlorine water, 211 
Collodion, 438 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Mercurial plaster, 502 
Burns. 
Airol, 1554 
Balsam-apple, 1731 
Calcined magnesia, 840 
Carbolic acid, 41 
Carron oil, 781 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Cocaine, 428 
Creosote, 460 
Europhen, 1653 
Grindelia, 673 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Houseleek, 1791 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodoform, (note) 742 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lead carbonate, ointment 
of, 1434 
Lead subacetate, cerate of, 
359 
Lead subacetate, solution 
of, 815. 
Lime liniment, 781 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Oleite, 1747 
Orthoform, 1751 
Orthoform new, 1751 
Picric acid, 1767 
Prepared chalk, 461 
Resin cerate, 359 
Resorcin, (note) 742 
Sodium carbonate, 1246 
Tribromplienol-bismuth, 
1818 
Turpentine liniment, 785 
Calculi. 
Ammonium borate, 1560 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Hydrangea, 1686 
Lead saccharate, 1706 
Linseed meal, 787 
Lithium carbonate, 831 
Lvcetol, 1713 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Pichi, 1655 
Piperazine, 1768 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Sodium bicarbonate, 1235 
Sodium carbonate, dried, 
1246 
Sulphuric acid, 96 
Urotropine, 1823 
Wild potato, 1622 
Calculi, Biliary. 
See Gall-Stones. 
Cancer. 
Acid, arsenous, 22 
Acid, glacial acetic, 19 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Cancer. 
Aniline, 1567 
Belladonna, 262 
Bromine chloride, 278,1592 
Calendula, 294 
Canquoin’s paste, 1474 
Clielidonium, 366 
Chian turpentine, 1363 
Chlorine water, 211 
Chloroform, 381 
Condurango, 1620 
Conium, 449 
Dulcamara, 488 
Eudoxine, 1743 
Febure’s remedy, 23 
Ferro-manganous prepara- 
tions, 1719 
Frere Corne’s paste, 22 
Manganous iodide, 1718 
Mercuric nitrate, solution 
of, 808 
Nosophen, 1743 
Opium, 1003 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Plunket’s caustic, 22 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Potato, 488 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Wild carrot, 1602 
Zinc chloride, 1474 
Cancrum Oris. 
Nitric acid, 73. 
Carbuncle. 
Aniline, 1567 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Menthol, 868 
Oil of aleurites triloba, 1556 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Cardialgia. 
Silver oxide, 230 
Caruncle, Urethral. 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Catarrh. 
Acacia, 10 
Ammonia liniment, 781 
Ammoniac, 153 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Apomorphine hydrochlo- 
rate, 190 
Arnica root, 232 
Arum, 1577 
Asafetida, 237 
Asclepias, 239 
Aster, 1579 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Balsam of sulphur, 1581 
Balsam of tolu, 257 
Benne leaves, 967 
Benzoin, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1374 
Borage, 1590 
Catarrh. 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Cetraria, 364 
Cheken, 1650 
Chlorine water, 211 
Comfrey, 1806 
Dracontium, 1641 
Dulcamara, 400 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Eugenia chequen, 1650 
Eupatorium, 524 
Holly, 1691 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Hyssop, 1689 
Iceland moss, 364 
Ipecacuanha, 758 
Ipecacuanha, troches of, 
1417 
Iron mixture, compound, 
873 
Jerusalem oak, 368 
Labdanum, 1702 
Linseed meal, 787 
Lobelia, 835 
Lungwort, 1776 
Mallow, 1717 
Marrubium, 854 
Menthol, 946 
Monesia, 1731 
Mullein, 1826 
Myrrh, 892 
Naphtalin, 893 
Oil of santal, 965 
Onion, 1748 
Opium, 1003 
Oxvmel of squill, 1005 
Pitch plaster, 504 
Pleurisy root, 239 
Podophyllum, 1070 
Polypodium, 1771 
Potentilla, 1775 
Purging flax, 1709 
Saxifrage, 1768 
Senega, 1214 
Storax, 1306 
Strontium bromide, 1293 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Sugar, 1181 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Tannosal, 1808 
Tar, 1056 
Terpinol, 1812 
Turpentine, 1363 
Watermelon, 1633 
Wood-sorrel, 1755 
Catarrh, Gastro-intestinal. 
Hydrastis, 717 
Catarrh, Nasal. 
Euphorbia officinalis, 1652 
Menthol, 868 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Yerba reuma, 1663 
Chancre. 
Airol, 1554 
Argentol, 1573 
Aromatic wine, 1827 Index of Diseases. 
Chancre. 
Copper sulphate, 470 
Europhen, 1653 
Ferric subsulphate, solution 
of, 805 
Hydrogen dioxide, 217 
Iodocrol, 1603 
Iodol, 1696 
Mercuric nitrate, solution 
of, 808 
Prickly poppy, 1572 
Red mercuric oxide, 705 
Resorcin, 1157 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 228 
Tannoform, 1808 
Chancroids. 
Idocrol, 1603 
Chapped Hands. 
Balsam-apple, 1731 
Glycerin, 660 
Glycerin ointment, (note) 
660 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Rose water, ointment of, 
1423 
Chilblains. 
Camphor, spirit of, 1279 
Capsicum, 325 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Collodion, 438 
Copaiba, 455 
Creosote, 460 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodine ointment, 1432 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Lead subacetate, cerate of, 
359 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Petroleum, 1763 
Resin cerate, 359 
Tannic acid, 102 
Chloral Poisoning. 
Strychnine, 1302 
Chlorosis. 
Aloes and myrrh, tincture 
of, 1371 
Arnica root, 233 
Blaud’s pill, 1046 
Catnep, 1605 
Cetrarin, 364 
Ferripyrine, 1660 
Ferrous carbonate, 857 
Ferrous iodide, 1658 
Ferrous lactate, 622 
Galbanum, compound pills 
of, 1047 
Glycerin phosphoric acid, 
1549 
Iron, 634 
Iron mixture, compound, 
873 
Iron, pills of carbonate of, 
1046 
Iron, tannate of, 1659 
Ketir, 1700 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Chlorosis. 
Mass of ferrous carbonate, 
857 
Myrrh, 892 
Sumbul, 1317 
Zinc valerianate, 1483 
Cholera. 
Cowhage, 1733 
Creosote, 460 
Cresol, 1630 
Germander, 1812 
Guaco, 1675 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Mastic, 860 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of camphor, (note, 311 
Opium, 1003 
Petroleum, 1763 
Phenyloboric acid, 1550 
Sulphuric acid, 96 
Tribromphenol-bismuth, 
1818 
Cholera Infantum. 
Benne leaves, 967 
Columbo, 298 
Creosote, 460 
Geranium, 654 
Hsematoxylon, 679 
Mastic, 860 
Oak bark, 1133 
Peppermint, 867 
Resorcin, 1157 
Rhubarb, 1166 
Cholera Morbus. 
Calomel, 696 
Columbo, 298 
Copper arsenite, 1634 
Creolin, 1631 
Creosote, 460 
Chordee. 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 543 
Camphor, 311 
Chorea. 
Ammoniated copper, 1634 
Ammonium valerianate, 163 
Aniline, 1567 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Asaprol, 1577 
Bromide of iron, 1657 
Cerium oxalate, 361 
Chenopodium, 368 
Chloral, 375 
Chloroform, 382 
Cimicifuga, 387 
Conium, 450 
Cuckoo-flower, 1601 
Dracontium, 1641 
Exalgin, 1654 
Ferrous bromide, 1657 
Gelsemium, 651 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Indigo, 1693 
Iron, bromide of, syrup of, 
1806 
Chorea. 
Mugwort, 1 
Potassium arsenite, solu- 
tion of, 819 
Picrotoxin, 1033 
Sanicle, 1787 
Scutellaria, 1212 
Silver ammonio-chloride, 
1573 
Simulo, 1793 
Syrup of bromide of iron, 
1806 
Zinc chloride, 1474 
Zinc cyanide, 1834 
Zinc iodide, 1476 
Zinc oxide, 1478 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Cold. 
Opium, 1003 
Colic. 
Alum, 147 
Angelica, 1563 
Anise, 175 
Aralia spinosa, 1571 
Asafetida, 237 
California laurel, 1822 
Camphor, 311 
Castor oil, 961 
Chloroform, 382 
Codeine, 434 
Ether, 121 
Horsemint, 1731 
Magnesium sulphate, 846 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of camphor, (note) 311 
Oil of cinnamon, 933 
Oil of hedeoma, 939 
Opium, 1003 
Peppermint, 867 
Pleurisy root, 239 
Prickly poppy, 1572 
Ruta, 1782 
Star grass, 1556 
Wild yam, 1640 
Zinc cyanide, 1834 
Colic, Biliary. 
Calomel, 696 
Chloroform, 382 
Ether, 121 
Opium, 1003 
Colic, Flatulent. 
Agave americana, 1553 
Ammonia, spirit of, 1276 
Anise, 175 
Asafetida, 237 
Caraway, 336 
Cascarilla, 341 
Catnep, 1605 
Ether, 121 
Ginger, 1485 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of camphor, (note) 311 
Oil of cinnamon, 933 
Oil of hedeoma, 939 
Oil of peppermint, 945 
Pennyroyal, 681 
Peppermint, 867 Index of Diseases. 
Colic, Flatulent. 
Prickly poppy, 1572 
Ruta, 1782 
Star wort, 1682 
Colic, Lead. 
Alum, 147 
Calomel, 696 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Colic, Nephritic. 
Ammonium borate, 1560 
Chloroform, 382 
Ether, 121 
Opium, 1003 
Orthosiphon stamineus, 
1751 
Collapse. 
Ammonia water, 205 
Caffeine, 284 
Camphorated oil, 312 
Musk, 885 
Nitroglycerin, spirit of, 1283 
Oil of thyme, 976 
Warburg’s tincture, 1828 
Colon, Inflammation of. 
Hydrastis, 717 
Colon, Ulcer of. 
Iodine, 748 
Coma. 
Croton oil, 979 
Condyloma. 
Chromic acid, 44 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Conj uncti vitis. 
Abrus precatorius, 1545 
Aniline, 1567 
Boric acid, 35 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1615 
Fungus sambuci, (note) 
1186 
Moulded silver nitrate, 229 
Naphtol, 895 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Red mercuric oxide, oint- 
ment of, 1432 
Sassafras pith, mucilage of, 
886 
Silver nitrate, 225 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Sodium tetraborate, 1796 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Zinc chloride, 1475 
Conjunctivitis, G-onor- 
rhoeal. 
Moulded silver nitrate, 229 
Constipation. 
Aloes, 141 
Aloes and asafetida, pills 
of, 1041 
Aloes and myrrh, pills of, 
1042 
Constipation. 
Aloes, compound decoction 
of, 478 
Aloes, pills of, 1041 
Aloin, 142 
Asafetida, 237 
Butternut, 764 
Cascara sagrada, 1159 
Cassia, 342 
Castor oil, 960 
Charcoal, 330 
Cheltenham salt, 1609 
Croton oil, 979 
Figs, 640 
Glycerin, 660 
Glycerin, suppositories of, 
1.320 
Hydrastis, 717 
Leptandra, 777 
Magnesia, 840 
Magnesium sulphate, 846 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Physostigma, 1028 
Prunes, 1114 
Quassin, 1131 
Rhubarb, 1166 
Rhubarb, compound pills 
of, 1049 
Rye, 1791 
Senna, compound tincture 
of, 1405 
Senna, confection of, 446 
Soap, 1197 
Consumption. 
See Phthisis. 
Convulsions. 
Allyl hydrobromate, (note) 
968 
Ammonia water, stronger, 
206 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Asafetida, 237 
Belladonna, 262 
Chloral, 375 
Curare, 1830 
Emplastrum asafoetidse, 
(note) 238 
Ether, 122 
Garlic, 134 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Indigo, 1693 
Musk, 885 
Nitroglycerin, 1283 
Oil of amber, 1802 
Phosphoric acid, diluted, 
82 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Scutellaria, 1212 
Veratrum viride, 1450 
Cornea, Opacity of. 
Cadmium sulphate, 1595 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Sodium sulphate, 1262 
Thiosinamin, 1815 
Cornea, Ulcer of. 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1614 
Corns. 
Acetic acid, 19 
Carbolic acid, 41 
Cashew juice, 1562 
Celandine, 366 
Coryza. 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Camphor, 311 
Cocaine, 428 
Iodine, tincture of, 1391 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Salipyrin, 1786 
Tannic acid, 102 
Cough. 
Arbor vitrn, 1815 
Asafetida, 237 
Camphor, 311 
Catechu, 348 
Chloroform, 381 
Codeine, 434 
Coltsfoot, 1821 
Cubeb, troches of, 1415 
Glycyrrhiza, compound 
mixture of, 874 
Glycyrrhiza, extract of, 
567 
Hepatica, 1682 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Hyoscyamus, 723 
Ipecacuanha, 758 
Lactucarium, 774 
Morphine and ipecac, tro- 
ches of, 1418 
Morphine lozenges, 1417 
Opium, 1003 
Opium, camphorated tinc- 
ture of, 1400 
Potato, 488 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Troches of glycyrrhiza and 
opium, 1416 
Wistar’s cough lozenges, 
1416 
Cramp. 
Antispasmin, 1569 
Atropine, 247 
Belladonna, 262 
Chloral, 375 
Lobelia, 835 
Opium, 1003 
Tribromsalol, 1818 
Croup. 
Alum, 147 
Asafetida, 237 
Chloral, 375 
Ipecacuanha, 758 
Lactic acid, 68 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Lobelia, 835 
Mutisia vicisefolia, 1735 
Senega, 1214 
Sodium bicarbonate, 1235 
Squill, 1210 
Squill, compound svrup of, 
1344 Index of Diseases. 
XXI 
Croup. 
Squill, oxyinel of, 1005 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Yellow mercuric subsul- 
phate, 706 
Cystirrhcea. 
Cubebs, 468 
Cystitis. 
Ammonium borate, 1560 
Benne leaves, 967 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Benzosol, 1585 
Betol, 1587 
Boric acid, 35 
Buchu, 280 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Chlorsalol, 1615 
Chondrus, 384 
Copaiba, 455 
Creolin, 1631 
Diabetes weed, 1550 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Eucalyptus, 521 
European myrtle, 1737 
Gravel wreed, 1550 
Grindelia, 673 
Herniaria glabra, 1683 
Home-balm, 1620 
Irish moss, 384 
Lvcetol, 1713 
Matico, 861 
Naphtionic acid, 1549 
Nosophen, 1743 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oxalic acid, 1752 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Pareira brava, infusion of, 
(note) 730 
Pichi, 1655 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Pyrosal, 1778 
Resorcin, 1157 
Silver citrate, 1573 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Slippery elm, 1420 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Solanum paniculatum, 488 
Tar, 1056 
Tar, infusion of, (note) 730 
Terpin hydrate, 1364 
Triticum, 1411 
Turpentine, 1363 
Urotropine, 1823 
Urotropine salicylate, (note) 
1823 
Uva ursi, 1439 
Water plantain, 1556 
Zea, 1468 
Deafness. 
Euphorbium, 1652 
Glycerin, 660 
Debility. 
Absinthium, 2 
Alcohol, 132 
Aloes and myrrh, pills of, 
1042 
Debility. 
Anthemis, 176 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Cetraria, 364 
Chirata, 370 
Coca, 428 
Columbo, 298 
Eupatorium, 524 
Gentian, 653 
Gentian, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1386 
Germander, 1812 
Inula, 740 
Iron, 634 
Malambo, 1716 
Myrrh, 892 
Nuclein, 1744 
Quinine valerianate, 1150 
Tapioca, 1808 
Wild cherry bark, 1116 
Wine, 1461 
Wort, 1685 
See also Neurasthenia. 
Delirium Tremens. 
Ammonium succinate, 1802 
Camphor, monobromated, 
312 
Capsicum, 324 
Chloral, 375 
Gelsemium, 651 
Hops, 687 
Hops, tincture of, 1388 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Opium, 1003 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Scutellaria, 1212 
Dermatitis. 
Tumenol, 1820 
Vinegar, 1548 
See Skin, Diseases of. 
Diabetes Insipidus. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Ergot, 517 
Ferric valerianate, 632 
Strontium bromide, 1293 
Zinc valerianate, 1483 
Diabetes Mellitus. 
Almonds, swreet, 166 
Amidophenol, 1559 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Benzosol, 1585 
Clemens’s solution, (note) 
791 
Codeine, 434 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
253 
Hydrogen dioxide, 217 
Iodol, 1696 
Jambul, 1650 
Kino, 769 
Lactic acid, 68 
Levulose, 1181 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Opium, 1003 
Phosphoric acid, dilute, 82 
Saccharin, 655 
Strontium bromide, 1293 
Uranium, 1822 
Diarrhoea. 
Ailantus glandulosa, 1554 
Alum, 147 
Alum root, 1683 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Arctostaphylos glauca, 1437 
Arnica root, 233 
Bael, 1584 
Barberry, 1586 
Bayberry, 1736 
Benne leaves, 967 
Benzo-naphtol, 1585 
Benzosol, 1585 
Berberis, 1586 
Bismal, 1587 
Bismuth benzoate, 1587 
Bismuth-cerium salicylate, 
1587 
Bismuth dithiosalicylate, 
1588 
Bismuth phosphate, 1589 
Bismuth salicylate, 271 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Bismuth subsalicylate, 1588 
Bismuth tannate, 1589 
Black alder, 1775 
Blackberry, 1172 
Blue mass, 859 
Bole, Armenian, 1590 
Calcium borate, 1598 
Calcium permanganate, 
1599 
Calcium salicylate, 1599 
California laurel, 1822 
Camphor, 311 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Carbon disulphide, 332 
Cascarilla, 341 
Castor oil, 961 
Catechu, 348 
Catechu, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1378 
Cetraria, 364 
Chalk and opium, aromatic 
powder of, 1121 
Chalk, aromatic powder of, 
1121 
Chalk mixture, 872 
Chalk, troches of, 1415 
Charcoal, 330 
Chlorsalol, 1615 
Chondrus, 384 
Cinnamon, 423 
Citrate of bismuth and am- 
monium, solution of, 793 
Cocaine, 428 
Columbo, 298 
Compound lead supposito- 
ries, 1322 
Congo root, 1775 
Contrayerva, 1621 
Copaiba, 455 
Copper arsenite, 1634 
Copper sulphate, 469 
Coto bark, 1627 
Cotoin, 1628 
Creosote, 459 
Currie, 1636 
Cusparia bark, 473 
Decoction of logwood, 480 Index of Diseases. 
Diarrhoea. 
Dermatol, 1588 
Erigeron, 1646 
Eucalyptus gum, 519 
Eudoxine, 1743 
Euphorbia hypericifolia, 
1651 
Ferric nitrate, solution of, 
853 
Ferripyrine, 1660 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Frost wort, 1680 
Geranium, 654 
Grass-tree gum, 1674 
Guaco, 1675 
Guaiacol salol, 1676 
Guarana, 678 
Hsematoxylon, 679 
Heal-all, 1775 
Helenin, (note) 739 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Iceland moss, 364 
Iodine, 750 
Ipecac and opium, powder 
of, 1124 
Irish moss, 384 
Jarnbul, 1650 
Judas-tree, 1608 
Kino, 769 
Kino, compound powder 
of, 1124 
Kino, tincture of, 1393 
Lactic acid, 68 
Lady’s mantle, 1555 
Laurel, 1700 
Lead acetate, 1062 
Leopard-tree, 1661 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Lime, syrup of, 1331 
Loosestrife, 1714 
Madar, 1599 
Mangosteen, 1719 
Mastic, 860 
Matico, 861 
Meat, raw, 1721 
Menthol, 946 
Mercury witli chalk, 710 
Methylic alcohol, 1727 
Milk, 1730 
Monesia, 1731 
Myrobalans, 1736 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Naphtol, 895 
Oak bark, 1133 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Opium, 1003 
Opium, camphorated tinc- 
ture of, 1400 
Oroxylum indicum, 1750 
Oyster-shell, prepared, 1812 
Papaverine, 990 
Passion-flower, 1759 
Pepsin, 1015 
Persimmon, 1640 
Pomegranate, 671 
Potentilla, 1775 
Prepared chalk, 461 
Propolis, (note) 862 
Psoralea, 1775 
Diarrhoea. 
Resorcin, 1157 
Rhatany, 772 
Rhubarb, 1166 
Rhubarb, aromatic syrup 
of, 1341 
Rhubarb, compound pow- 
der of, 1125 
Rice, 1751 
Rubus, syrup of, 1342 
Self-heal, 1775 
Silver chloride, 1573 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Silver oxide, 230 
Slippery elm, 1420 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Sodium paracresotate, 1795 
Sodium phosphate, 1258 
Spiraea, 1799 
Sulphuric acid, diluted, 96 
Sumbul, 1317 
Sweet fern, 1620 
Sweet gum, 1709 
Tannalbin, 1807 
Tannic acid, 102 
Tannigen, 1807 
Tannoform, 1808 
Tannon, 1808 
Tea, 1811 
Ulmus, 1420 
Valonia, 1825 
Water avens, 1670 
Water-pepper, 1589 
Wax, 353 
AV i nter- berry, 1775 
Wrightia antidysenterica, 
1832 
Yerba mansa, 1685 
Zapote bianco, 1603 
Diarrhoea, Tuberculous. 
Helenin, (note) 739 
Lactic acid, 68 
Diphtheria. 
Alcohol, 132 
Boric acid, 35 
Borol, 1591 
Bromine, 277 
Bromol, 1592 
Chlorine water, 211 
Creosote, 460 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Helenin, (note) 739 
Hydrogen dioxide, 217 
Lactic acid, 68 
Lemon juice, 780 
Mercuric cyanide, 698 
Moulded silver nitrate, 229 
Nuclein, 1744 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium iodate, 1774 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Resorcin, 1157 
Silver nitrate, 225 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Soluble silver, 1573 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Sulphoricinic acid, 1804 
Diphtheria. 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Tannic acid, 102 
Dislocations. 
Chloroform, 382 
Ether, 122 
Dropsy. 
Anthriscus, 1568 
Apocynum, 189 
Aralia, 1571 
Arnica root, 233 
Artichoke, 1637 
Bacher’s pills, 1682 
Balsam apple, 1731 
Birch leaves, 1587 
Black hellebore, 1681 
Bryonia, 279 
Buckbean, 1722 
Cactus grandiflorus, 1593 
Caffeine, 284 
Cahinca, 1598 
Cantliarides, 321 
Cashew nut, 1562 
Cimicifuga, 387 
Cleavers, 1668 
Cloudberry, 1782 
Cockroach, 1569 
Colchicum, 437 
Colocynth, 443 
Convallaria, 452 
Copaiba, 455 
Cucurbita lagenaria, 1633 
Delphinium, 1639 
Diabetes weed, 1550 
Digitalis, 485 
Diuretin, (note) 975 
Dracontium, 1641 
Dwarf elder, 1571 
Dyers’ broom, 1670 
Elaterium, 496 
Elder, 1187 
Erigeron, 1646 
Euonymus, 523 
European birch, 1587 
Frangula, (note) 642 
Gourd, 1633 
Gravel weed, 1550 
Haircap moss, 1772 
Hedge hyssop, 1674 
Horse-balm, 1620 
Horse-radish, compound 
spirit of, 1278 
Horse-radish root, 231 
Horsetail, 1645 
Ice-plant, 1725 
Indian cucumber, 1721 
Inula, 740 
Iodine, 748 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Jalap, 762 
Jalap, compound powder 
of, 1124 
Java tea, 1751 
Juniper, compound spirit 
of, 1283 
Mercury, 710 
Milk sugar, 1182 
Nasrol, 1738 
Oil of juniper, 940 Index of Diseases. 
Dropsy. 
Orris root, 1751 
Orthosiphon, 1751 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Parsley, 1570 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Piperazine, 1768 
Potassium acetate, 1076 
Potassium bitartrate, 1081 
Potassium carbonate, 1085 
Purging flax, 1709 
Rubia, 1781 
Sambucus, 1187 
Saxifrage, 1768 
Scarlet pimpernel, 1562 
Scoparius, 1211 
Senega, 1214 
Shepherd’s purse, 1601 
Sour-wood, 1755 
Sow thistle, 1797 
Spanish broom, 1798 
Squill, 1209 
Star grass, 1556 
Stork’s bill, 1646 
Strophanthus, 1298 
Sugar, 1181 
Theobromine, 975 
Toadflax, 1569 
Ulex, 1821 
Urea, 1822 
Virginia creeper, 1827 
Wall pellitory, 1759 
Water star wort, 1599 
Watermelon honey, 1633 
White lily, 1707 
Wild carrot, 1602 
Zea, 1468 
Dysentery. 
Ailantus glandulosa, 1554 
Aristol, 1574 
Arnica root, 232 
Bael, 1584 
Baobab, 1550 
Benne leaves, 967 
Benzoin, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1374 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Bismuth-cerium salicylate, 
1587 
Biting stone-crop, 1791 
Calomel, 696 
Calotropis gigantea, 1599 
Cascariila, 341 
Castor oil, 961 
Cetraria, 364 
Chestnut bark, 343 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chondrus, 384 
Columbo, 298 
Compound lead supposi- 
tories, 1322 
Contrayerva, 1621 
Copaiba, 455 
Copper arsenite, 1634 
Creolin, 1631 
Creosote, 460 
Currie, 1636 
Cusparia bark, 473 
Dysentery. 
Dita bark, 1641 
Dover’s powder, 1124 
Euphorbia hypericifolia, 
1651 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Fireweed, 1645 
Gelsemium, 651 
Geranium, 654 
Guaiacol salol, 1676 
Heematoxylon, 679 
Haplopappus baylahuen, 
1679 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Iodine, 750 
Ipecacuanha, 756 
Irish moss, 384 
Jambosa root, 1697 
Judas-tree, 1608 
Juglans, 764 
Kino, 769 
Labdanum, 1702 
Lead acetate, 1062 
Linseed meal, 787 
Loosestrife, 1714 
Mallow, 1717 
Marsh tea, 1706 
Matico, 861 
Mercury, 710 
Methylic alcohol, 1727 
Milk, 1730 
Myrobalans, 1736 
Myrtle wax, 354 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Naphtol, 895 
Naregamia, 1738 
Nirmali, 1801 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Passion-flower, 1759 
Persimmon, 1640 
Powder of ipecac and 
opium, 1124 
Propolis, (note) 862 
Rattlesnake root, 1737 
Rhubarb, 1166 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Saxifraga, 1790 
Silver chloride, 1573 
Silver oxide, 230 
Slippery elm, 1420 
Sodium nitrate, 1255 
Strychnos potatorum, 
1801 
Sumbul, 1317 
Sweet gum, 1709 
Toddalia, 1817 
Ulmus, 1420 
Water avens, 1670 
Water-pepper, 1589 
Wax, 353 
Wild indigo, 1581 
Wrightia antidysenterica, 
1832 
Yerba mansa, 1685 
Dysmenorrhoea. 
Abroma augustum, 1545 
Ammonium acetate, solu- 
tion of, 790 
Dysmenorrhcea. 
Ammonium chloraurate, 
1674 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Apiol, 1570 
Atropine, 247 
Belladonna plaster, 501 
Black haw, 1451 
Borax, 1240 
Camphor, 311 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1614 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Ether, 122 
Gelsemium, 651 
Hydrastinine hydrochlo- 
rate, 715 
Nectandrse, 1739 
Parsley, 1570 
Passion-flower, 1759 
Phenalgin, 1764 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Silver oxide, 230 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Stypticin, 1627 
White ash, 1664 
Zinc cyanide, 1834 
Dyspepsia. 
Aloes, compound decoction 
of, 478 
Ammonia water, 205 
Anthemis, 176 
Aromatic powder, 1121 
Benzosol, 1585 
Benzoyl-naphtol, 1585 
Berberis, 1586 
Bran bread, 1656 
Cactus, 1594 
Calumba, 298 
Capsicum, 324 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Cascarilla, 341 
Centaury, 1607 
Cerium nitrate, 361 
Cerium oxalate, 361 
Cetraria, 364 
Chamomile, 176 
Charcoal, 330 
Chirata, 370 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Cloves, 338 
Compound iron mixture, 
873 
Copalchi bark, (note) 339 
Creosote carbonate, 1630 
Currie, 1636 
Cusparia bark, 473 
Eupatorium, 524 
Ferric phosphate, 626 
Gentian, 653 
Gentian, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1386 
Ginger, 1485 
Gizzards, (note) 1015 
Haplopappus baylahuen, 
1679 
Hickory, 1603 
Hops, 687 
Hydrastis, 717 Index of Diseases. 
Dyspepsia. 
Hydrochloric acid, 56 
Ipecacuanha, 756 
Iron and bismuth citrate, 
1657 
Kefir, 1700 
Lactic acid, 68 
Leptandra, 777 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Liriodendron, 1710 
Magnesia, 840 
Malambo, 1716 
Mastic, 860 
Meat, raw, 1721 
Monesia, 1731 
Mustard, 1227 
Myrrh, 892 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Naphtol, 895 
Nitric acid, 73 
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 75 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Pancreatin, 1006 
Papain, 1759 
Papaw, 1758 
Pepsin, 1015 
Phenol-bismuth, 1764 
Phosphoric acid, 82 
Pichi, 1655 
Pitcher-plant, 1789 
Potassium carbonate, 1085 
Prepared chalk, 461 
Quassia, 1131 
Rhubarb, 1166 
Sage, 1185 
Salol, 1183 
Serpentaria, 1224 
Soap, 1197 
Sulphites, 1803 
Taka-diastase, 1807 
Terebene, 1356 
Wafer ash, 1775 
Water avens, 1670 
Water-hemlock, 1745 
Dyspnoea. 
Hydrocyanic acid, diluted, 
62 
Quebracho, 244 
Sassy bark, 1789 
Earache. 
Baume tranquille, 1581 
Ether, 121 
Ecthyma. 
Guano, 1676 
Eczema. 
Aloes, glycerole of, (note) 
539 
Ammonium urate, 1560 
Aristol, 1574 
Arsenate of iron, 605 
Baume caledonien, 1700 
Cantharides, 321 
Carbolic acid, 42 
Chelidonium, 366 
Chrysarobin, 385 
Chrysarobin oxide, (note) 
385, 1616 
Eczema. 
Cipo suma, 1563 
Coal tar, solution of, 813 
Cresol iodide, 1632 
Dermatol, 1588 
Diachylon ointment, 1425 
Dithio-calcium carbonate, 
1641 
European birch, 1587 
Europhen, 1653 
Ferrous arsenate, 605 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Flowering ash, syrup of, 
(note) 851 
Gallinol, 1668 
Glycerin, 660 
Glycerole of aloes, (note) 
539 
Guaco, 1674 
Guano, 1676 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Inula, 740 
Iodocrol, 1603 
Ivy, 1679 
Kresamin, 1631 
Larch bark, 1705 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lenigallol, 1669 
Loretin bismuth, 1589 
Losophan, 1712 
Madar, 1599 
Menthol, 868 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Naphtalan, 1737 
Naphtol, 895 
Oil of cade, 927 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Oleate of mercury, 912 
Oleate of zinc, ointment of, 
1435 
Oleum rusci, 1587 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Potassium acetate, 1076 
Potassium soziodol, 1798 
Resorcin, 1157 
Soft soap, 1199 
Soziodol, 1798 
Staphisagria, 1287 
Sulphur iodide ointment, 
1435 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Tannoform, 1808 
Tar, 1057 
Thilanin, 1814 
Thiol, 1815 
Thiophene, 1815 
Tumenol, 1820 
Zinc oxide ointment, 1436 
Elephantiasis. 
Calotropis gigantea, 1599 
Cashew juice, 1562 
Cuichunchulli, (note) 753 
Hura brasiliensis, 1685 
Indian pennywort, 1655 
Ionidium marcucci, 1697 
Madar, 1599 
Emissions, Seminal. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Emphysema. 
Aspidosperma, 244 
Peronin, 1761 
Empyema. 
Creosote, 460 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Iodoform, 742 
Endometritis. 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
252 
Hydrastinine hydrochlo- 
rate, 715 
Enteric Fever. 
See Fever, Typhoid. 
Enteritis. 
Acacia, 10 
Bismutan, 1587 
Bismuth and ammonium 
citrate, 270 
Bismuth salicylate, 271 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Bismuth-cerium salicylate, 
1587 
Calcium salicylate, 1599 
Castor ceil, 961 
Copper arsenite, 1634 
Coptis anemomefolia, 1623 
Creosote carbonate, 1629 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Eudoxine, 1743 
Goldthread, 1623 
Hydrastis, 717 
Indian pennywort, 1688 
Myrobalans, 1736 
Naphtalin, 893 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Opium, i003 
Quinine valerianate, 1152 
Resin, 1152 
Rhubarb, compound pow- 
der of, 1125 
Tannoform, 1808 
Thiocol, 1814 
Tribromphenol-bismuth, 
1818 
Turpentine, 1363 
Watermelon honey, 1633 
Zinc oxide, 1478 
Enuresis. 
See Urine, Incontinence of. 
Epididymitis. 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Epilepsy. 
Ammoniated copper, 1635 
Ammoniated iron, 1560 
Ammonium bromide, 155 
Ammonium valerianate, 
163 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Bastard dittany, 1639 
Black hellebore, 1681 Index of Diseases. 
Epilepsy. 
Borax, 1240 
Box, 1593 
Bromal, 1592 
Calcium bromide, 288 
Castor, 1605 
Chloral, 375 
Convallaria, 452 
Copper sulphate, 469 
Cotyledon umbilicus, 1629 
Elder, 1187 
Ethylene bromide, 1649 
Fluorides, 1661 
Gallobromol, 1669 
Gelsemium, 651 
Gold bromide, 1673 
Hydrobromic acid, 52 
Indigo, 1693 
Marsh parsley, 1791 
Master wort, 1682 
Mugwort, 1 
Nickel bromide, 1740 
Osmic acid, 1752 
Pennywort, 1629 
Peony, 1756 
Picrotoxin, 1033 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Salvia, 1185 
Silver ammonio-chloride, 
1573 
Silver chloride, 1573 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Simulo, 1793 
Solanum, 1796 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Strontium bromide, 1293 
Veratrine, 1447 
Yellow ladies’ bedstraw, 
1668 
Zinc bromide, 1472 
Zinc chloride, 1474 
Zinc cyanide, 1834 
Zinc lactate, 1834 
Zinc oxide, 1478 
Zinc phosphate, 1834 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Zinc valerianate, 1483 
Epistaxis. 
Alum, 147 
Catechu, 348 
Kino, 770 
Mastic, 860 
Matico, 861 
Ragweed, 1559 
Epithelioma. 
Aniline, 1567 
Loretin bismuth, 1589 
Papaw, 1758 
Erysipelas. 
Bromide of iron, 1657 
Cipo suma, 1563 
Creosote, 460 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Ferrous bromide, 1657 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Glycerin of borax, 662 
Erysipelas. 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lobelia, tincture of, 1394 
Matrimony vine, 1713 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Rye, 1791 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Thiol, 1815 
Turpentine liniment, 785 
Wheat flour, 1656 
Exanthematous Diseases. 
Carthamus, 1603 
Rocky Mountain sage, 
(note) 1185 
Saffron, 465 
Serpentaria, 1224 
Wild marjoram, 1749 
Excoriations. 
Calamine, 1598 
Carbonate of zinc, cerate 
of, (note) 1436 
Diachylon, 507 
Glycerin, 660 
Glycerin ointment, (note) 
660 
Lead acetate, ointment of, 
1433 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lead carbonate, ointment 
of, 1434 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Lead plaster, 507 
Lead subacetate, cerate of, 
359 
Lead tannate, 1706 
Lycopodium, 837 
Olive oil, 955 
Spermaceti, ointment of, 
1424 
Zinc oxide, ointment of, 
1436 
Exhaustion, Nervous. 
Ammonia, spirit of, 1276 
Cactus, 1594 
Ferric valerianate, 632 
Germander, 1812 
Glycerin phosphoric acid, 
1549 
Hypophosphorous acid, 65 
Musk, 885 
Sodium hypophosphite, 
1257 
See Neurasthenia. 
Exuberant Granulations. 
Alum, dried, 147 
Copper sulphate, 469 
Eyes, Diseases of. 
Anemone pulsatilla, (note) 
1117 
Black hellebore, 1681 
Cadmium sulphate, 1595 
Eserine salicylate, 1029 
Eyes, Diseases of. 
Euonymus, 522 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Prickly poppy, 1572 
Yellow mercuric oxide, 704 
Eyes, Lime in. 
Vinegar, 1548 
Faucitis. 
Acacia, 10 
Catechu, 348 
Catechu, troches of, 1415 
Cubeb, troches of, 1415 
Monesia, 1731 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Tannic acid, 102 
Favus. 
Naphtol, 895 
Oil of cade, 927 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Feet, Sweating. 
See Hyperidrosis. 
Felon. 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 
229 
Fever. 
Acetanilid, 11 
Aconite, 112 
Alcohol, 132 
Ambrosia trifida, 1559 
Antifebrin, 11 
Antimony, 181 
Antimony and potassium 
tartrate, 181 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Arbor vitae, 1815 
Barberry, 1586 
Brandy, 1287 
Cactus, 1594 
Calendula, 294 
Carbonic acid water, 202 
Castor, 1605 
Celastrus, 1606 
Chloral, 375 
Cold bath, 201 
Compound effervescing 
powder, 1122 
Contrayerva, 1621 
Coral root, 1624 
Hydrochloric acid, 56 
Hydrogen dioxide, 211 
Indian pennywort, 1688 
Ipecac and opium, powder 
of, 1124 
Lemon juice, 779 
Lemon, syrup of, 1339 
Magnesium sulphate, 846 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Phenacetin, 1019 
Phosphoric acid, dilute, 82 
Potassium bitartrate, 1079 
Potassium citrate, 1092 
Potassium citrate, solution 
of, 819 
XXV XXVI 
Index of Diseases. 
Fever. 
Potassium tartrate, 1113 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Salicylic acid, 87 
Salipyrin, 1786 
Savannah flower, 1822 
Senna, 1221 
Serpentaria, infusion of, 
737 
Soda water, 202 
Sodium citro-tartrate, effer- 
vescent, 1250 
Sucupira, 1591 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Valerian, 1441 
Wine, 1461 
Fever, Bilious. 
Calomel, 696 
Jalap, 762 
Pills, compound cathartic, 
1044 
Podophyllum, 1070 
Rhubarb, 1166 
Fever, Hay. 
Cocaine, 428 
Menthol, 946 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Resorcin, 1157 
Fever, Hectic. 
Acetylphenylhydrazin, 
1549 
Cobweb, 1618 
Phenocoll hydrochloride, 
1764 
Wild cherry bark, 1116 
Yeast, 1608 
Fever, Intermittent. 
Gentian, 653 
Juglans, 764 
Pomegranate, 671 
Potassium arsenite, solution 
of, 819 
Potassium citrate, solution 
of, 820 
Water avens, 1670 
See also Malaria. 
Fever, Puerperal. 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Sodium benzoate, 1233 
Fever, Remittent. 
Anthemis, 176 
Berberis, 1586 
Calumba, 298 
Cascarilla, 341 
Chirata, 370 
Gelsemium, 651 
Juglans, 764 
Mercury, 710 
Potassium citrate, solution 
of, 820 
Warburg’s tincture, 1828 
See also Malaria. 
Fever, Scarlet. 
Belladonna, 262 
Capsicum, 324 
Fever, Scarlet. 
Capsicum, tincture of, 1376 
Carthamus, 1603 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chlorine water, 211 
Chloroform, 381 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Frost wort, 1680 
Hydrogen dioxide, 217 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Sanguinaria, vinegar of, 
(note) 1189 
Fever, Typhoid. 
Alcohol, 132 
Ambergris, 1559 
Benzosol, 1585 
Berberis, 1586 
Bismuth subsalicylate, 1588 
Chinaphtol, 1609 
Contrayerva, 1621 
Cotoin, 1628 
Creolin, 1631 
Creosote, 460 
Cresol, 1630 
Gelsemium, 651 
Guaiacol, 1675 
Lactophenin, 1704 
Magnesium salicylate, 1714 
Mercury, 710 
Methacetin, 1725 
Musk, 885 
Naphtalin, 893 
Naphtol, 895 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Opium, 1002 
Pyridine tricarboxylic acid, 
1778 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Salicylic acid, 87 
Salol, 1183 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Sulphuric acid, diluted, 96 
Triphenin, 1820 
Wine, 1461 
Yeast, 1608 
Fever, Typhus. 
Alcohol, 132 
Capsicum, tincture of, 1376 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chlorine water, 211 
Musk, 885 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Wine, 1461 
Fever, Urethral. 
Potassium bromide, 1084 
Fever, Yellow. 
Calomel, 696 
Gelsemium, 651 
Fibroids, Uterine. 
Cotton root bark, 668 
Fissure. 
Airol, 1554 
Belladonna, 262 
Benzoin, 266 
Cocaine, 428 
Orthoform new, 1751 
Fistulse. 
Lactic acid sticks, (note) 
68 
Lugol’s iodine solution, 
749 
Slippery elm, 1420 
Flatulence. 
Aromatic powder, 1121 
Asafetida, 237 
Calamus, 287 
Calamus, fluid extract of, 
546 
Camphor, 311 
Cinnamon, 423 
Cloves, 338 
Colombo, 298 
Ether, 121 
Ginger, troches of, 1419 
Lavender, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1394 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of peppermint, 945 
Oleoresin of capsicum, 913 
Pepper, 1052 
Peppermint, 867 
Peppermint, troches of, 
1417 
Pimenta, 1051 
Spirit of nitrous ether, 
1274 
See also Colic, Flatulent. 
Fractures. 
Calcium phosphate, 293 
Chloroform, 382 
Furuncles. 
See Boils. 
Galactorrhoea. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Belladonna, 262 
Gall-Ducts, Catarrh of. 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Gall-Stones. 
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 75 
Olive oil, 955 
Sodii oleas, 1793 
Sodium carbonate, 1246 
Gangrene. 
Alliaria officinalis, 1557 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Bromine, 277 
Bromol, 1592 
Charcoal, 330 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 Index of Diseases. 
Gangrene. 
Chromic acid, 44 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Pyroligneous acid, 18 
Savine, 1174 
Wine, 1461 
Gastralgia. 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Charcoal, 330 
Silver oxide, 230 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Gastric Diseases. 
See Stomach. 
Gastric Insensibility. 
Capsicum, oleoresin of, 913 
Capsicum, tincture of, 1376 
Gastritis. 
Acacia, 10 
Bismuth and ammonium 
citrate, 270 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Calcium salicylate, 1599 
Carbonic acid water, 202 
Eudoxine, 1743 
Geum, 1670 
Koumys, 1701 
Milk, 1730 
Nosophen, 1743 
Papain, 1758 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Silver oxide, 230 
Taka-diastase, 1807 
Tannalbin, 1807 
Tribromsalol, 1818 
Zinc cyanide, 1834 
Zinc oxide, 1478 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Gastrodynia. 
Bismuth valerianate, 1589 
Cantharides, 321 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1615 
Ether, 121 
Ginger, troches of, 1419 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Oil of cinnamon, 933 
Orthoform, 1751 
Peppermint troches, 1417 
Genito-Urinary Inflamma- 
tion. 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Boldo, 1590 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Grindelia, 673 
Ulmus, 1420 
Glanders. 
Sulphur iodide, 1310 
Glands, Enlarged. 
Ammoniac plaster with 
mercury, 500 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Glands, Enlarged. 
Antimony sulphide, 184 
Black oxide of copper, 1623 
Camphor liniment, 782 
Carbon disulphide, 332 
Cheltenham salt, 1609 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Croton oil, 979 
Ferrous iodide, 1658 
Gold oxide, 1673 
Hydrargyrum sozojodoli- 
cum, 1724 
Iodine, 748 
Iodine ointment, 1432 
Iodine, tincture of, 1391 
Iodoform, 742 
Iodol, 1696 
Jalap, compound powder 
of, 1124 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Mercury, liniment of, 782 
Glands, Tubercular En- 
largement of. 
Iodine, 748 
Iodoform, 742 
Glaucoma. 
Eserine salicylate, 1029 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Gleet. 
Alum, 148 
Cantharides, 321 
Catechu, 348 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
rine, 690 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Geranium, 654 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Tannic acid, 102 
Trichloracetic acid, (note) 
17 
Turpentine, 1363 
Uva ursi, 1439 
Glottis, Spasm of. 
Artificial musk, 1735 
Chloral, 375 
Glycosuria. 
See Diabetes Mellitus. 
Goitre. 
Bromine, 277 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Fluorides, 1661 
Iodine, 748 
Iodine ointment, 1432 
Iodized glycerin, 749 
Iodoform, 742 
Potassium bromide, 1084 
Potassium iodide, ointment 
of, 1434 
Thyroid gland, 1367 
Vegetable ethiops, 1666 
G-oitre, Exophthalmic. 
Cactus, 1594 
Splenic extract, 1799 
Thymus gland, 1816 
Gonorrhoea. 
Aluminum tannate, 1558 
Alumnol, 1557 
Aniline, 1567 
Arctostaphylos glauca, 1437 
Argentol, 1573 
Argonin, 1574 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Basil, 1745 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Bismuthol, 1589 
Boldus, 1590 
Borol, 1591 
Cadmium sulphate, 1595 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Catechu, 348 
Chlorphenol, 1615 
Chromic acid, 44 
Copaiba, 455 
Creolin, 1631 
Cubebs, 468 
Ephedra antisyphilitica, 
1645 
Formaldehyde, 1662 
Formanilid, 1662 
Hydrastin, 717 
Hydrastis, 717 
Hydrogen dioxide, 217 
Iodic acid, 1696 
Iodol, 1696 
Jambosa root, 1697 
Jurubeba, 1699 
Kava, 1580 
Kino, 770 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Liatris spicata, 1707 
Matico, 861 
Mercuric benzoate, 1723 
Moulded silver nitrate, 229 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Neetandne, 1739 
Nosophen, 1743 
Oil of santal, 965 
Opium, 1003 
Pepper-tree, 1790 
Pichi, 1655 
Piper novfe-hollandae, 1768 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Pyridine tricarboxylic acid, 
1778 
Besorcin, 1157 
Retinol, 1778 
Silver citrate, 1573 
Silver nitrate, 229 
Silver oxide, 230 
Soapwort, 1788 
Sodium and silver hyposul- 
phite, 1794 
Sodium silicate, 1795 
Storax, 1306 
Tannic acid, 102 
Terpin hydrate, 1364 
Thallin, 1812 
Urotropine, 1823 Index of Diseases. 
Gonorrhoea. 
Wood oil. 1830 
Wood sorrel, 1755 
Yerba mansa, 1685 
Zea, 1468 
Zinc acetate, 1471 
Zinc chloride, 1475 
Zinc chloride, solution of, 
827 
Zinc iodide, 1476 
Zinc oxide, 1478 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Gout. 
Aconitine, 108 
Ammonia, water of, 206 
Ammonium benzoate, 153 
Ammonium phosphate, 163 
Arnica root, 233 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Birch leaves, 1587 
Bitter candytuft, 1689 
Camphor, 311 
Camphor liniment, 781 
Camphor, spirit of, 1279 
Capsicum, 324 
Celastrus, 1606 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Colchicine, 1620 
Colchicum, 437 
Colchicum root, wine of, 
1463 
Croton oil, 979 
Ephedra, 1645 
European ash, 1664 
European birch, 1587 
Frangula, (note) 642 
Gentian, 653 
Germander, 1812 
Ginger, 1485 
Ground pine, 1554 
Guaco, 1674 
Guaiac, 676 
Guaiacum wood, 674 
Hermodactyls, 1683 
Holly, 1691 
Hydrogen sulphide, 1688 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Iodoform collodion, (note) 
439 
Lappa, 775 
Lithium benzoate, 828 
Lithium carbonate, 831 
Lithium citrate, 832 
Lithium salicylate, 833 
Magnesia, 840 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Opium, 1003 
Opium, liniment of, 783 
Pellote, 1565 
Piehurim beans, 1766 
Piperazine, 1768 
Portland powder, 1812 
Potassium silicate, 1774 
Prasoid, 1775 
Prepared chalk, 461 
Rhododendron, 1780 
Salicylic acid, 87 
Sassafras nuts, 1766 
Savine, 1174 
Gout. 
Senna, tincture of, 1400 
Soap liniment, 784 
Sodium benzoate, 1233 
Strontium lactate, 1295 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Symphorol, 1806 
Uricedin, 1823 
Vera trine, 1447 
Winter cherry, 1766 
Gout, Rheumatic. 
See Rheumatic Gout. 
Granulations, Excessive. 
Alum, dried, 148 
Copper sulphate, 469 
Iodine solution, Lugol’s, 748 
Mel yEgyptiacum, (note) 
1634 
Moulded silver nitrate, 228 
Gravel. 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Buch u, 280 
Erigeron, 1646 
Horse-balm, 1620 
Java tea, 1751 
Lactic acid, 68 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Magnesia, 840 
Nitric acid, 73 
Orthosiphon, 1751 
Pichi, 1655 
Piperazine, 1768 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Potassium carbonate, 1085 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Sodium benzoate, 1233 
Sodium bicarbonate, tro- 
ches of, 1419 
Urotropine, 1823 
Uva ursi, 1439 
Water-pepper, 1589 
Water plantain, 1557 
Winter cherry, 1766 
Zea, 1468 
Grippe. 
See Influenza. 
Gums, Spongy. 
Catechu, 348 
Monesia, 1731 
Myrrh, 892 
Myrrh, tincture of, 1395 
Rhatany, 772 
Gums, Ulcerated. 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Hsematemesis. 
Ferric sulphate, solution of, 
805 
Hamamelis, 680 
Matico, 861 
Hsematuria. 
Gallic acid, 50 
Matico, 861 
Hsematuria. 
Pichi, 1655 
Senecio, 1791 
Shepherd’s purse, 1601 
Haemophilia. 
Calcium chloride, 290 
Haemoptysis. 
Alum, 147 
Biting stone-crop, 1791 
Cetraria, 364 
Erigeron, 1646 
Ferric subsulphate, solution 
of, 805 
Gallic acid, 50 
Hamamelis, 680 
Hound’s tongue, 1637 
Larch bark, 1705 
Liverwort, 1682 
Lungwort, 1776 
Mastic, 860 
Matico, 861 
Monesia, 1731 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Podophyllum, 1070 
Senecio, 1791 
Sodium chloride, 1249 
Hay Fever. 
See Fever, Hay. 
Headache. 
Acetic acid, 19 
Ammonia, aromatic spirit 
of, 1277 
Ammonia water, 205 
Analgen, 1563 
Asarabacca, 1578 
Bay rum, 1285 
Caffeine, 284 
California laurel, 1822 
Camphor, 311 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1614 
Cobweb, 1618 
Ethoxyeaffeine, 1647 
Geum, 1670 
Guarana, 678 
Hyoscyamus, 724 
Magnesia, 840 
Menthol, 868 
Nitrated alcohols, 1741 
Oil of lavender, 940 
Opium, 1002 
Pellote, 1565 
Phenacetin, 1019 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Tea, 1811 
Water hemlock, American, 
1616 
See also Neuralgia. 
Heart-burn. 
Ammonia water, 205 
Liquor magnesii bisulphitis, 
1710 
Sodium bicarbonate, tro- 
ches of, 1419 Index of Diseases. 
Heart, Dilatation of. 
Convallaria, 452 
Digitalis, 485 
Potassium cobalto-nitrite, 
1773 
Scoparius, 1211 
Sparteine, 1211 
Heart, Disease of. 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Belladonna root, 262 
Digitalis, 485 
Oleander, 1740 
Heart, Exhaustion of. 
Ammonia water, 205 
Caffeine, 284 
Digitalis, 485 
Heart-Failure. 
See Syncope. 
Heart, Hypertrophy of. 
Bitter candytuft, 1689 
Bromine, 277 
Veratrum viride, 1450 
Heart, Palpitation of. 
Belladonna, 262 
Digitalis, 485 
Hemicrania. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Malambo, 1716 
Quinine valerianate, 1150 
Valerian, 1441 
Hemorrhage. 
Acid infusion of rose, 736 
Agaric, 1553 
Alum, 147 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Arnica root, 233 
Benzoin alumina cotton, 
(note) 266 
Birth-root, 1818 
Blessed thistle, 1607 
Carduus marianus, 1607 
Catechu, 348 
Cold water, 201 
Commelina, 1620 
Compound lead supposito- 
ries, 1322 
Cornutine citrate, 1626 
Creosote, 460 
Ergot, 517 
Erigeron, 1646 
Ferric chloride, 608 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Ferric subsulphate, solution 
of, 805 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Gallic acid, 50 
Geranium, 654 
Greater periwinkle, 1826 
Hemorrhage. 
Hamamelis bark, 680 
Harts-tongue, 1790 
Heal-all, 1775 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Iodic acid, 1696 
Kino, 769 
Larch bark, 1705 
Lead acetate, 1062 
Lycopus, 1713 
Mastic, 860 
Matico, 861 
Oil of Canada erigeron, 
,1646 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Opium, 1003 
Ragweed, 1559 
Rattlesnake weed, 1684 
Rhatany, 772 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Self-heal, 1775 
Senecio, 1791 
Shepherd’s purse, 1601 
Speedwell, 1826 
Sulphate of aluminum and 
iron, 1660 
Sulphuric acid, diluted, 96 
Tannic acid, 102 
Water avens, 1670 
Wood sorrel, 1755 
Hemorrhage, Intestinal. 
Lead acetate, 1062 
Monsel’s solution, 805 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Hemorrhage, Post-partum. 
Brein, (note) 279 
Ergot, 517 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Lemon juice, 779 
Hemorrhoids. 
Aloes, 141 
Balsam-apple, 1731 
Capsicum, 324 
Cheltenham salts, 1609 
Chrysarobin, 385 
Cocaine, 428 
Compound lead supposito- 
ries, 1322 
Confection of pepper, 444 
Confection of senna, 446 
Copaiba, 455 
Cubebs, 468 
Ergot, 518 
Figwort, 1790 
Gall and opium, ointment 
of, 1426 
Hamamelis bark, 680 
Hemlock, 1745 
Horsechestnut, 1552 
Hydrastis, 717 
Hyoscyamus, 724 
Linseed oil, 943 
Matico, 861 
Mountain ash, 1797 
Mullein, 1826 
Nutgalls, ointment of, 1426 
Hemorrhoids. 
Oak bark, 1133 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Rye, 1791 
Stramonium ointment, 1435 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Tannic acid, 102 
Tannic acid, ointment of, 
1422 
Tannic acid suppositories, 
1320 
Thevetia, 1814 
Toadflax, 1569 
Tobacco, 1351 
Turpentine, 1363 
Hepatitis. 
Ammoniac plaster with 
mercury, 500 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Boldo, 1590 
Calomel, 696 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Chicory, 1616 
Chlorine water, 211 
Compound cathartic pills, 
1044 
Marrubium, 854 
Mercurial plaster, 502 
Nitric acid, 73 
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 75 
Oregon grape root, 1586 
Pitch plaster, 504 
Stillingia, 1289 
Taraxacum, 1356 
Hernia. 
Iodine, 750 
Hernia, Strangulated. 
Belladonna, 262 
Chloral, 375 
Chloroform, 382 
Ether, 122 
Herpes. 
Ammoniated mercury, 
ointment of, 1429 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Cantharides, 321 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Cresol iodide, 1632 
Glycerin, 660 
Hydroxylamine hydrochlo- 
ride, 1688 
Kamala, 765 
Naphtol, 895 
Soziodol, 1798 
Hiccough. 
Chloral, 375 
Chloroform, 382 
Musk, 885 
Mustard, 1227 
Hoarseness. 
Horse-radish root, 231 
Sisymbrium, 1793 XXX 
Index of Diseases. 
Hordeolum. 
Oleate of mercury, 912 
Hospital Gangrene. 
See Phagedsena. 
Hydrocele. 
Chloroform, 383 
Iodine, 750 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Silver nitrate, 229 
Hydrocephalus. 
Iodine, 750 
Mercury, 710 
Hydropericardium. 
Iodine, 750 
Hydrophobia. 
Cedron, 1606 
Chloroform, 382 
Curare, 1830 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Scutellaria, 1212 
Trompatila, 1820 
Hydrothorax. 
Mercury, 710 
Hyperidrosis. 
JBismuthol, 1589 
Chromic acid, 44 
Lead plaster, 507 
Tannoform, 1808 
Hypochondriasis. 
Asafetida, 237 
Bear’s foot, 1680 
Cypripedium, 476 
Opopanax, 1749 
Pellote, 1565 
Sumbul, 1318 
Valerian, 1441 
Hysteria. 
Allyl hydrobromate, (note) 
968 
Allyl tribromide, 1557 
Ammonia, fetid spirit of, 
1277 
Ammonia, spirit of, 1276 
Ammoniated copper, 1634 
Ammonium carbonate, 157 
Ammonium valerianate, 
164 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Asafetida, 237 
Bastard dittany, 1639 
Bear’s foot, 1680 
Calcium bromide, 288 
Camphor, 311 
Camphor, monobromated, 
312 
Cannabis indica, 316 
Castor, 1605 
Catnep, 1605 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Cerium oxalate, 361 
Chloral, 375 
Hysteria. 
Chloralamide, 1612 
Chloroform, 382 
Cimicifuga, 387 
Cobweb, 1618 
Coca, 428 
Compound iron mixture, 
873 
Cotula, 1628 
Creosote, 460 
Di-ethyl-ketone, 1639 
Dracontium, 1641 
Emplastrum asafoetidse, 
(note) 238 
Ferric valerianate, 632 
Galbanum, compound pills 
of, 1047 
Galium verum, 1668 
Gelsemium, 651 
Gentian, 651 
Germander, 1812 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
252 
Hyoscyamus, 723 
Indigo, 1693 
Iron mixture, compound, 
873 
Leonurus eardiaca, 1707 
Mutisia vicisefolia, 1735 
Oil of amber, 1802 
Opopanax, 1749 
Pellote, 1565 
Phosphoric acid, 82 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Ruta, 1782 
Sagapenum, 1784 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Sumbul, 1317 
Tansy, 1353 
Tribromallyl, 1818 
Valerian, 1441 
Valerian, ammoniated tinc- 
ture of, 1408 
Valeridin, 1825 
Validol, 1825 
Vanilla, 1444 
Zinc iodide, 1476 
Hy stero - Epilepsy. 
Picrotoxin, 1033 
Ichthyosis. 
Chaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Naphtol, 895 
Impetigo. 
Arsenic and mercuric io- 
dide, solution of, 791 
Ferri arsenas, 605 
Flowering ash, syrup of, 
(note) 851 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Laurus nobilis, 1705 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Soziodol, 1798 
Sulphur iodide ointment, 
1435 
Impotence. 
Cactus, 1594 
Damiana, 1638 
Helonias dioica, 1682 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Saw palmetto, 1790 
Incontinence of Urine. 
See Urine, Incontinence of. 
Indigestion. 
See Dyspepsia. 
Indolent Swellings. 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Croton oil, 979 
Galbanum, 645 
Potassium iodide, ointment 
of, 1434 
Inflammation. 
Ammonia water, stronger, 
206 
Arnica plaster, 500 
Cold water, 201 
Iodine paint, 749 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lemon juice, 779 
Magnesium sulphate, 846 
Mercury, 710 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Soap cerate, (note) 509 
Subacetate of lead, glyce- 
rine of, 664 
Influenza. 
Eupatorium, 524 
Naphtol, 895 
Opium, 1003 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Pyrosal, 1778 
Salipyrin, 1786 
Insanity. 
Acetophenone, 1546 
Boldo, 1590 
Di-etliyl-ketone, 1639 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Pellotine, 1565 
Splenic extract, 1799 
Zinc phosphate, 1834 
Insomnia. 
Camphor, monobromated, 
312 
Chloral, 375 
Chloralamide, 1612 
Hops, 687 
Hops, tincture of, 1388 
Hyoseine hydrobromate, 
720 
Hyoscyamus, 722 
Jamaica dogwood, 1769 
Opium, 1003 
Opium, camphorated tinc- 
ture of, 1400 
Paraldehyde, 1009 
Passion-flower, 1759 
Pellote, 1565 Index of Diseases. 
Insomnia. 
Sulphonal, 1308 
Trional, 1820 
Intermittent Fever. 
See Malaria. 
Intertrigo. 
Cresol iodide, 1632 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Intestinal Catarrh. 
See Enteritis. 
Intestinal Inflammation. 
See Enteritis. 
Itch. 
See Scabies. 
Jaundice. 
Aloes, 141 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Barberry, 1586 
Bayberry, 1736 
Buckbean, 1722 
Calendula, 294 
Calomel, 696 
Celandine, 366 
Compound cathartic pills, 
1044 
Curcuma, 1636 
Ferric succinate, 1659 
Hedge hyssop, 1674 
Henna, 1706 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Marrubium, 854 
Oxgall, 604 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Piebi, 1655 
Pilocarpine hydrochlorate, 
1034 
Potassium carbonate, 1085 
Saint John's wort, 1689 
Sodium phosphate, 1258 
Toadflax, 1569 
Joints, Diseases of. 
Cantharides, 321 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Iodoform, 742 
Jalap, compound powder 
of, 1124 
Thiol, 1815 
Veratrine, 1447 
See also White Swelling. 
Joints, Effusion into. 
Iodine, 750. 
Joints, Inflammation of. 
See Arthritis. 
Keratitis. 
Aniline, 1567 
Orthoform, 1751 
Sodium tetraborate, 1796 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Kidney Disease. 
See Bright's Disease. 
Labor. 
Belladonna, 262 
Birth-root, 1818 
Corn-smut, 1824 
Cotton root bark, 668 
Ergot, 517 
Ergot, wine of, 1464 
Ether, 122 
Ustilago, 1824 
Laryngeal Tuberculosis. 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Europlien, 1653 
Laryngismus Stridulus. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Musk, 885 
Laryngitis. 
Alumnol, 1558 
Ammonia liniment, 781 
Ammonium chloride, tro- 
ches of, 1415 
Benzoin, 265 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Chlorphenol, 1615 
Cocaine, 428 
Croton oil, 979 
Honey of rose, 865 
Iodol, 1696 
Naphtol, 895 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Olibanum, 1748 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Tannigen, 1807 
Lead Poisoning. 
Iodine, 748 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Sulphurated potassium, 
1075 
Treatment of, 1060 
Lepra. 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Arsenate of iron, 605 
Arsenic and mercuric io- 
dide, solution of, 791 
Arsenic iodide, 233 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Cleavers, 1668 
Dulcamara, 490 
Glycerin, 660 
Ichthyol, 1690 
Iron arsenate, 605 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Potassium acetate, 1076 
Sulphur iodide, 1310 
Sulphur iodide ointment, 
1435 
Tar ointment, 1433 
Leprosy. 
Bdellium, 1583 
Chaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Chinosol, 1611 
Henna, 1706 
Hura brasiliensis, 1685 
Madar, 1599 
XXXI 
Leprosy. 
Marsh tea, 1706 
Siegesbeckia orientalis, 
1792 
Leu coderma. 
Psoralea, 1775 
Leucorrhcea. 
Alum, 148 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Bay berry, 1736 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Cantharides, 321 
Catechu, 348 
Charcoal, 330 
Chromic acid, 44 
Collinsonia canadensis, 
1620 
Copaiba, 455 
Creosote, 460 
Cubebs, 468 
Euphorbia hypericifolia, 
1651 
Ferric alum, 612 
Ferric nitrate, solution of, 
804 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Ferrous iodide, 1658 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Geranium, 654 
Helonias dioica, 1682 
Jambosa root, 1697 
Kava, 1580 
Kino, 769 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Mangosteen, 1719 
Mastic, 860 
Matico, 861 
Monesia, 1731 
Nectandra, 1739 
Oak bark, 1133 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Phosphoric acid, 82 
Pomegranate, 671 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Resorcin, 1157 
Rliatany, 772 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Silver oxide, 230 
Storax, 1306 
Sumbul, 1317 
Tannic acid, 102 
Turpentine, 1363 
Turpentine, oil of, 972 
Uva ursi, 1439 
Water avens, 1670 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Lichen. 
Glycerin, 660 
Lichen Agrius. 
Glycerole of aloes, (note) 
539 Index of Diseases. 
Lipoma. 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Lips, Cracked. 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Lithaemia. 
Calcium benzoate, 1598 
Hippuric acid, 1684 
Java tea, 1751 
Lithium carbonate, 831 
Orthosiphon, 1751 
Piperazine, 1768 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Potassium citrate, 1092 
Rattlesnake weed, 1684 
Soap, 1197 
Sodium benzoate, 1233 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Urotropine, 1823 
Liver, Congestion of. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Horsechestnut, 1552 
Hydrastis, 717 
Jalap, 762 
Podophyllum, 1070 
Taraxacum, 1356 
Watermelon honey, 1633 
Liver, Diseases of. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Calcium benzoate, 1598 
Celastrus, 1606 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Hedge-hyssop, 1674 
Hepatica, 1682 
Purging flax, 1709 
Nitrohydrocliloric acid, 75 
Solanum paniculatum, 488 
Stillingia, 1289 
See also Hepatitis. 
Liver, Torpor of. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Boldo, 1590 
Calomel, 696 
Casearia esculenta, 1603 
Colocynth, 443 
Soap, 1197 
Sodii oleas, 1793 
Locomotor Ataxia. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Silver nitrate, 226 
See also Pains, Ataxic. 
Lumbago. 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Turpentine, 1363 
See also Rheumatism. 
Lungs, Congestion of. 
Cantharides, 321 
Lungs, Diseases of. 
See Pectoral Diseases. 
Lungs, CEdema of. 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Lupus. 
Arsenic and mercuric io- 
dide, solution of, 791 
Caustic iodine solution, 749 
Cinnamic acid, (note) 1306 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Ditliio-calcium carbonate, 
1641 
Eugallol, 1669 
Europhen, 1653 
Ferri arsenas, 605 
Glycerin, 660 
Gold chloride, 1673 
Guaiacol, 1675 
Hydroxylamine hydrochlo- 
ride, 1688 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodized glycerin, 749 
Kresamin, 1631, 1702 
Mercuric iodide, 702 
Mercuric nitrate, solution 
of, 808 
Pyrogallol, 1127 
Sodium, ethylate of, 1794 
Sulphur iodide, 1310 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Malaria. 
Aniline, 1567 
Apiol, 1570 
Arbor vitae, 1815 
Arnica root, 232 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Asaprol, 1577 
Bastard dittany, 1639 
Bear’s foot, 1771 
Berberis, 1586 
Bitter bark, 1557 
Buckbean, 1722 
Butternut, 764 
Capsicum, 324 
Cascarilla, 341 
Centaurea benedicta, 1607 
Chamomile, 176 
Chinoidin, 1610 
Chinoline, 1610 
Chinquapin, 1604 
Chirata, 370 
Columbo, 298 
Dogwood, 1625 
Euquinine, 1653 
European alder, 1557 
European aspen, 1772 
European birch, 1587 
Ferro-manganic prepara- 
tions, 1719 
Gelsemium, 651 
Gentian, 653 
Germander, 1812 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Hickory, 1603 
Holly, 1691 
Horsecliestnut, 1552 
Iron-wood, 1697 
Juglans, 764 
Magnolia, 1715 
Malambo, 1716 
Nectandra, 1739 
Oak bark, 1133 
Oregon grape root, 1586 
Parsley, 1570 
Malaria. 
Pepper, 1052 
Phenocoll hydrochloride, 
1764 
Phenylchinaldin, 1765 
Picric acid, 1767 
Pinckneya pubens, 1768 
Piperin, 1052 
Pomegranate, 671 
Potassium arsenite, solu- 
tion of, 819 
Potassium citrate, solution 
of, 820 
Potassium perchlorate, 1774 
Pyridine tricarboxylic acid, 
1778 
Quinidine sulphate, 1136 
Quinine bisulphate, 1140 
Quinine hydrobromate, 
1140 
Quinine hydrochlorate, 
1142 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Quinine sulphovinate, 
(note) 1139 
Rocky Mountain sage, 
(note) 1185 
Rohun-bark, 1806 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Salicin, 1183 
Sanicle, 1787 
Savannah flower, 1822 
Serpentaria, 1224 
Sodium chloride, 1249 
Spice-wood, 1584 
Strychnine arsenite, (note) 
1304 
Sunflower, 1680 
Tansy, 1353 
Warburg’s tincture, 1828 
Water avens, 1670 
Water hemlock, 1745 
Yerba mansa, 1685 
Mania. 
Black hellebore, 1681 
Chloral, 375 
Conium, 450 
Croton oil, 979 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Hyoscine hydrobromate, 
720 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
White hellebore, 1681 
Marasmus. 
Oak bark, 1133 
Measles. 
Asafetida, 237 
Carthamus, 1603 
Wild marjoram, 1749 
Melancholia. 
Black hellebore, 1681 
Coca, 428 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Phosphorus, 1024 Index of Diseases. 
Membranous Croup. 
See Croup. 
Meningitis. 
Mercury, 710 
Menorrhagia. 
American mistletoe, 1827 
Black haw, 1451 
Blessed thistle, 1607 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Cinnamon, 423 
Creosote, 460 
Ergotinol, 1645 
Euphorbia hypericifolia, 
1651 
Greater periwinkle, 1826 
Hydrastinine hydrochlo- 
rate, 715 
Matico, 861 
Monesia, 1731 
Nectandra, 1739 
Oil of savine, 964 
Persimmon, 1640 
Rhatany, 772 
Savine, 1174 
Silver oxide, 230 
Solution of ferric nitrate, 
803 
Stypticin, 1627 
Symplocos racemosa, 1806 
Uva ursi, 1439 
See also Uterus, Hemor- 
rhage from. 
Menses, Suppression of. 
See Amenorrhcea. 
Mercurial Cachexia. 
Iodine, 748 
Mercurial Tremors. 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Metritis. 
See Uterus, Diseases of. 
Metrorrhagia. 
Brein, (note) 279 
Hydrastinine hydrochlo- 
rate, 715 
Silver oxide, 230 
Migraine. 
Anilipyrin, 1567 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Benzacetin, 1584 
Catha, 1605 
Citrophen, 1617 
Ethoxycaffeine, 1647 
Eucalyptus, 521 
Guarana, 678 
Malambo, 1716 
Migrainine, 1728 
Nickel sulphate, 1740 
Opium, 1002 
Phenacetin, 1019 
Phenosal, 1764 
Pyrosal, 1778 
Salipyrin, 1786 
Valeridin, 1825 
Miscarriage. 
See Abortion. 
Mouth, Ulcer of. 
Nitric acid, 73 
See also Stomatitis. 
Myxcedema. 
Thyroid gland, 1366 
Nsevi. 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Caustic collodion, 439 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 691 
Croton oil, 979 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Iodine paint, 749 
Sodium ethylate, 1795 
Trichloracetic acid, (note) 
17 
Zinc chloride, 1475 
Narcotism. 
Apomorphine hydrochlo- 
rate, 190 
Atropine, 248 
Caffeine, 284 
Mustard, 1227 
Strychnine, 1302 
Nausea. 
Calendula, 294 
Carbonic acid water, 202 
Charcoal, 330 
Cinnamon, 423 
Cloves, 338 
Creosote, 459 
Effervescent sodium citro- 
tartrate, 1250 
Ether, 121 
Horsemint, 1731 
Lavender, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1394 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Magnesium carbonate, 843 
Milk, 1730 
Oil of hedeoma, 939 
Oil of peppermint, 945 
Opium, 1003 
Opium, camphorated tinc- 
ture of, 1400 
Pennyroyal, 681 
Peppermint, 867 
Peppermint, troches of, 
1417 
Silver oxide, 230 
Spirit of ether, compound, 
1269 
Spirit of nitrous ether, 1274 
Nephritis. 
See Bright’s Disease. 
Nervous Diseases. 
Arnica root, 232 
Barium chloride, 1582 
Potassium arsenite, 819 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
xxx in 
Nervous Diseases. 
Valerian, ammoniated tinc- 
ture of, 1408 
Valerianic acid, 1824 
Veratrine, 1447 
Zinc phosphate, 1834 
Nervous Irritation. 
Bromine, 277 
Cobweb, 1618 
Hoffmann’s anodyne, 1269 
Hyoscyamus, 723 
Lactucarium, 774 
Nervousness. 
Bay-rum, 1285 
Bromine, 277 
Cactus, 1594 
Camphor, 311 
Garlic, 134 
Hyoscyamus, 723 
Oil of lavender, 940 
Neuralgia. 
Aconite, 112 
Aconitine, 108 
Agathin, 1553 
Alcohol, 132 
Alcoholic extract of bella- 
donna leaves, 544 
Ammonia water, 206 
Ammonium valerianate, 163 
Amygdophenin, 1561 
Aniline, 1567 
Anilipyrin, 1567 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Belladonna plaster, 501 
Benzacetin, 1584 
Bismuth valerianate, 1589 
Butyl-chloral hydrate, 281 
California laurel, 1822 
Camphor, oil of, (note) 311 
Cantharides, 321 
Carbon disulphide, 332 
Chloral-camphor, 1611 
Chloral-menthol, 1611 
Chloroform, 381 
Citrophen, 1617 
Cochineal, 433 
Colchicum root, wine of, 
1463 
Croton oil, 979 
Cypripedium, 476 
Doegling oil, 1747 
Ether, 121 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Eucalyptus, 521 
Gelsemium, 651 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
252 
Guaiacol ethyl, 1676 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Iron subcarbonate, (note) 
624 
Jamaica dogwood, 1769 
Menthiodol, 1721 
Menthol, 868, 946 
Menthol plaster, 503 
Methacetin, 1725 Index of Diseases. 
Nipples, Sore. 
Benzoin, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1374 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Lead tannate, 1706 
Tannic acid, 102 
Tannic acid, glycerite of, 
661 
Zinc oxide, ointment of, 
1436 
Nocturnal Incontinence. 
See Incontinence, Noctur- 
nal. 
Nodes. 
Ammoniac plaster with 
mercury, 500 
Arsenical bath, 1232 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Cadmium iodide, 1595 
Mercurial plaster, 502 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Nose, Bleeding from. 
See Epistaxis. 
Nymphomania. 
Camphor, 311 
Hvoscine hydrobromate, 
720 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Obesity. 
Pellote, 1565 
Saccharin, (555 
Odontalgia. 
Gelsemium, 651 
(Edema. 
See Dropsy. 
(Esophagus, Foreign Body 
in. 
Apomorphine hydrochlo- 
rate, 190 
Onychia Maligna. 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 690 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Ophthalmia. 
Alum curd, 1643 
Ammonium acetate, solu- 
tion of, 790 
Berberis, 1585 
Coniine, 450 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 690 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Iodine, 749 
Lugol’s iodine lotion, 749 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Opium, 1003 
Opium, wine of, 1466 
Ophthalmia. 
Red mercuric oxide, oint- 
ment of, 1432 
Zinc acetate, 1471 
Zinc oxide, ointment of, 
1436 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Opium Poisoning. 
Atropine, 248 
Strychnine, 1302 
Treatment of, 1004 
Optic Nerve, Atrophy of. 
Strychnine, 1302 
Orchitis. 
Iodoform collodion, (note) 
439 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Otitis. 
Naphtol, 895 
Nosoplien, 1743 
Resorcin, 1157 
Retinol, 1780 
Soziodol, 1798 
Otorrhoea. 
Creosote, 460 
Hydrastis, 717 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Sodium tetraborate, 1796 
Ovaralgia. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
252 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Ovaries, Irritation of. 
Black haw, 1451 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
252 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Ovary, Dropsy of. 
Iodine, 750 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Oxaluria. 
Nitrohydrochlorie acid, 75 
Oxyuris Vermicularis. 
See A scar is Vermicularis. 
Ozaena. 
Borol, 1591 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chlorphenol, 1615 
Chromic acid, 44 
Iodine, 749 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Sulplioricinic acid, 1804 
Pain. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Atropine, 247 
Neuralgia. 
Migrainine, 1728 
Oil of camphor, (note) 311 
Oil of peppermint, 945 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Opium, 1002 
Parthenium hysteropliorus, 
1759 
Passion-flower, 1759 
Pellote, 1565 
Phenacetin, 1019 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Potassium cyanide, 1095 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Scutellaria, 1212 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Spurge laurel, tincture of, 
870 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Tonga, 1817 
Valeridin, 1825 
Veratrine, 1447 
Zinc cyanide, 1834 
Zinc valerianate, 1483 
Neurasthenia. 
Ammonia, spirit of, 1276 
Cactus, 1594 
Catha, 1605 
Coca, 428 
Gallobromol, 1669 
Hypophosphorous acid, 65 
Nuclein, 1744 
Pellote, 1565 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Validol, 1825 
Neuritis. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Guaiacol ethyl, 1676 
Scutellaria, 1212 
Sodium hypophosphite, 
1251 
Night-Pains. 
Solution of arsenic and 
mercuric iodide, 791 
Night-Sweats. 
Acid infusion of rose, 736 
Agaric,. 1552 
Alum, 147 
Atropine, 248 
Camphoric acid, (note) 308 
Dionine, 1640 
Ergot, 517 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Ferrous-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Gallic acid, 50 
Picrotoxin, 1034 
Pomegranate, 671 
Potassium ferrocyanide, 
1098 
Potentilla, 1775 
Sage, 1185 
Silver oxide, 230 
Sulphuric acid, 96 
Thallium acetate, 1813 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 Index of Diseases. 
XXXV 
Pain. 
Camphor, ammoniated lini- 
ment of, 782 
Camphor liniment, 781 
Camphor, oil of, (note) 311 
Carbon disulphide, 332 
Chloroform, 381 
Codeine, 434 
Exalgin, 1654 
Hyoscyamus, 723 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Menthol, 868 
Menthol plaster, 503 
Oil of peppermint, 945 
Opium, 1002 
Opium plaster, 503 
Plienacetin, 1019 
Potassium cyanide, 1095 
Stramonium, 1291 
Pains, Ataxic. 
Aniline, 1765 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Opium, 1002 
Phenacetin, 1019 
Pains, Rheumatic. 
Acetic ether, 117 
Ammonia liniment, 781 
Ammonium phosphate, 163 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Arnica flowers, tincture of, 
1372 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 544 
Belladonna plaster, 501 
Burgundy pitch, 1055 
Camphor, ammoniated lini- 
ment of, 782 
Camphor, spirit of, 1279 
Menthol plaster, 504 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Opium, liniment of, 783 
Opium plaster, 503 
Pitch plaster, 504 
Soap liniment, 784 
Pannus. 
Abrus precatorius, 1545 
Papilloma. 
Resorcin, 1157 
Sodii sulphoricinicum, 1794 
Trichloracetic acid, (note) 17 
See also Warts. 
Paralysis. 
Arnica root, 232 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Capsicum, 324 
Ground pine, 1554 
Horse-radish root, 231 
Petroleum, 1763 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Rhododendron, 1780 
Paralysis, Infantile. 
Strychnine, 1302 
Paralysis, Lead. 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Paraphimosis. 
Belladonna, 262 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 544 
Paraplegia, Spastic. 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Parasitic Affections. 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Sodium hyposulphite, 1253 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Pectoral Diseases. 
Almonds, bitter, 166 
Ammonia liniment, 781 
Ammoniac, 153 
Asafetida, 237 
Asclepias, 239 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Balsam of sulphur, 1581 
Chondrus, 384 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Coltsfoot, 1821 
Comfrey, 1806 
Harts-tongue, 1791 
Hyoscyamus, 723 
Lobelia, 835 
Lycopodium, 837 
Marrubium, 854 
Myrrh, 892 
Opium, 1003 
Pitch plaster, 504 
Speedwell, 1826 
Viola, 1827 
Zizyphus vulgaris, 1834 
Pediculosis. 
Staphisagria, 1287 
Staphisagria ointment, 1435 
Pericarditis. 
Iodoform collodion, (note) 
439 
Peritonitis. 
Cantharides, 321 
Iodoform, 742 
Opium, 1003 
Pertussis. 
See Wliooping-Cougli. 
Phagedaena. 
Bromine, 277 
Chromic acid, 44 
Nitric acid, 73 
Potassium permanganate, 
1108 
Tannic acid, 102 
Pharyngitis. 
Ammonium chloride, tro- 
ches of, 1415 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Rose, honey of, 865 
Tannic acid, 102 
Phimosis. 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 544 
Phosphatic Gravel. 
See Gravel. 
Phosphorus Poisoning. 
Antidote, 1025 
Photophobia. 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1615 
Phthisis. 
Acetylphenylhydrazin, 
1549 
Ammonium carbonate, 157 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Anacahuite wood, 1562 
Anthriscus, 1568 
Aristol, 1574 
Asafetida, 237 
Asclepias, 239 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Balsam of sulphur, 1581 
Belladonna, 263 
Benzosol, 1585 
Calcium hypophosphite, 
291 
Calcium phosphate, 293 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Cantharidin, 322 
Cerium oxalate, 362 
Cetraria, 364 
Chicory, 1616 
Chinosol, 1611 
Chlorine water, 211 
Chlorsalol, 1615 
Cimicifuga, 387 
Cinnamic acid, (note) 1306 
Cocillana bark, 1619 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Coltsfoot, 1821 
Columbo, 298 
Comfrey, 1806 
Creosote, 459 
Creosotum carbonicum, 
1629 
Dionine, 1640 
Drosera, 1642 
Ethyl iodide, 1649 
Glycerin, 660 
Guaiacol, 1675 
Guaiacol salol, 1676 
Guaiperol, 1676 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Hydrochloric acid, 56 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Hydrogen sulphide, 1688 
Hypophosphites, 1251 
Iodine, 750 
Iodoform, 742 
Iron mixtui-e, compound, 
873 
Kefir, 1700 
Koumys, 1701 
Lungwort, 1776 
Manganous iodide, 1718 
Marrubium, 854 
Methacetin, 1725 
Methylic alcohol, 1727 
Myrrh, 892 
Opium, 1003 Index of Diseases. 
XXXVI 
Phthisis. 
Peronin, 1761 
Petrolatum, 1018 
Phenocoll hydrochloride, 
1764 
Pilocarpine hydrochlorate, 
1034 
Piperidine guaiacolate, 1769 
Pleurisy root, 239 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium liypophospliite, 
1099 
Potassium phosphate, 1774 
Saw palmetto, 1790 
Scarlet pimpernel, 1562 
Sodium hypophosphite, 
1251 
Soziodol, 1798 
Storax, 1306 
Styracol, 1676 
Sugar, 1181 
Sugar of milk, 1182 
Tannigen, 1807 
Tar, 1056 
Water avens, 1670 
Water hemlock, 1745 
Wild cherry, 1116 
Pityriasis. 
Arsenic and mercuric io- 
dide, solution of, 791 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Dulcamara, 490 
Glycerin, 660 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Oil of eajuput, 929 
Pongamia oil, 1772 
Sulphites, 1803 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Pleurisy. 
Antimony and potassium 
tartrate, 181 
Asclepias, 239 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Cantharides, 321 
Gelsemium, 651 
Holly, 1691 
Iodine, 748 
Mercury, 710 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Pleurisy root, 239 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Pleuritic Effusions. 
Iodine, 750 
Plica Polonica. 
Lycopodium, 837 
Pneumonia. 
Ammonium carbonate, 157 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Antimony and potassium 
tartrate, 181 
Asclepias, 239 
Aspidosperma, 244 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Pneumonia. 
Cantharides, 321 
Cocillana bark, 1619 
Emplastrum asafoetidse, 
(note) 238 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Garlic, 134 
Gelsemium, 651 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Ipecac and opium, powder 
of, 1124 
Lactophenin, 1704 
Mercury, 710 
Musk, 885 
Naphtol, 895 
Onion, 1748 
Opium, 1003 
Pleurisy root, 239 
Quebracho, 244 
Sodium bicarbonate, 1235 
Strychnine, 1302 
Sumbul, 1317 
Triphenin, 1820 
Veratrum viride, 1450 
Polypus. 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Polyuria. 
Exalgin, 1654 
Porrigo. 
Ammoniated mercury, oint- 
ment of, 1429 
Ammonium acetate, solu- 
tion of, 790 
Arsenic and mercuric io- 
dide, solution of, 791 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Primrose, 1745 
Red mercuric oxide, oint- 
ment of, 1432 
Sulphites, 1803 
Sulphur iodide ointment, 
1435 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Tar ointment, 1433 
Pott’s Disease. 
See Spine, Diseases of. 
Prostate, Diseases of. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Buchu, 280 
Cubebs, 468 
Iodoform, suppositories of, 
743 
Pichi, 1655 
Prurigo. 
Colchicum, 437 
Frostwort, 1680 
Glycerin, 660 
Guaco, 1674 
Lappa, 775 
Prurigo. 
Losophan, 1712 
Naphtol, 895 
Oil of bitter almond, 921 
Petroleum, 1763 
Stavesacre, ointment of, 
1435 
Sulphites, 1803 
Thiophene, 1815 
Tumenol, 1820 
Pruritus. 
Brucine, 899 
Coal tar, solution of, 813 
Dcegling oil, 1747 
IodocroT, 1603 
Lemon juice, 780 
Menthol, 868, 946 
Oil of bitter almond, 921 
Salophen, 1787 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Tannoform, 1808 
Prussic Acid Poisoning. 
Treatment, 63 
Psora. 
Inula, 740 
Psoriasis. 
Acetylphenylhvdrazin, 
1549 
Ammoniated mercury oint- 
ment, 1429 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Aristol, 1574 
Arsenic and mercuric 
iodide, solution of, 791 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Borol, 1591 
Carbolic acid, 42 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chroatol, 1615 
Chrysarobin, 385 
Chrysarobin, ointment of, 
1424 
Cleavers, 1668 
Coal tar, solution of, 813 
Copaiba, 455 
Dithio-calcium carbonate, 
1641 
Dulcamara, 490 
Eugallol, 1669 
Europhen, 1653 
Formaldehyde, 1662 
Gallacetophenol, 1668 
Gallinol, 1668 
Glycerin, 660 
Hydracetin, 1686 
Iiydroxylamine hydrochlo- 
ride, 1688 
Iron arsenate, 605 
Lappa, 775 
Larch bark, 1705 
Lenigallol, 1669 
Loretin bismuth, 1589 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Oil of cade, 927 
Oil of eajuput, 929 Index of Diseases. 
Psoriasis. 
Oleate of mercury, 912 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Potassium acetate, 1076 
Pyrogallol, 1127 
Resorcin, 1157 
Savine, 1174 
Sodium ethylate, 1794 
Sulphur iodide, ointment 
of, 1435 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Tar, 1057 
Tar ointment, 1433 
Ptyalism. 
Atropine, 248 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium iodate, 1774 
Tannic acid, 102 
Puerperal Fever. 
Sodium benzoate, 1233 
Pulmonary Affections. 
Chloroform, 381 
Croton oil, 979 
Iceland moss, 364 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
See also Pectoral Diseases. 
Pulmonary CEdema. 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Purpura. 
Larch bark, 1705 
Putrefaction. 
Salicylic acid, 85 
Pyaemia. 
Sodium hypophosphite, 
1253 
Pyelitis. 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
European myrtle, 1737 
Urotropine, 1823 
Pyrosis. 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Cerium oxalate, 361 
Charcoal, 330 
Gallic acid, 50 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Silver oxide, 230 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Quinsy. 
Chloroform, 381 
Rachitis. 
Ammoniated iron, 1560 
Calcium chloride, 290 
Calcium phosphate, 293 
Rachitis. 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Iodoform, 742 
Kefir, 1700 
Rubia, 1781 
Thymus gland, 1816 
Rectum, Inflamed. 
Bismuth subnitrate, 275 
Hydrastis, 717 
Morphine suppositories, 
1322 
Tannic acid, 102 
Rectum, Prolapsus of. 
Tannic acid suppositories, 
102, 1320 
Rectum, Spasm of. 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 543 
Rectum, Ulcers of. 
Iodine, 748 
Ward’s paste, 444 
Rheumatic G-out. 
Arsenical bath, 1232 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Rheumatism. 
Acetic ether, 117 
Acidum orthoamidosalicyl- 
icum, 1549 
Aconite, 112 
Aconitine, 108 
Agaric, 1552 
Agathin, 1553 
Ammonium phosphate, 163 
Anilipyrin, 1567 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Aralia, 1571 
Arnica flowers, tincture of, 
1372 
Arnica root, 233 
Arsenical bath, 1232 
Artichoke, 1637 
Arum, 1577 
Asaprol, 1577 
Aster, 1578 
Bdellium, 1584 
Betol, 1587 
Birch leaves, 1587 
Bitter candytuft, 1689 
Box, 1593 
Buckbean, 1722 
Cabinca, 1598 
Calotropis gigantea, 1599 
Camphor, spirit of, 1279 
Cannabis indica, 316 
Celastrus, 1606 
Chaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Chimaphila, 369 
Chinaphtol, 1609 
Cobalt blue, 1618 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Colchicine, 1620 
Colchicum, 437 
Colchicum root, wine of, 
1463 
Coto bark, 1627 
Rheumatism. 
Croton oil, 979 
Dithio-salicylic acid, 1641 
Elder, 1187 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Eupatorium, 524 
European ash, 1664 
European birch, 1587 
Fluorides, 1661 
Gelsemium, 651 
Ground pine, 1554 
Guaco, 1675 
Guaiacol salol, 1676 
Hermodactyls, 1683 
Horsecliestnut, 1552 
Hydrochinone, 1688 
Hyoscyamus, 724 
Icnthyol, 1690 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Lactic acid, 68 
Lactophenin, 1704 
Liriodendron, 1710 
Lithium salicylate, 833 
Lycopodium, 837 
Magnolia, 1715 
Manaca, 1717 
Murer6 juice, 1587 
Oil of gaultlieria, 936 
Oil of peppermint, 945 
Opium, 1003 
Pareira brava, 1011 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Potassium citrate, 1091 
Prasoid, 1775 
Purging flax, 1709 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Rhododendron, 1780 
Salicin, 1183 
Salicylic acid, 87 
Salipyrin, 1786 
$alol, 1184 
Salophen, 1787 
Salvia, 1185 
Senega, 1214 
Sodium benzoate, 1237 
Staphisagria, 1287 
Stramonium, 1291 
Strontium lactate, 1295 
Sucupira, 1591 
Symphorol, 1806 
Turpentine, 1363 
Uricedin, 1823 
Urotropine salicylate, (note) 
1823 
Yeratrine, 1447 
White tulip bark, 1710 
Wild yam, 1640 
Rheumatism, Acute. 
Ammonia water, stronger, 
206 
Antimonial powder, 1120 
Antimony and potassium 
tartrate, 181 
Arbor vitse, 1815 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Camphor, 311 
Camphor liniment, 781 
Cimicifuga, 387 xxx vm 
Index of Diseases. 
Rheumatism, Acute. 
Cinchonidine salicylate, 
1617 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Cotton batting, 669 
Cresotinic acid, 1632 
Dover’s powder, 1124 
Elder, 1187 
Frangula, (note) 642 
Germander, 1812 
Hydrochinone, 1687 
Ipecac and opium, powder 
of, 1124 
Lemon juice, 779 
Lime, syrup of, 1331 
Malakin, 1716 
Melaleuca paraguayensis, 
928 
Methacetin, 1725 
Oil of camphor, (note) 311 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Opium, 1003 
Pearson’s arsenical solu- 
tion, 1232 
Pellote, 1565 
Phenocoll hydrochloride, 
1764 
Phenosal, 1764 
Piperazine, 1768 
Poplar, 1772 
Potassium acetate, 1076 
Potassium nitrate, 1108 
Potassium silicate, 1774 
Pyrantin, 1777 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Rhus toxicodendron, 1170 
Rocky Mountain sage, 
(note) 1185 
Sassafras nut, 1766 
Thiol, 1815 
Trinietliylamine, 1819 
Rheumatism, Chronic. 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Amygdophenin, 1561 
Antimony, compound pills 
of, 1043 
Antimony sulphide, 184 
Arnica plaster, 500 
Arsenic and mercuric 
iodide, solution of, 791 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Asarabaeca, 1578 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Borage, 1590 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Cantharides, 321 
Caper bush, 1601 
Cinchonidine salicylate, 
1617 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 690 
Dracontium, 1641 
Dulcamara, 490 
Fir-wool, 957 
Fir-wool extract, 957 
Galbanum, 645 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
253 
Rheumatism, Chronic. 
Guaiac, 676 
Guaiac, ammoniated tinc- 
ture of, 1387 
Guaiacum wood, 674 
Horse-radish root, 231 
Hydrogen sulphide, 1688 
Iodine, 748 
Iron, 635 
Iron plaster, 501 
Kefir, 1700 
Magnolia, 1715 
Mercury, 710 
Mezereum, 871 
Oil of amber, 1802 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of pine, 957 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Pellote, 1565 
Petroleum, 1763 
Phenocoll hydrochloride, 
1764 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Potato, 488 
Rhus toxicodendron, 1170 
Sarsaparilla, 1203 
Savine, 1174 
Scurvy grass, 1619 
Star grass, 1556 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Turpentine, vapor of, 1363 
Xanthoxylum, 1468 
Yerba mansa, 1685 
Rhinitis. 
Airol, 1554 
Europhen, 1653 
Retinol, 1778 
Soziodol, 1798 
Tannigen, 1807 
Rhus Poisoning. 
Lobelia, tincture of, 1394 
Rickets. 
See Rachitis. 
Ringworm. 
Cashew juice, 1562 
Cassia alata, 1604 
Chrysarobin, ointment of, 
1424 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 691 
Ink, 1660 
Kamala, 765 
Sanguinaria, vinegar of, 
(note) 1189 
Sulphites, 1803 
Salivation. 
See Ptyalism. 
Sarcinae Ventriculi. 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Satyriasis. 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Scabies. 
Alkaline sulphur ointment, 
(note) 1435 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Clematis, 1617 
Creolin, 1631 
Hydroxylamine hydrochlo- 
ride, 1688 
Ivy, 1679 
Kamala, 765 
Lead wort, 1770 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Marsh tea, 1706 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Oxynaphthoic acid, 1755 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Rumex, 1173 
Savine, 1174 
Soap, 1197 
Soziodol, 1798 
Stavesacre, 1287 
Stavesacre, ointment of, 
1435 
Storax, 1306 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Sulphites, 1803 
Sulphur ointment, 1435 
Sulphurated lime, 303 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Sulphurous acid, 97 
Tacamahac, 1807 
Scalds. 
Carbolic acid, 41 
Carron oil, 781 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lead subacetate, cerate of, 
359 
Lime liniment, 781 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Resin cerate, 359 
Turpentine liniment, 785 
Scarlatina. 
See Fever, Scarlet. 
Sciatica. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Coniine bromhydrate, 451 
Glycerin phosphoric acid, 
1549 
Menthol, 868 
Methyl chloride, 1726 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Orthoform, 1751 
Osmic acid, 1752 
Phenosal, 1764 
Pyrosal, 1778 
Solanine, (note) 489 
Sublimed sulphur, 1316 
Turpentine, 1363 
Scirrhus. 
See Cancer. 
Sclerosis, Lateral. 
Solanine, (note) 489 Index of Diseases. 
Scrofula. 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Ammoniated iron, 1560 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Anthriseus, 1568 
Antimony sulphide, 184 
Asclepias tuberosa, 239 
Barium iodide, 1583 
Bayberry, 1736 
Black nightshade, 487 
Bromide of iron, 1657 
Bromine, 277 
Buckbean, 1722 
Cadmium sulphate, 1595 
Calcium benzoate, 1598 
Calcium hypophosphite, 
292 
Calcium phosphate, 293 
Calendula, 294 
Chelidonium, 366 
Cheltenham salts, 1609 
Chimaphila, 369 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chondrus, 384 
Cipo suma, 1563 
Cleavers, 1668 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Coltsfoot, 1821 
Corydalis, 1627 
Cynanchum, 1637 
Ferro-manganous prepara- 
tions, 1719 
Ferrous bromide, 1658 
Ferrous iodide, 1658 
Figwort, 1791 
Frost wort, 1680 
Gentian, 653 
Germander, 1812 
Gold, 1672 
Gold cyanide, 1674 
Gold oxide, 1673 
Guaiac, 676 
Guaiacum wood, 674 
Hedge hyssop, 1674 
Hydriodic acid, syrup of, 
1327 
Hypophosphites, 1251 
Ichthyol albuminate, 1690 
Indian pennywort, 1688 
Iodine, 748 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Iodipin, 1696 
Iodoform, 742 
Iodol, 1696 
Jalap, compound powder 
of, 1124 
Lappa, 775 
Lead iodide, 1065 
Manganous iodide, 1718 
Menispermum, 866 
Mercuric iodide, 702 
Mercuric iodide, ointment 
of, 1429 
Mezereum, 871 
Monesia, 1731 
Neat’s-foot oil, 1738 
Oak bark, 1133 
Oregon grape root, 1586 
Pipsissewa, 369 
Scrofula. 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Potassium bromide, 1084 
Potassium hypophosphite, 
1099 
Potassium iodide, ointment 
of, 1434 
Potassium phosphate, 1774 
Rumex, 1173 
Sarsaparilla, 1203 
Sisymbrium mural is, 1793 
Sodium hypophosphite, 
1251 
Stillingia, 1289 
Vegetable ethiops, 1666 
Veratrine, 1447 
Wild cherry, 1116 
Zinc chloride, 1474 
Zinc iodide, 1476 
Scurvy. 
Agave americana, 1553 
Anthriseus, 1568 
Arbor vibe, 1815 
Black nightshade, 487 
Buckbean, 1722 
Citric acid, 48 
Cleavers, 1668 
Horse-radish root, 231 
Lappa, 775 
Lemon juice, 779 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Monesia, 1731 
Mountain ash, 1797 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Purslane, 1772 
Rumex, 1173 
Scurvy-grass, 1619 
Sisymbrium muralis, 1793 
Speedwell, 1826 
Sumbul, 1317 
Water-cress, 1738 
Winter’s bark, 1829 
Wood sorrel, 1754 
Sea-Sickness. 
Capsicum, 324 
Seborrhcea. 
Captol, 1601 
Euresol, 1669 
Septicaemia. 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Soluble silver, 1573 
Shock. 
Atropine, 247 
Sick Stomach. 
See Nausea. 
Singultus. 
See Hiccough. 
Skin Diseases. 
Acetylphenylhydrazin, 1549 
Airol, 1554 
Alkaline sulphur ointment, 
1435 
Skin Diseases. 
Ammonium arsenate, 1560 
Anemone pulsatilla, (note) 
1117 
Anthrarobin, 1568 
Anthriseus, 1568 
Antimonial powder, 1120 
Antimony, compound pills 
of, 1043 
Antimony sulphide, 184 
Antimony sulphide, pre- 
cipitated, 188 
Antimony, sulphurated, 188 
Aralia, 1571 
Aristol, 1574 
Arsenic iodide, 233 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Beth-root, 1818 
Borage, 1590 
Brassica, 1591 
Bromine, 277 
Cantharides, 321 
Cebur, 1606 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chrysarobin, 385 
Chrysarobin, ointment of 
1424 
Cocculus, 1618 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Corydalis, 1627 
Cucumber ointment, 1632 
Cynanchum, 1637 
Diachylon ointment, 1425 
Ditliio-calcium carbonate, 
1641 
Elm, mucilage of, 887 
Eucalyptus, 521 
European birch, 1587 
Europhen, 1653 
Ferrous sulphate, 630 
Glycerin, 660 
Guaiac, 676 
Guaiacum wood, 674 
Guano, 1676 
Henna, 1706 
Hoang-nan, 1684 
Hydrargyrum sozojodoli- 
cum, 1724 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Inula, 740 
Iodine, 748 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Ivy, 1679 
Lappa, 775 
Lead subacetate, cerate of, 
359 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Mezereum, 871 
Oil of aleurites cordata, 155(5 
Oil of cade, 927 
Opium, 1003 
Orcin, 1749 
Oregon grape root, 1586 
Ozokerite, 1755 
Petroleum, 1763 
Phosphorus, 1024 
Potassium arsenite, solution 
of, 819 
Potassium carbonate, 1085 
Prickly poppy, 1572 Index of Diseases. 
Skin Diseases. 
Pyrogallol, 1127 
Rhus toxicodendron, 1170 
Rumex, 1173 
Sanguinaria, vinegar of, 
(note) 1189 
Sarsaparilla, 1203 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Sodium hyposulphite, 1253 
Solomon’s seal, 1621 
Soot, 1797 
Speedwell, 1826 
Stavesacre, ointment of, 
1435 
Stillingia, 1289 
Sulphoricinic acid, 1804 
Sulphur iodide ointment, 
1435 
Sulphurated potassa, 1075 
Tar, 1057 
Tar, infusion of, (note) 730 
Thilanin, 1814 
Thiophene, 1815 
Toadflax, 1569 
Tumenol, 1820 
Viola, 1827 
Yellow ladies’ bedstraw, 
1668 
Zinc oleate ointment, 1435 
Zinc oxide ointment, 1435 
Zinc subgallate, 1834 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Skin, Tuberculosis of. 
Arsenic iodide, 233 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Small-Pox. 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chlorine water, 211 
Holly, 1691 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 229 
Xylene, 1833 
Snake-Bite. 
See Bites. 
Somnolence. 
Caffeine, 284 
Sore Throat. 
Alum, 147 
Bismuth lozenge, 1415 
Camphoric acid, (note) 309 
Capsicum, 324 
Carbolic acid , 41 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chlorine water, 211 
Cocaine, 428 
Creosote, 460 
Ervthrol tetranitrate, 1(546 
Gallic acid, 50 
Heal-all, 1775 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Honey of rose, 865 
Krameria, troches of, 1417 
Sore Throat. 
Liatris spicata, 1707 
Menthol, 868 
Pomegranate, 671 
Potassium chlorate, troches 
of, 1418 
Potassium nitrate, 1108 
Sanguinaria, vinegar of, 
(note) 1189 
Self-heal, 1775 
Silver nitrate, 225 
Sodium bicarbonate, 1235 
Tannic acid, troches of, 
1414 
Vinegar, 1548 
Spasm, Local. 
Atropine, 247 
Chloral, 375 
Spasms. 
See Convulsions. 
Spastic Paraplegia. 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Spermatorrhoea. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Burra gookeroo, 1593 
Camphor, monobromated, 
312 
Coroutine citrate, 1626 
Ilyoscine hydrobromate; 
720 
Spina Bifida. 
Iodine, 750 
Spinal Congestion. 
Ergot, 517 
Spine, Diseases of. 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Spleen, Enlarged. 
Bear’s foot, 1771 
Cleavers, 1668 
Iodine, 748 
Manganous iodide, 1718 
Solanum paniculatum, 488 
Taraxacum, 1356 
Splenitis. 
Mercurial plaster, 502 
Sprains. 
Arnica flowers, tincture of, 
1372 
Arnica plaster, 500 
Arnica root, 233 
Calendula, 295 
Camphor liniment, 781 
Camphor, spirit of, 1279 
Cliaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Hamamelis bark, 680 
Hamamelis, ointment of, 
1426 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodine, colorless tincture of, 
(note) 1391 
Sprains. 
Lead subacetate, solutior 
of, 815 
Oil of camphor, (note) 311 
Opium, liniment of, 783 
Soap, 1197 
Soap liniment, 784 
Sodium chloride, 1249 
Thiol, 1815 
Veratrine, 1447 
Vinegar, 1548 
Stomach, Acidity of. 
Ammonium bicarbonate, 
1560 
Bole, Armenian, 1590 
Chalk mixture, 872 
Magnesia, 840 
Magnesia, troches of, (note 
840 
Magnesium carbonate, 84c 
Soap, 1197 
Sodium carbonate, 1246 
Stomach, Catarrh of. 
See Gastritis. 
Stomach, Debility of. 
Iron mixture, compound 
873 
Mastic, 860 
Oil of cinnamon, 933 
Wild cherry, 1116 
Stomach, Dilatation of. 
Naphtol, 895 
Strontium bromide, 1293 
Stomach, Irritable. 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Wine, 1461 
Stomach, Ulcer of. 
Bismuth oxyiodide, 1588 
Mastic, 860 
Resorcin, 1157 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Stomatitis. 
Menthol, 868 
Nosophen, 1743 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium iodate, 1774 
Potassium nitrate, 1108 
Stomatitis, Aphthous. 
Boric acid, 35 
Myrrh, tincture of, 1395 
Sodium boras, 1240 
Sodium sulphite, 1264 
Stomatitis, G-angrenous. 
Monesia, 1731 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Strangury. 
Benne leaves, 967 
Linseed meal, 787 
Morphine suppositories 
1322 
Mountain ash, 1797 Index of Diseases. 
Strangury. 
Opium, 1003 
Uva ursi, (note) 357 
Wild carrot, 1602 
Wild potato, 1622 
Strychnine Poisoning. 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Chloral, 375 
Chloroform, 382 
Physostigma, 1028 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Sunburn. 
Lemon juice, 780 
Suppuration. 
Alliaria officinalis, 1557 
Ferro-manganous prepara- 
tions, 1719 
Sweats, Colliquative. 
See Night-Sweats. 
Sycosis. 
Hydroxylamine hydrochlo- 
ride, 1688 
Kresamin, 1631 
Mercury, oleate of, 912 
Naplitalan, 1737 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Syncope. 
Acetic acid, 19 
Ammonia water, 205 
Ammonium carbonate, 157 
Caffeine, 284 
Oxysparteine, (note) 1210 
Suprarenal bodies, 1804 
Syphilis. 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Anemone pulsatilla, (note) 
1117 
Antimony, sulphurated, 
188 
Aralia, 1571 
Arsenic and mercuric 
iodide, solution of, 791 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Bdellium, 1584 
Bismuthol, 1589 
Box, 1593 
Bromine, 277 
Calomel vapor-baths, 697 
Calotropis gigantea, 1599 
Ceanothus americanus, 
1606 
Celastrus, 1606 
Chaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Cinnabar, 1723 
Condurango, 1620 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 690 
Corydalis, 1627 
Cresol iodide, 1632 
Syphilis. 
Dithio-calcium carbonate, 
1041 
Elder, 1187 
Ephedra, 1045 
Europhen, 1053 
Ferro-manganic prepara- 
tions, 1719 
Ferrous iodide, 1058 
Frostwort, 1080 
Gold and sodium chloride, 
253 
Gold chloride, 1073 
Gold cyanide, 1074 
Hydrargyrum sozojodoli- 
cum, 1724 
Hydrochloric acid, 50 
Ichthyol albuminate, 1090 
Indian pennywort, 1088 
Indian sarsaparilla, 081 
Iodine, 748 
Iodine, compound solution 
of, 808 
Iodipin, 1090 
Iodoform, 742 
Iodol, 1090 
Jacaranda, 1097 
Jurubeba, 1099 
Lappa, 775 
Laurel, 1700 
Loretin bismuth, 1589 
Manaca, 1717 
Manganese dioxide, 848 
Manganous iodide, 1718 
Mercuric iodide, 702 
Mercurous iodide, 700 
Mercury, 710 
Mercury, tannate of, 1724 
Mezereum, 871 
Murere juice, 1587 
Nitric acid, 73 
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 75 
Oleate of mercury, 912 
Oregon grape root, 1580 
Platinum, 1770 
Potassium bichromate, 1079 
Potassium bromide, 1084 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Red-root, 1000 
Rhododendron, 1780 
Rumex, 1173 
Salicylate of mercury, 1724 
Salvia, 1185 
Sarsaparilla, 1203 
Sarsaparilla, compound de- 
coction of, 481 
Siegesbeckia orientalis,1792 
Silver ammonio-chloride, 
1573 
Silver chloride, 1573 
Simaruba, 1792 
Sodium iodide, 1254 
Soluble mercury of Hahne- 
mann, 1797 
Stillingia, 1289 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Tayuya, 1809 
Thiol, 1815 
Syphilitic Nodes. 
See Nodes. 
Syphilitic Tumors. 
Gold chloride, 1073 
Mercury, liniment of, 782 
Potassium bichromate, 1079 
Syphilitic Ulcers. 
Mercuric iodide, ointment 
of, 1420 
Nitric acid, 73 
Silver oxide, 230 
Tabes Dorsalis. 
See Locomotor Ataxia. 
Tabes Mesenterica. 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Tabes, Spasmodic. 
Silver nitrate, 220 
Taenia. 
Ailantus glandulosa, 1554 
Ammonium embelicum, 
1501 
Arecoline hydrobromate, 
1572 
Aspidium, 242 
Asplenium, 1579 
Bear’s foot, 1080 
Cortex musenae, (note) 704 
Cusparia bark, 475 
Eupatorium, 524 
Gamboge, 300 
Hedge-hyssop, 1074 
Kamala, 705 
Koosso, 475 
Kossala, 1701 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Pelletierine, 071 
Petroleum, 1703 
Pomegranate, 071 
Pumpkin seed, 1012 
Savine, 1174 
Silver oxide, 230 
Simaruba, 1792 
Sodium santoninate, (note) 
1192 
Ulmus, 1420 
Tapeworm. 
See Taenia. 
Teeth, Carious. 
Carbolic acid, 41 
Creosote, 400 
Mastic, 800 
Monesia, 1731 
Oil of cloves, 931 
Pyrethrum, 1120 
Soft sulphur, 1310 
Teething, Irritation of. 
Camphor, monobromated, 
312 
Tenesmus. 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 543 
Camphor, 311 
Chloroform, 383 Index of Diseases. 
Tenesmus. 
Morphine suppositories, 
1322 
Opium, 1003 
Tetanus. 
Amyl nitrite, 169 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Chloral, 375 
Chloroform, 382 
Curare, 1830 
Ether, 122 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Manzanillo, 1719 
Opium, 1003 
Physostigma, 1028 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Urethane, 1822 
Wine, 1461 
Tetter. 
See Eczema. 
Throat, Ulcers of. 
Honey of rose, 865 
Thrush. 
Borax honey, 864 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Glycerin of borax, 662 
Sulphites, 1803 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Tic Douloureux. 
Butyl-chloral hydrate, 281 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1614 
Chloroform, 382 
Tinea Capitis. 
Anemone nemorosa, 1117 
Cantharides, 321 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Coceulus, 1618 
Guano, 1676 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Mercuric nitrate, ointment 
of, 1431 
Mercury, oleate of, 912 
Phytolacca, 1031 
Savine, 1174 
Sulphur iodide, 1310 
Tar, 1057 
Tar ointment, 1433 
Tobacco, 1351 
Tinnitus Aurium. 
Hydrobromic acid, 52 
Tongue, Paralyzed. 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Tonsillitis. 
Menthol, 868 
Tonsils, Enlarged. 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Ammonium iodide, 161 
Zinc, iodide of, 1476 
Toothache. 
Aralia, 1571 
Atropine sulphate, 249 
Carbon tetrachloride, 1614 
Carvacrol, 929 
Eyebright, 1652 
Ivy gum, 1680 
Leadwort, 1770 
Menthol, 868 
Monesia (extract), 1731 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of cloves, 931 
Para cress, 1798 
Prickly ash, 1468 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Tannic acid, 102 
Torticollis. 
Atropine, 247 
Trachoma. 
Abrus precatorius, 1545 
Trichinosis. 
Benzol, 267 
Picric acid, 1767 
Trichosis. 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Trismus Nascentium. 
Gelsemium, 651 
Tuberculosis. 
Aristol, 1574 
Benzoyl-eugenol, 1585 
Chinosol, 1611 
Cinnamic acid, (note) 1306 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Creosote carbonate, 1629 
Europhen, 1653 
Guaiacol, 1675 
Guaiacol iodoform, 1676 
Hydrogen sulphide, 1688 
Iodine, 748 
Lead iodide, 1065 
Nuclein, 1744 
Sodium benzoate, 1233 
Sodium cinnamate, 1794 
Soluble silver, 1573 
Sulphoricinic acid, 1804 
Tannosal, 1808 
Thiocol, 1814 
Tliiosinamin, 1815 
See also Phthisis. 
Tumors. 
Ammoniac, 153 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Arnica flowers, tincture of, 
1372 
Herb Robert, 1670 
Hyoscyamus, 724 
Iodine, tincture of, 1390 
Iodoform, 742 
Lead iodide, 1065 
Soap plaster, 509 
Solomon’s seal, 1621 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Veratrine, 1447 
Tumors. 
Zinc chloride, 1475 
Zinc iodide, 1476 
Tumors, Erectile. 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Tumors, Indolent. 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Potassium iodide, ointment 
of, 1434 
Tumors, Phantom. 
Physostigma, 1028 
Tympanites. 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Typhoid Fever. 
See Fever, Typhoid. 
Ulceration of Os Uteri. 
Aluminum sulphate, 151 
Mercuric nitrate, solution 
of, 808 
Ulcers. 
Adhesive plaster, 508 
Airol, 1554 
Alum, 148 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Ammonium chloride, 159 
Amyloform, 1662 
Aniline, 1567 
Anthemis, 176 
Aralia, 1571 
Aristol, 1574 
Aromatic wine, 1827 
Arsenous acid, 22 
Balsam of Peru, 256 
Balsam of sulphur, 1581 
Balsamito, 254 
Baume caledonien, 1700 
Bayberry, 1736 
Belladonna, 262 
Benzoin, compound tinc- 
ture of, 1374 
Berberin-tree, 1619 
Bismuthol, 1589 
Black alder, 1775 
Borax, 1240 
Bromine, 277 
Bromol, 1592 
Calamine, 1598 
Calendula, 294 
Cancer-root, 1750 
Carbolic acid, 41 
Cashew juice, 1562 
Catechu, 348 
Cetraria, 364 
Charcoal, 330 
Chaulmoogra oil, 1679 
Chloral, 375 
Chlorinated lime, 301 
Chlorinated soda, solution 
of, 824 
Chlorine water, 211 
Chlorplienol, 1615 
Chromic acid, 44 
Clematis, 1617 
Tetter. Index of Diseases. 
Ulcers. 
Cocaine, 428 
Cod-liver oil, 950 
Coelocline polycarpa, 1619 
Collodion, 438 
Conium, 449 
Copaiba, 455 
Copper sulphate, 469 
Corrosive mercuric chlo- 
ride, 690 
Creosote, 460 
Creosote carbonate, 1630 
Cresol iodide, 1632 
Dermatol, 1588 
Eucalyptol, 520 
Eucalyptus, ointment of, 
1425 
Euphorbia, 1651 
European alder, 1557 
Europhen, 1653 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Flaxweed, 1793 
Geranium, 654 
Gold chloride, 1673 
Honey, 864 
Hyoscyamus, 724 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Iodic acid, 1696 
Iodine, 749 
Iodine vapor, (note) 750 
Iodized glycerin, 749 
Iodoform, 742 
Iodol, 1696 
Iron, ferrocyanide of, (note) 
1098 
Ivy, 1679 
Kino, 770 
Lac, 1702 
Lead carbonate, 1064 
Lead iodide, 1065 
Lead nitrate, 1066 
Lead plaster, 507 
Lead tannate, 1706 
Lime, 299 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Linimentum aeruginis, 
(note) 1634 
Loretin bismuth, 1589 
Lugol’s iodine lotion, 749 
Lupin, 1713 
Magnesia, 837 
Matico, 861 
Mel vEgyptiacum, (note) 
1634 
Mercurial ointment, 1428 
Mercury, ointment of red 
iodide of, 1429 
Mezereum, 871 
Monesia, 1731 
Moulded silver nitrate, 228 
Myrrh, 892 
Myrrh, tincture of, 1395 
Naphthol bismuth, 1737 
Nitric acid, 73 
Nutgall ointment, 1426 
Oak bark, 1133 
Orthoform, 1751 
Phenylo-boric acid, 1550 
Ulcers. 
Phenylurethane, 1765 
Platinum, 1770 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Prepared chalk, 461 
Primrose, 1745 
Pyroligneous acid, 18 
Quino-quino, 253 
Red mercuric oxide, 705 
Red mercuric oxide, oint- 
ment of, 1432 
Resin cerate, 359 
Resorcin, 1157 
Rhubai'b, 1166 
Rubefacient iodine solu- 
tion, 749 
Rumex, 1173 
Savine, 1174 
Scarlet pimpernel, 1562 
Sedum acre, 1791 
Silver nitrate, 225 
Sodii sulphoricinicum, 1794 
Stramonium, ointment of, 
1435 
Stramonium seed, 1291 
Styptic collodion, 441 
Sulphate of aluminum and 
iron, 1660 
Tannic acid, 102 
Tannic acid, ointment of, 
1422 
Thiol, 1815 
Tribromphenol-bismuth, 
1818 
Water hemlock, 1745 
Water-pepper, 1589 
Wild carrot, 1602 
Wine, 1461 
Zinc carbonate, cerate of, 
(note) 1436 
Zinc chloride, solution of, 
827 
Zinc oxide, ointment of, 
1437 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Zinc sulphocarbolate, 1482 
Ulcers, Gastric. 
Bismuth subiodide, 1588 
Resorcin, 1157 
Silver nitrate, 226 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
Ulcers of Bowels. 
Turpentine, 1363 
Ulcers, Rectal. 
Iodine, 749 
Pepper, confection of, 444 
Ward’s paste, 444 
Uraemia. 
Pilocarpus, 1038 
Quebracho, 244 
Urethra, Irritable. 
Buchu, 280 
Urethra, Spasm of. 
Alcoholic extract of bella- 
donna leaves, 543 
Urethra, Stricture of. 
Belladonna, 262 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 544 
Moulded silver nitrate, 228 
Slippery elm, 1420 
Urethritis. 
Acetanilid, 12 
Argonin, 1574 
Borax, 1240 
Cubebs, 468 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Silver nitrate, 225 
Sodium silicate, 1795 
See also Gonorrhoea. 
Uric Acid Diathesis. 
See Lithsemia. 
Uric Acid Gravel. 
See Gravel. 
Urine, Incontinence of. 
Ava, 1579 
Benzoic acid, 33 
Buchu, 280 
Cantharides, 321 
Chloral, 375 
Oil qf turpentine, 972 
Rhus aromatica, 1781 
Rhus toxicodendron, 1170 
Uva ursi, 1439 
Urine, Retention of. 
Buchu, 280 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Urine, Suppression of. 
Winter cherry, 1766 
Urticaria. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Calcium chloride, 290 
Celandine, 366 
Colchicum, 437 
Ichthyol, 1689 
Menthol, 868 
Wheat flour, 1656 
Uterus, Diseases of. 
Airol, 1554 
Aluminum sulphate, 150 
Belladonna, 262 
Cashew nut, 1562 
Cerium oxalate, 362 
Cornutine citrate, 1626 
Creosote, 460 
Germander, 1812 
Iodine, 748 
Opium, 1003 
Oregon grape root, 1586 
Potassium iodide, 1104 
Resorcin, 1157 
Silver oxide, 230 
Tannic acid, 102 Index of Diseases. 
Uterus, Diseases of. 
Water-pepper, 1589 
Zinc phosphate, 1834 
See also Endometritis. 
Uterus, Hemorrhage from. 
American mistletoe, 1827 
Creosote, 460 
Ergot, 517 
Erigeron, 1646 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
801 
Ferric chloride, tincture of, 
1385 
Greater periwinkle, 1826 
Hydrastinine hydrochlo- 
rate, 715 
Hydrastis, 717 
Indian cannabis, 316 
Kino, 769 
Lemon juice, 780 
Oil of erigeron, 935 
Persimmon, 1640 
Ruta, 1783 
Stypticin, 1627 
Urtiea, 1823 
Uterus, Inertia of. 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Ergot, 517 
Uterus, Rigid Os of. 
Belladonna leaves, alco- 
holic extract of, 543 
Slippery-elm bark, 1420 
Uterus, Subinvolution. 
Caulophyllum, 349 
Uterus, Tumors of. 
Cotton root bark, 668 
Iodine, 749 
Uterus, Ulcers of Cervix. 
Aluminum sulphate, 151 
Mercuric nitrate, solution 
of, 808 
Uvula, Relaxed. 
Capsicum, 325 
Capsicum, tincture of, 1376 
Catechu, 348 
Catechu, troches of, 1415 
Ferroso-aluminic sulphate, 
1660 
Geranium, 654 
Oak bark, 1133 
Pyrethrum, 1126 
Tannic acid, 102 
Tannic acid, troches of, 
1414 
Vaginitis. 
Acetanilid, 12 
Airol, 1554 
Chinosol, 1611 
Formaldehyde, 1662 
Grindelia, 673 
Hydrastis, 717 
Iodol, 1696 
Kava, 1580 
Vaginitis. 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Retinol, 1778 
Sodium borate, 1240 
Sodium silicate, 1795 
Varices. 
Ferric chloride, 800 
Veins, Varicose. 
Ergot, 518 
Ferric chloride, solution of, 
800 
Hamamelis bark, 680 
Vomiting. 
Belladonna root, 262 
Calendula, 294 
Calomel, 696 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Cerium nitrate, 361 
Cerium oxalate, 361 
Cinnamon, 423 
Cloves, 338 
Cocaine, 428 
Columbo, 298 
Creosote, 459 
Effervescent citro-tartrate 
of soda, 1250 
Hydrocyanic acid, diluted, 
62 
Laburnum, 1638 
Lime, solution of, 794 
Lime, syrup of, 1331 
Magnesium carbonate, 843 
Menthol, 946 
Milk, 1730 
Morphine suppositories, 
1322 
Opium, 1003 
Peppermint, 867 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Resorcin, 1157 
Sodium hyposulphite, 1253 
Sodium sulphite, 1264 
Vomiting of Pregnancy. 
Aconite, 112 
Belladonna, 262 
Cerium oxalate, 361 
Charcoal, 330 
Creosote, 460 
Hydrastis, 717 
Potassium bromide, 1083 
Warts. 
Acetic acid, 19 
Biting stone-crop, 1791 
Carbolic acid, 41 
Cashew juice, 1562 
Celandine, 366 
Copper sulphate, 469 
Glacial acetic acid, 19 
Houseleek, 1791 
Papaw, 1758 
Potassium bichromate, 1079 
Prickly poppy, 1572 
Rattlesnake weed, 1684 
Savine, 1174 
Silver nitrate, moulded, 228 
Warts. 
Trichloracetic acid, (note) 
17 
Zinc sulphate, 1481 
White Swelling. 
Ammoniac, 153 
Lead tannate, 1706 
See also Joints, Diseases of. 
Whooping-Cough. 
Antipyrin, 1021 
Arum, 1577 
Asafetida, 237 
Asaprol, 1577 
Atropine, 247 
Benzol, 267 
Bromoform, 1592 
Cantharidal pitch plaster, 
505 
Chestnut leaves, 344 
Chloroform, 382 
Cochineal, 433 
Coniine bromhydrate, 450 
Conium, 450 
Cypress oil, 1637 
Grindelia, 673 
Horsechestnut, 1552 
Hydrocyanic acid, 62 
Hydrogen dioxide, 217 
Jamaica dogwood, 1769 
Laburnum, 1638 
Lobelia, 835 
Oil of amber, 1802 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Oxymel of squill, 1005 
Peach leaves, 1760 
Peronin, 1761 
Primrose, 1745 
Pulsatilla, 1118 
Quinine sulphate, 1149 
Resorcin, 1157 
Sulphurous acid, 98 
Tonka bean, 1817 
Tussol, 1821 
Zinc oxide, 1478 
Worms. 
Bastard dittany, 1639 
Bear’s foot, 1680 
Black hellebore, 1681 
Calomel, 696 
Convallaria, 452 
Goat’s rue, 1668 
Hedge-hyssop, 1674 
Oil of cajuput, 929 
Oil of turpentine, 972 
Olive oil, 955 
Ruta, 1783 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Savine, 1174 
Sodium santoninate, (note) 
1192 
Spigelia, 1267 
Worms, Round. 
See Ascaris Lumbricoides. 
Worms, Seat-. 
See Ascaris Vermicularis. Index of Diseases. 
xlv 
Wounds. 
Adhesive plaster, 508 
Baurne caledonien, 1700 
Bismuth salicylate, 271 
Bismuth subnitrate, 
275 
Bismuthol, 1589 
Borax, 1240 
Carbolic acid, 40 
Cebur, 1606 
Cerate, 355 
Charcoal, 330 
Chaulmoogra, 1678 
Chromic acid, 44 
Collodion, 438 
Corrosive mercuric chlo 
ride, 690 
Cotton, 669 
Creosote, 459 
Dermatol, 1588 
Diachylon, 507 
European alder, 1557 
Iodoform, 742 
Lead plaster, 507 
Lint, 1708 
Wounds. 
Oil of aleurites triloba, 
1556 
Oleite, 1747 
Orthoform new, 1751 
Petroleum, 1763 
Potassium bichromate, 1079 
Potassium chlorate, 1091 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Quino-quino, 253 
Saint John’s wort, 1689 
Salicylic acid, 85 
Salicylic acid wadding, 
85 
Solomon’s seal, 1621 
Speedwell, 1826 
Spermaceti, ointment of, 
1424 
Styptic collodion, 441 
Tagulaway balsam, 1606 
Thymol, 1365 
Tow, 1708 
Tribromphenol-bismuth, 
1818 
Wounds, Poisoned. 
Chromic acid, 44 
Potassa, solution of, 817 
Wounds, Sloughing. 
Chromic acid, 44 
Potassium bichromate, 1079 
Wry Neck. 
Atropine, 247 
Yaws. 
Arsenical paste of Frere 
Come, 22 
Zona. 
Ethoxycaffeine, 1647 
Zymotic Diseases. 
Carbon disulphide, 332 
Potassium permanganate, 
1110 
Sodium hyposulphite, 1253 
Sulphites, 1803 THE DISPENSATORY 
OF 
The United States. 
PART I. 
The United States Dispensatory may very properly be considered as a commentary upon the 
United States and British Pharmacopoeias, whilst such preparations of the German Pharma- 
copoeia and French Codex as are used generally in the United States are also commented upon. 
As was explained in the fifteenth edition, the changes in the arrangement of the 1880 edition 
of the United States Pharmacopoeia necessitated corresponding alterations in the United States 
Dispensatory. Part I. of the present volume contains the discussion of all the remedies 
recognized by either of the two Pharmacopoeias used by English-speaking people. In Part 
II. the National Formulary is introduced; this is designated as Section I., whilst non-official 
drugs and preparations are treated, as heretofore, by themselves; they are classed now in Sec- 
tion II., and are printed in smaller type than that used for official substances, it being deemed 
judicious to adhere to a plan which has given so much satisfaction in the previous editions. 
In Part III. are considered the Tests and Test-Solutions of the two Pharmacopoeias, Weights 
and Measures, the Art of Prescribing Medicines, and cognate miscellaneous matters. 
There can be no question as to the superiority of the alphabetical arrangement of drugs in 
a book of reference of an encyclopedic character. Their scientific classification belongs to 
works which treat of them rather in their relations than their essential properties; and differ- 
ent systems have been adopted, according to the set of relations towards which the mind of 
the author has been especially directed. Thus, the naturalist classifies them according to the 
affinities of the several objects in nature from which they are derived; the chemist, according 
to their composition; the practitioner of medicine, according to their effects upon the system 
in a state of health and disease. 
ABSINTHIUM. U.S. Absinthium. [Wormwood.] 
(AB-SIN'THI-UM.) 
“ The leaves and tops of Artemisia Absinthium, Linn6 (nat. ord. Composite).” U. S. 
. Wormwood; Absinthe commune, Grande Absinthe, Armoise amere, Fr.; Gemeiner Wermuth, G.; Assenzio, It.; 
Artemisio Axenjo, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Receptacle sub-villous, or nearly naked. Seed-down none. Calyx imbricate, with 
roundish converging scales. Corollas, of the ray none. Willd. 
Several species of Artemisia have enjoyed some reputation as medicines. The leaves of A. 
abrotanum, or southernwood, are reported by Craveri to contain a crystallizable alkaloid, abro- 
tine; they have a fragrant odor, and a warm, bitter, nauseous taste, and were formerly employed 
as a tonic, deobstruent, and anthelmintic. Similar virtues have been ascribed to A. santonica. 
A. pontica has been occasionally substituted for common wormwood, but is weaker. A. vul- 
garis, or mugwort, formerly enjoyed considerable reputation as an emmenagogue, and has been 
used in Germany in epilepsy. Along with asafetida it is also sometimes given in chorea and 
in amenorrhoea. A. ludoviciana, a native of the southwestern regions of the United States, is 
thought, when applied to the head in the state of infusion, to favor the growth of the hair. 
1 Absinthium. 
2 
PART I. 
(Maisch, A. J. P., 1872, p. 106.) In China, moxa is said to be prepared from the leaves of 
A. chinensis and A. indica. The medicine known in Europe by the name of wormseed is the 
product of different species. 
Artemisia absinthium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1844; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 54, t. 22. Worm- 
wood is a perennial plant, with branching, round, and striated or furrowed stems, which rise 
two or three feet in height, and are panicled at their summit. The lower portion of the stem 
lives several years, and annually sends up herbaceous shoots, which perish in the winter. The 
radical leaves are triply pinnatifid, with lanceolate, obtuse, dentate divisions ; those of the stem, 
doubly or simply pinnatifid, with lanceolate, somewhat acute divisions; the floral leaves are lan- 
ceolate ; all are hoary. The flowers are of a brownish-yellow color, hemispherical, pedicelled, 
nodding, and in erect racemes. The florets of the disk are numerous, those of the ray few. 
The plant is a native of Europe, where it is also cultivated. It is among our garden herbs, and 
has been naturalized in the mountainous districts of New England. The leaves and flowering 
summits are employed ; the larger parts of the stalk being rejected. They should be gathered 
in July or August, during flowering. They long preserve their sensible properties when dried. 
“ Leaves about 5 Cm. long, hoary, silky-pubescent, petiolate, roundish-triangular in outline; 
pinnately two- or three-cleft, with the segments lanceolate, the terminal one spatulate; bracts 
three-cleft or entire ; heads numerous, about 3 Mm. long, subglobose, with numerous small, pale- 
yellow florets, all tubular and without pappus ; odor aromatic ; taste persistently bitter.” US. 
Wormwood yields by distillation a volatile oil (oleum absinthii), usually dark green, sometimes 
yellow or brownish, having a strong odor of the plant, an acrid peculiar taste, and the sp. gr. 
0-925 to 0-950. It is sometimes adulterated with alcohol, oil of turpentine, etc., which lessen 
its specific gravity. The oil is composed of a terpene boiling at 150° C., and thujone (ab- 
sinthol), which has a specific gravity 0-926, composition C10II160, boiling point of 200° C. 
(392° F.) to 205° C., and when heated with phosphorus pentasulphide or zinc chloride is 
split into cymene (C1QH1.) and a resinous substance. The portion of thujone which does not 
distil over at about 200° C. consists chiefly of the coloring principles azulene of Piesse and 
ccerulein of Gladstone (Journ. Chem. JSoc., Jan. 1874). The dried herb yields much more oil 
than the fresh. The other constituents, according to Braconnot, are a very bitter and an almost 
insipid nitrogenous matter, an excessively bitter resinous substance, chlorophyll, albumen, starch, 
saline matters, and lignin ; malic and acetic acids are also said to be present. The cold infusion 
becomes olive-green and turbid on the addition of ferric chloride, indicating the probable exist- 
ence of a little tannic acid. (Pereira.) The absinthic acid found by Braconnot is said to be 
succinic acid. Caventou obtained the bitter principle absinthin in an impure condition. (See 
U. S. D., 14th ed., p. 5.) Dr. E. Luck prepared pure absinthin in 1851. (A. J. P., xxiii. 358.) 
A. Kromayer (Arch. Pharm. (2), cviii. 129) considers absinthin an aldehyde, and assigns to it 
the formula C40H6e08 -f- H20. He prepared it by exhausting the dry herb with hot water, 
evaporating the decoction, absorbing the bitter principle with animal charcoal, extracting with 
alcohol, partially purifying with lead acetate, precipitating with tannin, dissolving the precipi- 
tate in alcohol, mixing with lead oxide, treating the dry residue with alcohol, filtering, and evap- 
orating to dryness. Duquesnel obtained absinthin in prismatic, odorless crystals of an intensely 
bitter taste. The old salt of wormwood (sal absinthii) was impure potassium carbonate, made 
from the ashes of the plant. E. Classen found potassium chloride in distinctly-formed cubic 
and octohedral crystals in extract of wormwood. (Amer. Journ. of Science, 1882, p. 323.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Wormwood was known to the ancients as a stomachic 
tonic, especially useful in gastric debility. It was also employed as an antiperiodic and as an 
anthelmintic. At present it is little used in regular practice on this side of the Atlantic. In 
dogs and rabbits from thirty to fifty drops (1-5-2-5 C.c.) of the volatile oil will cause trem- 
bling, stupor, hebetude, and it may be insensibility; one to two drachms (3-75-7-5 C.c.) of it, 
violent epileptiform convulsions, with involuntary evacuations, unconsciousness, and stertorous 
breathing, which may or may not end in death. (Marce, Bull. Therap., Mai, 1864 ; Magnan, 
L' Union Med., Aout, 1864; Amory, Post. Med. and Surg. Journ., March, 1868, p. 83.) In 
man the oil acts similarly; a half-ounce (15 C.c.) of it caused, in a male adult, insensibility, 
convulsions, foaming at the mouth, and a tendency to vomit; though the patient recovered 
under the use of emetics, with stimulants and demulcents. (Lancet, Dec. 6, 1862.) Accord- 
ing to Dr. J. L. Corning, the volatile oil is a powerful local anaesthetic, and has some general 
analgesic properties, being useful when applied locally in rheumatic pains and especially valu- 
able given in the form of a liqueur as a narcotic stimulant in cerebral exhaustion. Bohm and 
Robert affirm that the oil escapes through the kidneys unchanged. The dose in substance is Acacia. 
3 
PART i. 
from one to two scruples (1-3-2-6 Gm.) ; of the infusion (one ounce in a pint of boiling water), 
from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.) ; of the oil, one to two drops.* 
ACACIA. U. S. (Br.) Acacia. [Gum Arabic.] 
“ A gummy exudation from Acacia Senegal, Willdenow (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” U. S. 
“ A gummy exudation from the stem and branches of Acacia Senegal, Willd., and of other 
species of Acacia, Willd.” Br. 
Acaciae Gummi, Br.; Gum Acacia; Gummi Arabicum, Gummi Mimosse; Gomme Arabique, Fr.; Arabisches 
Gummi, G.; Gomma Arabica, It.; Goma Arabiga, Sp.; Samagh Arabee, Arab. 
This genus is one of those into which the old genus Mimosa of Linnaeus was divided by Will- 
denow. The name Acacia was employed by the ancient Greeks to designate the gum-tree of 
Egypt, and has been appropriately applied to the new genus in which that plant is included. 
Gen. Ch. Hermaphrodite. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, or formed of five petals. 
Stamens 4—100. Pistil one. Legume bivalve. Male. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, 
or formed of five petals. Stamens 4—100. Willd. 
The most important of the gum-yielding Acacias are A. vera and the official A. Senegal. A. 
vera and A. Arabica were considered by Willdenow to be distinct species, but are now esteemed 
as one. 
(A-CA'CI-A.) 
Acacia vera. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1805; Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib. x. 34. Syn. A. 
Arabica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1805 ; Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib. x. 32; Carson, Illust. of 
Med. Bot. i. 31.—Acacia Nilotica, Delille, Illust. Flor. de V Egypte, p. 79. This is a tree of 
middle size, with numerous scattered branches, of which the younger are much bent, and 
covered with a reddish-brown bark. The leaves are alternate and bipinnate, with two pairs of 
pinnae, of which the lower are usually furnished with ten pairs of leaflets, the upper with eight. 
The leaflets are very small, oblong-linear, smooth, and supported upon very short footstalks. 
On the common petiole is a gland between each pair of pinnae. Both the common and partial 
petiole are smooth in typical specimens of A. vera, but downy in the variety A. arabica. Two 
sharp spines, from a quarter to half an inch long, of the color of the smaller branches, and 
joined together at their base, are found at the insertion of each leaf. The flowers are yellow, 
inodorous, small, and collected in globular heads supported upon slender peduncles which rise 
from the axils of the leaves, in number from two to five together. The fruit is a smooth, flat, 
two-valved legume, divided, by contractions occurring at regular intervals, into several roundish 
portions, each containing one seed. This species flourishes in Southern Nubia, Egypt, and 
Senegal, and is probably scattered over the whole intervening portions of Africa; it is also 
abundant in Hindostan. 
A. Senegal, Willdenow ; A. verek, Guillemin and Perottet, Flore de Senigambie, 1830, 246, B. 
& T., 1877. Mimosa Senegal, L. This is a small tree with a grayish hark, the inner layers 
of which are strongly fibrous, bipinnate leaves, dense spikes of small yellow flowers longer 
than the leaves, and broad pods 3 to 4 inches long, containing 5 or 6 seeds. It rarely exceeds 
20 feet in height, forms large forests in Western Africa, north of the river Senegal, and is 
abundant in Eastern Africa, Kordofan, and Southern Nubia. It is known by the natives 
as Verek or Hasliab. 
Besides the species above described, the following afford considerable quantities of gum :— 
A. karroo of the Cape of Good Hope, formerly considered by some as identical with A. vera ; 
A. gummi/era, seen by Broussonet in Morocco near Mogador; A. ehrenbergiana, a shrub six 
or eight feet high, named in honor of the German traveller Ehrenberg, who observed it in the 
* Absinthe. Under this name, a liqueur is much used in France, consisting essentially of an alcoholic solution 
of oil of wormwood containing some alcoholic extract of angelica, anise, and marjoram. According to Baudrimont 
(Chevallier, Dictionnaire des Falsifications, 6me ed.) the absinthe ordinaire contains 47*66 per cent, of alcohol, the 
demi-fine 50 per cent., the fine 68 per cent, and the absinthe suisse 80*66 per cent. The preparation, if manipulated 
properly, possesses naturally a bright-green color, brought to an olive-green by slight addition of caramel-coloring, 
but artificial coloring is often resorted to, and indigo, turmeric, cupric acetate, and aniline green have been used to 
produce the proper shade. According to the" French law of 1872, the oil and other concentrated preparations of 
absinthe can be sold only by pharmacists, and by them only on prescription. It has for some time been noticed that 
the effects of this liqueur differ essentially from those of pure alcoholic drinks, constituting a series of symptoms 
which has been designated as absinthism. A case recorded by M. Magnan, in which the patient, having habituated 
himself to the use of brandy, and afterwards substituted absinthe, gave an opportunity of comparing the effects of 
the two kinds of drink; it appears that the characteristic symptoms of the latter, taken in excess, are restlessness at 
night, with disturbing dreams, nausea and vomiting in the morning, with great trembling of the hands and tongue, 
vertigo, and a tendency to epileptiform convulsions, in which the patient loses consciousness, falls, bites his tongue, 
foams at the mouth, makes facial grimaces, throws about his limbs, etc., but from which he usually recovers. See 
also A. J. P., 1889, p. 612. 4 
Acacia. 
PART I. 
deserts of Libya, Nubia, and Dongola ; A. seyal, growing in the same region, and also in Upper 
Egypt and Senegambia ; A. adansonii and A. verek, said to contribute a portion of the Senegal 
gum; and A. tor tills, which attains the height of sixty feet, and inhabits Arabia Felix, Nubia, 
Dongola, and the Libyan Desert. According to Schweinfurth, A. stenocarpa yields the brownish 
gum of the Soudan sometimes known as the “ taleh" gum, whilst gum from Gedaref and from 
Southern Nubia is yielded by the A. fistula. Brownish or reddish gums are also yielded by 
A. nilotica, and probably by various undescribed species.* A. decurrens and A. fiombunda yield 
gum in Australia. Gum is also yielded by various trees not belonging to the genus Acacia. 
The gum-bearing Acacias are all thorny or prickly trees or shrubs, calculated by nature for 
a dry and sandy soil, and flourishing in deserts where few other trees will grow. We are told 
that camels, attached to the caravans, derive from them their chief sustenance in many parts 
of those desolate regions in which Africa abounds. In such localities, they have a stunted 
growth, and present a bare, withered, and uninviting aspect; but in favorable situations, as on 
the banks of rivers, they are often luxuriant and beautiful. 
Their bark and unripe fruit contain tannic and gallic acids, and are sometimes used in tan- 
ning. An extract was formerly obtained from the immature pods of A. arabica and A. vera, 
by expression and inspissation. It was known to the ancients by the name of acacise verse, 
succus, and was highly praised by some of the Greek medical writers, but is at present little 
used. It is a solid, heavy, shining, reddish-brown substance, of a sweetish, acidulous, styptic 
taste, and soluble in water. Its virtues are probably those of a mild astringent. On the con- 
tinent of Europe, a preparation is said to be substituted for it called acacia nostras, obtained by 
expression and inspissation from the unripe fruit of Primus spinosa, or the wild plum-tree. 
The gum of the Acacias exudes spontaneously from the bark, and hardens on exposure; but 
incisions are sometimes made in order to facilitate the exudation. The gum is said also to be 
found immediately under the bark, where it is sometimes collected in regular cavities. (Journ. 
de Pharm., t. xxiv. p. 321.) It is probably produced by a process of degeneration from the 
cellulose, and is incapable of serving further in plant-growth, f It is stated by Jackson that, 
in Morocco, the greatest product is obtained in the driest and hottest weather, and from the 
most sickly trees. An elevated temperature appears to be essential; for in cooler climates, 
though the tree may flourish, it yields no gum. According to Ehrenberg, the varieties in the 
characters of the gum do not depend upon difference in the species of the plant. Thus, from 
the same tree it will exude frothy or thick, and clear or dark-colored, and will assume, upon 
hardening, different shapes and sizes; so that the pieces, when collected, require to be assorted 
before being delivered into commerce. Schweinfurth and other observers state, however, that 
the finest gum is obtained only from the A. vera, and perhaps one or two other species. 
Commercial History and Varieties. The most common varieties of this drug are 
the Turkey or Egyptian, the Barbary, the Senegal, and the India gum. 
1. Turkey Gum. (Egyptian Gum.) Gum arabic formerly entered commerce almost ex- 
clusively through Egypt, being collected in Upper Egypt, Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, and other 
regions of the Upper Nile, and carried to Alexandria, from whence it passed directly into the 
world’s commerce or entered the latter through Smyrna, Trieste, or some other Mediterranean 
entrepdt. At one time the more or less colored varieties were known as gum gedda, whilst the 
white and fine drug was known as gum turic; names derived from Jidda and Tor, Red Sea 
ports, through which the varieties were erroneously supposed to be respectively exported. More 
recently three chief commercial varieties of Turkish or Egyptian gums were recognized. 
Hasliabi or Kordofian gum, the finest of these varieties, was collected in the country westward 
of the White Nile; at one time it constituted the bulk of the superior gum arabic of com- 
* For further information in regard to gum-bearing trees of Northern Africa, see P. J. Tr., Aug. 1873; Compt.- 
Rendus, t. lxxix. p. 1175. 
f In the lower orders of life the inner cell contents or protoplasm is often set free by the rapid conversion of the 
cellulose wall into a substance soluble in water, and it is asserted that very frequently in the higher plants cells can 
be seen with one-half of their walls still cellulose, the other gum. According to Wigand, arabin is a result of a fur- 
ther change in bassorin, but Mr. F. von Ilflhnel (Rerichte, 1888) believes that whilst tragacanth is formed out of the 
cell-wall, arabin is formed from the cell contents. According to the independent researches of Dr. Beijerinck and 
of Dr. Wiesner (P. J. Tr., xvi. p. 284), the change of the cell-wall is provoked by a peculiar ferment. Kraus found 
that the formation of gum in Acacia melanoxylon takes place only in the bark and not in the wood, that it flows 
from the sieve-tubes and the cells of the soft bast, and he asserts that it is not a product of the degeneration of the 
cellulose, but a true cell-content passing out through unchanged cell-walls. (P. J. Tr., 1886, p. 840.) For further 
information see Hofmeister, Handbuch der physiolog. Botanik, Bd. iv. p. 368, 1865; also Muller, Sitzb. Alcad. Wiss. 
Wien, ii., Juni, 1875; Mercadante, Gaz. Chim.; Ber. Cliem. Gesell., 1876, p. 581; Giraud, A. J. P., 1878, p. 127;. 
also, denying explanation, Prillieux, Compt.-Rcnd., t. Ixxviii. p. 135. PART i. 
Acacia. 
5 
merce. Sennari or Gehzirah gum was an inferior variety, yielding a mucilage which turned 
sour more quickly than that produced by Kordofan gum. It was collected in a country east- 
ward of the White Nile, and in the region of the Blue Nile. Still farther to the eastward was 
collected the Suakin or Talca gum. 
Egyptian gums consisted chiefly of small irregular fragments, interspersed with roundish 
pieces of various size, and containing much of that form of gum arabic which is characterized 
by innumerable minute fissures, pervading its substance and impairing its transparency. 
The difference in the varieties mentioned is chiefly in regard to color, the inferior gums 
being more yellow or reddish, and usually containing also more impurities. Since the capture 
of Khartoum and the closure of the Soudan by the Mahdi, Egyptian gum has scarcely entered 
commerce as such, although a portion of the product probably gets into commerce through 
Morocco as Mogador gum. Geddah gum of the present time, sometimes spoken of as an 
Egyptian gum, enters commerce through Geddah, or Jidda, on the Arabian side of the Red 
Sea. It seems to be the same as Mecca or El Wisch or Aden gums, which are sometimes spoken 
of as Egyptian gums, but are probably produced in the triangular peninsula which forms the 
eastern extremity of Africa. These gums used to be exclusively collected at the Red Sea ports 
by Bombay merchants and carried to Bombay, where they were distributed, and hence have 
been known as Bombay or India gum. The finest specimens yield a useful mucilage, not quite 
so bland as that made from the best Egyptian gum. (See India Gum.') 
Suakin Gum, Talca or Talba Gum, from A. stenocarpa and A. seyal, is exceedingly brittle, 
and usually semi-pulverulent. It is a mixture of nearly colorless and brownish gum, is exported 
at Alexandria, and is sometimes termed gum savalcin. 
2. Barbary Gum. {[Mogador Gum, Morocco Gum.) Mogador, a port of Morocco, is the 
chief entrepot of the trade. The gum is probably derived, in part at least, from A. nilotica. 
According to Jackson, the natives call the tree which affords it attalch. They gather it in 
July and August, when the weather is hot and very dry. Two kinds are brought to Mogador, 
one from the neighboring provinces, the other by caravans from Timbuctoo. This may ac- 
count for the fact that Barbary gum in part resembles the Turkey, in part the Senegal. When 
first deposited in the warehouses, it has a faint smell, and makes a crackling noise, occasioned 
by the rupture of the small masses as they become more dry. Barbary gum is usually in 
tears, somewhat brownish, roundish or vermiform, wholly soluble in water. It reaches the 
United States in casks through English commerce. 
3. Senegal Gum. This variety was introduced into Europe by the Dutch. The French 
afterwards planted a colony on the western coast of Africa, and took possession of the trade. 
St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal, and Portendic, considerably farther north, are the ports 
in which the commerce in gum chiefly centres. Immense forests exist in the interior, contain- 
ing many species of the genus Acacia, all of which are said to yield gum; as is aflirmed do 
also various trees belonging to other genera. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 318.) The chief harvest 
begins in October and ends in December, although gum is also collected in March. The dry 
winds, which prevail after the rainy season, cause the bark to crack; the juice flows out and 
hardens in masses, which are often as large as a pigeon’s egg, and sometimes as that of an 
ostrich. It is affirmed that the exudation is also largely caused by a parasitic plant, Loran- 
thus senegalensis, the gummy exudation freely oozing out at the point where the parasite 
penetrates the bark. (Pharm. Centralh., Aug. 1895.) Senegal gum is usually in roundish or 
oval unbroken pieces, or in straight or curled cylindrical pieces of various sizes, in the finest 
grades whitish or colorless, but generally yellowish, reddish, or brownish red. The pieces are 
larger than those of Turkey gum, less brittle and pulverizable, and breaking with a more 
conchoidal fracture.* According to L. Liebermann, gum Senegal can be distinguished from 
* Dr. A. Corre divides the gum Senegal into the hard gums, which are of firm consistence, with a large, clear, 
shining fracture, and the soft or friable gums. For an account of the grades and varieties of these the reader is 
referred to the Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 318. Galam gum (Gornmes haut-du-fleuve) is that coming from Galam, Podor, 
Bakel, and Medina; it is sometimes hard, sometimes soft. For an abstract of Soubeiran’s paper on Galam gums, 
which is scarcely applicable to the present time, see 14th ed XT. S. D. Gornmes bas-du-Jleuve are from the deserts of 
Bounou and the country of the Braknas. 
Brittle gtim, Salabreda, or Sadra-beida, is supposed to he obtained from A. albida of the Flora of Senegambia, 
which is much smaller than A. verek, and characterized by its white bark. The gum is usually in small, irregular 
pieces, like coarse salt, probably the fragments of larger lumps, but sometimes in vermicular pieces about as thick 
as a goose-quill, and of variable length. It is dull and often wrinkled externally, of a vitreous fracture, and of dif- 
ferent tints of color, white, green, yellow, or orange. It is always somewhat bitter. Very easily soluble in its weight 
of water, it affords a mucilage of little consistence, which has but a slight effect on the tincture of litmus. When the 
solution is evaporated to the consistence of a paste, it absorbs moisture so as to become viscid; this property detracts 
much from its value. It is much less esteemed than the Galam gum. 6 
Acacia, 
PART I 
Turkey gum arabic by beating the solutions for some time with potassium hydroxide. The 
gum Senegal does not alter in color, or becomes only very faintly yellow, while the Turkey gum 
arabic solution changes to an amber-yellow color (as do solutions of dextrin). (A. J. P., 1891.) 
4. India Gum.* Most of this gum is taken to Bombay in Arab vessels from Cape Garda- 
fui and Berbera on the northeastern coast of Africa, where it is collected, or from the ports of 
the Bed Sea. It is in pieces varying in size, color, and quality, some resembling the broken 
fragments of Turkey gum, though much less chinky; others large, roundish, and tenacious, 
like Senegal. It is often contaminated, containing, besides genuine gum arabic, portions of a 
different product, having the characteristic properties of Bassora gum. This is distinguished 
by its insolubility in water, with which, however, it unites, swelling up, and forming a soft 
viscid mass. It owes its properties to the presence of bassorin. Besides this impurity in the 
India gum, there are often others more readily detected. Among these we have observed a 
yellowish-white resinous substance, which has the sensible properties of the turpentines. If 
care be used in assorting this commercial variety, it may be employed for all the purposes of 
good gum arabic. India gum is brought to this country partly from Calcutta or Bombay, and 
partly by way of England. It usually comes in large cases. We have seen a parcel said to 
have come directly from the Red Sea, enclosed in large sacks made of a kind of matting, and 
bearing a close resemblance to the gum from Calcutta, except that it was more impure, and 
contained numerous large, irregular, very brittle masses, not much less than the fist in size.f 
* Persian gum, which is said to be sent from Persia to Assowan to be packed as genuine gum arabic, can be dis- 
tinguished from the latter, which it closely resembles, by its not dissolving in water. Professor Sickenberger thinks 
that it is the product of Prunus Boleharemis or of P. Puddum. 
f In the Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. (Oct. 1867, p. 270), a variety of the India gum, imported into France by 
way of London, in boxes containing about 400 pounds, is described as follows. It is a mixture of tears of various 
tints with impurities. In assorting it for use, the lightest-colored tears are selected. These are less perfectly trans- 
parent than gum arabic, less fissured on the surface, which is brilliant and often mammillated, and are also much 
less friable. But the most important distinctive character of this gum consists in its relations to water. If agitated 
with twice or thrice its weight of cold water, instead of forming, like ordinary gum arabic, a homogeneous, slightly 
mucilaginous solution, it forms a thick, transparent, very tenacious magma, which cannot be diluted with a larger 
quantity of water, but may, after a long time, be coarsely divided, still, however, retaining its viscid, ropy aspect, 
which never entirely disappears, whatever may be the quantity of water added. It imparts to syrup a very thick 
and very viscid consistence. It is important that the apothecary should be able to distinguish it, as it is unfit for 
ordinary pharmaceutic use, being employed exclusively by manufacturers in the preparation of cloths. All that is 
necessary is to add a few pieces to twice their weight of cold water, and allow the mixture to stand. After some 
hours, the peculiar, viscid mucilage above described betrays the character of the gum. 
Substitutes foe Gum Arabic.—The variety of true gum arabic which has received the name of India gum be- 
cause it enters commerce through Bombay must be distinguished from the Indian gums which have been thrown 
into commerce as substitutes for true gum arabic. According to A. Mander, the East India gums appearing in the 
London market are: 
(1) Glassy Amrad Gum.—A dark gum consisting of more or less rounded and some stalactitic pieces, with smooth 
shining surface and free from internal cracks. Color varying from dark brown to pale yellow. Viscosity of muci- 
lage (acacia being 1), 2. 
(2) East India Amrad Gum.—A dark brittle gum of a reddish tint, composed chiefly of transparent angular frag- 
ments with a few rounded masses having a conchoidal fracture. Viscosity of mucilage, 0-l5. 
(3) Pale Amrad Gum.—This somewhat resembles “gum acacia sorts,” being in broken angular pieces or small 
tears, and these more or less cracked internally; some pieces may be noticed having an opaline surface. Viscosity 
of mucilage, 0’156. 
(4) Amra or Oomra Whatti Gum.—A dark gum, in irregularly-shaped and stalactiform pieces, clear internally, but 
dull surface; color from reddish to pale yellow. Viscosity of mucilage, 1.8. 
(5) Ghatti Gum.—A pale gum consisting of rounded or vermiform pieces varying in size, clear internally, but dull 
and roughened on the surface, apparently caused by shrinkage in drying; from brownish-yellow to perfectly color- 
less and transparent. Mucilage a pale yellowish-brown semi-solid mass. 
Of these gums, India gums of the London market, the first four varieties yield mucilages which are so dark-colored 
that they cannot be used in practical pharmacy. One part of ghatti gum rubbed up with three parts of distilled 
water and strained, yields a mucilage which is tasteless, odorless, colorless, and which is superior to the emulsion of 
gum arabic in its adhesive power, and even in its emulsive power, the emulsion made with it being almost of snowy 
whiteness. Ghatti gum would therefore seem to be thoroughly adapted for the purposes of pharmacy, and its extreme 
cheapness will undoubtedly give it vogue. 
The studies of J. G. Prebble, of Bombay, throw much light upon the gums just spoken of. Through Oomrawuttee, 
or Amravti, the chief town of the Hyderabad assigned districts known as the Beras, two gums enter the world’s 
commerce, which are respectively known in India as Amrad or Babool gum, and Ghatti gum. The babool gum is 
apt to be dark, and is said to be a product of the Acacia arabica. It is without much doubt the amra whatti gum 
of Mander. Amra is the native name for a gum derived from Spondias mangi/era, which gum, however, is said to 
resemble tragacanth rather than gum arabic. The Arabic word hamrd means red, and possibly the term amrad 
is derived from it. The amrad gums of London appear to be made in Bombay by mixing babool gum with other 
gums collected in various parts of India or imported into Bombay from the Red Sea coast. 
Ghatti gum is said to be obtained from Anogeissus lati/olia in enormous quantities, to be much used in India, and 
to be exported from Bombay in the pure state. 
Besides the India gum, numerous gums have entered commerce from South America, Cape of Good Hope, and 
Australia. PART I. 
Acacia. 
7 
General Properties. Gum arabic is in roundish or amorphous pieces, or irregular frag- 
ments, of various sizes, more or less transparent, hard, brittle, pulverizable, and breaking with 
a shining fracture. It is usually white, or yellowish white, but frequently presents different 
shades of red, and is sometimes of a deep-orange or brownish color. It is bleached by exposure 
to the sun. In powder it is always white. It is inodorous, has a feeble, slightly sweetish taste, 
and when pure dissolves wholly in the mouth. The sp. gr. varies from 1-31 to 1-48 or 1-525 
for the dried gum. “ Acacia should be slowly but completely soluble in 2 parts of water. This 
solution shows an acid reaction with litmus paper, yields a gelatinous precipitate with basic lead 
acetate test-solution or ferric chloride test-solution, or concentrated solution of sodium borate, 
and does not reduce alkaline cupric tartrate volumetric solution. The powder is not colored blue 
(absence of starch), or red (absence of dextrin), by iodine test-solution.” U. S. “ When dis- 
solved in an equal weight of water, the solution should neither form a glairy mucilage nor, 
after admixture with more water, should it yield a gummy deposit on standing. The aqueous 
solution forms with solution of lead subacetate an opaque, and with solution of borax a more or 
less translucent, white jelly; it gives no precipitate with solution of lead acetate ; is not colored 
blue or brown by a small quantity of solution of iodine (absence of starch or of ordinary 
‘ dextrin’ of commerce) nor bluish-black by test-solution of ferric chloride (absence of tannic 
Cape gums are imported into London in large quantities. Two varieties are recognized. The glassy hard Cape gum, 
the product of Acacia Korrida, occurs in amber-b'rown-colored, irregular pieces, occasionally fissured, usually hard; sol- 
uble in water, giving a dark-colored viscid mucilage free from odor but with an unusual flavor. This gum is said to be 
bleached and mixed with a pale gum. The soft Cape gum is believed to be derived from Acacia giraffas. Its infe- 
rior grades are dark brown and yield a bitter mucilage; the finest samples, however, so closely resemble, in their phys- 
ical properties and the mucilage which they yield, the Kordofan gums, that some authorities believe that they are 
true gum arabic which has been deflected southward by the closure of the Soudan. 
Australian gum, or Wattle gum, is the product of A. pycnantha, Benth.; A. decurrens, Willd.; A. homalophylla 
(A. Cunn), and probably other species of acacia. It is said that gums obtained near the coast and those pro- 
cured in the interior do not contain metarabin. It occurs in hard pieces, elongated or globular; rough, varying in 
color from dark amber to pale yellow; entirely soluble in water, and yielding a very adhesive mucilage, which, when 
dry, is said not to crack. It sometimes contains tannin, and appears not to be suitable for pharmaceutical purposes. 
The wood of A. homalophylla is known as violet wood, on account of its pleasant odor. (Amer. Drug., 1884.) 
Under the name of Brazilian gum, Para gum, and gum angico, large quantities of a gum occurring in large dark- 
amber or dark-brown glossy drops, soluble in water, are yearly thrown into commerce. It is said to be the product of 
Acacia angico. Its mucilage is very adhesive, but usually too dark in color for pharmaceutical purposes. It must 
be distinguished from the gum resin often known as Brazilian gum, which is said to be obtained from Hymenia cour- 
haril, and is used in making varnishes. 
Chagual or Maguey gum of Chili occurs in hollow cylindrical pieces from 0-2 to 1*5 Cm. in thickness, occasionally 
having the form of stalactites or irregular tubers, but in nearly all cases showing the impression of the epidermis to 
which they have been attached. On their inner surface they are longitudinally streaked, while their outer surface 
is usually numerously fissured, the fissures penetrating deeply toward the interior. In the absence of these the 
pieces are of glassy brightness, transparent, and of very dense structure internally. The color varies from colorless, 
through yellowish and brownish to a tolerably deep brown, isolated pieces being almost black. Maceration in water 
is said to reduce the dark pieces to a granular mass, whilst the transparent pieces dissolve almost entirely; the 
whole of the commercial sample yielding about five or six per cent, to cold water. The amount dissolved is greatly 
increased by the use of boiling water. According to the experiments made by Guehm, the commercial drug is 
scarcely fitted for technical use as a gum, but the clear pieces when made into a concentrated mucilage by prolonged 
heating answer the purposes of the calico printer well. Puya chilensis, P. lanuginosa, and P. lanata are commonly 
said to be the sources of the gum, though the researches of Hartwich make this uncertain. The exudation is 
asserted to be the result of the bite of a caterpillar, Kastina elegans. (Zeitschr. Oest. Apoth. Ver., Aug. 1, 1896.) 
Thos. Maben gives the following method of testing mucilage obtained from various gums sold for gum arabic as 
the best that he has been able to devise after much experimentation. Two or three drops of the mucilage prepared 
from the gum are placed on a glass or porcelain slab, and one or two drops of the following reagents added; these 
are then stirred together with a glass rod and the results compared. In the case of borax, acacia mucilage at once 
agglutinates or hardens into a gummy mass, similarly with basic lead acetate and ferric chloride, whilst it gelatinizes 
or forms a softer mass with potassic silicate. Similar reactions are given by the Senegal gums, the Indian amrad 
gums, white Barbary, white and brown Cape, and Geddah gum. Barbary brown and amrad give only a jelly with 
borax, otherwise they react as acacia. Australian gum agglutinates with borax, but only gelatinizes with basic lead 
acetate, and has no reaction with ferric chloride and potassic silicate. Brazilian gum has no reaction with potassic 
silicate, but gelatinizes with borax and ferric chloride and slightly with basic lead acetate. Ghatti gum gelatinizes 
with all four reagents, but in a slight degree only with potassic silicate. Oomra gum reacts similarly to acacia, ex- 
cept that it is entirely unaffected by basic lead acetate, and forms a softer jelly with ferric chloride. There are, of 
course, shades of difference in the various reactions which cannot be indicated by these terms, but, generally speak- 
ing, a fair idea is given of the nature of the gum. (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., March 1, 1890, 717-721.) 
Schuhmann prepares dextrin by a registered process so as to replace gum arabic. The milk of starch is treated 
with one one-hundredth part of its weight in starch, of hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric acid. In twenty-four hours 
the mixture is washed until the waters give no acid reaction. The starch paste thus prepared is diluted to a thick 
pap, and heated in a digester to 160-170° C.; or it may be treated in a closed vessel under ordinary pressure, with 
a current of superheated air or vapor, until the product ceases to color with iodine. The soluble product thus ob- 
tained is diluted to 20-26° Baume, and—a little albumen being added—is heated to the boiling point and passed 
into a Taylor apparatus, or into a press-filter, in which it is clarified and made colorless with bone-black. Thus puri- 
fied it is evaporated to a proper consistence, or may be reduced to dryness. A small quantity of vegetable gum may 
be added with advantage. The mass obtained by this process is entirely soluble in warm or cold water; it is odor- 
less and tasteless, and greatly resembles gum arabic in aspect and properties. (Moniteur Scientifique, 1888.) 8 
Acacia. 
PAET I. 
acid) ; and does not give a red precipitate when boiled with solution of pot assio-cupric tartrate 
(absence of certain sugars). Gum Acacia should not yield more than 4 per cent, of ash.” Br. 
The commercial gum arabic contains 17 per cent, of water and 3 per cent, of ash, consisting 
almost entirely of calcium, potassium, and magnesium carbonates. 
The gum dissolves at ordinary temperature slowly, in an equal weight of water, forming a 
thick glutinous liquid of distinctly acid reaction. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and the 
oils. 100 parts of diluted alcohol containing 22 per cent, of alcohol by volume dissolve 57 
parts of gum, diluted alcohol containing 40 per cent, alcohol takes up 10 parts, and 50 per 
cent, alcohol only 4 parts (Fliickiger). On adding hydrochloric acid to the aqueous solution 
and precipitating with alcohol, a colorless amorphous substance is obtained. This is arabic 
add. On hydrolysis, it yields galactose, arabinose, and a pentabiose named arabinon. The arabin 
(or arabic acid) may also be prepared by placing a solution of gum, acidulated with hydrochloric 
acid, on a dialyzer, when calcium chloride will diffuse out, leaving behind solution of arabin. 
Arabic acid dried at 100° C. (212° F.) has the composition 2C6H1006 -f H20, and gives up 
H20 when it unites with bases. It has a decided tendency to form acid salts. Concentrated 
nitric acid forms with it nitro-compounds; dilute nitric acid, on the other hand, gives rise to 
mucic and saccharic acids, together with oxalic and a little tartaric acid. Dilute sulphuric 
acid on prolonged boiling gives rise to arabinose, or arabin sugar (pectinose, or pectin sugar), 
C5H1005, which reduces alkaline copper solution and turns the plane of polarization 121° to 
the right. Kiliani (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 1887, p. 339) first established the formula as given 
above, and it is now recognized as belonging to the newly-established class of pentoses. They 
are not fermentable, and on prolonged boiling with dilute hydrochloric acid, lose the elements 
of water and yield furfurol, C6H402. 
Neutral lead acetate does not precipitate an aqueous solution of gum arabic, but the basic 
acetate forms even in a very dilute solution a precipitate. 
Prolonged heating of the dry gum causes it to change readily into metarabic (metagummic) 
acid, which is identical with the cerasin found in the beet and in cherry-gum. Sulphuric acid 
will also change arabic into metarabic acid. 25 Gm. pure gum arabic are covered with 50 C.c. 
strong alcohol, 10 C.c. water, and 5 C.c. sulphuric acid, and allowed to stand 24 hours. On 
pouring off the fluid, and washing the residue with alcohol and with water, metarabic acid re- 
mains behind as a voluminous mass, which dries to a white, tasteless, and odorless powder of 
acid reaction. ( Graeger, Jahresbericht der Chem., 1872, p. 781.) The metapectic acid prepared 
by Scheibler from the sugar beet is identical with this. 
The principle separated by cold water from the soluble arabin proves to be the same as the 
metarabic (metagummic) acid prepared direct from the pure gum arabic by heating, or by the 
action of sulphuric acid. It is also identical with gum extracted from the sugar beet by 
Scheibler. In the normal and sound beet this gum is insoluble in water, and merely swells up 
like the metarabic acid, while in altered beets there is found a portion (arabin) soluble in water. 
(Scheibler, Ber. Chem. Ges., 1873, p. 612.) 
The similarity of the reactions and composition of arabinose and galactose (from sugar of 
milk by inversion) led Kiliani to assert the identity of these two varieties of sugar, but later 
studies by himself, Claesson, and Scheibler have shown that they are distinct. Thus, galactose 
is fermentable, while arabinose is not; galactose yields mucic acid when oxidized with nitric 
acid, and dulcite when reduced with sodium amalgam, while arabinose does not yield either; 
the fusing-point of the crystallized galactose is given at 142—144° C., while that of arabinose 
is 160° C.; galactose yields with phenylhydrazin a light-yellow compound, fusing at 170-171° 
C., while arabinose forms a brownish-yellow compound, fusing at 157—158° C. (Scheibler, Ber. 
d. Chem. Ges., 17, p. 1731.) Arabinose is said to be obtainable only from those varieties of 
gum arabic that yield no mucic acid when treated with nitric acid. (Claesson, Ber. d. Chem. 
'Ges., 14, p. 1271.) 
Gum arabic undergoes no change by age, when kept in a dry place. Its concentrated aque- 
ous solution remains for a considerable time unaltered, but ultimately becomes sour, from the 
production of acetic acid. The disposition to sour is increased by employing hot water in 
making the solution. The tendency of a weak solution to become mouldy is said to be obviated 
by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid, and decanting from the calcium sulphate deposited. 
(A. J. P., 1872, p. 353.) Solution of gum arabic does not ferment upon the addition of yeast, 
saliva, or gastric juice; the addition of chalk and cheese, however, starts a fermentation which 
gives rise to lactic acid and alcohol, but not to mannite or glycerin. The addition of a solution 
of gum to an acidified albumen solution causes a precipitate, which disappears on further addi- paht I. 
Acacia. 
tion of gum, but the solution will then curdle and become flocculent on application of heat. 
Gum may be distinguished from dextrin by the following tests: 1. Gum contains no dextro- 
glucose, which, however, is present in dextrin, and may be recognized by the copper test* 2. 
Gum contains a lime compound; hence its solution is rendered milky by oxalic acid, while a 
solution of dextrin remains almost clear. 3. Gum gives a shiny, yellow deposit when its solu- 
tion is mixed with a neutral ferric salt. (Hager, Chem. Central., 1873, pp. 408 and 584.) 
The properties above enumerated belong to gum arabic generally. There are, however, 
pharmaceutic varieties with differences which deserve notice. 1. Gum that is transparent and 
readily soluble. This constitutes by far the greater portion of the commercial varieties distin- 
guished by the names of Turkey and Senegal gum. It is characterized by its transparency, 
ready solubility, and the comparatively slight degree of thickness and viscidity of its solution. 
Under this head may be included the gomme blanche fendillee of Guibourt. It is distinguished 
by the whiteness and deficient transparency of the pieces, attributable to the minute cracks or 
fissures with which they abound, and which render them very brittle and easily pulverizable. 
This peculiar structure is generally ascribed to the influence of solar heat and light, but is 
conjectured by Hayne to arise from the exudation of the juice in the frothy state noticed by 
Ehrenberg. Though the unbroken pieces are somewhat opaque, each minute fragment is per- 
fectly transparent and homogeneous. This variety, in consequence of its prompt and entire 
solubility, is usually preferred for medical use, and for most purposes in pharmacy. 2. Gum 
less transparent and less soluble. Guibourt has proposed for portions of this gum the name of 
gomme pelliculee, from the circumstance that the masses are always apparently covered, on 
some part of their surface, by a yellowish opaque pellicle. Other portions of it have a mam- 
millary appearance on the surface. It is less transparent than the former variety, is less freely 
and completely dissolved oy water, and forms a more viscid solution. It dissolves with diffi- 
culty in the mouth, and adheres tenaciously to the teeth. It is found in all the commercial 
varieties of gum, but least in that from Egypt. Its peculiarities have been ascribed to variable 
proportions of bassorin or cerasin associated with the soluble arabin. Between these two varie- 
ties of gum there are insensible gradations, so that it is not always easy to classify specimens. 
Specimens of gum arabic are sometimes found in commerce which are soluble in water with 
difficulty. According to Kochlin. if ten parts of such gum, fifty parts of water, and three parts 
of a 12 per cent, solution of hydrogen peroxide be heated together for two or three hours, 
the gum is rendered easily soluble. (Nat. Drug., 1894, 176.) Related to the acacia gums are 
wood-gum, from the wood of foliage trees, yielding xylose on hydrolysis; cherry-gum, the gum 
of cherry and almond trees, yielding 6-arabinose on hydrolysis ; peach-gum, from the peach tree, 
yielding arabinose and galactose on hydrolysis; barley-gum, obtained in the nitrogen-free 
extractive material of cereals, yielding galactose and xylose. Martina examined twenty-seven 
varieties of gum, and the composition of some of the principal ones is given in the table: 
Origin. 
Source. 
Ash. 
Lime. 
Mucic 
Acid. 
Galactose. 
Furfural. 
Penta- 
glucose. 
Total 
Glucoses. 
Gum Arabic .... 
Arabia .... 
3-60 
1-84 
22-98 
30-66 
13-57 
27-14 
58-3 
Senegal . . . 
3-25 
0-90 
19-72 
26-29 
12-97 
25-94 
57-58 
Gezireh . . . 
2-75 
0-94 
12-42 
17-89 
19-32 
36-62 
60-66 
Aden .... 
3-70 
1-33 
18-68 
24-90 
15-26 
30-52 
56-90 
Mogador . . . 
3-50 
0-78 
18-10 
24-13 
13-90 
27-80 
50-31 
N. Holland . . 
0-50 
45-82 
61-09 
10-85 
21-70 
43-75 
Indies .... 
4-16 
0-97 
14-75 
19-66 
17-98 
35-96 
56-52 
Mimosa nilotica . 
Egypt .... 
2-80 
1-36 
5-91 
7-88 
21-44 
42-88 
49-13 
Acacia dealbata . 
Van Diemen . 
0-65 
39-09 
52-12 
8-89 
17-68 
73-93 
Acacia angico . . . 
Brazil .... 
2-89 
1-23 
1-63 
40-35 
80-70 
74-22 
Gum of Apricot . . 
4-20 
1-85 
9-16 
12-21 
17-27 
34-52 
43-48 
Gum of Plum . 
2-15 
1-07 
5-19 
6-92 
31-03 
62-06 
66-47 
Gum of Cherry . . . 
2-50 
1-00 
6-13 
8-17 
23-07 
46-14 
56-38 
* See Volumetric Solution Alkaline Cupric Tartrate (Part III.). J. Henry Schroeder examined twelve specimens 
of powdered acacia, and states that dextrin is not frequently used as an adulterant, and that if in using the alkaline 
cupric tartrate test the heat be prolonged during twenty minutes, a well-defined reduction was produced even when 
pure Senegal gum was used. This fact should be remembered in testing gums by the official method. {A. J. P., 
1897, 195.) The following test is given in the Pharm. Post, 1894, 563. Add 3 C.c. of a solution consisting of 15 
drops Liquor Ferri Chloridi, 15 drops of a saturated solution of potassium ferrocyanide, 5 drops of IIC1 (1*125), and 
60 C.c of water to 20 per cent, solution of the gum. If the gum arabic is pure, it will remain a clear yellow for 
from eight to ten hours. If there is dextrin present, the color changes to a blue. 10 
Acacia.—A cetanilidum. 
PART I. 
Impurities and Adulterations. In parcels of gum arabic there are sometimes pieces 
of a dark color, opaque, and incorporated with ligneous, earthy, or other impurities. The 
inferior are often mixed with, or substituted for, the better kinds, especially in powder; and 
portions of insoluble gum, bdellium, and other concrete juices of unknown origin, are found 
among the genuine. Flour or starch is sometimes fraudulently added to the powder, but is 
easily detected by the blue color which it produces with tincture of iodine. In consequence 
of the impurities and difference in quality, gum arabic should generally be assorted for phar- 
maceutic use. A foreign substance sometimes adheres to its surface, giving it a bitter taste, 
from which it may be freed by washing in water. Various adulterations of gum arabic have 
been practised, and substitutes offered for sale either honestly or with false labels. The high 
price of the genuine gum of late years has greatly stimulated the exploiting of these products. 
Starch, especially rice-starch, which is difficult of detection on account of the small size of its 
granules, dextrin, and inferior gums are often added to powdered gum arabic. These foreign 
substances can usually be detected by the microscope or by appropriate tests for starch or dex- 
trin even in powdered gum. It has been proposed to change the arabinic acid of the sugar 
beet, by the method of Scheibler, into metarabinic acid, as the foundation of a true artificial 
gum arabic, but the artificial gums of the market have no such close chemical relation with 
the natural gum ; many of them arq mixtures of various substances, others are produced from 
starch by the action of sulphuric acid or by other means. Universal gum, a patented product 
obtained from potato starch, has been highly commended for the permanency and adhesiveness 
of its mucilage, but is said not to act well as an emulsifier. A substitute has also been made 
from Irish moss. (See Chondrus.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Acacia is used in medicine chiefly as a demulcent. By 
the viscidity of its solution, it serves to cover and sheathe inflamed surfaces, and, by blending 
with and diluting irritating matters, blunts their acrimony. Hence it is advantageously em- 
ployed in catarrhal affections and irritation of the fauces, by being held in the mouth and 
allowed slowly to dissolve. Internally administered, it has been found useful in inflammations 
of the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane ; and its employment has even been extended to 
similar affections of the lungs and urinary organs. Whether it is beneficial, in the latter cases, 
in any other manner than by the dilution resulting from its watery vehicle, is doubtful. It 
has been used as a food, but has very little if any nutritive value. In pharmacy, gum arabic 
is extensively used for the suspension of insoluble substances in water, and for the formation of 
pills and troches. Two kinds of powdered gum arabic are used, one a coarse powder called 
granulated, the other finely dusted. The granulated dissolves more readily in water, according 
to Hager, because it has lost during desiccation only two per cent, of moisture, whilst in pre- 
paring the “finely dusted” powder the high heat necessarily used to thoroughly dry it, drives 
off ten per cent, of water. Its easy solubility and absence of tendency to form “ lumps” cause 
the coarse powder to be preferred for solutions, emulsions, etc. 
ACETANILIDUM. U. S., Br. Aeetanilid. [Phenylacetamide.] 
C6 H5 NH. C2 Hs O ; 134*73. (Xg-E-TXN-I-LI'DUM.) C6II5 NH. C2 H3 0; 135. 
“ An acetyl derivative of aniline.” U. S. “ Acetanilide, CH3.C0.NH.C6H6, may be obtained 
by the interaction of glacial acetic acid and aniline.” Br. 
Acetanilide; Antifebrin. 
Aeetanilid is a new official compound of the Pharmacopoeia of 1890 ; its extensive use as 
an antipyretic under the name of antifebrin justifying its promotion to this position. Unlike 
many of the antipyretics and synthetical compounds introduced into the materia medica of 
late years, the process for its manufacture is not patented. 
Preparation. Aeetanilid is made, according to Yvon, as follows. 372 grammes of pure 
aniline and 240 grammes of glacial acetic acid are heated for four hours to the boiling point 
in a flask provided with a reversed condenser; the excess of both ingredients is then distilled 
off on a sand-bath, this being completed when the temperature reaches 260° C. The cooled, 
congealed residue is crude aeetanilid, which may be purified by sublimation, or better by 
repeated crystallization from water. The yield is about 400 Gm. It may also be prepared by 
acting on aniline with acetyl chloride (Gerhardt) or by heating aniline with acetamide (Kelbe). 
The sublimed salt is whiter and lighter than that obtained by crystallization, which has the 
appearance of boric acid. 
Properties. Aeetanilid is described by the IT. S. Pharmacopoeia as in “ White, shining, 
micaceous, crystalline laminae, or a crystalline powder, odorless, having a faintly burning taste, 
and permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 194 parts of water, and in 5 parts PAET I. 
Acetanilidum. 
11 
of alcohol; in 18 parts of boiling water, and in 0-4 part of boiling alcohol; also soluble in 18 
parts of ether, and easily soluble in chloroform. When heated to 113° CT. (235-4° F.), A'ce- 
tanilid melts. Upon ignition, it is consumed without leaving a residue. Acetanilid is neutral 
to litmus paper. When agitated with colorless, concentrated sulphuric acid, in a clean test- 
tube, Acetanilid dissolves without imparting color to the liquid. On heating about 0-1 Grm. 
of Acetanilid with a few C.c. of concentrated solution (1 in 4) of potassium or sodium hydrate, 
the characteristic odor of aniline becomes noticeable. On now adding chloroform, and again, 
heating, the disagreeable odor of phenyl isocyanide (which is poisonous) is evolved. On 
boiling 0-1 Glm. of Acetanilid for several minutes with 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, a clear 
solution results which, when mixed with 3 C.c. of a 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of carbolic 
acid, and afterwards with 5 C.c. of a filtered, saturated solution of chlorinated lime (Calx 
chlorata), acquires a brownish-red color, becoming blue upon supersaturation with ammonia. 
A cold saturated, aqueous solution of Acetanilid, added to ferric chloride test-solution, should 
not affect the color of the latter (absence of aniline salts and various allied substances').'’ U. S. 
“Melting point, when dry, 236-5° F. (113-5° C.). It is soluble in 200 parts of cold or 18 
parts of boiling water, and in 4 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), freely soluble in ether, benzol, 
and chloroform. On boiling with test-solution of ferric chloride a reddish-brown color is pro- 
duced, and this is almost entirely discharged by hydrochloric acid. If Acetanilid be heated 
with solution of potassium hydroxide until the odor of aniline is given off, and the liquid be 
then warmed with a few drops of chloroform, the unpleasant and penetrating odor of phenyl- 
isonitrile (isocyanide) is developed; and an aqueous solution mixed with solution of bromine 
gives a yellowish-white precipitate (distinctions from phenacetin). Heated with free access 
of air it burns, leaving no residue. With sulphuric acid or with cold nitric acid it forms a 
colorless solution. A cold saturated aqueous solution does not affect solution of litmus (absence 
of free acid), and is not affected by test-solution of ferric chloride (absence of acetone, phena- 
zone, and salts of aniline).” Br. Additional tests for acetanilid have been proposed by Charles 
Platt, for which see Amer. Drug., 1896, 122. 
Ritsert (Pharm. Zeitung, 1890, p. 306) believes that the difference in melting point of ace- 
tanilid given by various writers is due to the almost constant presence of toluidine in aniline, 
and the production of acettoluids which have the following melting points: ortho, 107° ; metay 
65-5°; and para, 147° C. A very important reaction, by which acettoluid may be detected 
in acetanilid, is in the use of a boiling solution of potassium permanganate; acetanilid, if pure, 
is not altered, and does not reduce the permanganate, while acettoluid is oxidized to acetamido- 
benzoic acid with reduction of the permanganate; of a number of samples of acetanilid exam- 
ined, only one showed a slight reduction, all the others a decided reduction. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The effects of antifebrin upon man are very similar to 
those produced by antipyrin,—namely, after small doses, quietness; after very large doses, 
malaise, a little headache, singing in the ears, weakness, and a peculiar cyanosis, with some 
tendency to somnolence, mydriasis, and, if there has been fever, marked fall of temperature 
usually accompanied by, but not dependent upon, a profuse sweat. After enormous doses com- 
plete coma and collapse have been noted. It has in rare instances caused collapse and cardiac 
failure, and a peculiar measles-like eruption is not very uncommon. Large toxic doses have 
caused in animals and in man anaesthesia, loss of reflex activity, tremors, irregular failing 
respiration, convulsions, coma, and general paralysis. The cyanosis is due to the formation of 
methsemoglobin in the blood. In the animal system the antifebrin appears to break up into 
acetic acid and aniline, the aniline in turn undergoing oxidation into paramidophenol, which 
unites with sulphuric acid to be eliminated as paramidophenol sulphate. 
Sembritzki is said to have seen collapse after five grains (0-323 Grin.) of acetanilid, and Hr. W. 
H. Thomas (.Indiana Med. Journ., Sept. 1890) details a case in which he attributes death from 
heart-failure to five grains (0-323 Glm.). In a number of cases a drachm (3-88 Grm.) has been 
followed by serious collapse; but J. Wolf reports recovery after about one ounce (31-1 Glm.). 
There is a wide-spread but perhaps not well-grounded belief in the profession that accidents 
are more rare after antifebrin than after antipyrin, but the medical application of antifebrin 
seems to be identical with that of antipyrin, save only as it is modified by the insolubility of 
antifebrin. Antifebrin is also somewhat more powerful than antipyrin, its full dose being ten 
grains (0-647 Grin.), repeated if necessary; preferably administered in capsules or wafers. For 
details of medical use, see Phenazonum. Acetanilid is germicidal, and seems to be especially 
active in inhibiting the growth of pathogenetic organisms. It is also analgesic, and affords a 
very useful dressing for wounds and ulcers. The drug itself may be freely used in the form 
of a fine powder, or an ointment may be employed in the strength of from 10 to 50 per cent. 12 
Acetum Cantharidis.—Acetum Ipecacuanhse. 
PART I. 
In certain mucous inflammations, as vaginitis and urethritis, a local application (20 to 40 grains 
to the fluidounce) has been found very effective. Poisoning has resulted from the too free 
external use of acetanilid. (See Philada. Polyclinic, 1897 ; Atlantic Med. Weekly, 1898.) Ace- 
tanilid may be given suspended in mucilage of acacia and syrup, or in capsule. Dose, from 
five to fifteen grains (0-323 to 0-97 Gm.). 
ACETUM CANTHARIDIS. Br. Vinegar of Cantharides. 
(A-CE'TUM CAN-THAR'I-DIS.) 
Vinaigre cantharide, Fr.; Canthariden-Essig, G. 
“ Cantharides, bruised, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Glacial Acetic Acid and Dis- 
tilled Water, mixed in equal volumes, a sufficient quantity. Macerate the Cantharides in 
eighteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or nine hundred cubic centimetres of the mixture of Glacial 
Acetic Acid and Distilled Water for twenty-four hours; transfer to a percolator; when the 
liquid ceases to pass, pour sufficient of the menstruum in successive portions over the contents 
of the percolator to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the 
Vinegar of Cantharides.” Br. 
This preparation was formerly official in all the Pharmacopoeias of the British Islands; but 
it was omitted in the first British Pharmacopoeia, to be resumed in the last two revisions. The 
mode of preparation differs mainly in the partial substitution of percolation for maceration 
and expression. Glacial acetic acid is now directed to be mixed with an equal volume of dis- 
tilled water as the menstruum. This is an improvement over the former method of mixing 
two kinds of acetic acid of different strengths. 
This preparation is intended exclusively for external use, as a speedy epispastic. It is said, 
when lightly applied by a brush, to act as a rubefacient; and, when rubbed freely upon the 
skin for three minutes, to be followed in two or three hours by full vesication. The pain pro- 
duced by the application, though more severe, is also more transient than that occasioned by 
the blistering cerate. From experiments made by Mr. Redwood, it may be inferred that the 
old Acetum Cantharidis of the London Pharmacopoeia, which was prepared by maceration 
without heat, proved epispastic chiefly if not exclusively in consequence of its acetic acid, and 
that it contained little of the active principle of the flies. (P. J. Tr., Oct. 1841.) Prof. 
Procter found that, by digestion at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.), the active principle 
of the flies is readily taken up by official acetic acid, though a portion of the cantharidin is 
deposited upon cooling. (A. J. P., xxiv. 299.) It would seem, therefore, that the vinegar of 
Spanish flies would be best prepared with the aid of heat; and, to a certain extent, this advan- 
tage is enjoyed in the present process.* 
ACETUM IPECACUANHA. Br. Vinegar of Ipecacuanha. 
(A-CE'TUM IP-E-CXC-U-XN'HuE—ip-e-c&c-u-an'e.) 
Vinaigre d’lpecacuanha, Fr.; Brechwurzel-Essig, G. 
“ Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha, 1 fl. ounce (Imperial measure) or 50 cubic centimetres; 
Alcohol (90 per cent.), 2 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres; Diluted Acetic 
Acid, 17 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 850 cubic centimetres. Mix; filter, and if necessary add 
sufficient Diluted Acetic Acid to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centi- 
metres of the Vinegar of Ipecacuanha.” Br. 
The process for this vinegar was changed materially in the last revision of the British 
Pharmacopoeia, liquid extract of ipecacuanha diluted with a mixture of alcohol and diluted 
acetic acid replacing the old method of percolating the drug with diluted acetic acid. It will 
be found, however, that after the vinegar has been made a few months the odor of acetic 
ether will be developed; this is sometimes objectionable. The words in the process “ if neces- 
sary” might have been omitted, as slight loss in filtration always occurs. Diluted Acetic Acid 
* The vinegar of colchicum (acetum colchici) was omitted in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, 1870, although a very active 
preparation. The following is the article on it in the 14th edition of the U. S. Dispensatory. “ Take of Colchicum 
Root, in fine powder, two troyounces ; Diluted Acetic Acid a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with a fluid- 
ounce of Diluted Acetic Acid, allow it to stand for half an hour, pack it firmly in a conical glass percolator, and 
gradually pour upon it Diluted Acetic Acid until the filtered liquid measures two pints. Vinegar of Colchicum 
may also be prepared by macerating the Colchicum Root, in moderately fine powder, with two pints of Diluted 
Acetic Acid, in a close glass vessel, for seven days; then expressing the liquid, and filtering through paper.” 
Vinegar is an excellent solvent of the active principle of colchicum; and the alkaloid of the latter loses none 
of its efficacy by combination with the acetic acid of the former. Of the two formulas above given, the first, direct- 
ing percolation, is much preferable to the second, permitting maceration, if performed by competent hands; and the 
same remark will apply to all the medicated vinegars in which an alternative formula is given. 
Medical Uses. This preparation is effective in doses of from thirty drops to two fluidrachms (l'9-7'5 C.c.). Aceturn Opii.—Aeetum Scillse. 
13 
PART I. 
is a good menstruum for ipecacuanha, and this vinegar will doubtless prove effective as an 
expectorant. The dose is from five to forty minims (0-31 to 2-46 C.c.). 
ACETUM OPII. U.S. Vinegar of Opium. 
Black Drop; Vinaigre d’Opium, Fr.; Opium-Essig, G. 
“ Powdered Opium, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Nutmeg, in No. 30 
powder, thirty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 25-5 grains] ; Sugar, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces 
av., 24 grains] ; Diluted Acetic Acid, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centi- 
meters [or 2 pints, 14-5 fluidrachms]. Macerate the Opium and Nutmeg in jive hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 1 pint] of Diluted Acetic Acid during seven days, frequently stirring; then 
strain through muslin of close texture, and express the liquid. Mix the residue with two 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 7 fluidounces] of Diluted Acetic Acid to a uniform magma, and 
strain and express again. Mix and filter the strained liquids, dissolve the Sugar in the filtrate, 
and pass enough Diluted Acetic Acid through the filter to make the product measure one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 2 pints, 14-5 fluidrachms].” U.S. 
The U. S. P. 1890 now directs this vinegar to be tested to show its alkaloidal value as 
follows: “ To assay this preparation, transfer 100 C.c. of it to a small capsule, add 4 Gm. of 
precipitated calcium carbonate, or such a quantity as will be sufficient to neutralize the free 
acid, and then proceed further as directed under Tinctura Opii. It should yield from 1*3 to 
1-5 Gm. of crystallized morphine.” 
Many will doubtless prefer to make this preparation entirely by maceration. This may be 
done by placing the powder in a suitable bottle and pouring on the diluted acetic acid, agitating 
frequently, after allowing the maceration to proceed seven days, expressing, and filtering. The 
vinegar of opium was introduced into the Pharmacopoeias as an imitation of Lancaster or Quaker 
black drop, or simply black drop. The formula of the first edition of the U. S. P. was so 
deficient in precision, and so uncertain in its results, that it was abandoned in the second 
edition; but, as these objections were obviated in a process by Mr. Charles Ellis (A. J. P., vol. 
ii. p. 202), it was deemed proper to restore it to its official rank at the subsequent revision of 
the Pharmacopoeia. The advantages of the black drop over laudanum are, probably, that 
disturbing principles contained in opium and soluble in alcohol are left behind by the aqueous 
menstruum employed, while the morphine meconate is converted by the acetic acid into the 
acetate. In the original process, published by Dr. Armstrong, who found it among the papers 
of a relative of the proprietor in England, verjuice, or the juice of the wild crab, was employed 
instead of vinegar. Other vegetable acids also favorably modify the narcotic operation of 
opium ; and lemon-juice has been employed in a similar manner with vinegar. For the process 
official in the first ed. U. S. Pharm., see 14th edition U. S. Dispensatory. 
The vinegar of opium may sometimes be advantageously used when opium itself, or the 
tincture, occasions headache, nausea, or nervous disorder. Formerly black drop was double 
the strength of laudanum ; now it has the same strength. The smallness of the dose was one 
of its great advantages, but since the weakening, first authorized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 
1880, this preparation has almost entirely gone out of use. The dose of vinegar of opium 
may be stated at from ten to fifteen drops (060 to 1 C.c.). 
(A-CE'TUM o'pI-T.) 
ACETUM SCILL.®. U.S., Br. Vinegar of Squill. 
(A-CE'TUH SQIL'LyE.) 
Vinaigre scillitique, Fr. ; Meerzwiebel-Essig, G. 
“ Squill, in No. 30 powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Diluted 
Acetic Acid, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 2 pints, 14-5 
fluid rack ms]. Macerate the Squill with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces] of 
Diluted Acetic Acid during seven days, frequently stirring; then strain through muslin, and 
wash the mass on the strainer with enough Diluted Acetic Acid, until the strained liquid 
measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 2 pints, 14-5 fluidrachmsj. Finally filter.” U. S. 
“Squill, bruised, 2£ ounces (Imperial) or 125 grammes; Diluted Acetic Acid, 1 pint (Imp. 
meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Exhaust the Squill by the process 
of maceration as directed for Tinctures. The resulting Vinegar of Squill should measure 
one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
Vinegar of Squill may also be prepared by percolating the Squill with the Diluted Acetic 
Acid after previous maceration with an equal hulk of the Diluted Acetic Acid (this precaution 
being necessary in order to satisfy thoroughly its tendency to swell) and filtering through paper. 14 
Acetum Scillse.—Acidum Aceticum Glaciale. 
PART I. 
The process now official differs from that of the Pharmacopoeia of 1880 in directing macer- 
ation instead of percolation. 
This was formerly an official of the Lond., Ed., and Dub. Colleges, but was omitted as a dis- 
tinct preparation in the first British Pharmacopoeia, to be reintroduced into the present edition. 
As vinegar of squill is apt to be injured by keeping, it should be prepared in small quanti- 
ties, as wanted for use. The British preparation is a trifle stronger than that of the U. S. P. 
1890. As was shown by Mr. E. Gregory (Canad. Pharm. Joum., Oct. 1875), the spirit added 
to it in the former British formula was of no use as a preservative. In the German Pharma- 
copoeia one part of squill is macerated in a mixture of nine parts of pure vinegar and one part 
of alcohol for three days, with frequent shaking, expressed, and filtered. In the Codex twelve 
parts of white vinegar are used to macerate one part of squill for eight days. Vinegar of 
squill is employed chiefly in preparing the syrup. Upon standing, it deposits a precipitate, 
consisting, according to Vogel, of calcium citrate and tannic acid. 
Medical Uses. This preparation has all the properties of the squill in substance, and is 
occasionally prescribed, but the syrup is usually and very properly preferred. The dose is from 
fifteen minims to a fluidrachm (0-92-3-69 C.c.) ; but the latter quantity would be apt to nau- 
seate. It should be given in cinnamon-water, mint-water, or other aromatic liquid. 
ACIDUM ACETICUM. U.S., Br. Acetic Acid. 
“ A liquid composed of 36 per cent., by weight, of absolute Acetic Acid [HCaH,Oa = 59-86], 
and 64 per cent, of water.” U. B. “ Acetic acid is a product of the destructive distillation 
of wood, and of the oxidation of ethylic alcohol. 100 parts by weight should contain 33 
parts of hydrogen acetate, CHg.COOH, and 67 parts of water.” Br. 
Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, P. G.; Acetum Concentratum; Acide acStique, Fr.; Essigsaure, G. 
(Xq'i-dum a-cet'i-cum.) 
ACIDUM ACETICUM DILUTUM. U. S., Br. Diluted Acetic Acid. 
(XQ'T-DTJM A-OBT'I-CUM DI-LU'TUM.) 
“ Diluted Acetic Acid contains 6 per cent., by weight, of absolute Acetic Acid.” U. S. 
u 100 parts by weight should contain 4-27 parts of hydrogen acetate, CH3.C00H.” Br. 
Acetum, P. G.; Acetum Destillatum; Acide acetique dilue, Fr.; Reiner Essig, G. 
HCj H3 02; 59*86. 
ACIDUM ACETICUM GLACIALE. U. S., Br. Glacial Acetic Acid. 
(XQ'I-DUM A-CfiT'I-CUM GLA-Cl-A'LE.) 
HC2 Hs 02; 60. 
“ Nearly or quite absolute Acetic Acid.” U. S. 11100 parts by weight should contain 99 
parts of hydrogen acetate, CHg.COOH.” Br. 
Acidum Aceticum, P. G.; Acidum Aceticum Concentratum; Acetum Acide acetique concentre, Yinaigre 
glacial, Fr.; Essigsaure, Eisessig, G. 
Three strengths of acetic acid are now official in the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias. These 
are Acidum Aceticum Glaciale, of sp. gr. 1-058, U. S. and Br., Acidum Aceticum, of sp. gr. 
1 048, U. S., and 1 044, Br., and Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, sp. gr. 1-008, IT. S., and 1-006, Br. 
We shall consider these grades separately, in the order of their strength. 
Acidum Aceticum Glaciale. A process for this preparation was given in the British 
Pharmacopoeia of 1864, which consisted in first heating sodium acetate so as to drive off all 
its water of crystallization, then, after cooling, distilling it with concentrated sulphuric acid, 
and, finally, if the resulting acetic acid, upon being tested with a mixture of solution of potas- 
sium iodate and a little mucilage of starch, was found to contain sulphurous acid, agitating 
the distilled acid with perfectly dry black manganese oxide, and again distilling. The ob- 
ject of the process was to furnish an acid of the maximum strength. But, on trial, it was not 
found to be satisfactory, as the resulting acid was not truly glacial, and always contained sul- 
phurous acid. (C. H. Wood, P. J. Tr., July, 1867, p. 17.) The following modification of the 
process does, however, yield a pure product. After the crystallized salt has been fused in an 
iron dish in its own water of crystallization, and has dried out, by increased heat it is again 
brought to fusion, whereby, if the heat applied be not too strong, no acid is decomposed or 
vaporized. The anhydrous salt is then treated with half a molecule of sulphuric acid (for 32 
parts anhydrous acetate 49 parts of strongest sulphuric acid), which according to Mohr, N. 
Pep. Phar., 22, p. 28 (1873), and Buchner, IV. Pep. Phar., 22, p. 32 (1873), suffices, instead 
of twice the amount, usually employed. No sulphurous acid is liberated in this case. A 
process to be followed on a large scale, practically the counterpart of this, is given in a foot- 
note, page 18, 14th ed. U. S. Dispensatory. Acidum Aceticum Gladale. 
15 
PART I. 
Acetic acid of maximum strength may also be obtained by distilling acid potassium acetate 
at a heat between 199° C. (390° F.) and 299° C. (570° F.) One molecule of monohydrated 
acetic acid distils over, and neutral potassium acetate is left. The acid acetate may be 
formed by evaporating a mixture of the neutral acetate with an excess of watery acetic acid. 
In this process, the same potassium acetate serves repeatedly for conversion into acid acetate, 
and subsequent decomposition. This process is said to be employed by manufacturers on a 
large scale in some parts of the continent of Europe. It originated with M. Melsens. 
Acidum Aceticum, P.S., Br. (sp. gr. 1-048, U.S., 1-044, Bri). Acetic Acid. This is the 
acid resulting from the purification of the crude acetic acid obtained by the destructive distil- 
lation of wood. It is the acid most useful to the apothecary. As this grade of acid has its 
source in the impure acetic acid obtained by the destructive distillation of wood, it will be 
proper to premise some account of the crude acid, called crude pyroligneous add. 
Wood, when charred, yields many volatile products, among which are an acid liquor, an 
empyreumatic oil, and tar containing creosote and some other proximate principles. Wnen the 
carbonization is performed in close vessels, these products, which are lost in the ordinary process 
of charring, may be collected, and, at the same time, a large amount of charcoal be obtained. 
Senff has furnished some comparative results in respect to the dry distillation of wood. 
The points worked out are a comparison of the products of distillation under similar condi- 
tions yielded by wood from various parts of the same trees, and from the same wood in a 
healthy and in an unsound state; also a comparison of the products from one and the same 
wood distilled slowly and distilled rapidly. It has been found that when similarly distilled the 
yield by weight of crude acid, tar, charcoal, and gas from the most diverse species of wood 
does not essentially differ, but that the percentage of real acid in the crude acid obtained varies 
considerably, and in this respect the wood from ordinary foliage trees compares favorably with 
that from needle-leaved trees; also that stem-wood yields more acid than branch-wood, that 
wood yields more acid than bark, and that sound wood yields more acid than unsound wood. 
(.Ber. d. Deutsch. Chem. Ges., xviii. p. 60; P. J. Tr., 1885, p. 696.) These results are readily 
seen in the accompanying table: 
Charcoal. 
Tar. 
Crude Pyro- 
ligneous Acid. 
Containing 
Actual Acid. 
Gases. 
Red Beech 
slowly heated ....... 
26-7 
5-9 
45-8 
5-2 
21-7 
rapidly heated 
21-9 
4-9 
39-5 
3-9 
33-8 
Birch . . 
slowly heated 
29-2 
5-5 
45-6 
5-6 
19-7 
rapidly heated 
21-5 
3-2 
39-7 
4-4 
35-6 
Oak . . . 
slowly heated 
34-7 
3-7 
44-5 
4-1 
17*2 
rapidly heated 
27-7 
3-2 
42-0 
3-4 
27-0 
Pine . . . 
slowly heated 
30-3 
4-4 
41-0 
2-7 
24-4 
rapidly heated 
24-2 
9-8 
42-0 
2-4 
24-1 
This is the crude pyroligneous acid, sometimes called pyroligneous vinegar. It is a dark- 
brown liquid, having a strong smoky smell, and consists of acetic acid, diluted with more 
or less water, and holding in solution some creosote and empyreumatic oil, with pyroxylic 
spirit. It is from this crude acid that the U. S. and British acetic acid, corresponding 
to the acetic acid of commerce, is obtained. The purification is effected as follows. The 
acid is saturated with milk of lime, whereby calcium acetate is formed in solution, and thus 
most of the tarry matter is precipitated. The solution of calcium acetate is then mixed with 
a concentrated solution of sodium sulphate, and, by double decomposition, sodium acetate 
is formed in solution, and calcium sulphate precipitated. The solution of sodium acetate is 
next subjected to evaporation, during which further impurities that separate on the surface 
are skimmed off. The solution, being duly concentrated, is set aside to crystallize; and the 
impure salt thus obtained, after having been partially purified by solution and recrystallization, 
is fused in an iron vessel, stirred until it dries, and, the heat being carefully raised, subjected 
to incipient carbonization, whereby remaining empyreumatic matters are carbonized, with little 
damage to the salt. The mass is then dissolved in water, and the solution, being strained and 
recrystallized, furnishes pure sodium acetate. (See Sodii Acetas.) Finally, this salt, distilled 
with from 34 to 35 per cent, of its weight of sulphuric acid, yields the acetic acid of com- 
merce, the residue being sodium sulphate, which is reserved for decomposing fresh portions 
of calcium acetate. The acid has still an empyreumatic flavor, which is removed by filtering 
it through animal charcoal or rectifying with potassium bichromate. The odor is due to fur- 16 
Acidum Aceticum Glaciale. 
PART I. 
furol, C6H402, which, as Victor Meyer has shown, can be detected even in glacial acetic acid 
by the red coloration it gives with aniline. It may be removed from pyroligneous acid by 
agitating the liquid with 2 or 3 per cent, of benzene. The aqueous layer, after separation from 
the benzene, is stated to give by a single distillation a palatable table vinegar. 
Acetic acid, according to Dr. Squibb, improves very much by age, and a sample examined 
for odor when freshly distilled would not be recognized as the same three months afterward. 
An excellent quality of acetic acid is made by Dr. E. R. Squibb by an improvement on the 
process of Schwartz, the principal feature being the careful regulation of the heat, whereby 
the excessive charring of the wood is prevented and the formation of the tarry substances so 
reduced as to leave the acetic acid almost entirely free from empyreuma. The retorts, which 
are rectangular in shape, are supported by wheels secured to shafts, rotating in bearings con- 
nected with the sides, and are run upon car-tracks into the ovens, after they have been loaded 
with some billets of oak wood from the transfer car, in an ingenious and simple manner. In 
the construction of the ovens, care is taken to economize the fuel and to secure control of the 
temperature by the use of corrugated bottoms to the retorts and dampers in the flues; when 
necessary, the vapors are condensed in earthenware air condensers. Experience has shown that 
the production and liberation of acetic acid take place at a considerably lower temperature 
than that sufficient to convert the wood into charcoal, Dr. Squibb having proved that wood 
begins to char at 218-3° C. (425° F.) ; indeed, the wood which is removed from the retorts after 
the operation is over is sold as kindling-wood, and has the color of black walnut. The crude 
acetic acid does not require the tedious method of purification usually employed, but is treated 
with soda ash, forming sodium acetate, which is decomposed by sulphuric acid, and the acetic 
acid recovered in a purified condition by distillation. 
The sp. gr. of the different acetic acids increases with their strength up to the density of 
1-0748 (maximum), after which it decreases until it reaches 1-0553, the density of the 
strongest acid (glacial acid). 
But it will be noticed upon an examination of the following table of Oudemans* that the 
specific gravity of the glacial (100 per cent.) and the 43 per cent, acid is practically the same, 
and that the 80, 79, 78, and 77 per cent, acids have exactly the same density, the variations 
between 67 and 89 per cent, being very slight. It will thus be seen that specific gravity cannot 
be relied upon as a criterion for strength. The glacial acid may, however, be distinguished 
from the 43 per cent, acid by adding 10 per cent, of water, when, if the density increases, 
the specimen is the stronger acid. 
Percentage of Absolute Acetic Acid in Acetic Acid of Different Densities, 
Temperature 15° C. (59° F.). 
PerCt. 
Sp. Gr. 
Per Ct. 
Sp. Gr. 
Per Ct. 
Sp. Gr. 
PerCt. 
Sp. Gr. 
Per a. 
Sp. Gr. 
100 
1-0553 
80 
1-0748 
60 
1-0685 
40 
1-0523 
20 
1-0284 
99 
1-0580 
79 
1-0748 
59 
1-0679 
39 
1-0513 
19 
1-0270 
98 
1-0604 
78 
1-0748 
58 
1-0673 
38 
1-0502 
18 
1-0256 
97 
1-0625 
77 
1-0748 
57 
1-0666 
37 
1-0492 
17 
1-0242 
96 
1-0644 
76 
1-0747 
56 
1-0660 
36 
1-0481 
16 
1-0228 
95 
1-0660 
75 
1-0746 
55 
1-0653 
35 
1-0470 
15 
1-0214 
94 
1-0674 
74 
1-0744 
54 
1-0646 
34 
1-0459 
14 
1-0200 
93 
1-0686 
73 
1-0742 
53 
1-0638 
33 
1-0447 
13 
1-0185 
92 
1-0696 
72 
1-0740 
52 
1-0631 
32 
1-0436 
12 
1-0171 
91 
1-0705 
71 
1-0737 
51 
1-0623 
31 
1-0424 
11 
1-0157 
90 
1-0713 
70 
1-0733 
50 
1-0615 
30 
1-0412 
10 
1-0142 
89 
1-0720 
69 
1-0729 
49 
1-0607 
29 
1-0400 
9 
1-0127 
88 
1-0726 
68 
1-0725 
48 
1-0598 
28 
1-0388 
8 
1-0113 
87 
1-0731 
67 
1-0721 
47 
1-0589 
27 
1-0375 
7 
1-0098 
86 
1-0736 
66 
1-0717 
46 
1-0580 
26 
1-0363 
6 
1-0083 
85 
1-0739 
65 
1-0712 
45 
1-0571 
25 
1-0350 
5 
1-0067 
84 
1-0742 
64 
1-0707 
44 
1-0562 
24 
1-0337 
4 
1-0052 
83 
1-0744 
63 
1-0702 
43 
1-0552 
23 
1-0324 
3 
1-0037 
82 
1-0746 
62 
1-0697 
42 
1-0543 
22 
1-0311 
2 
1-0022 
81 
1-0747 
61 
1-0691 
41 
1-0533 
21 
1-0298 
1 
1-0007 
* Oudemans’ more recent researches upon the specific gravities of acetic acid of varying strength are given in 
preference to Mohr’s tables, used in previous editions of the U. S. Dispensatory, as it is believed that Mohr’s experi- 
ments were conducted with an acid containing 5 per cent, of water. (Hoffmann, Sammlung aller wichtigen Tabellen, 
Zahlen und Formeln, p. 114.) Acidum Aceticum Glaciale. 
part 1. 
17 
Acidum Aceticum Glaciale. U.S., Br. Glacial Acetic Acid. This acid, sometimes called 
radical vinegar, is a colorless, volatile, inflammable liquid, possessing a corrosive taste, and an 
acetous, pungent, and refreshing smell. It boils at 117° to 118° C. (242-6° to 244-4° F.). It 
crystallizes when cooled to 15-5° C. (60° F.), and remains crystalline until heated above 48° C. 
(.Br.). It possesses the property of dissolving a number of substances, such as volatile and 
fixed oils (JP. J. Tr., Sept. 11, 1875), camphor, resins and gum resins, fibrin, albumen, etc. As 
it attracts humidity from the atmosphere, it should be preserved in well-stoppered bottles. Its 
combinations with salifiable bases are called acetates. “ When the Acid is cooled to a tempera- 
ture as near as possible to 15° C. (59° F.), but yet in a liquid form, its specific gravity should 
not be higher than 1-058, corresponding to at least 99 per cent, of absolute acid. At a 
temperature somewhat below 15° C. (59° F.), the Acid becomes a crystalline solid. When 
crystallized by cold, it becomes liquid again at about 15° C. (59° F.). Glacial Acetic Acid 
corresponds in properties to Acetic Acid (see Acidum Aceticum), and should respond to the 
same tests of purity; but the tint produced by the addition of 2 drops of potassium perman- 
ganate decinormal volumetric solution to 2 C.c. of the Acid diluted with 10 C.c. of water, con- 
tained in a clean, glass-stoppered vial, should not be changed to brown within two hours. To 
neutralize 3 Gm. of Glacial Acetic Acid should require not less than 49-5 C.c. of potassium 
hydrate volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 2 per cent, of the absolute acid), 
phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” TJ. S. “ It crystallizes when sufficiently cooled, and 
remains crystalline until the temperature rises above 60° F. (15-5° C.). Specific gravity 
1-058, and this is increased by the addition of 10 per cent, of water (distinction from a diluted 
acid of 46 per cent., which has the same specific gravity). Each gramme diluted with 50 
cubic centimetres of water should require for neutralization 16-6 cubic centimetres of the volu- 
metric solution of sodium hydroxide. It must be free from the impurities indicated under 
‘Acidum Aceticum.’” Br. The anhydride has been isolated by C. Gerhardt, who finds it to 
be a limpid liquid, heavier than water, and having the constant boiling point of 138° C. 
(279° F.).* 
Properties of the Acid of Commerce (Acidum Aceticum, U. S'., Br.). “ A clear, 
colorless liquid, having a strong, vinegar-like odor, a purely acid taste, and a strongly acid 
reaction. Specific gravity, about 1-048 at 15° C. (59° F.). Miscible with water or alcohol 
in all proportions. When heated, the acid is volatilized without leaving a residue.” U. S. 
“ On adding to Acetic Acid enough ammonia water to neutralize it or to leave the Acid in 
slight excess, and then adding ferric chloride test-solution, the liquid will acquire a blood-red 
color, which is discharged by strongly acidulating with sulphuric acid. When the Acid is 
slightly supersaturated with ammonia, the liquid should not have a bluish tint (absence of 
copper), nor should any residue be left after evaporating the alkaline liquid on the water-bath 
(absence of other fixed impurities). Acetic Acid diluted with 20 volumes of water should 
neither become colored nor yield a precipitate with hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of 
lead, copper, etc.). Acetic Acid diluted with 10 volumes of water should not yield a precipitate 
or turbidity with barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphuric acid), or with silver nitrate 
test-solution (absence of hydrochloric acid). If a portion of the Acid be just neutralized by 
ammonia, then mixed with some silver nitrate test-solution, and warmed, the liquid should not 
turn dark-colored or deposit a dark-colored precipitate (absence of formic or sulphurous acid). 
When the Acid is slightly supersaturated by sodium or potassium hydrate test-solution, the 
liquid should not have a smoky odor or taste. And if 5 drops of potassium permanganate 
decinormal volumetric solution be mixed with 2 C.c. of the Acid previously diluted with 10 
f * Acidum Chlor aceticum, Chloracetic Acid. Three forms of this acid are known, mono-, di-, and tri-chloracetic 
acids, having the following formulas respectively, C2H3CIO2, C2H2CI2O2, and C2HCI3O2. Monochloracetic Acid may 
be prepared by acting upon glacial acetic acid containing 10 per cent, of iodine with dry chlorine, reserving the 
portion distilling over between 180° C. and 188° C. Dichloracetic Acid distils over between 189° C. and 191° C. 
Trichloracetic Acid, discovered by Dumas in 1838, may be most conveniently prepared by treating chloral hydrate 
with three times its volume of fuming nitric acid, and placing the whole mixture in the sunlight until the red fumes 
have disappeared; the liquid is then distilled, and the portion coming over at 195° C. is pure trichloracetic acid. 
All the chloracetic acids are powerful caustics, destroying the epidermis. They form various salts, most of which 
are easily soluble in water. The mono- and tri- acids are solid, crystalline, deliquescent bodies; dichloracetic acid 
is a colorless liquid having a suffocating odor, and crystallizing at 0° C. Trichloracetic acid has been used as a 
caustic in practical medicine by Dumas, by Urner, by Sigmund, by Von Stein, and by Lanz. A small crystal placed 
on a papilloma is said to produce immediately a white, smooth, dry, adherent scurf, which falls off in a few days, 
leaving a rapidly-healing ulcer. The pain is said to be quite trifling, and may be entirely prevented by the previous 
use of a cocaine solution. Vascular ncevi have also been destroyed; and Lanz affirms that in obstinate gleet cau- 
terization with a 20-per-cent, solution is often most advantageous (London Med. Bee., March, 1891). The acid has 
also been proposed as a test for albumen. £ 18 
Acidum Aceticum Glaciale. 
PART I. 
C.c. of water, and contained in a clean, glass-stoppered vial, the pink tint should not change 
at once to brown, but should change only gradually, and not become entirely brown, or free 
from pinkish brown, in less than half a minute (limit of empyreumatic substances'). To neu- 
tralize 6 6m. of Acetic Acid should require 36 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric 
solution (each C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, of the absolute acid), jdienolphtalein being 
used as indicator.” TJ. S. The British Pharmacopoeia requires that “ Each gramme should 
require for neutralization 5-5 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. 
It should yield no residue on evaporation, and no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, 
copper, arsenium, chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, and sulphites. It should not darken in color 
when exactly neutralized with solution of ammonia and warmed with solution of silver nitrate 
(absence of formates). 2 cubic centimetres of Acetic Acid diluted with 10 cubic centimetres 
of water should not immediately discharge the color of one drop of solution of potassium per- 
manganate, but at the end of half a minute the mixture should retain a shade of crimson (limit 
of empyreumatic matter).” 
Of the British acid (sp. gr. 1-044) the strength in hydrogen acetate is 33 per cent. The 
U. S. official acid is somewhat stronger than the British. In the arts Acetic Acid No. 8 (sp. 
gr. 1-040) has long been used; it derives its name from the fact that one part added to suffi- 
cient water to make eight parts, by measure, constitutes so-called distilled vinegar used in 
pickling ; the latter is not equal to the official diluted acetic acid in strength (one-fifth weaker). 
See Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, below. Calcium phosphate has been largely detected in acetic 
acid sold as pure, and was copiously precipitated by ammonia added in excess. (Bruckner, 
A. J. P., Sept. 1870, p. 389.) Victor Meyer has met with glacial acetic acid contaminated with 
0-108 6m. furfurol in a litre. (Ber. Chem. Ges., 1878, p. 1870.) 
It is difficult to ascertain the strength of acetic acid by saturating it with the carbonated 
alkalies, when the operator depends upon test-paper for ascertaining the point of its neutraliza- 
tion. The difficulty is caused by the fact that the potassium and sodium acetates, though 
neutral in composition, are alkaline to test-paper. Hence the liquid begins to be alkaline to 
test-paper while some free acid yet remains, but insufficient to overcome the alkaline reaction 
of the salt formed. It follows, therefore, that by the use of test-paper the strength of the 
acetic acid will be underrated. The degree of inaccuracy, where test-paper is used, is much 
diminished by saturating the acetic acid with a solution of calcium saccharate of a known 
strength, as proposed by Mr. C. Gr. Williams. (P. J. Tr., May, 1854, p. 594.) A still better 
way is to add to the acid a weighed excess of barium carbonate, and to calculate its strength 
by the amount of the carbonate decomposed, ascertained by deducting the undissolved from 
the total used. (Redwood.) Equally accurate results may be obtained by the use of calcium 
carbonate in a similar manner. (E. C. Nicholson and D. S. Price, Chem. Gaz., Jan. 15,1856.) 
Charles F. Squibb has made numerous experiments proving the value of many strengths 
of acetic acid as menstrua for exhausting the valuable organic principles of drugs by percola- 
tion ; he found even diluted acetic acid a reliable menstruum. J. P. Remington preferred a 
10 per cent, acetic acid, and suggested a class of preparations termed “ acetracts" to replace 
solid extracts. Acetic acid is a powerful solvent and can frequently be made to take the place 
of the more expensive alcoholic menstrua. (A. J. P., 1897, p. 121.) 
Uses of Crude Pyroligneous Acid. This acid having been incidentally described as 
the source of the acetic acid of commerce, it may be proper in this place to notice its uses. It 
has been employed as an application to gangrene and ill-conditioned ulcers. It acts on the 
principle of an antiseptic and stimulant; the former property being in part due to the presence 
of creosote. 
The crude acid is advantageously applied to the preservation of animal food. Mr. William 
Ramsey made some interesting experiments with it for that purpose. Herrings and other fish, 
simply dipped in the acid and afterwards dried in the shade, were effectually preserved, and 
when eaten were found very agreeable to the taste. Herrings, slightly cured with salt by being 
sprinkled with it for six hours, then drained, next immersed in pyroligneous acid for a few 
seconds, and afterwards dried in the shade for two months, were found by Mr. Ramsey to be 
of fine quality and flavor. Fresh beef, dipped in the acid in summer for a minute, was perfectly 
sweet in the following spring. Professor Silliman states that one quart of the acid, added to 
the common pickle for a barrel of hams, at the time they are laid down, will impart to them 
the smoked flavor as perfectly as if they had been smoked in the ordinary way. 
Acidum Aceticum Dilutum. TJ. S., Br. Diluted Acetic Acid, “ Acetic Acid one hundred 
grammes [or 3 fluidounces, 108 minims] ; Distilled Water five hundred grammes [or 16 fluidounces, PART I. 
Acidum Aceticum Glaciate.—Acidum Arsenomm. 
19 
435 minims]. To make six hundred grammes [or about 20 fluidounces]. Mix them. Specific 
gravity, about 1-008 at 15° C. (59° F.). It corresponds, in properties, to Acetic Acid (see 
Acidum Aceticum), and should respond to the same tests of purity. To neutralize 24 Gm. of 
Diluted Acetic Acid should require 24 C.c. of potassium hydrate volumetric solution (each 
C.c. corresponding to 0-25 per cent, of the absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as indi- 
cator.” U. S. ' 
“ Acetic Acid, 2\ fl. ounces (more exactly, 2-49, Imperial measure) or 1137 grains, or 124-7 
cubic centimetres or 130-2 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dilute the Acetic 
Acid with sufficient Distilled Water to form one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centi- 
metres of Diluted Acetic Acid.” Br. “Specific gravity, 1-006. Each gramme should require 
for neutralization 7-1 cubic centimetres of a decinormal volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. 
It must be free from the impurities indicated under ‘ Acidum Aceticum.’ ” Br. 
The object of having this preparation is to possess a weak solution of pure acetic acid which 
may he substituted for distilled vinegar in all formulas in which nicety is required. For a long 
period diluted acetic acid has been made by mixing one part of acetic acid with seven parts of 
water by measure. The official diluted acid was made considerably stronger in the U. S. P. 
1880, and the strength has not been altered in the U. S. P. 1890. Distilled vinegar contains a 
little organic matter, which is always darkened or precipitated when its acid is saturated with 
an alkali, a change which does not take place when the diluted acetic acid is employed. 
Medical Properties of Acetic Acid of Commerce (Acidum Aceticum, U. S., Br.). 
Acetic acid is very rarely used internally, but is refrigerant and astringent when sufficiently 
diluted. Owing to its volatility and pungency, its vapor is frequently applied to the nostrils 
as an excitant in syncope, asphyxia, and headache. When employed for this purpose, it is gener- 
ally added to a small portion of potassium sulphate, so as to moisten the salt, and the mixture 
is put into small glass bottles with ground stoppers* 
It is a mild caustic, and has been used in cancer, by injection into the diseased tissue, but 
the general result has not been favorable. Two or three ounces of it taken internally undiluted 
very nearly caused death in an adult. (Lancet, July, 1867.) The prominent symptoms were, 
at first, slight collapse, and asphyxia from closure of the glottis. Recovery was secured by 
tracheotomy; after the reaction, great thirst, salivation, pain in the fauces, and inability to 
swallow, but without serious gastric, pulmonary, or cardiac disturbance, were present. 
Medical Properties of the Glacial Acid. This acid is used only externally, and acts 
as a rubefacient, a vesicant, or a caustic, according to the length of time it is applied. Its ap- 
plication requires caution. It is sometimes employed as a substitute for cantharides, when a 
speedy blister is desired. It may be applied by means of blotting-paper or cambric moistened 
with the acid. It is a good corrosive for destroying warts and corns. 
ACIDUM ARSENOSUM. U. S. (Br.) Arsenous Acid. [Arsenic Trioxide. 
White Arsenic.! 
As203; 197*68. 
(Xq'i-dum ak-se-no'sum.) 
As2 03; 197.8. 
“ Arsenious Anhydride, or arsenious oxide, As40e, is obtained by roasting certain arsenical 
ores.” Br. 
Acidum Arseniosum, Dr.; Arsenious Acid, Arsenicum Album, Ed.; Acidum Arsenicosum (P.G.); Arsenious 
Oxide, Arsenic, Arsenious Anhydride, White Arsenic; Acide arsenieux, Arsenic blanc, Fleurs d’Arsenic, Fr. ; Arsenige 
Saure, Arsenichte Saure, Weisser Arsenik, G.; Arsenik, Dan., Swed., Pol.; Acido arsenioso, Arsenico, It.; Arsenico 
bianco, Sp. 
Arsenous acid is prepared in Bohemia and Saxony, where it is procured on a large scale, as 
a collateral product, during the smelting of cobalt ores, which are almost invariably accom- 
panied by arsenic, and in England from the mineral arsenopyrite, also called mispicJcel or arseni- 
cal iron, which is associated with the ores of tin and copper. The German process is that 
* Acidum Aceticum Camphoratum (Ed., Dub.). Camphorated Acetic Acid. This is an old official remedy. It 
was prepared as follows. “Take of Camphor one ounce [av.] ; Rectified Spirit one fluidrachm ; Strong Acetic Acid 
ten fluidounces. Reduce the camphor to powder by means of the Spirit; then add the Acid, and dissolve.” Dub. 
Pharm. 
The use of the alcohol is simply to facilitate the pulverization of the camphor, and a few drops are sufficient. 
Acetic acid in its concentrated state readily dissolves camphor. In this preparation, the whole of the camphor is 
taken up by the acid. In consequence of the powerful chemical agency of the solution, and its extreme volatility, 
it should be kept in glass bottles accurately fitted with ground stoppers. Camphorated acetic acid is an exceedingly 
pungent perfume, which when snuffed up the nostrils produces a strongly excitant impression, and may be resorted 
to in fainting or nervous debility. It was an official substitute for Henry’s aromatic spirit of vinegar. 
A better aromatic vinegar is prepared by adding one and a half fluidrachms of best oil of rose geranium, and 
fifteen minims of oil of cloves, to four fluidounces of glacial acetic acid. 20 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
PART I. 
usually quoted as the older and better known. According to this, the ores are roasted in re- 
verberatory furnaces with long horizontal flues. The arsenic is converted by combustion into 
arsenous acid, which rises in vapor and condenses on the sides of the flues. In this state it is 
impure, and requires a second sublimation, which is performed in cast-iron vessels, fitted with 
conical heads of the same material, having an opening at the summit. The vessels are placed 
over a furnace, and brought to a red heat, when a portion of the impure arsenous acid is 
thrown in through the opening, which is immediately stopped. This portion being sublimed, 
a second portion is introduced in a similar manner. Finally, the vessels are allowed to cool; 
and upon removing the heads the purified acid is found attached to them in vitreous layers, 
at first as transparent as glass, but gradually becoming, by contact with the air, opaque at their 
surface. These are broken into fragments of a convenient size, and thrown into commerce. 
The arsenous acid so obtained is generally packed in casks, containing from two to five hun- 
dred pounds, and is shipped principally from the ports of Hamburg and Bremen. The Eng- 
lish process differs somewhat in its details, and essentially in its final product, which is fine and 
crystalline rather than amorphous. In this process the crude arsenic of the first sublimation 
is refined by introducing it into another furnace or series of furnaces, where it is again volatil- 
ized by the heat. When it condenses in the long series of chambers through which the vapors 
are carried, it is, if the process be fully successful, in the form of a perfectly white crystalline 
solid, which needs only to be ground and packed into kegs to be made ready for the market. 
The unground arsenic is, as stated, all in the crystalline condition, the temperature of the 
chambers being too low to allow of the formation of the glassy variety. 
Properties. Arsenous acid is entirely volatilized by heat. As the German make of 
arsenic occurs in commerce, it is in masses, with a vitreous fracture, and of a milk-white color 
externally, but, internally, often perfectly transparent. As first sublimed, the whole mass is 
transparent; but it gradually becomes white and opaque, the change proceeding progressively 
from the surface inwards. This change has not been well explained, but probably depends 
upon the absorption of moisture, causing a gradual passage of the acid from the amorphous 
to the crystalline state. (Pereira.) Hence the masses “ usually present a stratified appearance, 
caused by the presence, in separate layers, of the crystalline and opaque and of the amorphous 
and vitreous allotropic modifications of arsenious anhydride.” Br. The U. S. Pharma- 
copoeia, 1890, describes arsenous acid as follows: “ Frequently the same piece has an opaque, 
white, outer crust enclosing the glassy variety within. Contact with moist air gradually changes 
the glassy into the white, opaque variety. Both are odorless and tasteless.” According to 
Guibourt, the sp. gr. of the transparent variety is 3-73, of the opaque 3-69. The experiments, 
however, of Dr. J. K. Mitchell and Mr. Durand make the density of the former variety from 
3-208 to 3-333. The English make of arsenic is always powdered, and, under a lens, is seen 
to consist of small crystals perfect in form, or of small fragments of larger crystals. In a 
poisoning case in 1880 (State of Conn. vs. Hayden) much was made to hinge upon the dif- 
ferences observed between this crystalline English arsenic and the commoner amorphous or 
German arsenic. (Microscop. Exam, of Samples of Commercial Arsenic, E. S. Dana. F. D. 
Linn & Co., Publishers, Jersey City, 1880.) As it occurs in the shops for medical use, it is 
often in the form of a white powder, almost as fine as flour. In this state it is sometimes 
adulterated writh powdered lime or chalk, or calcium sulphate or arsenite, a fraud which is very 
easily detected by exposing the powder to a heat sufficient to evaporate the arsenous acid, when 
these impurities will be left behind. In consequence of the liability of the acid to contain 
impurities when in powder, it was directed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870 to be kept 
in masses, so that the apothecary may powder it for himself as it is wanted. It has been 
erroneously stated to have an acrid taste. Dr. Christison asserts that it possesses hardly any 
taste; inasmuch as it produces merely a faint sweetish impression on the palate. In strong, 
hot solution, it has an austere taste, most nearly resembling that of zinc sulphate. (Mitchell 
and Durand.) It has no smell, even in vapor; but when thrown on ignited charcoal it emits 
a garlicky odor, in consequence of its deoxidation, and the volatilization of the reduced metal. 
Its point of sublimation, according to Berzelius, is at an incipient red heat; but, according to 
Mitchell and Durand, it is lower than that of metallic arsenic, being only 218° C. (425° F.). 
In the British Pharmacopoeia it is said to be entirely volatilized at a temperature not exceeding 
204.4° C. (400° F.). Taylor gives the subliming point at 188° C. (370° F.) ; Wm. A. Guy 
states that arsenous acid rises in vapor at about 138° C. (280° F.). (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1868.) 
When slowly sublimed, it condenses in regular octohedral crystals of a sparkling lustre. PART I. 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
21 
It may also be obtained crystallized in fine oetobedrals by the slow cooling of a solution 
of the acid in boiling diluted hydrochloric acid. (Journ. de Pharm., 1873, p. 246.) “ 0-25 
gramme, dissolved quickly in boiling water with five times its weight of sodium bicarbonate, 
should, after the cooled solution is well shaken with three successive drops of hydrochloric 
acid, discharge the color of 50-8 to 50’9 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of 
iodine.” Br. 
“ In cold water both varieties dissolve very slowly, the glassy variety requiring about 30, the 
porcelain-like about 80 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.). Both are slowly but completely 
soluble in 15 parts of boiling water. In alcohol, Arsenous Acid is but sparingly soluble, but 
it is soluble in about 5 parts of glycerin. Oil of turpentine dissolves only the glassy variety. 
Both varieties are freely soluble in hydrochloric acid, and in solutions of alkali hydrates and 
carbonates.” U. S. “ It is soluble in 100 parts of cold water, in 10 parts of boiling water, 
and in 5 parts of glycerin; it is moderately soluble in solutions of alkaline hydroxides and 
carbonates, in hydrochloric add, and in mixtures of that acid and water.'1' Br. The follow- 
ing is given on the authority of Bussy. The transparent acid dissolves much more 
rapidly than the opaque. By prolonged ebullition with water, the opaque variety attains 
the same solubility as the transparent, and may be supposed to be converted into the lat- 
ter. Thus, at the boiling temperature, a pint of water dissolves 807 grains of either variety. 
The transparent variety, in cold saturated solution, gradually lessens in solubility, until it 
reaches the solubility of the opaque, no doubt in consequence of being changed into the latter. 
Pulverization lessens the solubility of the transparent variety, without affecting that of the 
opaque. The mixture of the two varieties of the acid in the same solution serves to explain 
the anomalies heretofore observed in its solubility. (Joum. de Pharm., Nov. 1847.)* “ When 
heated to 204-4° C. (400° F.), Arsenous Acid is completely volatilized without melting. When 
thrown on ignited charcoal, it emits an alliaceous odor. When its vapor is passed through 
red-hot charcoal, in an arsenic-tube, it is deoxidized, and metallic arsenic is deposited on the 
cooler portion of the tube as a mirror having a metallic lustre. An aqueous solution of 
Arsenous Acid has a faintly acid reaction upon litmus paper. Silver ammonium nitrate test- 
solution produces in the solution a lemon-yellow precipitate, which dissolves on addition of 
ammonia water; when this solution is heated, metallic silver is deposited (distinction from 
arsenic acid). Copper ammonium sulphate test-solution produces a bright green precipitate, 
which dissolves in ammonia water with a deep blue color. Hydrogen sulphide test-solution 
colors the solution of Arsenous Acid yellow; if a few drops of hydrochloric acid are added, 
it precipitates lemon-yellow arsenic trisulphide, which should be completely soluble in ammo- 
nium carbonate test-solution (absence of antimony, tin, and cadmium). When Arsenous Acid 
is carefully heated in a dry test-tube of hard glass, it should sublime without leaving a residue, 
and the sublimate should not at first show a yellow color (absence of non-volatile matter and 
of arsenic sidphide). If 1 part of Arsenous Acid be dissolved in 10 parts of ammonia water, 
with the aid of a gentle heat, the solution should neither leave an insoluble residue, nor show 
a yellow or other color; nor should the addition of a slight excess of hydrochloric acid pro- 
duce a precipitate (absence of metallic impurities, sulphides, etc.). If 0T Gm. of Arsenous 
Acid be dissolved, together with 1 Gm. of sodium bicarbonate, in 20 C.c. of water by the aid 
of a gentle heat, it should decolorize not less than 20 C.c. of iodine decinormal volumetric 
solution (corresponding to at least 98-8 per cent, of Arsenic Trioxide).” TJ. S. “ Its aqueous 
solution, which is odorless, tasteless, and faintly acid to litmus, gives with solution of silver 
amnwnio-nitrate a canary-yellow precipitate readily dissolved by solution of ammonia and by 
nitric add. Sprinkled on ignited charcoal, it emits an alliaceous odor. It is volatilized at 
400° F. (204-4° C.). It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, cad- 
mium, antimony, tin, or sulphides. It should dissolve completely in solution of ammonia, and 
the resulting liquid when diluted with an equal volume of water and acidulated with hydro- 
chloric add should not have a yellow color (absence of arsenious sulphide).” Br. 
Medical Properties. The official preparations of arsenic are all of them, when in suffi- 
cient concentration, violent irritants or escharotics.f Taken internally in sufficient dose they 
* Experiments of M. L. A. Buchner on the solubility of arsenous acid in its various forms gave the following 
results. A liter of water saturated at 15° C. with crystallized arsenous acid contains gr. 2-821; with the amorphous 
and vitreous acid, gr. 9-.306; while the same solutions, made by boiling and then allowed to cool for 24 hours, down 
to 15° C., contain of the crystallized acid gr. 27"839 per liter, and of the amorphous and vitreous, gr. 34-056 per 
liter. These results serve to confirm those of M. Bussy referred to in the text. (Journ. de Pharm. 1873, p. 247.) 
f Kakodylic acid, a compound of arsenic, having the formula As0(CHs)20H, containing 54-35 per cent, of the 
■netal, equivalent to 71"4 per cent, of the arsenous oxide, has been stated by various investigators to be free from 22 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
PART I. 
are exceedingly poisonous to both man and the lower animals. When properly administered 
they are alteratives, affecting in some unknown way the nutrition, especially of the nervous 
system. They are often of service in simple nervous debility, but are especially useful in chorea 
and in chronic malaria. When given for their tonic effect only, they should be used in doses 
so small as not to cause any general symptoms; but when a specific action, as in chorea, is 
desired, it is proper to begin with small doses and rapidly increase them until the limit of 
tolerance is reached. Not rarely, such doses produce gastro-intestinal irritation, especially pain 
and diarrhoea. To avoid this as much as possible, the remedy should be given after meals. 
When either gastro-intestinal irritation or the more peculiar effects of arsenic are caused, the 
dose should at once be lessened. The specific symptoms of arsenicalism are a general dispo- 
sition to oedema, especially of the face and eyelids, a feeling of stiffness in these parts, itching 
of the skin, tenderness of the mouth, loss of appetite, and uneasiness and sickness of the 
stomach. The peculiar swelling produced is called oedema arsenicalis. In some instances the 
internal use of arsenic causes a rash not unlike that of measles, and, as in that affection, at- 
tended with catarrhal symptoms. (Tilbury Fox, Med. T. and, Gaz., March, 1868.) Sometimes 
salivation is produced, and occasionally the hair and nails fall off. It is stated by M. Charcot 
that he has seen, in two cases, decided anaphrodisiac effects from the prolonged use of 
arsenic, which disappeared several months after its discontinuance, and in one instance returned 
upon its resumption. (Ann. de Therap., 1865, p. 267.) 
Arsenous acid has been exhibited in a great variety of diseases, the principal of which are 
scirrhus and cancer, especially cancer of the lip ; anomalous ulcers ; various cutaneous diseases ; 
intermittent fever; chorea; chronic rheumatism, particularly those forms of it attended with 
pains in the bones ; rheumatic gout; diseases of the bones, especially nodes, and firm swellings 
with deformity of the small joints of the hands; chronic syphilitic affections; frontal neural- 
gia; hemicrania; intermittent neuralgic pains of the stomach and bowels. In intermittent 
fever it is inferior only to Peruvian bark and its alkaloids; and probably no remedy surpasses 
or even equals it in rheumatic gout. In cutaneous affections, especially those of a scaly char- 
acter, as lepra and psoriasis, it is an invaluable remedy. There would seem to be no objection 
against the very protracted use of this remedy in disease. Many years since, Tschudi drew 
attention to the so-called “ arsenic-eaters" of Styria and the Tyrol. The habits of these people 
have been grossly exaggerated by some, whilst by others their existence has been denied, but 
the truth is that among the lower orders in the countries mentioned, there are many persons 
who habitually take small amounts of the poison. According to the report of a government 
commission, the dose of 0-62 grain is rarely exceeded. The “ ratsbane-eaters” are said not to 
suffer in their health, and to be unusually strong and vigorous people. 
The external application of arsenic has been principally restricted to cancer, and anomalous 
and malignant ulcers, especially of the kind denominated noli me tangere. Dupuytren used with 
advantage a powder composed of one part of arsenous acid and twenty-four parts of calomel, 
as a topical application to herpes exedens, and to the foul ulcers occurring after mercury. 
Arsenic is the chief ingredient in nearly all the empirical remedies for the cure of cancer 
by external application. Plunket's caustic, a remedy of this kind of great celebrity, consisted 
of the Rammculus acris and Ranunculus flammula, each an ounce, bruised and mixed with a 
drachm of arsenous acid and five scruples of sulphur. The whole was beaten into a paste, 
formed into balls, and dried in the sun. When used, these balls were rubbed up with yolk 
of egg, and spread on pig’s bladder. The use of the vegetable matter is to destroy the cuticle; 
for, unless this is done, the arsenic will not act. In onychia maligna, Mr. Luke, of London, 
regarded an ointment composed of two grains of arsenous acid and an ounce of spermaceti 
ointment as almost a specific. (Pereira, Mat. Med.) 
In/Paris, an arsenical paste of the following composition has been used as an application to 
malignant ulcers:—red sulphide of mercury 70 parts; dragon’s blood 22 parts; arsenous 
acid 8 parts. It is applied, made up into a paste with saliva. The pain produced by this 
composition is very severe, and its application dangerous. The arsenical paste of Frlre Come 
poisonous properties, whilst in the hands of others it has appeared to be an active toxic agent. A very elaborate 
research made by Drs. John Marshall and Howard Green {Amer. Chem. Journ., May, 1886) appears to have settled 
the question. It was first found that kakodylic acid of American commerce produces in rabbits symptoms similar 
to those caused by arsenous acid, although in a very mild degree. Analysis, however, showed that this kakodylic 
acid contains free arsenous acid. Chemically pure kakodylic acid was then used. When introduced into the 
stomach in repeated doses of seven grains it caused in the lower animals vomiting and diarrhoea, profuse salivation, 
staggering, weakness, and death in one instance. Kakodylic acid may be looked upon as a very mild arsenical prep- 
aration. It has been highly recommended by Danlos in psoriasis, four grains three times a day. Balzer and Griffon 
have recorded cases in which eight grains a day caused extensive desquamative erythema. PART I. 
Acidum Arsmosum. 
23 
has been applied advantageously by M. Biett to the ulcerated surfaces in yaws. The precau- 
tion was used of not applying it, at one time, over a surface larger than that of half a dollar. 
This paste is made by mixing water with a powder consisting of ten grains of arsenous acid, 
two scruples of red sulphide of mercury, and ten grains of powdered animal charcoal. The 
practice of sprinkling unmixed arsenous acid on ulcers is fraught with the greatest danger. 
Mr. S. Cooper characterizes it as a murderous practice. 
Febure's remedy for cancer consisted of ten grains of arsenous acid, dissolved in a pint of 
distilled water, to which were added an ounce of extract of conium, three fluidounces of solu- 
tion of lead subacetate, and a fluidrachm of tincture of opium. With this the cancer was 
washed every morning. Febure’s formula for internal exhibition was, arsenous acid two 
grains, rhubarb half an ounce, syrup of chicory q. s., distilled water sufficient to make a pint. 
Of this mixture, a tablespoonful, containing about the sixteenth of a grain of the acid, was 
given every night and morning. The dose was gradually increased to six tablespoonfuls. 
Arsenous acid may be given in doses of from one-thirtieth to one-twentieth of a grain (0-002 
to 0-003 Gm.), three times a day, in the form of pill. It is usually combined with opium, which 
enables the stomach to bear the medicine better. The Asiatic pills, so called, consist of arsenous 
acid and black pepper, in the proportion of 1 part of the former to 80 parts of the latter. 
A preparation much used on the continent of Europe is Boudin's solution, which is simply an 
aqueous solution of arsenous acid with the addition of wine, and is made by boiling one 
gramme (15-4 grains) of the acid with one liter (2-1 pints) of distilled water till entirely dis- 
solved, then cooling, filtering, adding enough distilled water to supply the loss, and finally 
mixing with one liter of white wine. Of this solution a fluidounce contains about one-quarter 
of a grain of arsenous acid. 
Properties of Arsenous Acid as a Poison. Arsenous acid, in an overdose, whether inter- 
nally or externally, acts with very great energy, and generally destroys life in a short time; 
but in rare instances no well-marked symptoms have been developed until eight or nine hours 
after the ingestion of the poison. Dr. Edward Hartshorne relates a case of recovery in which 
at least a drachm of arsenous acid had been swallowed, and where the symptoms of poisoning 
were delayed'for sixteen hours. {Med. Examiner, 1855, p. 707.) The symptoms produced by 
the poison are—an austere taste ; fetid state of the mouth ; frequent ptyalism ; continual hawk- 
ing ; constriction of the pharynx and oesophagus; the sensation of the teeth being on edge, 
hiccough ; nausea ; anxiety ; frequent sinkings ; burning pain at the praecordia ; inflammation 
of the lips, tongue, palate, throat, bronchi, and oesophagus; irritable stomach, so as not to be 
able to support the blandest drinks; vomiting of matters, sometimes brown, at other times 
bloody; profuse serous or bloody stools; small, frequent, and irregular pulse, but occasion- 
ally slow and unequal; palpitations; syncope; insatiable thirst; burning heat over the whole 
body, or a sensation of icy coldness; difficult respiration; cold sweats; suppression of urine, 
or scanty, red, bloody, and sometimes albuminous urine; change in the countenance; a livid 
circle round the eyelids; swelling and itching of the body; livid spots over the surface, and 
occasionally a miliary eruption; prostration of strength; loss of feeling, especially in the feet 
and hands; delirium ; convulsions, often accompanied with insupportable priapism ; falling off 
of the hair, detachment of the cuticle, etc. In some cases there is inflammation with burn- 
ing pain in the urino-genital organs. It is very rare to observe all these symptoms in the 
same individual. Sometimes, indeed, they are nearly all wanting, death taking place without 
any pain or prominent symptom. Occasionally the phenomena have a perfect resemblance to 
those of Asiatic cholera in the stage of collapse. In rare cases stupor is a very prominent 
symptom; and the diarrhoea may not be pronounced. After death, the morbid appearances 
are various. In some instances no vestige of lesion can be discovered. The appearances, 
however, in the generality of cases, are the following. The mouth, stomach, and intestines 
are inflamed; the stomach and duodenum exhibit spots resembling eschars, and perforations 
of all tlieir coats; and the villous coat of the former is in a manner destroyed, and reduced to 
the consistence of a reddish-brown pulp. Wide-spread fatty degeneration has also been noted. 
In cases of recovery, it has been a question how long it takes for the poison to be eliminated 
from the system. In an instance, reported by Dr. D. Maclagan, in which about two drachms 
of the poison had been swallowed, and in which magnesia was used successfully as an antidote, 
arsenic was detected in the urine by Marsh’s test as late as the twentieth day. 
A milder grade of arsenical poisoning, yet sometimes serious in its consequences, has resulted 
in many instances from the inhalation of the air of apartments lined with green wall-paper, 
which owes its color to copper arsenite, and from which a fine poisonous dust sometimes 24 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
PART I. 
escapes when the paper has not been well prepared. (See Chem. News, March 24, 1860.) 
The burning of green tapers is sometimes attended with an arsenical odor; and chemical ex- 
amination has shown that, though in relatively rare instances, they do contain arsenous acid 
in injurious quantities. (Lancet, 1873, p. 715.) Death has also resulted, in more than one 
instance, from working in the manufacture of green artificial leaves. (Chem. News, Nov. 30, 
1861.) Ulceration of the anus has resulted from the habitual use of green paper. 
In view of the numerous accidents and crimes caused by the use of arsenous acid, its sale 
should be regulated by law in all the States of the Union. In 1851 an act for this purpose 
was passed by the British Parliament. 
There can be no doubt that, when applied to any ulcerated surface, arsenic may be absorbed 
with fatal result; death has indeed occurred in a number of cases from the use of arsenic as 
an escharotic to tumors, cancerous ulcers, etc. As indicated by Mr. Blackader, absorption is 
less apt to follow the use of large than of small quantities; the larger amount probably killing 
the part to which it is applied, and thereby preventing absorption. If this dangerous caustic 
be used at all, it should be in accordance with these facts. Harles’s observations also seem to 
show that when the surface is that of a chronic ulcer, either simple or malignant, absorption 
is less prone to occur than from a fresh wound. 
Treatment of Poisoning by Arsenous Acid. If the antidote be not directly at hand, free 
vomiting should be induced by the finger, the feather part of a quill, and the administration 
of an emetic. The same object is promoted by the use of the stomach-pump. Demulcent 
drinks should be freely given, such as milk, white of eggs and water, or flour and water, which 
serve to encourage the vomiting and to envelop the poison. 
The antidote having been faithfully applied, the subsequent treatment consists in the admin- 
istration of mucilaginous drinks, and the treatment of symptoms as they arise. Convalescence 
is generally long and distressing: usually dyspeptic symptoms mark the presence of gastro-in- 
testinal inflammation or even ulceration, whilst not rarely violent neuralgic pains, with loss of 
power, wasting of the muscle, and other trophic changes, show that a peripheral neuritis has 
been produced; and hence it is of the greatest importance to attend to the diet, which should 
consist exclusively of milk, gruel, cream, rice, and similar bland articles. 
The antidote above referred to is ferric hydrate, in the moist or pulpy state. As soon as it 
is ready, it must be given in doses of a tablespoonful to an adult, of a dessertspoonful to a 
child, every five or ten minutes, until the urgent symptoms are relieved. It is calculated that 
the quantity taken should be at least twelve times the supposed amount of the poison swal- 
lowed ; but, as the antidote is perfectly innocent, it is prudent to give it in larger quantities. 
According to the experiments of E. Biegel, one part of arsenous acid in solution is so fully 
precipitated by ten parts of the dry oxide, that, after its action, not a trace of the poison can be 
detected, even by Marsh’s test. Its efficacy is of course greater the sooner it is administered 
after the ingestion of the poison; but even after delay its use will prove advantageous, so 
long as any portion of the poison still remains in the stomach. The antidote acts by producing 
with the poison, by a transfer of oxygen from the oxide to the acid, an insoluble, and there- 
fore inert, ferrous arsenate 2(Fe2(OH)6)-f- As203 = Fe3(As04)2 -J- 5II20 -f- Fe(OII)a. This 
antidote for arsenous acid was discovered by Drs. Bunsen and Berthold, of Gottingen, in 
1834; and its efficacy has been abundantly confirmed by experiments on inferior animals, and 
by its successful application to numerous cases of poisoning in the human subject. Various 
observations have been made as to the best forms of the oxide for use, but as long ago as 
1842 Prof. William Procter (A. J. P., xiv. 29) proved that the hydrate gradually decreases in 
its power of neutralizing arsenous acid the longer it is kept, and that this decrease in power 
is more rapid when it is mixed with much water than when in the form of a thick magma. 
The cause of this diminution of neutralizing power, by being kept, is explained by the experi- 
ments of Gr. C. Wittstein. This chemist finds that ferric hydrate, recently precipitated, dis- 
solves readily in acetic and other vegetable acids in the cold, but becomes nearly insoluble 
when kept for some time under water. It should be an invariable mle to prepare the antidote 
at the time it is wanted from materials always kept at hand. A very efficient antidote may be 
made by precipitating the tincture of the chloride of iron with sodium bicarbonate. 
Dialyzed iron has been frequently suggested as an antidote for arsenic (Phila. Med. Times, 
Dec. 8, 1877 ; A. J. P., Jan. 1878), especially if its administration be followed by a dose of 
common salt, which precipitates the ferric hydrate in the stomach ; but Edward Hirschsohn 
(Dorpat, llussia) cautions against the use of dialyzed iron, because his experiments show that 
the resulting combination parts with its arsenic in the presence of acids much more readily r*ART I. 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
25 
than does the Antidotum Arsenici of the Russian Pharmacopoeia—made by diluting one ounce 
of solution of ferric sulphate (Monsel’s solution) with four fluidounces of water, then adding 
a mixture of three drachms of calcined magnesia with four fluidounces of water. (See Ferri 
Oxidum Hydratum cum Magnesia.') 
Dr. Kohler, of Hallo, believes that saccharine oxide of iron in solution is preferable to all 
other preparations, in poisoning by arsenous acid. This forms, like the hydrated powder, an 
insoluble compound with the acid. He bases his opinion upon experiments with the lower 
animals, and gives the details of a case in which it proved successful in the human subject 
after the swallowing of more than half a drachm of the acid in powder. He gave a large 
teaspoonful of the saccharine oxide with a drachm of water immediately afterwards, which 
.was repeated every 15 minutes for two hours, followed by an emetic dose of ipecacuanha, and 
then repeated every half-hour. The patient recovered. (Br. and F. Med.-Chir. Rev., 1870.) 
Bussy has proposed light magnesia, or the kind which has not been too strongly calcined, as 
well as recently precipitated gelatinous magnesia, as an antidote for arsenous acid ; and a case is 
given by him in which it appeared to prove efficacious. (Journ. de Pharm., x. 81.) The dense kind 
has very little efficacy. Dr. Christison saw a case in which this antidote seemed very service- 
able. A successful case is also reported by Cadet de Gassicourt (Journ. de Pharm., Mars, 
1848), and another by Dr. E. Bissell, of Norwalk, Conn. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., July, 
1848). For the full precipitation of arsenous acid, eighteen times its weight of anhydrous 
magnesia are required. (E. Riegel.) Like the ferric hydrate, the magnesian antidote is most 
conveniently kept, in a pulpy state, under water in stopped bottles. M. Schroff has made some 
experiments on rabbits, to determine the comparative efficacy, as antidotes, of the ferric hy- 
drate and magnesia, and gives the preference to the latter. The hydrated magnesia is best 
prepared extemporaneously by quickly forming a solution of magnesium sulphate, and precipi- 
tating this by ammonia water, which is preferable to potassa, as any portion of the latter, remain- 
ing in the preparation, might act injuriously by favoring the solubility of the arsenous acid. 
Notwithstanding these statements, however, it is asserted by T. and H. Smith, of Edinburgh, 
on the basis of experiment, that magnesia is incapable of neutralizing arsenous acid, and is 
utterly useless as an antidote (Pharm. Journ., 1865, p. 144), and that it would be unwarrantable 
to rely on it when the ferruginous antidote is attainable. Probably the best antidote known is 
the combination of ferric hydrate with magnesia, now recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
Reagents for detecting Arsenous Add. As arsenic is so frequently employed for criminal 
purposes, it becomes important to detect its presence in medico-legal investigations. The tests 
for it may be divided into those which indicate indirectly its presence, and those which demon- 
strate its presence incontestably, by bringing it to the metallic state. The former embrace all 
the liquid regents so called; the latter, the processes for metallization. It is necessary, how- 
ever, to be aware of the fact that many of the substances employed as tests for arsenic are 
themselves often contaminated with arsenic, and unless great care be exercised to select reagents 
perfectly free from this impurity, there will be danger that the results may be fallacious. 
The most characteristic reagents are hydrogen sulphide, ammoniacal silver nitrate, and am- 
mmiacal copper sulphate. In the opinion of Dr. Christison, the concurrent indications of 
these three tests are all-sufficient for detecting arsenous acid; but we think that in questions 
involving life the metallization of the poison should never be omitted. 
In using hydrogen sulphide, the solution must be neutral or slightly acid. An excess of 
alkali may be neutralized with acetic acid, and an excess of nitric or sulphuric acid by potassa. 
A slight excess of acetic acid is not hurtful, but rather favors the subsidence of the precipi- 
tate, which is the arsenic tersulphide, and is soluble in ammonia, ammonium carbonate, and 
potassium bisulphate, and gives, moreover, a metallic sublimate when heated in a tube with 
reducing agents, as described below. According to Dr. Christison, this test is so exceedingly 
delicate that it detects the poison when dissolved in one hundred thousand parts of water. 
The color it produces is lemon- or sulphur-yellow; but the presence of vegetable or animal 
matter commonly gives it a whitish or brownish tint. If yellow, it might be mistaken for 
tin sulphide or cadmium sulphide, which are also yellow, but the latter is quite insoluble 
in ammonia, while the former gives no metallic sublimate when heated with reducing agents. 
If it be brownish, it may still contain arsenic, but must first be freed from organic matter. 
The ammoniacal silver nitrate gives a yellow precipitate of silver arsenite, readily soluble to 
a clear solution in ammonia and in nitric or acetic acid. 
The ammoniacal copper sulphate is a test of very great delicacy. The precipitate occasioned 
by it is the copper arsenite, of an apple-green or grass-green color. Its operation is prevented 26 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
PART I. 
by hydrochloric, nitric, sulphuric, acetic, citric, and tartaric acids in excess ; as also by am- 
monia. 
Of the three tests mentioned, perhaps hydrogen sulphide is the most delicate; and it has 
the advantage of yielding a precipitate eligible for subsequent reduction. But they are all 
liable to the objection of being obscured in their indications, where the amount of poison is 
small, by the presence of organic matter; a complication constituting the most difficult prob- 
lem for the medical jurist. As this case includes all others of more easy solution, we shall 
suppose it to occur, and shall indicate the steps to be pursued. 
Having obtained general indications of the presence of arsenic, the first step will be to 
separate the organic matters ; the second, to throw down the arsenic by means of the hydrogen 
sulphide; and the third, to reduce the precipitate obtained to the metallic state. It is proper 
to state here that, in a communication to the Paris Academy, Dr. Blondlot, of Nancy, asserts, 
as the result of numerous experiments, that the smallest quantity of oily or fatty matter has 
the eflect of diminishing, even to one-twentieth, the solubility of arsenous acid, and conse- 
quently of very much increasing the difficulty of detecting it. (See A. J. P., 1860, p. 220.) 
The following are the directions given by Prof. Wormley (Micro-Chemistry of Poisons, 2d 
ed., p. 299) for separating the organic principles. After the addition of water, if necessary, 
the mass is intimately mixed with about one-eighth of its volume of pure hydrochloric acid, 
and maintained at near the boiling temperature until the organic solids are entirely disinte- 
grated. The mixture is then allowed to cool, transferred to a clean muslin strainer, and the 
matters retained by the strainer washed with water; the strainer with its contents may be 
reserved for future examination. The strained liquid is concentrated at a moderate heat if 
necessary, allowed to cool, and again filtered. 
A given portion of the filtrate thus obtained is examined by the method of Reinsch (see 
page 29), successive slips of the copper being added as long as they receive a deposit. Any 
pieces of the metal that have thus become coated, after being thoroughly washed and dried, 
are heated in a suitable reduction tube, and the result examined in the usual manner. Another 
portion, or the whole, of the remaining filtrate may be exposed for several hours to a slow 
stream of the hydrogen sulphide gas, then gently warmed, and allowed to stand until the 
supernatant liquid has become perfectly clear. The precipitate thus produced is collected upon 
a small filter, washed, and, while still moist, digested with pure water of ammonia; this liquid 
will readily dissolve any arsenic sulphide present, whilst the organic matter may remain undis- 
solved. The ammoniacal solution is filtered, and the filtrate carefully evaporated at a moderate 
heat to dryness. Should the residue contain organic matter and only a minute quantity of 
the sulphide, it may require further purification before its arsenical nature can be determined. 
If, however, it be moderately pure arsenic sulphide, it may be at once reduced to the metallic 
state, which can be accomplished by the method of Fresenius. The sulphide is mixed with 
sodium carbonate and potassium cyanide, and the mixture placed in the wide part of a tube 
of hard German glass drawn out at one end to capillary fineness. Carbonic anhydride properly 
dried is then passed through the tube, and the portion containing the mixture heated to red- 
ness ; in this way the arsenical sulphide is reduced and the metal condensed in the capillary 
portion, where the smallest quantity can be recognized. 
Dr. E. Davy, of Dublin, has recommended (Chem. News., vol. iii. p. 288) potassium ferro- 
cyanide previously dried at 100° C. (212° F.) as a substitute for the potassium cyanide. It 
has the advantage over the latter that it does not readily absorb moisture from the atmosphere. 
In order to facilitate the detection of arsenic in the solid tissues, as the liver, spleen, stomach, 
etc., it is necessary first to destroy the animal matter, and then to dissolve out the poison. 
Various agencies have been resorted to for this purpose, but the method of Fresenius and Babo 
is generally accepted as the best. According to this, the finely divided fragments of solid 
matter are heated with pure hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate is added from time to 
time until the mass becomes homogeneous and of a light yellow color. It is then heated until 
the odor of chlorine has disappeared. After filtration any arsenic present will exist in the 
filtrate as arsenic acid. This is reduced by sulphurous acid gas or a solution of sodium bisul- 
phite, so that the arsenic is brought to the condition of arsenous acid, in which condition it is 
more readily acted upon by hydrogen sulphide gas. 
After thorough precipitation of the sulphide and purification of this precipitate by treatment 
with ammonia as already described, if the residue from the evaporation of the ammonia still 
contain organic matter mixed with the arsenous sulphide, it is best purified as follows. Treat 
the residue with a small quantity of concentrated nitric acid, and evaporate the mixture again PART I. 
Acid urn A rsenos um. 
27 
to dryness, this operation with nitric acid being repeated, if necessary, until the moist residue 
has a yellow color. The residue is then moistened with a few drops of a concentrated solution 
of caustic soda, a small quantity of pure powdered sodium carbonate and sodium nitrate 
added, and the well-mixeu mass cautiously evaporated to dryness; the heat is then very grad- 
ually increased until the mass becomes colorless, when the organic matter will have been 
entirely destroyed. The nitric acid and the soda compounds employed should be free from 
chlorine, or a portion of the arsenic may be volatilized as chloride. (Wormley, Micro-Chemistry 
of Poisons, 2d ed., p. 303.) 
Another method of separating arsenic in solution from organic matters, now frequently 
employed, is by the process of dialysis, invented by Prof. Graham. (See Dialysis.') By means 
of an instrument called the dialyser, watery solutions of saline and other crystallizable sub- 
stances may be separated from those not crystallizable, such as gelatinous, albuminous, muci- 
laginous, and amylaceous liquids, the latter refusing to pass through a diaphragm of some 
porous substance, which is readily permeable by the former. Thus, a circular piece of parch- 
ment paper, folded in the form of a common filter, is placed in a vessel containing distilled 
water; the suspected liquid, having been heated so as to effect a more complete solution of the 
arsenic, is poured into the filter, and the vessel set aside for twenty-four hours. At the end of 
this time, the crystallizable matter, including the arsenic, will have, to a great extent, passed 
through into the distilled water, leaving the organic matters behind, and a solution will have 
been obtained in a condition fit for the application of the different tests. 
The passage of the arsenic through the membrane is, however, rarely a complete one, and 
the test cannot allow us to dispense with more thorough methods of examination. 
Following up a suggestion of Dr. Clarke, of Aberdeen, that arsenic might be separated by 
taking advantage of the volatility of its chloride, Dr. Andrew Fyfe, of the same place, applied 
the principle to the detection of the metal when mixed with organic matter. For this purpose, 
he heated the arsenical liquid with sulphuric acid, free from arsenous acid, in a flask to which 
a bent tube and cooled receiver were adapted. When the mixture was brought to the boiling 
point, a little dried sea-salt was added, the receiver was connected, and the distillation con- 
tinued for some time. Hydrochloric acid was evolved, which, by reacting with the arsenous 
acid, produced arsenic terchloride, which distilled over free from organic matter. The arsenic 
terchloride was then precipitated by a stream of hydrogen sulphide gas to obtain the yellow 
arsenic tersulphide, or subjected to the action of Marsh’s test. (Philos. Mag., 4th series, ii. 
487.) By keeping present a larger amount of salt than can be decomposed by the sulphuric 
acid, the formation of sulphurous acid is avoided, and no danger is run of converting arsenous 
acid into ti~ ,enic compound, as is the case in the presence of free chlorine. Arsenic 
acid is not converted into a volatile chloride, and would therefore escape detection in this 
process. Indeed, it is proposed to distinguish between arsenous and arsenic acids in mixtures 
by this reaction. After all the arsenous acid has been distilled off as arsenous chloride, the 
arsenic acid can be reduced by sulphurous acid and then distilled for itself. (Handworterbuch 
der Chem., i. 746.) The reduction of arsenic acid to arsenous acid is very conveniently 
effected, according to E. Fischer, by ferrous chloride used in connection with hydrochloric 
acid. (Ber. der Chem Gesellschaft, xiii. 1778.) Dr. Penny and Mr. W. Wallace bear testi- 
mony to the value of the plan of converting the arsenic into terchloride, as a means of sepa- 
rating the metal from organic matter, but think it will be found more convenient to produce 
the terchloride by the direct agency of hydrochloric acid than by sulphuric acid and sodium 
chloride as recommended by Dr. Fyfe. 
One formula for reduction, that of Fresenius, has been given. Still another method, and 
one in which the whole process from beginning to end may take place in a single tube, is the 
following. The sulphide is mixed with sodium oxalate (a salt which contains no water of 
crystallization), and the dry mixture is transferred to a suitable tube sealed at one end. An 
arsenical mirror is readily obtained, and if the heat is continued long enough no arsenic re- 
mains behind—an excellent and easy method, in which the reducing gas is carbonic oxide, 
in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. (Blyth, Poisons, Effects and Detection, p. 542.) If 
any doubt be felt as to the nature of the crust, it may be driven up and down the tube, so as 
to convert it into sparkling octohedral crystals of arsenous acid, the triangular facets of which 
may be seen with a magnifying glass. Finally, the crystals may be dissolved in a drop or two 
of distilled water, and the solution will react characteristically with the liquid tests. 
Another method of testing for arsenic was proposed by Mr. Marsh, and is perhaps the best 
known of the arsenic tests. It consists in taking advantage of the power, which nascent 28 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
PART I. 
hydrogen possesses, of decomposing the acids of arsenic, with the result of forming water and 
arsenuretted hydrogen, as illustrated by the subjoined reaction: 
As203 -f- (H2)e — (H3As)2 -f- (HaO),. 
The liquid from the stomach, or obtained from its contents by boiling water, is added to the 
materials for generating hydrogen (pure dilute sulphuric acid and zinc), contained in a self- 
regulating generator of hydrogen. Dr. Canudas y Salva prevents the possible explosion of the 
apparatus, resulting from the ignition of the hydrogen before all the air has been expelled, by 
placing in the lateral exit tube two metallic meshes, enclosing between them very loose cotton. 
(jV. /?., April, 1878.) Fresenius proposed the same years ago. If the liquid from the stomach 
contain arsenic, the nascent hydrogen will combine with the metal, and the nature of the com- 
pound gas formed may be ascertained by burning a jet of it from a fine jet-pipe connected 
with the generator. The flame will have a characteristic blue color; and, by holding a porce- 
lain plate against it, a thin film of metallic arsenic,* forming a black stain, will be deposited. 
Liebig and Mohr bear testimony to the delicacy of this test; but to remove every source of 
fallacy it is necessary to be sure of the purity of the materials for generating the hydrogen 
by a preliminary trial of the gas before the suspected liquid is added; as zinc and sulphuric 
acid are both liable to contain arsenic. This trial is made by holding a plate against the 
burning hydrogen, which, if pure, will produce no stain. The pieces of zinc employed should 
be changed after every experiment. Magnesium or aluminum may be advantageously substi- 
tuted for zinc, as they contain no arsenic, or, still better, sodium amalgam (made by adding 
about 5 per cent, of metallic sodium to some warmed mercury), as proposed by E. W. Davy. 
This can be used then in a neutral solution, the evolution of nascent hydrogen being due to 
the decomposition of the water by the sodium. 
If the sulphuric acid used to act upon the zinc contains nitrous compounds, the libera- 
tion of arsine may be prevented. To obviate this difficulty a solution of stannous chloride 
in hydrochloric acid should be added towards the end of the operation. This liberates any 
arsenic present because of its reducing action, and arsine will be formed from it. 
Still another modification is Fleitmann’s test, in which the use of zinc, magnesium, or alu- 
minum is retained, but the development of nascent hydrogen is brought about by the addition 
of caustic potassa or soda. Under these circumstances arseniuretted hydrogen is produced, 
but antimoniuretted hydrogen cannot be formed. A modification of Marsh’s apparatus consists 
in having the tube which delivers the hydrogen arsenide narrowed in several places. If, then, 
while the gas is passing, heat be applied a little this side of the narrowed place, the compound 
is decomposed and a bright mirror of metallic arsenic is deposited in the contraction. As ever 
so small a deposit can be changed subsequently into oxide or sulphide, both of which are 
characteristic, this test is quite delicate. 
It has been objected to Marsh’s test, that antimony forms a compound with hydrogen, very 
similar to arseniuretted hydrogen, both in the color of its flame, and in the metallic spot which 
it deposits during combustion on cold surfaces. Still, the two metals may be distinguished by 
acting on the metallic spot with a drop or two of fuming nitric acid, with the aid of heat. 
Arsenic will thus be converted into soluble arsenic acid, precipitable brick-red by nitrate of 
silver; antimony, on the other hand, into insoluble antimonic acid. Another way of distin- 
guishing them is to apply to the stain a solution of sodium hypochlorite, which instantly 
dissolves the arsenical spot, without affecting that of antimony, or solution of stannous chlo- 
ride, which has no action on metallic arsenic, while it dissolves slowly but completely the an- 
timony stain. (Blyth, Poisons, Effects and Detection, p. 526.) Sodium nitroprusside also, 
while it has no effect upon arsenic spots, will dissolve those of antimony completely and easily. 
(Handworterbuch der Chem., i. 757.) In case the metallic mirror is obtained in the tube by 
Berzelius’s modification of Marsh’s test, a stream of hydrogen sulphide may be passed, whilst 
immediately behind the stain a gentle heat is applied. Arsenic is changed thereby to yellow 
sulphide, while antimony produces an orange or black sulphide; if dry hydrochloric acid gas 
is now transmitted, the arsenical sulphide is unchanged, while antimony sulphide is converted 
into chloride of antimony, which volatilizes without the application of heat. (Blyth, loc. cit.) 
Ammonium sulphide dissolves the arsenical spot with difficulty, leaving on evaporation a 
yellow stain ; it readily dissolves the antimonial, and yields an orange-red spot. Marsh’s test 
may be still further modified as proposed by Lassaigne. The current of hydrogen arsenide 
* Retgers (Pharm. Centralh., 1894, 445) believes that the spots on the porcelain are not metallic arsenic, but 
arseniuretted hydrogen in the solid state, of the formula Asll. PART I. 
Acidum Arsenosum. 
29 
is conducted into solution of silver nitrate, when it is decomposed according to the reaction 
AsH3 + (AgN0g)6 + (H20)g = HgAsOg + (HN03)6 + (Ag2)3. 
Here arsenous acid is tor ued, which goes into solution, and metallic silver separates out. 
Hydrogen antimonide passed into silver nitrate solution gives a black precipitate of silver 
antimonide, in which all the antimony is contained. 
Grutzeit’s modification of this test is to carry out the reaction in a test-tube, which is then 
oovered by paper moistened with silver nitrate. A black stain indicates the presence of arsenic. 
Ritsert (Pharm. Zeit., 1889, 368) has increased the delicacy of this by using ammoniacal silver 
nitrate. It is asserted that 0’0005 milligramme of arsenous oxide will cause a brown stain. 
Professor Reinsch has proposed a method for detecting arsenic in organic liquids, which is 
extremely delicate and at the same time has the merits of facility and celerity. It consists in 
acidulating the suspected liquid with hydrochloric acid, which converts the arsenous acid into 
the terchloride, and boiling in it, for ten minutes? a slip of copper foil, on which the arsenic is 
deposited as an alloy consisting of one part arsenic to five parts copper; and then separating it 
in the state of arsenous acid, by subjecting the copper, cut into small pieces, to a low red heat 
in the bottom of a small glass tube. The peculiar crystalline appearance of arsenous acid, 
mentioned in the preceding page, is conclusive of its presence; and, besides, if collected and 
dissolved in water it will answer to tne ordinary tests for the poison. The merit of Reinsch’s 
procedure is not so much that it gives a characteristic deposit on the copper—for bismuth, tin, 
zinc, and antimony also give deposits—as that the copper collects all the arsenic from the or- 
ganic liquid, and presents it in a convenient form for applying the liquid and subliming tests. 
But Reinsch’s method is not without its fallacies. Thus, it has been ascertained that the 
presence of a nitrate or chlorate in the suspected material prevents the characteristic action 
of the arsenic on the copper until the whole of these substances have been consumed by reac- 
tion with the metal. Besides, both hydrochloric acid and copper are liable to contain arsenic, 
and therefore to afford fallacious results. This, however, is less true of the hydrochloric acid 
prepared in this country than of the European, as the sulphuric acid employed in its preparation 
is obtained generally from native sulphur, instead of from pyrites as abroad. Nevertheless, no 
conclusion from Reinsch’s test can be certainly relied on unless the hydrochloric acid has been 
ascertained to be free from arsenic. With the copper there is less risk, as the arsenic in it can 
act only by solution of the copper itself, and this is known by the green color imparted to the 
liquid; so that, if the arsenical deposit should be produced without discoloration of the liquid, 
the indication of the presence of the poison may be considered as satisfactory. (Odling and 
Taylor.) 
If the process of Reinsch is to be applied to the arsenic sulphide, it will be necessary to 
bring this into the liquid form. For this purpose Prof. J. C. Draper, of New York, makes use 
of ammonia, which dissolves the sulphide, and is also capable of attacking copper. The sub- 
stance supposed to contain the sulphide, having been covered, in a suitable vessel, with water of 
ammonia, is set aside in a warm place, and permitted to stand for a few hours. The solution 
of the sulphide is then separated by filtration, strips of clean, bright copper are introduced into 
it, and the whole is gently heated. The copper gradually becomes coated with a deposit like 
that which is formed in Reinsch’s process. (W. Y. Med. Joum., 1865, p. 13.) 
The power of hypophosphites to reduce arsenical solutions, precipitating metallic arsenic, has 
also been proposed as the basis of a test. In sensitiveness it is said to rank between the tests 
of Gutzeit and Bettendorff. (Apotheker Zeit., 1890, p. 263.) 
Still another method of detecting arsenic is the electrolytic, consisting in exposing the sus- 
pected liquid, in connection with diluted sulphuric acid, to a voltaic current, through the 
influence of which, if arsenic be present, even though associated with large quantities of 
organic matter, arseniuretted hydrogen (hydrogen arsenide) is evolved. It is, however, only the 
arsenous acid that will respond to this test, so that if the arsenic be present as arsenic acid it 
must first be reduced to the arsenous condition by some reducing agent like sulphurous oxide 
or hydrogen sulphide. For an account of the process, and of the method of rendering arsenic 
acid sensible to the test, and of counteracting the influence of antimony and mercury, see papers 
by Mr. C. L. Bloxam in P. J. Tr. (1860, p. 376, and 1861, p. 528). 
It has been shown by MM. Malaguti and Sarzeau that for the detection of minute quantities 
of arsenic in exhumed bodies the best method of proceeding is to distil the viscera with aqua 
regia, made by mixing one part of nitric with three of hydrochloric acid. The animal matter 
(the liver, for example), cut into small pieces, is dried by a gentle heat, and mixed with a quan- 
tity of the aqua regia equal to the weight of the matter before it was dried. The mixture is Acidum Arsenosum.—Acidum Benzoicum. 
PART I. 
distilled, and the arsenic, if present, comes over in the form of the volatile terchloride, which 
may be converted into the tersulpliide in the usual manner. 
Arsenic may be detected in exhumed bodies long after death. M. Blondlot found it in the 
brain of a body that had been buried twenty years. In this case it was ascertained that no 
arsenic existed in the earth of the cemetery. (See Brit, and For. Med.-Chir. Rev., 1855, p. 222.) 
It is necessary also to be guarded against the possible presence, about the body, of metals which 
may contain arsenic ; as, for example, brass and copper. L. A. Buchner has found, in the intes- 
tines of persons who had been poisoned with arsenous acid, examined some months after death, 
the poison in the state of yellow arsenic sulphide, into which it had been converted by the 
hydrogen sulphide developed by the putrefactive process that had taken place in the bowels, 
showing that even in poisonous doses arsenic has not always the property of preserving the body 
from corruption. (Neues Repertorium, xvii. 21.) 
HC7H5O2; 121*71. 
ACIDUM BENZOICUM. U.S., Br. Benzoic Acid. 
(Xg'l-DUM BEN-ZO'l-gUM.) 
HCt H5 02; 122. 
“ An organic acid, usually obtained from benzoin by sublimation, or prepared artificially, 
chiefly from toluol. It should be kept in dark amber-colored, well-stoppered bottles, in a cool 
place.” U. S. “ Benzoic Acid, CeH6.C00H, is obtained from benzoin by sublimation. It 
may also be obtained from toluene, from hippuric acid, and from other organic compounds.” Br. 
Acidum Benzoicum Sublimatum, Flores Benzoes (Flowers of Benzoin); Acide benzoique, Fleurs de Benjoin, Fr.; 
Benzoesaure, Benzoeblumen, 6. 
Both the U. S * and Br. Pharmacopoeias have omitted processes for the preparation of ben- 
zoic acid: the British defines it to be an “ acid obtained from benzoin, and prepared by sub- 
limation, not chemically pure.” 
Formerly the benzoin before sublimation was mixed with sand; but this is now usually 
omitted, as not only useless, but probably injurious by favoring the production of empyreu- 
matic substances. The acid, which exists in the benzoin combined with resin, is volatilized by 
the heat, and condensed in the upper part of the apparatus. Unless the temperature be very 
carefully regulated, a portion of the resin is decomposed, and an oily substance generated, 
which rises with the acid, and gives it a brown color, from which it cannot be entirely freed by 
bibulous paper; and this result, even with the greatest caution, sometimes takes place. The 
process for subliming benzoic acid may be conducted in a glazed earthen vessel, surmounted by 
a cone of paper, or by another vessel with a small opening at the top, and a band of paper 
pasted round the place of junction. After the heat has been applied for an hour, the process 
should be suspended till the condensed acid is removed from the upper vessel or paper cone, 
when it may be renewed, and the acid again removed, and thus alternately till colored vapors 
rise. Mohr, after many experiments, recommends the following plan as unobjectionable. In a 
round cast-iron vessel, eight or nine inches in diameter and two inches deep, a pound or less of 
coarsely powdered benzoin is placed, and uniformly strewed over the bottom. The top of the 
vessel is closed by a sheet of bibulous paper, which is secured to the sides by paste. A cylinder 
of thick paper in the form of a hat, just large enough to fit closely around the sides of the 
pot, is then placed over it, and in like manner secured by paste. A moderate heat is now 
applied by means of a sand-bath, and continued for three or four hours. The vapors pass 
through the bibulous paper, which absorbs the empyreumatic oil, and are condensed within the 
hat in brilliant white flowers, having an agreeable odor of benzoin. (Anna!, der Pharm., xxix. 
178.) The process official in U. S. P. 1870 was based upon Mohr’s, but it frequently happens 
that the sublimed crystals, after they have formed in the cap, and whilst the sublimation is 
still going on, fall upon the bibulous paper, and if this paper should happen to be heated to 
only 120° C. (248° F.) the crystals will melt, and soon stop up the pores of the paper. If 
coarse muslin be substituted for the bibulous paper, it serves the purpose of retaining any em- 
pyreumatic substances, and yet permitting the vapors to pass through without becoming glazed 
by a deposit of melted acid. Strips of paper passed at irregular intervals across the cap prevent 
the falling back of crystals. The remaining acid of the benzoin may be extracted, if deemed 
* The following is the process official in 1870 : “ Take of Benzoin, in coarse powder, twelve troyounces. Spread the 
Benzoin evenly over the bottom of an iron dish eight inches in diameter; cover the dish with a piece of filtering 
paper, and, by means of paste, attach it closely to the rim. Then, having prepared a conical receiver or cap of 
thick, well-sized paper, of rather larger diameter than the dish, invert it over the latter, so as to fit closely around 
the rim. Next apply heat by means of a sand-bath, or of the iron plate of a stove, until, without much empyreuma, 
vapors of Benzoic Acid cease to rise. Lastly, separate the receiver from time to time, and remove the Benzoic Acid 
from it and the paper diaphragm, as long as the Acid continues to be deposited.” U. S. 1870. PART i. 
Addum Benzoicum. 
31 
advisable, by treating the residue of the balsam with lime or sodium carbonate. From the 
mode of preparing benzoic acid by sublimation, it was formerly called flowers of benzoin. 
Another mode of separs ing the acid from benzoin is by combining it with a salifiable base 
and precipitating with an acid. Such is the process of Scheele. It consists in boiling the pow- 
dered benzoin with lime hydrate and water, filtering the solution of calcium benzoate thus 
obtained, and precipitating the benzoic acid with hydrochloric acid. In order to get the benzoic 
acid in the ordinary form, it has been proposed to sublime the acid after its precipitation. 
Several other modes of extracting the acid have been recommended. The following is the 
process of Stolze. One part of the benzoin is dissolved in three parts of alcohol, the solution 
filtered and introduced into a retort, and the acid saturated by sodium carbonate dissolved 
in a mixture of eight parts of water and three of alcohol. The alcohol is distilled off; and 
the sodium benzoate contained in the residuary liquid is decomposed by sulphuric acid, which 
precipitates the benzoic acid. This is purified by solution in boiling water, which lets fall the 
acid when it cools. By this process Stolze obtained 18 per cent, of acid from benzoin contain- 
ing 19-425 per cent. By the process of Scheele he obtained 13-5 per cent.; by the agency of 
sodium carbonate, 12 per cent.; by sublimation, only 7-6 per cent. Professor Scharling has 
prepared benzoic acid by means of heated steam, and obtained 8 per cent. (A. J. P., xxiv. 236.) 
The acid is manufactured very cheaply by.synthetic methods. The two most commonly 
employed are those which start either with toluene, C6H6CH3, or naphtalin, C10H8. In the first 
method the toluene is changed to benzotrichloride, 06H6.C013, and this heated with water to 
150° C. (302° F.) in closed vessels generates benzoic acid. By the second method naphta- 
lin is changed first into naphtalin tetrachloride, and this by the action of nitric acid into 
phthalic acid, CeH4(C00H)2. This is converted into a calcium phthalate and strongly heated 
with lime hydrate, whereby the phthalate is converted into calcium carbonate and benzoate; 
this latter salt is then treated with hydrochloric acid, and the benzoic acid thus set free. This 
acid is frequently resublimed in contact with benzoin, in order to give it the vanilla-like odor 
of the acid sublimed from the gum. A method of making benzoic acid from tannin or gallic 
acid is described in Pharm. Era, 1892, 172 P. Schulze produced benzoic acid by heating 
benzal chloride or benzotrichloride in the presence of ferric benzoate or metallic iron. The 
process is patented. {Pharm. Centralh., 1896, 221.) 
Under the name of German benzoic add, there has been largely imported into the United 
States benzoic acid prepared from the urine of cattle and horses by boiling the calcium hip- 
purate with hydrochloric acid. By boiling the hippuric acid thus separated with hydro- 
chloric acid, it is split into benzoic acid and glycocoll,* according to the reaction C9H9N03 -f- 
II20 — C2H6N02 -f- C7HeOa. It is white, has a fine lustre, and is said to be very pure, but 
sometimes has a slight urinous odor indicative of its origin. {A. J. P., xxvii. 23; P. J. Tr., 
July, 1875.) Owing to the scarcity in the market of benzoin yielding paying quantities of 
benzoic acid, it is asserted that the English manufacturers employ certain varieties of Botany 
Bay gum {Gum acroides), and obtain a larger yield of an acid which was at one time regarded 
as cinnamic, but has been shown to be benzoic acid. (W. i?., Feb. 1879.) 
Properties. Sublimed benzoic acid is in “ white, or yellowish-white, lustrous scales or 
friable needles, odorless, or having a slight, characteristic odor resembling that of benzoin, and 
of a warm, acid taste; somewhat volatile at a moderately warm temperature, and rendered 
darker by exposure to light.” From solution the acid crystallizes in transparent prisms. 
When quite pure it is inodorous; but prepared by sublimation from the balsam it has a pe- 
culiar, agreeable, aromatic odor, dependent on the presence of an oil, which may be separated 
by dissolving the acid in alcohol and precipitating it with water. Its taste is warm, acrid, and 
acidulous. It is unalterable in the air, but at 121-5° C. (250° F.) melts, and at a somewhat 
higher temperature rises in suffocating vapors. Sp. gr. 1-29. The Br. Pharmacopoeia gives 
as its melting point 121-4° C. (250-5° F.); “ but when obtained from benzoin, it melts at about 
248° F. (120° C.), forming a yellowish liquid which becomes brownish but not red as the 
temperature rises (absence of hippuric acid), and boils at about 462° F. (238-9° C.). When 
heated to the last-named temperature, it passes off in vapor which burns with a bright-yellow 
flame, and leaves only a slight residue.” Br. It is inflammable, burning without residue. 
One hundred parts of 90 per cent, alcohol dissolve about forty parts, whilst the same quantity 
of pure ether will dissolve about thirty parts. {Bourgoin.') The addition of borax or sodium 
* Cazeneuve recommends the precipitation of the acid from urine by the use of zinc sulphate, as zinc hippurate, 
decomposing with hydrochloric acid. (Zeitschr. Oest. Ap. Ver., 1879, p. 2.) 32 
Acidum Benzoicum. 
PART I. 
phosphate increases its solubility. It is readily dissolved by 'alcohol, and by concentrated 
sulphuric and nitric acids, from which it is precipitated by water. “ Soluble, when pure, in 
about 500 parts of water, and in 2 parts of alcohol at 15° C. (59° F.) ; in 15 parts of boiling 
water, and in 1 part of boiling alcohol. Also soluble in 3 parts of ether, 7 parts of chloroform, 
and readily soluble in carbon disulphide, benzol, fixed and volatile oils, but sparingly soluble 
in benzin.” U. S. “ It is soluble in 400 parts of cold or 17 parts of boiling water, in its own 
weight of absolute alcohol, in 3 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), in 2-5 of ether, in 7 of chloroform, 
and in the fixed and volatile oils; also in solutions of the alkalies and of calcium hydroxide, 
forming benzoates, and it is precipitated from these on the addition of hydrochloric acid unless 
the solutions are very dilute.” Br. It is entirely soluble in solutions of potassa, soda, or am- 
monia, from which it is precipitated by hydrochloric acid. On carefully neutralizing any of 
these solutions and adding solution of ferric sulphate previously diluted with water, a flesh- 
colored precipitate is produced. Its solution reddens litmus paper, and it forms salts with 
salifiable bases called benzoates. 
“ Benzoic Acid volatilizes freely with the vapor of water. On heating it to 100° C. (212° F.), 
it begins to sublime. At 121-4° C. (250 5° F.) it melts, and at a higher temperature it is con- 
sumed without leaving a residue. The acid sublimed from benzoin has a lower melting point, 
and a greater solubility in water. Benzoic Acid has an acid reaction. On heating Benzoic 
Acid gradually, with 3 parts of freshly slaked lime, in a retort, benzol is evolved. The Acid 
is freely soluble in solutions of alkali hydrates. On carefully neutralizing such a solution, and 
adding ferric chloride test-solution, previously diluted with 2 volumes of water, and neutral- 
ized, if necessary, by ammonia, a flesh-colored precipitate of ferric benzoate is produced. A 
solution of Benzoic Acid in pure, cold sulphuric acid, when gently warmed, should not turn 
darker than light brown; if it is then poured into water, the Benzoic Acid should separate as 
a white precipitate, and the liquid should be colorless (absence of readily carbonizable, organic 
matters). If 0-5 Gm. of the Acid and 0-8 Gm. of calcium carbonate be mixed with a little 
water in a crucible, the mixture dried, gently ignited, and then dissolved in water, with the aid 
of nitric acid in slight excess, so as to obtain 20 C.c. of filtrate, the addition of silver nitrate 
test-solution to the latter should not produce much more opalescence (if at all) than is pro- 
duced by the same reagent in a solution measuring 20 C.c. prepared by dissolving 0-8 Gm. of 
the same calcium carbonate in water with the aid of nitric acid (absence of more than traces 
of chlorine'). On warming 0-5 Gm. of the Acid with 5 C.c. of water and 0-5 Gm. of potas- 
sium permanganate in a test-tube loosely stoppered and placed in a water-bath heated to about 
45° C. (113° F.), then tightly stoppering, and cooling the test-tube with cold water, upon re- 
moving the stopper, no odor of oil of bitter almond should be discernible (absence of cinnamic 
acid)." U. S. “ When 0-5 gramme is heated in a closed crucible with twice its weight of 
calcium carbonate, the mass dissolved in diluted nitric acid, and solution of silver nitrate added, 
only the slightest cloudiness should result (absence of chlorobenzoic acid). It should yield no 
characteristic reaction with the tests for oxalates. It should not develop the odor of benzal- 
dehyde when warmed with its own weight of potassium permanganate and ten times its weight 
of diluted sulphuric acid (absence of cinnamic acid). 0-2 gramme suspended in 10 cubic 
centimetres of water should not immediately discharge the color of two drops of solution of 
potassium permanganate (absence of liippuric and cinnamic acids).” Br. 
Benzoic acid is a characteristic constituent of the balsams, and has been found in various 
other vegetable and some animal products. When heated, it should sublime without residue; 
but the Br. Pharmacopoeia allows a slight residue for impurities. 
Potassium permanganate has been depended upon more than any other reagent to dis- 
tinguish between benzoic acids as obtained from different sources. Schacht proposes the fol- 
lowing modification of the German Pharmacopoeia test: if 3 grains of benzoic acid be dissolved 
in 96 minims of solution of potassa, sp. gr. 1-777, diluted with 96 minims of distilled water, 
and 10 drops of a solution made by dissolving 1 grain of potassium permanganate in 200 
grains of water be added to it and the whole heated to boiling, dark green liquids (in which 
brown precipitates gradually appear) are produced if the benzoic acid be obtained from urine, 
from toluol, or from commercial benzoin, whilst if the benzoic acid be from Siam benzoin 
(sublimed or made by wet process) decoloration of the liquids and brown precipitates are 
produced, due to the presence of cinnamic acid. (Pharm. Centralhalle, 1881, 565.) The odor 
of bitter almonds confirms the presence of cinnamic acid. It is claimed that benzoic acid 
from benzoin can be distinguished from that from other sources by adding resorcin and sul- 
phuric acid to the alcoholic solution of the acid. The benzoic acid gives a beautiful red color, PART I. 
Acidum Benzoicum.—Acidum Boricum. 
33 
due probably to a trace of vanillin or other aldehyde in the natural product. (Gbldner, Pharm. 
Zeit., 1892, p. 697.) 
Medical Propertie and Uses. Benzoic acid is irritant to the alimentary mucous 
membrane, and as a stimulant expectorant is of some value in chronic bronchitis and the later 
stages of the acute disorder. Led by his belief that it has the power of converting uric acid 
into hippuric acid, Dr. Alexander Ure many years ago proposed benzoic acid as a remedy for 
the dissolving of deposits of the urates, but it is now proved that the hippuric acid which 
appears in the urine of those taking benzoic acid is formed out of the benzoic acid itself. This 
conversion would appear to take place in the kidneys, since, after the exhibition of large doses, 
benzoic and not hippuric acid can be detected in the blood; whilst even small amounts of 
hippuric acid injected into the blood produce violent poisoning. Moreover, Bunge and 
Schmiedeberg have succeeded in converting benzoic acid into hippuric acid by passing blood 
containing benzoic acid slowly through kidneys immediately after their removal from the body. 
In rare cases, according to Meissner and Shepard, the benzoic acid is converted into succinic 
instead of hippuric acid. When it is given very freely a portion of the benzoic acid escapes 
unchanged. Where the nitrogen necessary for the conversion of the benzoic into hippuric 
acid comes from is at present unknown. A priori it would seem probable that the source of 
this nitrogen was the urea, but the testimony as to the effect of the injection of benzoic acid 
upon the urea and uric acid of the urine is entirely contradictory. Investigators are about 
equally divided in their findings that the uric acid is very much diminished, and that it 
remains normal; a fact which is also true of’ urea. In our own experience benzoic acid has 
seemed to be a very useful remedy in uric acid gravel, though without specific influence on the 
uric acid diathesis. 
The urine is always strongly acidified by the free administration of benzoic acid, so that the 
remedy is useful in phosphatic gravel and in ammoniacal cystitis with a tendency to a deposit of 
the phosphates. Its beneficial influence, of course, continues only during its administration, and 
it is necessary to give it in very large doses—up to a dracbm a day. It has been strongly 
recommended in nocturnal incontinence, and has also sometimes been given with advantage 
in various forms of cystitis and even in acute gonorrhoea. As first pointed out by Dougall 
in 1872, benzoic acid is a powerful antiseptic. Bucholz found that 0-2 per cent, of it has 
a decided influence upon the development of the organisms of putrefaction ; and F. Baden 
Benger (P. J. Tr., 1875, p. 211) states that one-fourth of a grain of it added to a fluidounce 
of infusion of orange, buchu, or gentian will cause the infusion to keep unchanged for at least 
one month. 
Benzoic acid may be readily dissolved in water by the addition to it of four parts of 
sodium phosphate, or one part and a half of sodium biborate. The dose is from 10 to 30 
grains (0 648—1-9 Gm.). It may be administered in pill, using soap as an excipient. It is an 
ingredient in some cosmetic washes, and has been employed by way of fumigation as a remedy 
in affections of the skin. It has also been employed as a local hsemostatic, in connection with 
alum, with considerable asserted success; but there can be little doubt that alum is the more 
efficient ingredient. 
ACIDUM BORICUM. U.S., Br. Boric Acid. [BoracicAcid.] 
H3 B03; 61*78. 
(Xg'l-DUM BO'KI-OUM.) 
H3B03; 62. 
Acidum Boracicum; BoracicAcid; Hydrogen Borate; Acide borique, Fr.; Borsaure, G. 
“ A weak acid having the formula H3B03. Obtained by the interaction of sulphuric acid 
and borax, and by the purification of native boric acid.” Br. 
Boric acid occurs in small amount, most probably in combination as a magnesium salt, in 
sea-water and in certain mineral waters, as the hot springs of Wiesbaden, Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
Vichy; in certain mineral substances, such as the borocalcite which occurs in considerable 
quantities in the nitre-beds of Chili; in the natural borax or tincal, first found in the basins 
of dried-up lagoons in Central Asia, and afterwards in large amount in Clear Lake, California \ 
in ulexite (sodium and calcium borate) and colemanite (calcium borate). The last of these 
minerals now yields by far the largest amount of the boric acid obtained on the Pacific coast. 
It is found in a large vein deposit in San Bernardino County, California, where it is mined 
and shipped to the works of the Pacific Coast Borax Company at Alameda, California. Boric 
acid itself is extracted, under the name of sassolin, from the lagoons of the volcanic districts 
of Tuscany, and from the crater of Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands. 34 
Acidurn Boricum. 
PART T. 
Preparation. In the neighborhood of Monte Rotondo, Lago Zolforeo, Sasso, and Larde- 
rello are found numerous hillocks and fissures, the latter of which emit hot aqueous vapor con- 
taining boric acid and certain gases. Around one or several of these fissures, called sujjloni, a 
circular basin of masonry is built, which is filled with water and called a lagoon. By the jets 
of vapor constantly breaking through it, the water becomes gradually impregnated with boric 
acid and heated. A series of such lagoons are made to communicate with each other on the 
declivity of a hill, and the lowest to discharge itself into a reservoir, where the solution is 
allowed to rest and deposit mechanical impurities. From this reservoir the solution is made to 
pass into leaden evaporating pans, heated by the natural vapor, where it receives sufficient con- 
centration to fit it for being conducted into wooden tubs, where it is allowed to cool and crystal- 
lize. The crude acid thus obtained contains from 74 to 84 per cent, of boric acid ; the impuri- 
ties consisting chiefly of alum, the double ammonium and magnesium sulphate, and calcium 
sulphate. The production of Tuscan boric acid for the year 1887 was stated to be 8500 tons, 
in addition to 500 tons of borax made direct at the works, while that for 1891 was 8831 metric 
tons. 
The native borax minerals of California supply, at present, the entire American demand for 
boric acid. The American production of refined borax, including boric acid, was 13,506,356 
pounds in 1895, 15,258,014 pounds in 1896, and 21,422,300 pounds in 1897. The free acid 
is obtained by decomposing the salt in aqueous solution with strong hydrochloric acid. 
Properties. Boric acid forms “ Transparent, colorless scales, of a somewhat pearly lustre, 
or, when in perfect crystals, six-sided, triclinic plates, slightly unctuous to the touch, odorless, 
having a faintly bitterish taste, and permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 25-6 
parts of water, and in 15 parts of alcohol; also soluble in 10 parts of glycerin. Addition of 
hydrochloric acid increases its solubility in water.” U. S. “ Soluble in 30 parts of cold water, in 
4 of glycerin, in 30 of alcohol (90 per cent.), and in 3 of boiling water." Br. Boric acid has a 
sp. gr. of 1-434, dissolves in three parts of boiling water and in volatile oils, but is insoluble in 
ether. On evaporation of the alcoholic solution, the boric acid volatilizes even more readily than 
from the aqueous solution. Glycerin, when heated, dissolves a very large quantity of boric acid. 
(See Glyceritum Boroglycerini; also Boroglyceride, Part II.*) Its aqueous solution tastes some- 
what acid, colors litmus paper a wine red, and changes turmeric paper to a brown color, analo- 
gous to that produced by alkalies, even when hydrochloric acid is present. On moistening the 
paper so browned and then dried with caustic alkali solution, it turns first blue and then a dirty 
gray color. “ When heated to 100° C. (212° F.), Boric Acid loses water, forming metaboric acid 
(HBOa), which slowly volatilizes at that temperature. Heated to 160° C. (320° F.), it fuses 
to a glassy mass of tetraboric (or pyroboric) acid (H2B407) ; at a higher temperature the fused 
mass swells up, loses all of its water, and becomes boron trioxide (B203), which fuses into a 
transparent, non-volatile mass. From a boiling solution, Boric Acid readily volatilizes. The 
solution in alcohol or glycerin burns with a flame enveloped with a green-colored mantle. An 
aqueous solution (1 in 50) of Boric Acid colors blue litmus paper red, but yellow turmeric paper 
brownish-red after drying, even when the solution had been acidulated with hydrochloric acid ; 
this brownish-red color is changed to bluish-black by ammonia water.” U. S. “ It changes 
the color of litmus to wine-red in the cold, a hot saturated solution giving a bright red color; 
turmeric paper moistened with an aqueous solution, even when slightly acidulated with hydro- 
chloric acid, becomes brownish-red on gently drying, and this color changes to a greenish-black 
if solution of potassium hydroxide be added. The solution in alcohol burns with a flame tinged 
with green, especially when the solution is acidulated nvith sulphuric acid. Boric Acid liquefies 
when warmed, and on careful heating loses 43-6 per cent, of its weight, the product solidifying, 
on cooling, to a brittle glass-like mass. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests 
for lead or copper, and only the slightest reactions with the tests for iron, calcium, magnesium, 
potassium, sodium, ammonium, chlorides, and sulphates.” Br. 
Boric acid is a weak acid, or may even act as a base. Thus, with sulphuric and phosphoric 
acids it forms compounds which may be considered as salts. Its compounds with bases, when 
in solution, are readily decomposed by other acids, but at red heat boric oxide will displace 
many of the stronger but more volatile acids. “ A 2-per-cent, aqueous solution of the Acid 
should not be precipitated by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sxdphatc) ; silver nitrate 
test-solution with nitric acid (absence of chloride) ; ammonium sulphide test-solution (lead, 
copper, iron, etc.) ; ammonium oxalate test-solution (calcium) ; or sodium phosphate test-solution 
* Antibacteride. For an account of this substance see U. S. D., 16th ed. Acidum Boricum.—Acidum Carbolicum. 
35 
PART I. 
and ammonia water (magnesium,). No odor of ammonia should be evolved by heating the 
Acid with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution. In a solution of 1 Gm. of Boric Acid 
in a mixture of 1 C.c. of hydrochloric acid and 49 C.c. of water, 0-5 C.c. of potassium ferro- 
cyanide test-solution should not at once produce a blue color (limit of iron). A fragment 
heated on a platinum wire (thoroughly cleansed by washing and heating, until it no longer 
colors the flame) should not impart to the non-luminous flame a persistent yellow color (absence 
of sodium)." U. S. M. Schauftele, of Paris, has drawn attention to a commercial boric acid 
containing lead. (JSf. /?., July, 1877.) 
Boric acid requires thirty parts of water to dissolve it, and this fact has led to many attempts 
to increase its solubility without interfering with its usefulness. The use of glycerin has been 
officially sanctioned. Scholz and Mansier recommend the use of magnesium carbonate (11 per 
cent.), but such an addition is not always permissible. When equal parts of boric acid and 
borax are dissolved in boiling water a crystalline mass separates on cooling, which has been 
termed boro-borax. Its advantages are increased solubility and neutral reaction. The remark- 
able volatility of boric acid when in alcoholic solution has been observed by Dr. Schneider 
and the fact utilized in its quantitative determination. (Zeitschr. Oest. Apoth. Per., 1896, 791.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. The physiological action of boric acid and its salts 
is a very feeble one, yet severe and even fatal cases of poisoning from it have been reported. 
The symptoms have been great depression of spirits, fall of bodily temperature, a pulse which 
is either rapid or slow but always very feeble, nausea, violent vomiting, hiccough, sometimes an 
erythematous eruption accompanied with much oedematous swelling, ecchymoses, disturbance 
of respiration, and, very late in the poisoning, coma followed by death. The acid escapes 
rapidly from the system, and to some extent through all the secretions, but especially by the 
urine. It has been demonstrated by E. T. Stewart and H. C. Wood to act as a depressant 
upon the spinal centres, and also to have a depressant influence upon the heart itself. 
Boric acid and its salts are usually poisonous to the lower forms of life, and have consider- 
able antiseptic power, but the experiments of Sternberg and of Andrews have shown that this 
influence is too feeble to be depended upon against pathogenetic germs. The acid acts upon 
mucous membranes as a soothing detergent, is nearly free from irritating properties, and is 
much used as a local application in mucous membrane inflammations, such as conjunctivitis, 
aphthous ulceration of the mouth, and even diphtheria. 
In antiseptic surgery the remedy has been tried, but has failed to take rank with more 
powerful agents. A lint made by saturating ordinary patent lint, or an ointment produced by 
melting one part each of spermaceti and white wax with six parts of vaseline and adding 
while hot two to four parts of a saturated glycerite of boric acid, may be used. In treating 
wounds, it is often desirable to use a solution containing more than 4 per cent, of boric acid 
(the extent of its solubility in water). Jaenicke proposes for this purpose a mixture of equal 
parts of boric acid and borax, of which 16 per cent, is soluble in water at ordinary tempera- 
ture. It is said to be non-irritating, non-poisonous, and efficacious: being soluble to the extent 
of 30 per cent, in water at the temperature of the blood, the solution can be applied to the 
interior of organs, and on cooling the crystals of the compound separate. (A. J. P., 1892, 97.) 
In ammoniacal cystitis boric acid may be given internally, and the washing out of the bladder 
with a saturated solution of the acid or of borax often acts most happily. Dose of the acid, 
ten grains (0-647 Gm.) three to six times a day ; strength of the solution for use on the con- 
junctiva or other mucous membrane, from five grains to the ounce up to saturation. 
Fatal cases of boric acid poisoning have been produced by the immoderate use of its solu- 
tion in washing out internal cavities. Two ounces of boric acid in the vagina produced violent 
poisoning, but were recovered from. 
The tendency of the crystals'of boric acid to slip from under the pestle renders the process 
of pulverization very tedious. It is essential that the acid be in an impalpable powder when it 
is desired to make an ointment. The gradual addition of ether to the acid has been suggested 
as a valuable aid to trituration. Boric acid ointment (Lister’s) is made from one part each of 
boric acid and white wax, and two parts each of oil of sweet almonds and paraffin. 
ACIDUM CARBOLICUM. U. S., Br. Carbolic Acid. (Phenol.) 
C«H5OH; 93*78. 
“ A constituent ot coal-tar, obtained by iractional distillation, and subsequently purmed. 
Carbolic Acid should be kept in dark amber-colored, well-stoppered vials.” U. S. “ Phenol, 
(AQ'I-DUM CAR-BOL'I-CUM.) 
C6H5HO; 94. 36 
Acidum Carbolicum. 
PART I. 
CeH60H, commonly termed carbolic acid, is obtained from coal-tar oil by fractional distilla- 
tion/’ Br. 
Acidum Phenicum s. Phenylicum Crystallisatum; Phenie Acid; Phenylic Acid; Phenol; Phenylic Alcohol; 
Acide carbolique, Hydrate de Phenyle, Acide phenique, Fr.; Carbolsaure, Phenylstlure, Phenylalkohol, G. 
This important medicine was discovered in 1834, in the tar of coal, by Runge, who gave it 
the name of carbolic acid. When on the subject of its composition, we shall have occasion to 
show that, although more closely related chemically with the alcohols than the acids, it belongs 
to a peculiar class known in common as phenols. The British Pharmacopoeia no longer officially 
recognizes the name of carbolic acid, but uses “ phenol” as the English name for this substance. 
Preparation. For the commercial preparation of carbolic acid the light oil fraction is 
collected until a sample of the oil that runs from the still sinks in water. This fraction, with 
a sp. gr. of from 0-94 to 0-99, boils between 90° and 250° C. and contains from 4 to 10 per 
cent, of acids, and therefore nearly all the carbolic acid or true phenol which boils at 182° C. 
The oil from which the phenol is to be extracted is agitated with a weak solution of caustic 
soda, 10 per cent, strength being strong enough. If a stronger solution is used many im- 
purities, like naphtalene, are dissolved and contaminate the finished acid. After agitation, 
the mixture, on standing, separates into two layers, the upper consisting of the extracted oil 
and the lower the solution of sodium carbolate. To this solution, after separation from the 
oily layer, an amount of hydrochloric or dilute sulphuric acid calculated from a special test 
with a small portion, as just sufficient, is then added in order to set the carbolic acid free. It 
separates as an oily layer upon the surface, and, after being washed with a saturated solution 
of common salt, is dried over calcium chloride and again distilled. The product thus obtained 
crystallizes out largely on a cooled surface, and, after removing the crystals from adhering 
liquid, and drying them by pressure, they are again submitted to the same process of distil- 
lation. Only by such a detailed procedure can carbolic acid be separated from its homologues, 
like cresol (cresylic acid), C6H4(CH3)OH, which accompany it, smell exactly like it, and boil 
between 185° C. (365° F.) and 200° C. (392° F.). 
Prof. Church (JOliem. News, Oct. 13,1871) proposes to prepare pure carbolic acid by agitating 
the best commercial product with 20 parts of water, siphoning off the clear solution from the 
undissolved portion which retains the impurities, and adding to the solution pure common salt 
to saturation, when the purified acid rises to the top, and may afterwards be dehydrated by 
distillation with lime. 
Within recent years German manufacturers have put upon the market “ synthetical carbolic 
acid,” for which is claimed a greater purity than that extracted from coal-tar. It may be made 
synthetically in one of two ways,—either from benzene, which is converted into benzene-sul- 
phonic acid, the sodium salt of which is then fused with an excess of caustic soda, producing 
sodium carbolate and sodium sulphite, from which, on the addition of sulphuric or hydrochloric 
acid, the phenol separates and may be distilled off; or a pure aniline oil is taken, neutralized 
with sulphuric acid, and to the acid solution sodium nitrite is added. The nitrous acid liberated 
forms at first diazobenzene sulphate; but this at once decomposes into phenol, sulphuric acid, 
and nitrogen, the reactions being as follows : 
(C6H6NH ) H S04 + 2HNOa = (CeH N==N) S04 + 4HaO; 
(CeH6N==N)2S04 4- 2HaO = 2CeH Oil + II2S04 + 4N. 
The synthetic acid melts at41°-42° C., and boils at 178° C. (352*4° F.). It is as yet considerably 
dearer than the coal-tar carbolic acid. 
Commercial Forms. In one of his publications in reference to carbolic acid, Dr. F. 
Crace Calvert, to whom probably more than to any other person is owing the introduction of this 
substance into use in Great Britain and the United States, informed us that the carbolic acid 
obtained by Laurent, melting at 34° C. (93° F.), and boiling at 186° C. (367° F.), was not 
quite pure. By successive steps of improvement in the process employed by the manufacturing 
house at Manchester with which he is connected, they had at length succeeded in preparing 
the pure crystallized acid, without color or sulphurous odor; but, unfortunately, this statement 
is not accompanied with an account of the means by which the end had been attained. As 
the products of this factory are those now generally used, a brief notice, derived from the 
same source, of the forms of the drug prepared by them, and now circulating in the market, 
is desirable. 1. A pure acid is prepared, crystallizing in white prismatic crystals, but, as usu- 
ally sold, in a white, hard, fused mass, which differs from Laurent’s in being soluble in 20 parts 
of water instead of 33 parts, fusible at 41° C. (106° F.) instead of 34° C. (93° F.), and boil- 
ing at 182° C. (359° F.) instead of 186° C. (367° F.). This should be preferred for internal PART I. 
Acidum Carbolicum. 
37 
use. 2. The second form is less pure. Like Laurent’s, it is white, solid, and fusible at 34° C. 
(93° F.), and may be employed for external purposes, whether in medicine or surgery. 3. A 
third quality is known in commerce as solution No. 4, which is not crystallizable at ordinary 
temperatures, and contains at least 10 per cent, of water, with varying quantities of homolo- 
gous acids. 4. The fourth and cheapest form is that of a nearly colorless liquid, which is a 
mixture of carbolic and cresylic acids. Diluted with 100 parts of water or more, it may be 
used for the coarser antiseptic and disinfecting purposes out of doors, as in cess-pools and 
sewers. Besides these forms of carbolic acid, which issue from the manufacturing establish- 
ment of the Messrs. Calvert, there are others from different sources, generally in the liquid 
state, which are usually of a brownish color, and consist of mixtures of carbolic acid with 
cresylic acid, coloring matter, etc., and of which carbolic acid often constitutes but a small 
proportion. These are often imported from Germany. They should not be used internally; 
but for disinfectant and antiseptic purposes they are probably equal to solutions of the pure 
acid, as the cresylic acid is said to be quite as powerfully disinfectant as the carbolic, if not 
more so. 
These impure liquors are sold sometimes under the improper name of coal-tar creosote. They 
are recognized in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia under the name of “ Acidum Carbolicum Crudum.” 
Properties. Carbolic acid, in its pure state, is a solid at ordinary temperatures, crystal- 
lizing in minute plates or long rhomboidal needles, white or colorless, of a peculiar odor recall- 
ing that of creosote, and an acrid burning taste. Its sp. gr. is 1-065. (Lemaire.) It is apt to 
be colored pinkish or brown under the influence of light and air. This reddening has been 
ascribed to various causes, such as ammonia and ammonium nitrite in the air, rust-spots in 
tinned iron vessels, alkali in glass vessels, organic matter, etc. It is said to be due to oxida- 
tion ; stannous chloride solution acquires a green color when shaken with the red-colored acid. 
Demant recommends the removal of the red color by adding to 89 parts of the melted acid 11 
parts of alcohol, subjecting the mixture to freezing, and then draining off the portion remain- 
ing liquid. Perfectly white crystals can be thus obtained. A slight discoloration does not 
interfere with any of the medical uses of the acid. Carbolic acid deliquesces on exposure, 
and becomes liquid; and the presence of water in the smallest proportion causes it to liquefy. 
It is customary to add 10 per cent, of water or glycerin to carbolic acid for dispensing, as it is 
more convenient to use in a liquid form. (See p. 41.) When diluted it has a sweetish taste 
with a slightly burning after-taste, and a faintly acid reaction. When quite pure it melts at 
41° C. (106° F.), forming an oily looking, colorless liquid, and boils at 182° C. (359° F.). 
(Calvert.) But, as often met with, its point of fusion is lower, and that of volatilization 
higher, than those named. “ When gently heated, Carbolic Acid melts, forming a highly re- 
fractive liquid. It is also liquefied by the addition of about 8 per cent, of water. If the Acid 
be liquefied by a gentle heat, and then slowly cooled, under constant stirring, until it is partly 
recrystallized, the semi-liquid mass should show a temperature (remaining stationary for a 
short time) not lower than 35° C. (95° F.). The Acid should have a boiling point not higher 
than 188° C. (370-4° F.). A lower boiling point, or a higher melting point, indicates a purer 
or less hydrated acid. When heated upon a water-bath, the Acid should be volatilized with- 
out leaving a residue. The vapor of the Acid is inflammable.” U. S. The Br. Ph. gives its 
melting point at not lower than 102° F. (38-8° C.), and its boiling point not higher than 
359.6° F. (182° C.). Specific gravity at the melting point from 1-060 to 1-066. It is “ soluble, 
at 15° C. (59° F.), in about 15 parts of water, the solubility varying according to the degree 
of hydration of the acid. Very soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzol, carbon disul- 
phide, glycerin, fixed and volatile oils. Almost insoluble in benzin.” U. S. “ Freely soluble 
in alcohol (90 per cent.), benzol, chloroform, carbon bisulphide, glycerin, in the fixed and 
volatile oils, and in solutions of alkalies. Exposed to moist air it may acquire a pinkish tinge. 
At 60° F. (15-5° C.), 100 parts of Phenol should be liquefied by the addition of 10 parts of 
water, should form a clear liquid with 30 to 40 of water, and should be completely dissolved 
by 1200 of water. The aqueous solution should be clear and colorless.” Br. Its solubility in 
water increases on heating the water; at 84° C. (183-2° F.) both liquids are miscible in all 
proportions. Its solution is, if pure, colorless, and remains so; but, if impure, is colored 
brownish by exposure. It is but slightly soluble in cold petroleum benzin, but dissolves largely 
on heating. Sodium sulphoricinate has been used to increase the solubility of phenol, the 
advantage being that it will retain 40 per cent, of phenol in solution without destroying its 
antiseptic power, making a solution without causticity. 
“ The aqueous solution of the Acid yields, with bromine water, a white precipitate which at 38 
Acidum Carbolicum. 
PART I. 
first redissolves, but becomes permanent as more of the reagent is added, and appears crystal- 
line when viewed under the microscope. On adding to 10 C.c. of a 1-per-cent, aqueous solution 
of the Acid, 1 drop of ferric chloride test-solution, the liquid acquires a violet-blue color which 
is permanent; and on adding Carbolic Acid either to albumen or to collodion, coagulation takes 
place (difference from creosote). One volume of cold, liquefied Carbolic Acid (rendered liquid 
by the addition of 8 per cent, of water) forms, with 1 volume of glycerin, a clear liquid which 
is not rendered turbid by the addition of 3 volumes of water (absence of creosote or of cresylic 
acid). If 0-039 Gm. of Carbolic Acid be tested by the method immediately following, there 
should be required for its complete conversion into tribromophenol not less than 24 C.c. of 
bromine decinormal volumetric solution (each C.c. of the volumetric solution corresponding to 
4 per cent, of absolute Phenol).” U. S. “ Phenol does not immediately redden blue litmus 
paper. It does not rotate the plane of a ray of polarized light. It coagulates solution of albu- 
men and collodion, and liquefies Camphor. Test-solution of ferric chloride strikes a deep purple 
color, and excess of solution of bromine gives a white precipitate, with a cold aqueous solution 
of Phenol. An aqueous solution of Phenol mixed with one-fourth of its volume of solution of 
ammonia, and then with a few drops of solution of chlorinated soda, becomes blue after a time 
or immediately on gently heating. One volume of Phenol, liquefied by the addition of 10 per 
cent, of water, forms with 1 volume of glycerin a clear liquid which is not rendered turbid by 
the addition of 3 volumes of water (absence of cresol).” Br. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 gives a method of valuing carbolic acid as follows: 
“ Valuation of Carbolic Acid. Dissolve 1-563 Gm. of the Carbolic Acid to be valued, 
in a sufficient quantity of water to make 1000 C.c. Transfer 25 C.c. of this solution (con- 
taining 0-039 Gm. of the acid) to a glass-stoppered bottle having a capacity of about 200 C.c., 
add 30 C.c. of bromine decinormal volumetric solution (which is 5 C.c. more than would be 
required if the carbolic acid in the solution were absolute phenol, the excess being added to 
promote the formation and separation of tribromophenol), then 5 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, 
and immediately insert the stopper. Shake the bottle repeatedly in the course of half an hour, 
then remove the stopper just sufficiently to introduce quickly 5 C.c. of a 20-per-cent, aqueous 
solution of potassium iodide, being careful that no bromine vapor escapes, and immediately 
stopper the bottle. Shake the latter thoroughly, remove the stopper and rinse it and the neck 
of the bottle with a little water, so that the washings may flow into the bottle, and then add, 
from a burette, sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution, until the iodine tint is 
exactly discharged, using towards the end a few drops of starch test-solution as indicator. 
Note the number of C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution consumed. 
Deduct this from 30 (the number of C.c. of bromine volumetric solution originally added), 
and multiply the remainder by 4. The product will, approximately, represent the percentage 
of absolute Phenol in the Carbolic Acid tested.” U. S. 
Though nearly neutral to test-paper, it combines feebly with some bases ; its salts being decom- 
posed by carbonic acid, and those with the alkalies having an alkaline reaction. The potassium 
carbolate is said to be decomposed even by water. Nitric acid converts it into picric acid, 
for the manufacture of which it is largely used. It reduces many metallic salts, especially 
those of silver and copper, and coagulates collodion. Bromine water, added in excess to a 
weak solution, produces a flocculent white precipitate. This precipitate, which consists of 
tribromophenol, is so insoluble that it separates even in the most dilute solutions, and affords an 
extremely delicate test. In 24 hours a solution containing but of phenol gives the 
reaction. (Allen, Com. Org. Analysis, 2d ed., vol. ii. p. 540.) If an aqueous solution of phenol 
be gently warmed with ammonium aud solution of sodium hypoclilorate (avoiding excess), a 
deep blue color is obtained, which is lasting, but turns to red on the addition of acids. Solu- 
tions containing 1 part of phenol in 5000 parts of water react well when 20 C.c. are employed. 
Much smaller quantities give the reaction after a time. (Ibid., p. 539.) Ferric chloride (avoid- 
ing excess) gives a fine violet color, by which 1 part of phenol in 3000 parts of water can be 
detected. The presence even of neutral salts often interferes with this reaction. 
Carbolic acid in solution coagulates albumen and collodion, arrests fermentation, instantly 
destroys the lower forms of vegetable and animal life, and, in very small proportion, prevents 
mouldiness in vegetable juices, and protects animal substances against putrefaction. 
The substances with which carbolic acid is most likely to be confounded are cresylic acid 
and creosote, the former, like it, extracted from coal-tar, the latter from wood-tar exclusively. 
As cresylic acid is incapable of crystallizing at ordinary temperatures, the two cannot be con- 
founded in the solid state, and, as before observed, its presence in the liquid state is of little PART I. 
Acidum Carbolicwn. 
39 
consequence, as its virtues are of the same kind, and at least equal. Its boiling point, how- 
ever, is considerably higher than that of carbolic acid, being about 400° ; and it may, there- 
fore, be supposed to be present in any suspected liquid which will not crystallize at any common 
temperature, or boil under 202° C. (395° F.) to 204° C. (400° F.). It is also distinguished 
by being less soluble in water, ammonia, glycerin, and solution of soda than is the case with 
carbolic acid, but it is more soluble in petroleum benzin. (Allen.) (A. J. P., Jan. 1879.) 
Creosote is distinguished by its lower density, its liquid form, and its higher boiling point; by 
its insolubility in strong ammonia, or in 6-per-cent, soda solution, as well as its insolubility 
in pure glycerin (see Creosotum) ; by not coagulating collodion and albumen ; and by the dif- 
ferent effects on it of strong nitric acid, which with carbolic acid produces pure picric or tri- 
nitrophenic acid, and with creosote, oxalic acid, resinous matter, and but a small proportion 
of picric acid. (Calvert, Lancet, 1863, p. 523.) Carbolic acid differs also in having no effect 
on polarized light. 
The commercial carbolic acid powders and liquids all contain not only cresylic acid, but also 
nearly inactive and valueless neutral tar oils, and it is important to be able to determine the 
percentage of the tar adds and that of simple tar oils in a commercial sample. Prof. John 
Muter (A. J. P., Nov. 1887, p. 581) has worked out a simple method for this, based upon the 
following four observed facts: 1st, phenol, cresol, and their homologues are completely soluble 
when shaken up with a 5-per-cent, solution of sodium hydrate; 2d, liquefied phenol and the 
corresponding cresol are insoluble in a saturated solution of sodium chloride; 3d, in the pres- 
ence of a sufficient excess of alkali even a largely diluted solution may be boiled down without 
the slightest appreciable loss of phenol or cresol; 4th, tar oils and naphtalin are only very 
slightly dissolved by alkali, and may be perfectly removed from the solution by agitating it 
with benzol. 
Prof. E. W. Davy proposes, as a test for carbolic acid, sulpho-molybdic acid, made by dis- 
solving 1 part of molybdic acid in 10 or even 100 parts of pure concentrated sulphuric acid ; 
3 or 4 drops of this solution are added to the carbolic acid placed on white porcelain: a beau- 
tiful blue coloration will be produced upon standing, particularly if the liquid be gently heated ; 
if this reagent is applied to wood creosote in aqueous solution, a brownish-red color is produced. 
Carbolic acid in creosote may be detected by distilling an aqueous solution of the mixture: 
the first portion of the distillate will give the reaction for creosote, the last portion that for 
carbolic acid. (P. J. Tr., June 22, 1878.) 
Composition. The view of the composition of carbolic acid now universally accepted 
is that it is the hydroxyl (OH) derivative of benzene, CeHe, and its formula would therefore 
be C6H5,0H. This would ally it to the alcohols, and it may be compared in fact to what are 
known as tertiary alcohols. The primary alcohols, like ethyl alcohol, C2II60H, yield corre- 
sponding aldehydes and acids on oxidation. The counterpart of these in the aromatic series are 
the aromatic alcohols, like CeH5.CH20H, which yield benzoic acid, C6H5C00H, on oxidation. 
The name phenols has therefore been given to these derivatives in which H of the benzene 
group is replaced by Oil. It is commonly called carbolic acid, but its claims to be considered 
as an acid are very feeble; as, though it combines with salifiable bases, it is incapable of neu- 
tralizing the alkalies, does not affect the color of litmus, and may be separated from its com- 
binations with great facility, sometimes, it is asserted, even by water. Shaken in the liquid 
form with one-fourth of water, and cooled to 40° F., it crystallizes in the form of a hydrate, 
C6H5,OH -f- II20, which fuses at 17° C. (62 6° F.). 
Medical Properties and Uses. Carbolic acid, in the liquid form, is locally, powerfully 
irritant and anaesthetic, and, applied undiluted to the skin, causes a sharp pain followed by 
numbness, and accompanied with a whiteness of the surface, due to the coagulation of albumen. 
In contact with mucous.surfaces it acts in the same way, and if continued long enough may 
produce a superficial caustic effect. When applied externally or taken internally with sufficient 
freedom it is a most fatal, rapidly-acting poison. The symptoms are usually developed very 
rapidly; indeed, death has occurred in two or three minutes, the patient dying in immediate 
coma and collapse. After small amounts the symptoms, which may be delayed for several 
minutes, are nausea, cold sweats, marked pallor of the skin, stupor rapidly deepening into 
complete insensibility, a feeble pulse, which is usually rapid, but has been in some cases much 
slower than normal, and great disturbance of the breathing. The respirations are usually 
hurried and shallow, often very irregular, sometimes paroxysmally arrested. There is usually 
paralysis both of sensation and motion, but in some cases violent epileptiform convulsions have 
occurred. An almost diagnostic symptom is a blackish coloration of the urine. In severe 40 
Acid urn Carbolicum. 
PART I. 
poisoning the latter fluid is apt to contain both albumen and tube-casts. Half an ounce of 
carbolic acid has caused death, and one and a half ounces have been recovered from. When 
carbolic acid is employed externally the symptoms develop slowly: the dark discoloration of 
the urine is especially marked, and its presence should be the signal for disuse of the remedy. 
Death is generally due to paralysis of the respiratory centres; although the heart is power- 
fully depressed and death may happen by syncope: indeed, carbolic acid is an overpowering, 
paralyzing poison to all higher tissues. The lesions found after death have been whitish or 
blackish corrugated spots on the gastric mucous membrane, imperfect coagulability of the blood, 
and in some instances fatty degeneration of the hepatic cell and of the renal epithelium. 
In therapeutic doses carbolic acid has no appreciable effect upon the general system. It is 
eliminated by all the emunctories, having been found by Lemaire in the breath of animals, but 
especially escapes through the kidneys, chiefly as a sulphocarbolic and glyco-uronic acid ; but, 
after toxic doses, to some extent unchanged, and probably also in some part oxidized in hydro- 
chinon, oxalic acid, and other educts. As an internal medicament carbolic acid is, at present, 
used almost solely for its sedative influence upon the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane and 
its antifermentative action upon the contents of the primae viae. It is especially useful in 
vomiting or diarrhoea when dependent upon excessive irritability of the gastric or intestinal 
mucous membrane. In yeasty vomiting, in flatulence, in diarrhoea with offensive passages, in 
flatulent dyspepsia, and in the fermentative diarrhoea connected with intestinal dyspepsia, it is 
very valuable in doses of from one to three drops, not oftener than once in two hours. 
By far the most important property of carbolic acid, both as a therapeutic and as a sanative 
agent, is its destructive influence over the lower grades of organic life, whether vegetable or ani- 
mal. In a solution containing only one part of the acid in 500 parts of water, it instantly destroys 
vegetable mould, both plant and spores, and operates with equal destructiveness upon minute or 
microscopic animalcules. Hoppe-Seyler gives as the result of his observation that all inferior 
organisms perish in a liquid containing 1 per cent, of the acid. (Arch. Gin., 1873, p. 633.) 
Rosenbach injected dogs and rabbits with unhealthy pus with and without admixture of carbolic 
acid, and found that death generally followed in the former case, while with the addition of 
5 per cent, of carbolic acid no permanent injury resulted. (Med. Record, 1873, p. 427.) Through 
this power it checks the different proper fermentations, including the putrefactive, and thus 
acts powerfully as an antiseptic or disinfecting agent. In sufficient concentration it is undoubt- 
edly capable of destroying germs of various diseases. Experiments have determined that, mixed 
with vaccine matter in the proportion of 2 per cent., it entirely destroys its efficacy, while in a 
much smaller proportion it has no effect. (Arch. Gen., 1873, p. 632.) 
But it is more as a topical than as an internal and systemic remedy that carbolic acid has 
been used; and its employment in this way has reference in general to its antiseptic and anti- 
zymotic property. As regards the mere correction of offensive odor by decomposition or neu- 
tralization of the effluvia on which the odor depends, there are other medicines much more 
energetic than carbolic acid, as chlorine, bromine, and potassium permanganate. Indeed, 
the probability is that it exercises no deodorizing influence beyond that of merely disguising 
the smell of the offensive exhalations by its own bad odor. Its real action is upon the cause 
of the exhalations. Most of these offensive odors depend upon a species of fermentation, the 
putrefactive for example, and carbolic acid, even in very dilute solution, is powerfully destruc- 
tive of the organisms which cause fermentations, and consequently acts much more by prevent- 
ing putrefactive exhalations than by destroying them. A piece of offensive animal matter is 
less speedily deodorized by carbolic acid than by potassium permanganate; but the former in 
a short time entirely suppresses the putrefaction, and the matter consequently ceases to smell 
because it ceases to putrefy; whereas under the mere chemical agent it is only by its constant 
presence that the odor is prevented, and the putrefaction goes on unchecked. 
Through its parasiticidal influence, carbolic acid is highly useful, as a local application, in all 
the diseases which are connected with or dependent on the presence of microscopic plants or 
animals. Hence its use in scabies, in which it destroys the itch insect, in the different forms 
of porrigo and trichosis, in pityriasis versicolor, in the thrush of infants, and in all cases of 
minute vermin affecting the human body. In these cases it is applied to the parts affected in 
weak solution, or in the form of ointment, but care must be taken to avoid poisoning by it. 
Offensive diphtheritic exudations, putrid ulcers wherever they can be reached, and suppuration 
with a similar offensive odor, whether on the outer surface, or from the mucous passages, as of 
the nose, bronchial tubes, external meatus, urinary outlets, the rectum, and, in females, the vagina, 
afford similar indications for its use. Its use as a vermicide is too dangerous to be justifiable. PART i. 
Acidum Carbolicum. 
41 
It is a very valuable remedy in the treatment of compound fractures, and other surgical or 
accidental wounds. As success in the so-called antiseptic surgery is dependent upon close atten- 
tion to numerous details, the reader is referred to works upon antiseptic surgery for further 
information upon the subject. It has been highly recommended as a dentifrice in carious teeth 
with offensive breath, and to keep the teeth and gums clean from tartar or other morbid deposit 
consequent upon, or at least connected with, the presence of minute parasitic organisms in these 
parts. Introduced on cotton, in a concentrated liquid state, into the cavity of a carious tooth, 
it quickly relieves pain by its local anaesthetic action ; but care must he taken to prevent it from 
touching the lips or the internal surface of the mouth. In cases, too, of morbidly offensive 
secretion in the axilla and groin, between the toes, etc., it may be used in the form of solution 
or ointment with hope of benefit. 
Independently of its disinfectant properties, it may be employed locally, in weak solution, 
as a gentle irritant or alterative, or concentrated, as a mild escharotic* in chronic indolent or 
flabby ulcers, or in those of a specific character, as the syphilitic, in cutaneous eruptions inde- 
pendent of cryptogamic cause, and in non-suppurative chronic or even acute inflammation of 
the mucous membranes, as in common angina. In scalds and burns it is said to have proved 
very useful. In concentrated form carbolic acid is a mild caustic, which may be used with 
advantage in the treatment of marts, corns, and other epidermal growths. 
The stomach pump or the india-rubber tube siphon should be employed in carbolic acid 
poisoning, after the administration of the antidote, the benumbing of the stomach being such 
that emetics usually will not act. M. Husemann recommended as an antidote the saccharate 
of lime, prepared by dissolving 16 parts of sugar in 40 parts of distilled water, adding 5 parts 
of caustic lime, digesting it three days with occasional agitation, then filtering and evaporating 
to dryness. The resulting saccharate should be given in solution. (Joum. de Pharm., 1873, p. 
222.) The discovery, however, of Baumann and Hueter that the soluble sulphates, especially 
the sodium sidphate, form with carbolic acid harmless sulpho-carbolates, and are capable of 
neutralizing the poison even after its absorption into the blood, has been abundantly confirmed 
by Dr. David Cerna and others, and in sulphuric acid and the innocuous soluble sulphates we 
have very certain antidotes, which should be given freely, promptly, and continuously. 
Of the tests for carbolic acid in cases of suspected poisoning by this substance, the three 
most characteristic are: the ammonia and hypochlorite test, the test with ferric chloride, and 
the bromine test. One part of carbolic acid in 5000 of water may be shown by adding to the 
solution first about one-quarter its volume of ammonium hydrate and then a small quantity of 
sodium hypochlorite solution, when a blue color will appear. One part of phenol in 3000 of 
water can be detected by the addition of a solution of ferric chloride, when a fine violet color 
will develop, although the color is often interfered with in complex liquid mixtures. The 
most satisfactory test is that with bromine water. A whitish precipitate of tribromphenol 
will form even in very dilute solutions on standing. One part in 60,000 can be detected in this 
way. The precipitate is insoluble in water and acid liquids, but soluble in alkalies, ether, and 
absolute alcohol. 
The dose of carbolic acid is one to three grains (0-064-0T9 Gm.), or of the acid in its con- 
centrated liquid form one to three drops (0-06-0T8 C.c.), which may be given in half a fluid- 
ounce or a fluidounce of sweetened water. An excellent menstruum is glycerin, which dissolves 
it in all proportions; and a preparation is at present official in the British Ph., consisting of an 
ounce of carbolic acid dissolved in four fluidounces of glycerin, of which about four minims 
represent a grain of the acid. From this solution formulas may be readily prepared, either for 
internal or for external use, by diluting it with water. (See Glyceritum Acidi Carbolici.) 
For external use the strength varies greatly according to the object desired. When applied 
with a view to its superficial escharotic action, as in gangrenous or specific ulcers, it may be 
used in the solid state properly comminuted, or in the strongest liquid form. In this condition 
it may be readily obtained by placing the bottle containing it in hot water. Bufalini recom- 
mends its combination with camphor, under the name of Camphorated Phenol, asserting that 
the camphor moderates the caustic and disorganizing action of the phenol without destroy- 
ing its useful effects; he prepares it by mixing one part of carbolic acid with two parts of 
* Dr. Robert Battey, of Rome, Ga., in the Amer. Pract., Feb. 1877, suggests a combination with iodine, as a 
uterine escharotic and alterative, under the name of Iodized Phenol, prepared by “gently warming one ounce of 
erystallized carbolic acid with half an ounce of iodine.” This may be diluted, if necessary, with an equal bulk of 
glycerin. Under the name of Iodated Phenol a weaker preparation has been used, made by dissolving 4 grains 
each of iodine and carbolic acid in 10 drachms of glycerin. A. J. P., 1886, p. 14. 42 
Acidum Carbolicum.—Acidum Carbolicum Liquefciclum. 
PART I. 
camphor, allowing the mixture to stand some hours, and purifying by washing with water; it 
is a liquid of reddish-yellow color, having the smell of camphor, insoluble in water, and soluble 
in alcohol and ether. For the skin affections one part of the acid may be dissolved in one 
hundred or two hundred parts of water; or the impure liquid acid may be used, diluted in the 
same proportion. M. Bazin uses a solution of one part in forty parts of acetic acid of 8° B. 
and 100 of water, in tetter and psora, and states that a single application will destroy the itch 
insect. A solution containing a grain to the fluidounce of water may be used for application, 
in the form of spray, to the fauces, larynx, and bronchial tubes, by means of the atomizer; 
and the strength may be increased up to four or five grains or moi’e to the fluidounce. 
Various fabrics are impregnated with carbolic acid for surgical use.* Prof. Lister s gauze may 
be made by soaking a loose cotton cloth with a mixture of 5 parts resin, 7 parts paraffin, and 
1 part carbolic acid. Prof. Bruns improves upon this, making a more flexible dressing, by dis- 
solving 400 grammes of powdered resin in 2 litres of alcohol, adding 40 grammes of castor oil 
and 100 grammes of carbolic acid; this will impregnate 2 pounds of the gauze, which is to be 
dried by spreading it out in the air. (See also Lund’s process, A. J. P., Feb. 1874.) Carbolized 
jute may be made by Bosenwasser’s process by soaking in a percolator 1 pound of jute with a 
solution of crystallized carbolic acid 700 grains, paraffin 700 grains, resin 2800 grains, benzin 
3 pints. (Am. Journ. Med. Sci., 1879, p. 458. See also N. R., April, 1879, and April, 1880.) 
For burns and scalds 1 part of carbolic acid in 6 parts of olive oil may be applied on lint. 
For the dressing of cancerous and other foul ulcers, a cerate (five grains to the ounce) may 
be used. There is an official ointment. A carbolic acid paper, used in packing fresh meats, 
in order to preserve them, may be prepared by melting 5 parts of stearin with a gentle heat, 
stirring in thoroughly 2 parts of carbolic acid, adding 5 parts of melted paraffin, stirring the 
mixture till it cools, and finally melting, and applying in the usual manner to the paper in 
quires. ( Chemist and Druggist, Dec. 1871.) 
The impure liquid acid sold in the shops usually contains from 70 to 90 per cent, of carbolic 
and cresylic acids jointly (Squibb), and, as the latter acid is quite equal to the former in disin- 
fecting power, yields, if dissolved in water in the proportion of 1 to 80 parts, a solution equiva- 
lent on the average to that produced by dissolving 1 part of the pure acid in 100 parts of water. 
ACIDUM CARBOLICUM CRUDUM. U. S. Crude Carbolic Acid. 
(AQ'I-DUM CAR-BOL'l-CUM CRU'DUM.) 
“ A liquid consisting of various constituents of coal-tar, chiefly cresol and phenol, obtained 
by fractional distillation.” U. S. 
Acide phenique cru, Fr. ; Rohe Carbosaure, G. 
With great propriety, we think, the revisers of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, 1880, gave a dis- 
tinct heading to this form of carbolic acid, and directed it to be used only externally; for, 
while its impurity, and its more or less uncertain composition and strength, unfit it for internal 
employment, it is equally efficacious with the purer acid as a local remedy and disinfectant. 
Crude carbolic acid is officially described as “ a nearly colorless, or reddish, or brownish-red 
liquid, of a strongly empyreumatic and creosote-like odor; having a benumbing, blanching, 
and caustic effect upon the skin or mucous membrane; and gradually turning darker on ex- 
posure to air and light. The aqueous solution of Crude Carbolic Acid has a slightly acid re- 
action on litmus paper. In an aqueous solution of the Acid, bromiue water produces a white 
precipitate. Crude Carbolic Acid should not be soluble in less than 15 parts of water at 15° 
C. (59° F.), and the aqueous solution should not have an alkaline reaction (absence of alkalies). 
If 50 volumes of the Acid be thoroughly agitated with 950 volumes of water, in a capacious 
vessel, on allowing the mixture to separate, the undissolved portion should not exceed 5 volumes, 
or 10 per cent, by volume of the acid (limit of other less soluble constituents of coal-tar).” U. S. 
ACIDUM CARBOLICUM LIQUEFACTUM. Br. Liquefied Phenol. 
“ Phenol to which distilled water has been added in the proportion of ten parts by weight 
of the water to one hundred parts by weight of the Phenol. It is commonly termed liquefied 
carbolic acid.” Br. 
This official of the British Pharmacopoeia (practically a 90 per cent, phenol) is a valuable 
liquid. Its introduction was doubtless due to the habitual use of the same preparation in dis- 
pensing, so as to avoid weighing the acid. 
(Xg'l-DUM CAR-BOL'I-CUM LIQ-UE-FAO'TUM.) 
* See Carbnsus C’trbolata, N. F Acidwn Chromicum. 
43 
PART I. 
It is described as “ a liquid at first colorless, but usually acquiring a pinkish hue. It forms 
a clear solution on the addition of 18 to 27 per cent, of water at 60° F. (15-5° C.). Specific 
gravity 1-064 to 1-069 at 60° F. (15-5° C.). Boiling point gradually rising to a temperature 
not higher than 359-6° F. (182° C.).” Br. Peter Boa prefers to replace a portion of the 
water used for liquefying the phenol with alcohol, and he found the following mixture to re- 
main fluid even at a temperature of 40° F.: 100 parts of phenol, 7s parts of water, and 2} 
parts of alcohol. Dose, two minims (0-12 C.c.), practically equivalent to one grain of the acid. 
ACIDUM CHROMICUM. U. S., Br. Chromic Acid. 
(A.g'1-DUM fJHRO'MI-CtJM.) 
Cr 03; 99*88. 
“ Chromic Acid should be kept in glass stoppered bottles, and great caution should be observed 
to avoid bringing it in contact with organic substances, such as cork, tannic acid, sugar, alcohol, 
etc., as dangerous accidents are liable to result.” U. S. “ Chromic Anhydride, Cr03, com- 
monly termed chromic acid, is produced by the interaction of sulphuric acid and potassium 
bichromate.” Br. 
Chromic Anhydride, Chromium Trioxide', Anhydrous Chromic Acid; Acide chromique, Fr.; Chromsaure, G. 
This is not a true acid, but an acid anhydride. It may be obtained by the process official in 
the former British Pharmacopoeia : “ Bichromate of Potassium, 30 ounces (av.); Sulphuric Acid, 
57 fluidounces (Imp. meas.) ; Distilled Water, a sufficiency. Dissolve the bichromate of potas- 
sium in a mixture of 50 fluidounces (Imp. meas.) of the water and 42 fluidounces (Imp. meas.) 
of the acid. Set aside for twelve hours, and decant the liquor from the crystals of acid sulphate 
of potassium that have separated. Heat the liquor to about 185° F. (85° C.), and add the 
remainder of the acid, and water sufficient to just redissolve any crystals of chromic acid that 
may have been formed. Allow to cool, collect and drain the crystals, and dry them on porous 
tiles at a temperature not exceeding 100° F. (37°-8 C.) in an air-bath. From the mother liquor 
more crystals may be obtained on evaporation.” Br. 
This process yields crystals which are more or less contaminated with sulphuric acid. Dr. 
Vulpius (Archiv d. Pharm., 1886, p. 964) shows that commercial chromic acid sometimes con- 
tains as much as 7 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and that pure chromic acid is not scarlet in color, 
but dark brown-red and steel-glistening, and not deliquescent in ordinary air. 
The best yield of pure crystals is said to be according to the method of Zettnow (Pogg. Ann., 
cxliii. 471), in which 300 Gm. of potassium bichromate are mixed with 500 C.c. of water, and 
420 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid added, and the mixture allowed to stand for twelve 
hours in order that the acid potassium sulphate may crystallize out. The mother-liquor is then 
heated to from 80° to 90°, and 150 C.c. of sulphuric acid added, together with enough water 
to dissolve the crystals of trioxide which at first separate out. After standing for twelve hours 
the liquid is poured off’ from the crystals which have separated, and a second and a third crop 
may be obtained by concentration. The crystals having been drained upon a porous plate and 
washed with pure nitric acid, 1-46 gravity, are dried in a current of warm air. For a method 
by M. Duviller, in which barium chromate is treated by nitric acid, and chromic acid crystal- 
lized out of the mother-liquor, see A. J. P., 1873, p. 23. 
Properties. Chromic acid, as ordinarily seen in commerce, is in the form of anhydrous, 
acicular crystals, of a brilliant crimson red color and an acid metallic taste, deliquescent, and 
very soluble in water, forming an orange-red solution. The requirements of the U. S. Pharma- 
copoeia of 1890 are that even traces of sulphuric acid shall be absent, and that the color of the 
crystals be not scarlet. “ Small, needle-shaped crystals, or rhombic prisms, of a dark purplish- 
red color and metallic lustre ; odorless; destructive to animal and vegetable tissues ; deliquescent 
in moist air. Very soluble in water, forming an orange-red solution. When brought in contact 
with alcohol, ether, glycerin, and other organic solvents, decomposition takes place, sometimes 
with dangerous violence. -When Chromic Acid is heated, its color darkens, and finally becomes 
black, but is restored on cooling. At 192° to 193° C. (377-6° to 379-4° F.) it fuses to a red- 
dish-brown liquid, which, on cooling, forms a dark red, brittle mass (often enclosing cavities 
filled with crystals), furnishing a scarlet powder. Above 250° C. (482° F.) it begins to decom- 
pose into green chromic oxide and free oxygen, and, after protracted heating, leaves a residue 
of pure chromic oxide, which should yield nothing soluble to water.” U. S. “ It is very soluble 
in water and in ether. Warmed with hydrochloric acid, chlorine is evolved. Mixed with cold 
alcohol (90 per cent.), aldehyde is produced, and a green residue remains. If placed in con- 
tact with relatively small proportions of either alcohol (90 per cent.), ether, glycerin, or some 
other organic matters, sudden combustion or explosion may ensue. 1 gramme dissolved in 50 
Cr03; 100-4. 44 
Acidum, Chromicum.—Acidum Citncurn. 
PART I, 
cubic centimetres of water and acidulated with hydrochloric acid should afford only a slight 
opalescence with solution of barium chloride (absence of more than traces of sulphates).” Br. 
Chromic acid is a teroxide of the metal chromium, having the formula Cr03. At a heat 
above the melting point it gives off’ half its oxygen, and is converted into the green sesquioxide, 
Cr203. It is a powerful oxidizing and bleaching material, and gives up its oxygen with great 
facility to organic matter. The oxidation of weaker alcohol is attended with the production 
of aldehyde, recognized by the odor ; that of stronger alcohol, by inflaming. “ A solution of 
1 Glm. of Chromic Acid in 100 C.c. of water previously acidulated with a few C.c. of hydro- 
chloric acid should not be rendered turbid on the addition of 1 C.c. of barium chloride test- 
solution (absence of sulphuric acid).” U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. As an antiseptic and disinfectant, chromic acid is 
asserted by Dr. John Dougal (Lancet, Dec. 16, 1871), who founds his conclusions on experi- 
ment, to be second to none, and in some respects to surpass even carbolic acid. A piece of 
fresh beef immersed in a solution of chromic acid containing only 1 part in 2000 of water 
became in two days quite black, in six as hard as wood, and at the end of three months 
remained perfectly free from mould or taint. It is a powerful coagulant of albumen, being, 
according to Dougal, 10 times stronger than carbolic acid, 15 times stronger than nitric acid, 
and 20 times stronger than corrosive sublimate. It is, therefore, one of the best tests for 
albumen. Besides coagulating albuminous substances, it oxidizes decaying organic matter, 
combines with and neutralizes the escaping ammonia, and decomposes the hydrogen sulphide, 
reducing it to water and free sulphur. It is also one of the most powerfully destructive agents 
to inferior organic life, greatly exceeding carbolic acid in this respect. Chromic acid has been 
used medically only as an escharotic, in which capacity it acts by rapidly oxidizing and thus de- 
composing the tissues, while by the loss of one-half its oxygen it is itself converted into the inert 
sesquioxide. It was first employed as a caustic by Prof. Sigmund, of Vienna, on the recommenda- 
tion of Dr. Heller. Used in substance, made into a paste with water, its action is exceedingly 
slow and gradual, but deeply penetrating. In saturated solution its action is less penetrating and 
less gradual. By using a solution more or less dilute, the effect may be graduated according to 
the degree desired. Prof. Sigmund commends concentrated solution for the destruction of con- 
dylomata. But caution is necessary, as it may give rise to a deep slough if too largely applied ; 
and, according to M. Gubler, patients have been poisoned, through absorption, by its too exten- 
sive application. (Ed. Med. Journ., Sept. 1871, p. 281.) It has been recommended to destro}’ 
growths in the mouth and larynx, and, from its combined escharotic and disinfecting prop- 
erties, in hospital gangrene, scorbutic or gangrenous ulcers of the mouth, phagedsenic ulcers, bites 
of rabid animals, poisoned wounds, etc.; as a wash to arrest fetid discharges; as an injection 
in ozsena, leucorrhoea, and gonorrhoea ; to prevent suppuration and putrefaction in wounds, etc.; 
and for the disinfection of cholera and fever stools, as well as for correcting fetid odors from 
all sources. The occasional application of a five per cent, solution of chromic acid has been 
found in Prussia very useful in the treatment of sweating or tender feet, amongst the soldiery. 
Care should be taken not to prescribe chromic acid in combination with glycerin, or any substance 
which will cause it to part rapidly with its oxygen : a compounded prescription containing 8 
grains of chromic acid and 1 drachm of glycerin exploded violently. (Zeitschr. Oester. Apoth. 
Verein, June 1, 1875.) It is best to use a simple aqueous solution. The solution, or even 
the pure acid, is used by gynaecologists to destroy intra-uterine growths; but great care is 
requisite. 
Chromic acid is very rarely, if ever, used internally ; if employed, the dose should not exceed 
one-quarter of a grain (0-016 Gm.). 
ACIDUM CITRICUM. U. S., Br. Citric Acid. 
“An organic acid, usually prepared from lemon-juice.” U. S. “Citric Acid, or hydrogen 
citrate, C3ll4.0H.(C00H)g,H20, may be obtained from the juice of the fruit of various 
species of Citrus.” Br. 
Acidum Citri, s. Limonis, s. Liraonum, s. Limonorum; Acide citrique, Acide du Citron, Fr.; Citronensaure, Ci- 
tronsaure, GAcido citrico, It., Sp. 
Citric acid is the peculiar acid to which limes and lemons owe their sourness. It is present 
also in the juice of other fruits, such as the cranberry, the red whortleberry, the berry of the 
bittersweet, the red gooseberry, the currant, the strawberry, the raspberry, the tamarind, and 
the red elderberry (fruit of Sambucus racemosa rubra). The latter berry contains citric acid 
so abundantly that it has been proposed as a source of the acid by M. Thibierge, of Versailles. 
H3C6H5O7 + H2O; 209-50. 
(AQ'l-DUM Cl'TRI-CUM.) 
HsC6H50t, H2O; 210. PART I. 
Acidam Citncum. 
45 
It is contained also largely in the fruit of Cyphomandra botacea, a solanaceous plant, indigenous 
in Mexico, Peru, and other parts of South America, where it is called tomato de la paz. (Journ. 
de Pharra., Oct. 1869, p. 305.) The commercial source of citric acid is lime-, lemon-, and ber- 
gamot-juice; large quantities of lime-juice are made in Sicily, concentrated, and exported to 
England and the United States.* 
The acid is extracted from lemon- or lime-juice by a very simple process, for which we 
are indebted to Scheele; it is one requiring some careful manipulation. The boiling juice 
is first completely saturated with calcium carbonate (chalk or whiting) in fine powder, and 
the calcium citrate thus formed is allowed to subside. This is then washed repeatedly with 
water, and decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid. An insoluble calcium sulphate is precip- 
itated, and the disengaged citric acid remains in solution. This is carefully concentrated in 
leaden boilers until a pellicle begins to form, when it is transferred to other vessels to cool 
and crystallize. 
The commercial lemon-juices contain free citric acid; free acids other than citric; citrates, 
salts of organic acids other than citric ; salts of inorganic acids ; and albuminous, mucilaginous, 
saccharine, and other indifferent bodies. Spirit is frequently added as a preservative, and mineral 
acids are not uncommonly employed as adulterants. Verjuice has also been used for the 
purpose (Allen). See also Montserrat lime-juice, P. J. Tr., 1883, p. 606, and notes on manu- 
facture, etc., N. P., 1883, p. 47. In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, very properly, no process is given 
for making citric acid, as it is always purchased from the manufacturing chemist. The British 
Pharmacopoeia gives the following process for preparing it: 
“ Take of Lemon Juice four pints [Imperial measure] ; Prepared Chalk four ounces and a 
half [avoirdupois] ; Sulphuric Acid two fluidounces and a half; Distilled Water a sufficiency. 
Heat the Lemon Juice to its boiling point, and add the Chalk by degrees till there is no more 
effervescence. Collect the deposit on a calico filter, and wash it with hot water till the filtered 
liquor passes from it colorless. Mix the deposit with a pint [Imp. meas.] of Distilled Water, 
and gradually add the Sulphuric Acid previously diluted with a pint and a half [Imp. meas.] 
of Distilled Water. Boil gently for half an hour, keeping the mixture constantly stirred. 
Separate the acid solution by filtration, wash the insoluble matter with a little Distilled Water, 
and add the washings to the solution. Concentrate this solution to the density of 1-21, then 
allow it to cool, and after twenty-four hours decant the liquor from the crystals of sulphate of 
calcium which will have formed ; further concentrate the liquor until a film forms on its surface, 
and set it aside to cool and crystallize. Purify the crystals, if necessary, by recrystallization.” Br. 
Preparation on the Large Scale. The juice is placed in a large vat, closed at top, 
and is saturated with whiting (calcium carbonate). Carbonic acid gas is thus evolved, which 
passes out by an exit-pipe, and may be used in the manufacture of sodium bicarbonate; while 
calcium citrate precipitates. The supernatant liquor, containing much extractive matter, is 
drawn off; and the calcium citrate is decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid, liberating the citric 
acid, and precipitating the lime as a sulphate. The mixture of citric acid and calcium sulphate 
is run off into a wooden filter-back, lined with lead, furnished with a perforated false bottom, 
and lined throughout with stout twilled flannel. The solution of citric acid passes off through 
a pipe leading from the bottom of the back to suitable reservoirs. 
The sulphate is washed until it becomes tasteless, and the washings are run off into the same 
reservoirs. The filtered acid solution is then concentrated by evaporation in wooden vessels 
* The composition of some of these commercial lime-juices is given by Allen {Com. Org. Analysis, 2d ed., vol. i. p. 
459), as follows: 
Density. 
Oz. Free Acid per 
gallon. 
Oz. Combined Org. 
Acid per gallon. 
Lime-juice: 
Raw Sicilian 
6 to 9 
0-85 
Raw English 
1-04 to 1-05 
11 to 13 
0-3 
Concentrated 
1-20 to 1-25 
56 to 72 
6 to 8 
Bergamot-juice: 
Concentrated 
1-22 to 1-25 
47 to 55 
7 to 8 
Lemon-juice: 
Raw 
1-035 to 1-04 
10-6 to 13-5 
0-4 to 0-7 
Concentrated 
1-28 to 1-38 
82 to 112 
8-6 
See also paper by D. II. Hassler, A. J. P., 1886, p. 14. 46 
Acidum Citricum. 
PART I. 
lined with lead, through which steam is made to pass by means of coiled lead pipes. As citric 
acid is liable to decomposition if subjected to too high a temperature, the use of the vacuum 
pan is highly advantageous in concentrating the solution. When the liquor is sufficiently con- 
centrated, it is transferred to cylindrical sheet-lead vessels, placed in a warm situation, to crys- 
tallize. The crystals at first obtained are colored. In order to purify them, they are redis- 
solved in a small quantity of water, with the assistance of heat, and the solution is digested 
with purified animal charcoal, filtered, and recrystallized. The crystals, after having been 
washed and drained, are dried on wooden trays lined with sheet-lead, in a room heated by 
steam. 
The calcium citrate of the above process should be decomposed without any delay; for, if 
kept, it will undergo fermentation, with the effect of destroying the citric acid. According to 
Personne, the products of this fermentation are acetic and butyric acids; carbonic acid and 
hydrogen being evolved. It is desirable to have a slight excess of sulphuric acid, as this rather 
favors than otherwise the crystallization of the citric acid. It is found necessary, also, to add 
occasionally a small proportion of sulphuric acid to the citric acid liquor, during the progress 
of its concentration. According to J. Carter Bell (iVi R., 1880, p. 274), the concentrated 
juice contains from sixty-four to ninety-six ounces of citric acid to the imperial gallon. The 
more recent the juice the better the quality. That which is stale will sometimes be quite 
sour, without containing any citric acid, in consequence of having undergone the acetous fer- 
mentation. 
Citric acid by fermentation of carbohydrates is claimed by German patent No. 72,957 of 
1893, and species of citromyces are especially mentioned as bringing about this fermentation. 
This patent is now supplemented by a new claim (German patent 91,891 of 1897), based upon 
the discovery that the same result may be obtained by means of Mucor pyroformis. The latter 
fungus is found on putrefying fruit, especially on pears and apples ; its spore carriers grow only 
in a moist atmosphere and form long white filaments, terminated by brownish-black heads. It 
can be readily obtained in pure culture by sowing the spores in a suitable medium, such as 
sugar solutions, beer-wort, steamed rice, starch-paste, etc., the ordinary room temperature 
being favorable for its growth. The solution becomes acid from the formation of citric acid. 
(Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., June 30,1897 ; see also P. J. Tr., 1893,182, and P. J. Tr., 1894, 893.) 
Properties. “ Colorless, translucent, right-rhombic prisms; odorless ; having an agreeable, 
purely acid taste; efflorescent in warm air, and deliquescent when exposed to moist air.” U. S. 
Its sp. gr. is 1-6. When heated, it dissolves in its water of crystallization, and at a higher 
temperature undergoes decomposition, becoming yellow or brown, and forming a very sour 
syrupy liquid, which is uncrystallizable. By destructive distillation it gives rise at first to 
water and aconitic acid, CeHeOe, and on further heating it is decomposed into carbon dioxide, 
acetone, and itaconic and citraconic acids, both of the formula C6He04. “ When heated to about 
75° C. (167° F.), the acid begins to lose its water of crystallization ; at about 135° C. (275° 
F.) it becomes anhydrous, and melts between 135° and 152° C. (275° and 305-6° F.). When 
slowly ignited, it is gradually decomposed without emitting the odor of burning sugar (differ- 
ence from tartaric acid), and is finally consumed without leaving more than 0-05 per cent, of 
residue.” U. S. 
Citric acid is “ soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-63 part of water, and in 1-61 parts of alco- 
hol; in about 0-4 part of boiling water, and in 1-43 parts of boiling alcohol; also soluble in 
18 parts of ether.” U. S. “ Soluble in three-fourths of its weight of cold or in half its weight 
of boiling water, somewhat less soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.), and soluble to a slight extent 
in ether. The aqueous solution made by dissolving 35 grains of the Acid in 1 ounce (or 1 
gramme in 121 cubic centimetres) of water resembles, in acidity, an average specimen of 
Lemon Juice,” Br.; but is nearly insoluble in chloroform, benzol, and benzin. A weak 
solution of it has an agreeable taste, but cannot be kept, as it undergoes spontaneous decompo- 
sition. It is incompatible with alkaline solutions, whether pure or carbonated, converting them 
into citrates ; also with the earthy and metallic carbonates, most acetates, the alkaline sulphides, 
and soaps. It is characterized by its taste, by the of its crystals, and by forming an 
insoluble salt with lime-water when heated, and a delicf'iescent one with potassa. If sulphuric 
acid be present the acid will be hygroscopic, and the precipitate by lead acetate will not be 
entirely soluble in nitric acid; the insoluble portion being lead sulphate. Sometimes crystals 
of tartaric acid are substituted for or mixed with the citric, or the two acids may be mixed in 
powder, a fraud which is readily detected by adding a solution of potash to that of the sus- 
pected acids, when, if tartaric acid be present, a crystalline precipitate of potassium bitar- PART I. 
Acid am Citricum. 
47 
trate (cream of tartar) will be formed: “ On adding 1 C.c. of an aqueous solution (1 in 10) of 
the Acid to 50 C.c. of calcium hydrate test-solution (or so much more of the latter that the 
mixture has an alkaline reaction), the liquid remains clear. Upon boiling this for about one 
minute, it becomes opaque through the precipitation of calcium citrate, which redissolves on 
cooling. If 1 Gm. of the powdered Acid be dissolved in 5 C.c. of a cold solution (1 in 3) of 
potassium acetate, the liquid should remain clear, even after the addition of an equal volume 
of alcohol (absence of tartaric or oxalic add')." * U. S. See Spiller, Journal Chemical Sodety, 
x. 110. A still more delicate method of detecting tartaric acid is to digest the suspected acid 
with ferric hydrate in a test-tube, afterwards to raise the heat slowly to the boiling point, and, 
having allowed the excess of hydrate to subside, to decant the clear liquid, and evaporate it to 
a syrupy consistence. If the acid be pure, the liquid remains limpid, and of a fine red color; 
if contaminated with tartaric acid, even to the extent of only one per cent., it becomes cloudy, 
and deposits tartrate. Another test is potassium permanganate, of which an alkaline solution 
is without action on citric acid; while under the influence of tartaric acid the manganese 
peroxide is deposited. “ On mixing 10 C.c. of a 10-per-cent, aqueous solution of the Acid with 
a quantity of ammonia water insufficient to neutralize it completely, and adding to one-half 
of this liquid 1 C.c. of ammonium oxalate test-solution, it should remain clear (absence of 
calcium). The other half, mixed with a few C.c. of hydrogen sulphide test-solution, should 
not deposit a colored precipitate, nor acquire more than a faintly brownish-yellow tint (limit 
of metallic impurities). On treating 10 C.c. of a 1-per-cent, aqueous solution of the Acid with 
1 C.c. of barium chloride test-solution and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, the liquid should 
not show any turbidity within five minutes (limit of sulphuric add). To neutralize 3-5 Gm. of 
Citric Acid should require 50 C.c. of potassium hydrate volumetric solution (each C.c. corre- 
sponding to 2 per cent, of the pure acid), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. 
“ Each gramme dissolved in water should require for neutralization 14-3 cubic centimetres of 
the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. It should yield no characteristic reaction with 
the tests for copper or iron, and only very slight reactions with those for calcium or sulphates. 
Its solutions should not contain any metallic particles. 10 grammes dissolved in 20 cubic 
centimetres of water, neutralized with solution of ammonia, and sufficient of a saturated aqueous 
solution of hydrogen sulphide added to produce 100 cubic centimetres of liquid, no darkening 
of color should result after 5 minutes (absence of lead). One drop of solution of ferrous sul- 
phate, then a few drops of solution of hydrogen peroxide, and finally an excess of solution of 
potassium hydroxide, added to an aqueous solution of the Acid, no purple or even light violet 
coloration should result (absence of tartaric acid). Or 1 gramme placed in a test-tube with 
5 cubic centimetres of solution of ammonium molybdate, 2 or 3 drops of solution of hydrogen 
peroxide being added, should not afford a bluish coloration after the tube has been shaken 
and placed in boiling water for ten minutes (absence of tartaric acid ; but the presence of any 
metallic particles gives rise to a similar coloration). On incineration with free access of air, 
it should not yield more than 0-05 per cent, of ash.” Br. Lead is frequently found in the 
metallic state in citric acid in small quantity, and this arises from small portions being rubbed 
off in breaking off the crystals from the crystallizing-vats. The presence of lead or copper 
may be detected as above, or by igniting in a porcelain crucible a small quantity of the acid, 
dissolving the ash in a few drops of nitric acid, diluting largely, and passing hydrogen sulphide 
through it; a black precipitate indicating the impurity. Some interesting observations about 
the presence of lead in citric acid and citrates are recorded by F. W. Haussmann in A. J. P., 
1894, 173. 
Composition. The formula of the anhydrous acid is CeH507H3. It is a tribasic acid, 
and may therefore yield three classes of citrates according as one, two, or three atoms of hydro- 
gen are replaced by metal, the first two classes being acid citrates, and the third class neutral 
citrates. When crystallized from its solution by cooling, it contains one molecule of water. 
Crystals of the formula (C6II807)2 -f H20 have also been formed. (Fliickiger, Pharm. Chem., 
1879, p. 157.) H. Witter (Pharm. Centralhalle, 1892, 1003) has obtained anhydrous citric 
acid by heating aqueous solutions of the hydrated acid to 130° C. If citric acid be heated 
until all its water of crystallization has been driven off, there will be produced aconitic add, 
* Pusch’s Method of Determining the Presence of Tartaric Acid in Citric Acid. 1 gramme of powdered citric 
acid is added to 10 grammes of strong, pure, colorless, sulphuric acid in a dry test-tube, and the tube is then im- 
mersed in boiling water for an hour. The citric acid dissolves with frothing and evolution of gas, and a lemon- 
colored liquid is formed, which undergoes no change within half an hour if the sample be pure; but if as much as 
one-half per cent, of tartaric acid be present, the color is brownish and reddish-brown an hour afterward. (Archiv 
d. Pharm., xxii. 316.) 48 
Acidum Citricum—Acidum Gallicum. 
PART I. 
(C6H30eH3), which also exists naturally in aconite, larkspur, black hellebore, equisetum, 
yarrow, and other plants* 
Medical Properties, etc. Citric acid acts as a poison chiefly if not solely by irritating 
the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. It is, however, much less irritant than tartaric acid, 
and, so far as we know, no death has been caused by it. The action of therapeutic doses upon 
the system is not decided. In scurvy, citric acid is probably of some value, but is very inferior 
to lemon-juice. It is eliminated by the kidneys, and, as first stated by Bence Jones, when given 
in suflicient quantities renders the urine acid. In a free state it is very rarely, if ever, used 
internally, except as an imperfect substitute for lemon-juice. When added in the quantity of 
nine drachms and a half to a pint of distilled water, it forms a solution of the average strength 
of lemon-juice. Of this solution, or of lemon-juice, a scruple of potassium bicarbonate satu- 
rates three fluidrachms and a half; a scruple of potassium carbonate, four fluidrachms; and a 
scruple of ammonium carbonate, six fluidrachms. Half a fluidounce of lemon-juice, or of an 
equivalent solution of citric acid, when saturated, is considered a dose. An agreeable substitute 
for lemonade may be made by dissolving from two to four parts of the acid, mixed with sugar 
and a little oil of lemon, in nine hundred parts of water; or a scruple of the acid may be 
dissolved in a pint of water, and sweetened with sugar which has been rubbed on fresh’ lemon- 
peel. The dose of the acid may be stated at from five to thirty grains (0-32-1-94 Gm.). 
HCtH505 + H20; 187*55. (AQ'I-DUM gAl'LI-CUM.) HC7H5O5, H20 ; 188. 
“An organic acid, usually prepared from tannic acid.” U. S. “A trihydroxybenzoie acid, 
C6H2(0H)3C00H,II20. It may be prepared by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on tannic 
acid.” Br. 
Acide gallique, Fr.; Gallussaure, G.; Trioxybenzoic Acid, Dioxysalicylic Acid, Trihydroxybenzoie Acid. 
The former British Pharmacopoeia process for making gallic acid is as follows: “ Boil one 
part of coarsely powdered galls with four fluid parts of diluted sulphuric acid for half an hour, 
then strain through calico while hot; collect the crystals that are deposited on cooling, and 
purify these with animal charcoal and repeated crystallization.” 
The process based on the influence of sulphuric acid in favoring the change of tannic into 
gallic acid has the merit of requiring less time than former processes. 
The U. S. 1870 processf is founded upon the fact that when galls in infusion, or in the state 
of moistened powder, are exposed to the air, their tannic acid is gradually converted into gallic 
acid. The gallic acid, being freely soluble in boiling but very sparingly in cold water, is extracted 
from the altered galls by decoction, and is deposited as the water cools. A repetition of the 
solution and deposition renders the acid more pure ; but it cannot be obtained wholly colorless 
unless by the aid of animal charcoal. There are few processes in which it is more necessary 
that the animal charcoal should be purified. The presence of the slightest quantity of ferric 
salt interferes with the bleaching of the acid; and it is even advisable to examine the filtering 
paper, lest it may contain sufficient of this substance to vitiate the results of the process. The 
first crop of crystals in the process retains a very large proportion of water ; and it will be found 
convenient to subject them to strong expression between folds of bibulous paper. 
The elder Robiquet first suggested that galls contained a principle capable of converting 
tannic into gallic acid, with the presence of water, and in the absence of atmospheric air. M. 
Laroque proved that this principle acts as a ferment, and that the change referred to is the 
result of a gallic acid fermentation in the galls. M. Edmond Robiquet showed that galls con- 
tain pectose and pectase, the former of which, according to the experiments of M. Fremy, is 
the principle out of which pectin is formed in plants, and the latter a peculiar ferment which 
effects the transformation. He believed that in galls the pectase, aided by a proper tempera- 
ture and the presence of water, changed not only pectose into pectin, but also tannic into gallic 
acid. Strecker previously advanced the opinion that tannic acid was a combination of gallic 
acid and sugar, the latter of which is destroyed in the process for procuring gallic acid, which 
is thus simply set free from the combination. M. E. Robiquet admitted the occasional trans- 
formation of tannic acid into gallic acid and sugar, but did not believe that the sugar pre- 
existed as such in the tannin. (Jonrn. de Pharm., 3e ser., xxiii. 241.) Wittstein, in endeav- 
ACIDUM GALLICUM. U. S., Br. Gallic Acid. 
* According to Hentschel, aconitic acid is best obtained by boiling for six hours 100 Gm. of citric acid with 50 Gm. 
of water mixed with 100 Gm. of pure sulphuric acid in a flask provided with a reverse condenser. Upon cooling 
the flask a solid cake of aconitic acid is found, which may be purified by mixing with strong hydrochloric acid, and 
washing until free from sulphuric acid; colorless, shining crystals are obtained. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 357.) 
f See U. S. Dispensatory, 15th ed., p. 60. PART I. 
Acidum Gallicum. 
49 
oring to obtain gallic acid from Chinese galls by forming them into a paste with water, found 
that but a very small proportion of the acid was generated at the end of six weeks. Thinking 
that this might have resulted from the want of the ferment in the Chinese galls, he added 
to these one-eighth of their weight of common galls, and at the end of three weeks obtained 
an amount of gallic acid nearly equal to one-half the weight of the galls employed. The same 
result, though more slowly, followed the addition of yeast to the Chinese galls. Wittstein 
obtained both carbonic acid and alcohol as products of this operation, thus favoring the views 
of Strecker as to the constitution of tannic acid. And the idea that tannin was a glucoside 
convertible through exposure of galls to the air, or more rapidly by sulphuric acid, into glucose 
and gallic acid, was accepted without qualification, until Schiff (Deut. Chem. Ges. Ber., iv. 
231, 967, and Bull. Soc. Chem. [2], xviii. 23) proved that although crude tannic acid contains 
glucose, it is possible to separate a large quantity of the glucose without destroying the tannic 
acid. He proposes that pure tannic acid be called digallic acid, and that the term tannin be 
applied to natural tannin, i.e., the glucoside of digallic or pure tannic acid, for when natural 
tannin is boiled with dilute mineral acids, or subjected to the influence of a nitrogenous fer- 
ment, it splits into digallic acid and glucose, C34H 8022 -f- 4H20 — 4CLHe06 -f- CeH1JSOe. 
Digallic acid is the first anhydride of gallic acid—C1414i + H20 = 2C7HeOB. Gallic acid 
is a phenol acid, or combination of these two classes of organic compounds, its formula being 
C6H2(0H)3.C00H. It may be termed, therefore, a trioxybenzoic acid. It is monobasic. 
Properties. Gallic acid is in delicate, silky, acicular crystals, which, as ordinarily found 
in the shops, are slightly brownish, but when quite pure are colorless. It is inodorous, and of 
a sourish, astringent taste and an acid reaction. “ Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 100 parts of 
water, and in 5 parts of alcohol; in 3 parts of boiling water, and in 1 part of boiling alcohol. 
Also soluble in 40 parts of ether, and in 12 parts of glycerin.” U. S. It is even less soluble 
in chloroform, benzol, and benzin. Mr. Thomas Weaver, of Philadelphia, has found that it is 
soluble in glycerin in the proportion of 40 grains to the ounce, and that the solution may be 
diluted to any extent with water without affecting its transparency. (A. J. P., xxix. 82.) It 
produces a deep bluish-black color with solutions of ferric salts, which disappears when the 
solution is heated; a result which Dr. Mahla has shown to depend on the conversion of the 
gallic into pyrogallic or metagallic acid, by the loss of the constituents of carbonic acid and 
water. (Am. Journ. of Sci. and Arts, Nov. 1859.) It does not precipitate gelatin, or a solution 
of ferrous sulphate. “When heated at 100° C. (212° F.), the Acid loses its water of crystal- 
lization (nearly 9-6 per cent.). At about 222° C. (431-6° F.) it begins to melt, and at a higher 
temperature it is gradually decomposed. At a low red heat it is consumed without leaving a 
residue.” U. S. It should leave no residue when burned, and be entirely dissipated when thrown 
on red-hot iron. On exposure to the air, its solution undergoes spontaneous decomposition ; but 
it is said that by the addition of a drop of oil of cloves it may be kept for a long time without 
change, the absence of tannin and microscopic fungi being proved. “ Gallic Acid neither colors 
nor precipitates pure ferrous salts, but forms a bluish-black precipitate with ferric salts. On 
adding to a cold, saturated, aqueous solution of Gallic Acid some calcium hydrate test-solution, 
a bluish-white precipitate will form, where the test-solution is temporarily in excess, and will 
disappear on shaking. When the test-solution has been added in excess, the precipitate no 
longer dissolves, and the liquid acquires a tint which is blue by reflected and green by trans- 
mitted light, and becomes pink on the addition of a large excess of calcium hydrate test-solution 
(distinction from tannic acid). An aqueous solution of the Acid should not precipitate alka- 
loids, gelatin, albumen, or starch test-solution (difference from and absence of tannic acid)." U. S. 
“ It yields a bluish-black precipitate with test-solution of ferric chloride. The crystalline Acid 
loses 9-5 per cent, of its weight when dried at 212° F. (100° C.). It should yield no char- 
acteristic reaction with the tests for sulphates. Its aqueous solution is not precipitated by 
solutions of isinglass, albumen, alkaloids, or tartarated antimony (absence of tannic acid). It 
leaves no residue when burned with free access of air (freedom from mineral matter).” Br. 
By the action of arsenic it is converted almost entirely into tannic acid without the production 
of arsenous acid. (Schiff, Chem. News, xxix. 73.) Young’s test, potassium cyanide, gives a 
reddish color with gallic acid and none with tannic acid. A mixture of ammonium chloride 
and ammonia produces a red coloration but no precipitate in gallic acid solution, while in tannic 
acid solution it produces a whitish precipitate rapidly turning reddish-brown. (A. J. P., April 
1889.) A test proposed by Fltickiger consists in adding to the solution of gallic acid a dilute 
(1 to 100) solution of pure ferrous sulphate. To the colorless solution a little sodium acetate 
is to be added, when a deep violet color will appear, due to the formation of ferrous gallate. 50 
Acidum Gallicum.—Acidum Hydrobromicum Dilutum. 
PART I. 
The Pharmacopoeia test is: “ If 5 C.c. of a cold saturated aqueous solution of the Acid be 
treated, in a watch-glass, with 6 drops of sodium hydrate test-solution, the liquid will grad- 
ually acquire a deep green color, which is changed to reddish or brownish-red by acids.” 
Heated to 216° C. (420° F.), gallic acid gives off carbon dioxide, and is changed into pyro- 
gallic acid. 
Medical Properties. Gallic acid is astringent, but less powerfully so than tannic acid. 
As it does not coagulate albumen, it is readily absorbed when ingested, and is rapidly eliminated 
by the kidneys. Its presence in the urine is under these circumstances very readily demon- 
strated by the addition of a soluble ferric salt. Owing to its being more readily transported 
by the blood, it is more effective than tannic acid in all cases of hemorrhage ([hsemoptysis, hsema- 
turia, etc.) in which the bleeding vessels must be reached through the route of the circulation. 
But in hemorrhage from the alimentary mucous membrane, or from any other part with which 
tannic acid can be brought into direct contact, the latter astringent is by far the more effectual. 
Tannic acid is also much more efficient in anginose or other relaxations in which a decided 
astringent action is desired and in which a direct application can be made. Gallic acid has 
been employed with advantage in pyrosis, and in the night-sweats of phthisis or exhaustion. In 
albuminuria, when there is a very large amount of albumen excreted, gallic acid may be em- 
ployed with service to diminish the flow, and the drug has even been used in acute Bright's 
disease following scarlatina, with asserted great advantage. (Ar. R., Oct. 1875.) It is said not 
to constipate the bowels. The dose is from five to fifteen grains (0-32-0-97 Gm.) three or four 
times a day, and may be given in the form of pill or powder. Ointment of Gallic Acid, ten 
parts of the acid to ninety of benzoinated lard, was official in the Pharmacopoeia of 1880. 
ACIDUM HYDROBROMICUM DILUTUM. U. S., Br. Diluted Hydro- 
bromic Acid. 
“ A liquid composed of 10 per cent., by weight, of absolute Hydrobromic Acid [HBr = 80-70], 
and 90 per cent, of Water. Diluted Hydrobromic Acid should be kept in glass-stopper< d 
bottles, protected from light.” TJ. S. “ An aqueous solution containing 10 per cent, by weight 
of hydrogen bromide, HBr. It may be obtained by the distillation of potassium bromide 
with concentrated phosphoric acid.” Br. 
Aeidum Bromhydrieum Dilutum, Acidum Bromohydricum; Acide hydrobromique, Fr.; Hydrobromsaure, Brom- 
wasserstoffsaure, G. 
The U. S and Br. Pharmacopoeias do not give processes for this acid. Both acids are iden- 
tical in strength; the former British process is as follows: “ Bromine, 1 fluidounce [Imp. 
meas.] ; Distilled Water, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, of each a sufficiency. Place the bromine 
in a glass cylinder and pour over it 15 ounces [Imp. meas.] of the water. Pass a current of 
sulphuretted hydrogen gas into the bromine until the red color of the aqueous liquid has 
disappeared. Filter the fluid and distil the filtrate. Beject the distillate until it is free from 
odor of sulphuretted compounds, and then collect it until sulphuric acid begins to distil. 
Dilute the distilled acid with water until it has a specific gravity at 60° F. (15-5° C.) of 1.077. 
Preserve in glass-stoppered bottles. From the rejected distillate more hydrobromic acid may 
be obtained by redistillation.” * 
(AQ'I-DUM HY-DRO-BRO'MI-CUM OI-LC'tCm.) 
* The following process is based upon that of Dr. E. R. Squibb : _ . 
Take of Potassium Bromide and Sulphuric Acid, each, one hundred and fifty parts, Distilled Vi ater, a sufficient 
quantity. Add the Sulphuric Acid to twenty-five parts of Distilled Water, and cool the mixture. Then dissolve 
the Potassium Bromide in one hundred and fifty parts of water by the aid of heat, supplying the loss of water by 
evaporation during the heating. Carefully pour the diluted Sulphuric Acid into the hot solution with constant stir- 
ring, and set the mixture aside for twenty-four hours, in order that the Potassium Sulphate may crystallize. Pour 
off the liquid into a retort, break up the crystalline mass, transfer it to a funnel, and having drained the crystals, 
drop slowly upon them fifty parts of cold Distilled Water so as to wash out the acid liquid. Add this liquid to that 
in the retort, and distil nearly to dryness at a moderate heat. If red fumes of bromine are given off during any 
stage of the distillation, change the receiver as soon as such fumes cease to appear. Finally determine in the dis- 
tillate the amount of actual Hydrobromic Acid (16-2 Gms. should require 20C.c.of the volumetric solution of soda), 
and add to the remaining weighed distillate such an amount of cold Distilled Water as shall cause the finished acid 
to contain 10 per cent, of actual hydrobromic acid. If the bromide used contains bromate, the distillate will probably 
be tinged with the red color of bromine; should such contamination be produced, the acid may be rendered fit for 
use by carefully adding solution of sodium sulphite until the acid is deprived of color, and then rectifying it by 
distillation. 
This process for making solution of hydrobromic acid does not differ essentially from that of Dr. E. R. Squibb 
(A. J. P.t 1878, p. llfi), except in the improvement of the rather smaller proportion of sulphuric acid used, and in 
the fact of the difference in strength of the two hydrobromic acids, Dr. Squibb’s being 34 percent.,the above 10 per 
cent. The advantages possessed by both methods over those frequently used are greater purity of product and more 
definite strength. PART i. 
Acidum Hydrobromicum Dilutum. 
51 
The most convenient process is undoubtedly that of Dr. Dewitt C. Wade (Peninsular Medical 
Journal, Feb. 1875), modelled after Buchanan’s method of making hydriodic acid, which 
directs that 120 grains of potassium bromide be dissolved in one fluidounce of water, and 153 
grains of tartaric acid be added to the solution ; acid potassium tartrate is produced, the greater 
part of which crystallizes out on standing 12 hours at a low temperature, and a solution of 
hydrobromic acid is formed, sp. gr. 1-228, containing about 80 grains real hydrobromic acid to 
the fluidounce, equivalent to nearly 15 per cent. Fothergill’s acid, although based upon Wade’s 
formula, is weaker, the quantity of potassium bromide being 811 grains and that of tartaric 
acid 99 grains to the fluidounce, the manipulation being the same; each fluidounce of Fother- 
gill’s acid contains about 55 grains real hydrobromic acid, or about 10 per cent. Diluted 
hydrobromic acid made in this way is open to the objection of containing cream of tartar, and 
probably some undecomposed potassium bromide in solution, and thus is not strictly pure. To 
lessen this, Charles Rice proposes the addition of a double quantity of alcohol to facilitate the 
precipitation, recovering the alcohol by distillation subsequently. (N'. R., 1877, p. 107.) Other 
processes have been suggested for preparing hydrobromic acid. Edward Goebel (W. R., Sept. 
1880) proposes a method based on Glover’s process, which is to decompose 148 grains barium 
bromide, dissolved in half an ounce of water, with 50-6 grains sulphuric acid, diluted with two 
drachms of distilled water; the precipitated barium sulphate is washed with distilled water 
until the filtrate weighs 810 grains to make the 10-per-cent, acid solution. Winckler proposes 
a plan for making hydriodic acid, which has been adapted by Charles Rice to making hydro- 
bromic acid. (See W. R., Jan. 1880.) Bromine is dissolved in carbon disulphide and hydro- 
gen sulphide passed through the solution. The processes of Balard, Millon, and Loewig are 
commented upon by John M. Maisch (Proc. A. P. A., 1860), who proposes some useful modi- 
fications. Prof. Markoe (Ibid., 1875, p. 686) recommends an economical process, which, how- 
ever, must be followed with care, and is better adapted for making the acid on a large scale* 
He pours a pint of water into a gallon stoneware jar, and then adds one pound or more of 
phosphorus, distributing it over the bottom; ice is now added until the jar is half"full, a 
gallon glass funnel is inserted in the throat of the jar, and a funnel tube adjusted, so that the 
end will be a short distance above the surface of the phosphorus; the funnel is about one- 
third filled with broken ice, and the jar placed in a larger vessel, and broken ice packed be- 
tween. Three or four pounds of bromine after being chilled are slowly added, in order that 
the fumes of hydrobromic acid and bromine that may arise may be fully condensed by the ice 
in the funnel, and an accumulation of bromine avoided, which might produce an explosion 
from too sudden reaction. The excess of phosphorus is removed after all the bromine has 
been added, the liquid distilled, hydrobromic acid condensed, and the strength adjusted, whilst 
to the residue in the retort water may be added to make diluted phosphoric acid. For other 
processes see Wene (Comptes-Rend., 1849), Bruylants (Journ. de Pharm. d’Anvers, 1879, p. 
343, and A. J. P., Jan., 1880), Hager (Handbuch d. Pharm. Praxis, i. 628), Griming (A. R., 
1883, p. 240), Stas (Zeitsch.f. Anal. Chem., 1886, p. 213). 
Properties. Diluted hydrobromic acid is a colorless, transparent liquid, entirely vaporized 
by heat, inodorous, strongly acid to the taste, sp. gr. 1-077* (U. S. and Br.) at 15° C. (59° F.), 
containing 10 per cent, absolute hydrobromic acid. “ Miscible, in all proportions, with wrater 
and alcohol. By heat it is completely volatilized. On distilling it, water and weak acid first 
pass over. When the temperature of 126° C. (258-8° F.) is reached, an acid of 47 8 per 
cent, remains, which may be distilled unchanged. With litmus paper it shows a strongly acid 
reaction.” TJ. S. Although of a pungent and irritating odor, and fuming when in contact 
with the atmosphere when concentrated, in its diluted state it is odorless. On adding chlorine 
or nitric acid to diluted hydrobromic acid, there is liberated bromine, which is soluble in 
chloroform or disulphide of carbon, imparting to these liquids a yellow color. 
Tests. “ Silver nitrate test-solution causes a yellowish-white precipitate, somewhat soluble 
in hydrobromic acid, insoluble in diluted nitric acid, very slightly soluble in ammonia water, 
but more soluble in stronger ammonia water. Copper sulphate test-solution produces a deep- 
red color upon addition of sulphuric acid. On being kept for some time, the Acid should not 
become colored. Barium chloride test-solution should not produce a turbidity or precipitate 
(absence of sulphuric acid ). If 1 C.c. of the Acid be mixed with 1 C.c. of stannous chloride 
test-solution (see List of Reagents, Bettendorff’s Test for Arsenic), and a small piece of pure 
tin-foil added, no brown coloration should appear within half an hour (limit of arsenic). To 
* Dr. E. R. Squibb takes exception to the sp. gr. 1*077 given for the official acid, and states that Biel’s table is not 
accurate, the proper sp. gr. for a 10-per-cent, acid at 15° C. (59° F.) being 1*0698. (Ephemeria, vol. i. p. 366.) Acidum Hydrobromicum Dilutum.—Acidum Hydrochloricum. 
PART I. 
52 
neutralize 8-08 Gm. of Diluted Hydrobromic Acid should require 10 C.c. of potassium hydrate 
normal volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, of the absolute acid), phe- 
nolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. “4 grammes should require for neutralization 5 
(more exactly 4 98) cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide, or, for com- 
plete precipitation, 50 (more exactly 49-8) cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of silver 
nitrate. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for arsenium, barium, chlo- 
rides, phosphates, sulphates, or sulphites. It should yield no residue on evaporation to dryness.” 
Br. Concentrated hydrobromic acid has been furnished by manufacturing chemists containing 
from 20 to 50 per cent, of absolute hydrobromic acid ; Charles T. Tyrer states that the 
stronger acids are prone to show discoloration in a few days after being made, but that even 
the highly colored acids, when diluted to the official strength, become colorless; the concen- 
trated acid attacks glass rapidly and the silica is not thrown out on dilution ; he recommends 
acid of the sp. gr. 1250 as having the most suitable limit of concentration for pharmaceutical 
purposes. ( Yearbook of Pharmacy, 1896, 296.). 
The following table by Biel will be found useful in showing from the specific gravities of 
solutions the percentage of absolute hydrobromic acid: 
Biel's table of Percentage and Specific Gravity of Hydrobromic Acid. 
Per Ct. 
HBr. 
Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
Per Ct. 
HBr. 
Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
Per Ct. 
HBr. 
Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
Per Ct. 
HBr. 
Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
1 
1-0082 
14 
1-110 
27 
1-229 
40 
1-375 
2 
1-0155 
15 
1-119 
28 
1-239 
41 
1-388 
3 
1-0230 
16 
1-127 
29 
1-249 
42 
1-401 
4 
1-0305 
17 
1-136 
30 
1-260 
43 
1-415 
5 
1-038 
18 
1-145 
31 
1-270 
44 
1-429 
6 
1-046 
19 
1-154 
32 
1-281 
45 
1-444 
7 • 
1-053 
20 
1-163 
33 
1-292 
46 
1-459 
8 
1-061 
21 
1-172 
34 
1-303 
47 
1-474 
9 
1-069 
22 
1-181 
35 
1-314 
48 
1-490 
10 
1-077 
23 
1-190 
36 
1-326 
49 
1-496 
11 
1-085 
24 
1-200 
37 
1*338 
50 
1.513 
12 
1-093 
25 
1-209 
38 
1-350 
13 
1-102 
26 
1-219 
39 
1-362 
Medical Properties and Uses. Dilute hydrobromic acid is very nearly identical with 
potassium bromide in its action, but is too irritant to the stomach to be used freely in epilepsy 
and other serious affections. In an experimental study made by Dr. Beichert, of the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, it was found to act upon animals precisely as do the bromides in general. 
It has been especially commended in tinnitus aurium. Two fluidrachms contain 12 grains 
of bromine, equivalent in this to 18 grains of potassium bromide, and may be given at once, 
well diluted with syrup. The addition of a trace of spirit of lemon to the syrup renders the 
resemblance of this dose to lemonade a very close one. 
ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM. U. S., Br. Hydrochloric Acid. 
[Muriatic Acid.] 
(Xg'l-DUM HY-DR()-(3HLO'RI-CUM.) 
“A liquid composed of 31-9 per cent., by weight, of absolute Hydrochloric Acid [HC1 = 
36-37], and 68-1 per cent, of water. Hydrochloric Acid should be kept in dark amber-colored, 
glass-stoppered bottles.” U. S. “ A liquid containing 31-79 per cent, by weight of hydrogen 
chloride, HC1, and 68-21 per cent, of water. Obtained by dissolving in water the gas pro- 
duced by the interaction of sulphuric acid and sodium chloride.” Br. 
Aoidum Muriatieum, Pharm. 1870 ; Acidum Hydrochloratum, s. Chlorhydricum; Spirit of Sea-Salt, Marine Acid, 
Muriatic Acid, Chlorhydric Acid; Acide hydrochlorique, Acide chlorhydrique, ou muriatique, Fr.; Salzsaure, 
Chlorwasserstoffsaure, G.; Acido muriatico, It., Sp. 
The hydrochloric acid of pharmacy and the arts is a solution of hydrochloric acid gas in 
water. The former British Pharmacopoeia gives the following process for preparing it: 
“ Take of Chloride of Sodium, dried, forty-eight ounces [avoirdupois] ; Sulphuric Acid forty- 
four Jluidounces ; Water thirty-six Jixddounces; Distilled Water fifty fluidounces. Pour the 
Sulphuric Acid slowly into thirty-two [fluid]ounces of the Water, and when the mixture has 
cooled, add it to the Chloride of Sodium previously introduced into a flask having the capacity PART I. 
Acidum Hydrochloricum. 
53 
of at least one gallon [Imp. meas.]. Connect the flask by corks and a bent glass tube with a 
three-necked wash-bottle, furnished with a safety tube, and containing the remaining four 
[fluidjounces of the Water; then, applying heat to the flask, conduct the disengaged gas 
through the wash-bottle, into a second bottle containing the Distilled Water, by means of a 
bent tube dipping about half an inch below the surface; and let the process be continued until 
the product measures sixty-six [fluidjounces, or the liquid has acquired a sp. gr. of 1-16. The 
bottle containing the distilled water must be kept cool during the whole operation.” Br. 
Preparation. Hydrochloric acid is obtained mainly by the action of sulphuric acid on 
sodium chloride or common salt. In England it is produced in enormous quantities during the 
decomposition of common salt for the purpose of making sodium sulphate, from which soda-ash 
and sodium carbonate are afterwards manufactured in immense quantities. The decomposition 
of the sea-salt is performed in semi-cylindrical vessels, the curved part, next the fire, being made 
of iron, and the upper or flat surface, of stone. The acid gas is conveyed by a pipe to a 
double-necked stoneware receiver, half filled with water, and connected with a row of similar 
receivers, likewise containing water. As carried out on a larger scale, the decomposition of 
the salt takes place in hemispherical iron pans, 9 feet in diameter, covered by a brick-work 
dome; upon the mass of salt the requisite quantity of sulphuric acid is allowed to run from a 
leaden cistern placed above the decomposing-pan. Torrents of hydrochloric acid gas are 
evolved, which collect in the space between the pan and the brick-work dome, whence they 
pass by a brick-work or earthenware flue into upright towers or condensers. These towers are 
filled with bricks or coke, down which a small stream of water is allowed to trickle. The gas, 
passing upward, meets the water, and is dissolved by it; and as the acid liquor approaches the 
bottom of the tower, it becomes more and more nearly saturated with the gas. 
Hydrochloric acid is also made on a commercial scale from magnesium chloride, which is 
such an abundant waste product at the rock-salt mines of Stassfurt. The process used is that 
of Weldon as developed by Pechiney, of Salindres, in France. 
The acid, when required to be pure, is generally prepared by saturating distilled water with 
the gas in a Woulfe’s apparatus. A quantity of pure fused common salt is introduced into a 
retort or matrass, placed on a sand-bath. The vessel is then furnished with an S-tube, and 
connected with a series of bottles, each two-thirds full of water. A quantity of sulphuric 
acid is then gradually added, equal in weight to the common salt employed, and diluted with 
one-third of its weight of water. The materials ought not to occupy more than half the body 
of the retort. When the extrication of the gas slackens, heat is applied, and gradually in- 
creased until the water in the bottles refuses to absorb any more, or until no more gas is found 
to come over. As soon as the process is completed, boiling water should be added to the con- 
tents of the retort or matrass, in order to facilitate the removal of the residue. During the 
progress of the saturation, the water in the several bottles increases in temperature, which 
lessens its power of absorption. It is, therefore, expedient, in order to obtain a strong acid, to 
keep the bottles cool by means of water or ice. The connecting tubes need not plunge deeply 
into the acid. 
The process of the former British Pharmacopoeia is substantially the same as the one here de- 
scribed, with the exception of the proportion of the acid and salt employed. In the process for 
hydrochloric acid, theory calls for a little less than 82 parts of liquid sulphuric acid to 100 of 
common salt. A moderate excess of the former may be useful to insure the complete decom- 
position of the salt; but the quantity of acid directed in the British process is sufficient to 
decompose twice the quantity of common salt taken. The intention obviously is to use enough 
of the acid to form the acid sulphate instead of the neutral sodium sulphate ; the former being 
more soluble and readily removed from the retort, and the reaction requiring less heat for its 
completion than when one mol. of sulphuric acid is taken to two mols. of salt. The reaction for 
its formation is NaCl -j- H2S04 = HC1 -f- HNaS04. If only half the amount of sulphuric acid 
be used, the reaction is (Na(5l)2 -j- H2S04 = (HC1)2 -j-Na2S04. In the first of these reactions 
(that of the British Pharmacopoeia process), as only one mol. of salt is taken, it is obvious 
that there is not enough sodium furnished to neutralize the sulphuric acid completely and 
make the normal sulphate Na2S04, so the result is the acid sulphate (bisulphate) HNaS04. On 
the other hand, in the second reaction, the two mols. of salt furnish just the sodium necessary 
to neutralize the one mol. of sulphuric acid and make the neutral sulphate Na2S04. 
As hydrochloric acid, prepared in the ordinary mode, often contains arsenic, so as to obscure 
its indications when employed in testing for that poison, it is of interest to the practical toxi- 
cologist to know that it may be obtained free from that impurity by distilling sodium or 
potassium chloride with oxalic acid in equivalent proportions. 54 
Acidum Hydrochloricum. 
PART I. 
The following method of freeing hydrochloric acid from arsenous acid is recommended by 
M. Engel as easy and entirely efficacious. It is founded on the fact that arsenous acid is held 
in solution by hypophosphorous acid. Into a litre (about 2 pints) of arsenical hydrochloric 
acid introduce 4 to 5 grammes (about 60 or 70 grains) of potassium hypophosphite, dissolved 
in a little water. At the end of an hour or two, the liquid becomes yellow and then brown; 
and a precipitate soon forms, more or less copious according to the amount of impurity. After 
the liquid becomes clear, which usually happens in 45 minutes, decant the hydrochloric acid 
and distil it. The acid thus obtained is entirely free from arsenic. This process should be 
conducted in a place where the direct rays of the sun may fall on the vessels; or, where this 
is impossible, the vessels should be subjected, by means of a water-bath, from 4 to 6 hours, to 
a heat little short of the boiling point of the acid. (Journ. de Pharm., 1873, p. 10.) Traces 
of arsenic may also be removed by adding solution of stannous chloride, and after the precipi- 
tate of impure arsenic has settled, the clear liquid is re-distilled. (Bettendorff, Zeit.fiir Chem. 
[2], 5, p. 492.) 
Properties of the Pure Acid. Hydrochloric acid, when pure, is a transparent colorless 
liquid, of a suffocating odor and corrosive taste. Exposed to the air it emits white fumes, 
owing to the escape of the acid gas and its union with the moisture of the atmosphere. 
When concentrated, it blackens organic substances, like sulphuric acid. Its sp. gr. varies with 
its strength. When as highly concentrated as possible, its density is 1-21. The U. S. acid, as 
well as that of the present British Pharmacopoeia, has the sp. gr. 1*16. (IT! S. 1-163.) “ 3-64 
Gm. should require for complete neutralization 31-9 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volu- 
metric solution.” U. S. When exposed to heat, it continues to give off hydrochloric acid gas, 
with the appearance of ebullition, until its sp. gr. falls to 1-094, when it properly boils, and 
may be distilled unchanged, or entirely volatilized. 
Hydrochloric acid is characterized by forming, on the addition of silver nitrate, a white 
precipitate (silver chloride), insoluble in nitric acid, but readily soluble in ammonia. It is 
incompatible with alkalies and most earths, with oxides and their carbonates, and with potas- 
sium sulphide, potassium tartrate, tartar emetic, iron and potassium tartrates, silver nitrate, and 
solution of lead subacetate. 
“ On heating it, at first a stronger acid passes off, until, at 110° C. (230° F.), a liquid con- 
taining 20-18 per cent, of the absolute acid remains (specific gravity about 1-102 at 15° C.), 
which distils unchanged, leaving no residue, if the Acid was pure.” JJ. S. 
As it is desirable to know, on many occasions, in chemical and pharmaceutical operations, 
the quantity of absolute acid contained in samples of acid of different densities, we subjoin 
the table of Lunge and Marchlewski, with additions from the U. S. P. 1890: 
Table of Percentage and Specific Gravity of Hydrochloric Acid. 
Lunge and Marchlewski. 
Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
in air. 
100 Parts by 
weight contain 
... Parts of HC1. 
Specific Gravity 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
in air. 
100 Parts by 
weight contain 
... Parts of HC1. 
Specific Gravitv 
at 15° C. (59° F.) 
in air. 
100 Parts by 
weight contain 
... Parts of HC1. 
1-0008 
0-16 
1-0752 
15-00 
1-146 
28-61 
1-00059 
1-15 
1-076 
15-16 
1-151 
29-57 
1-00109 
2-14 
1-081 
16-15 
1-1532 
30-00 
1-0159 
3-12 
1-086 
17-13 
1-156 
30-55 
1-021 
4-13 
1-091 
18-11 
1-160 
31-326 
1-0253 
5-00 
1-096 
19-06 
1-161 
31-52 
1-026 
5-15 
1-1005 
20-00 
1-163 
31-90 
1-031 
6-15 
1-101 
20-01 
1-166 
32-49 
1-036 
7-15 
1-106 
20-97 
1-171 
33-46 
1-041 
8-16 
1-111 
21-92 
1-176 
34-42 
1-046 
9-16 
1-116 
22-86 
1-179 
35-00 
1-0502 
10-00 
1-121 
23-82 
1-181 
35-39 
1-051 
10-17 
1-126 
24-78 
1-186 
36.31 
1-056 
11-18 
1-1271 
25-00 
1-191 
37-23 
1-061 
12-19 
1-131 
25-75 
1-196 
38-16 
1-066 
13-19 
1-136 
26-70 
1-201 
39-11 
1-071 
14-17 
1-141 
27-66 
It is to be understood that the values given in this table refer only to chemically pure acids. The percentage of 
real acid in the commercial acids, particularly when they are concentrated, is always less than that given in these 
tables. [Lunge.] PART I. 
Acidum Hydrochloricum. 
55 
Impurities. This acid, when pure, will evaporate without residue in a platinum spoon. 
On heating it with black manganese oxide an abundance of chlorine gas is given off. If 
sulphuric acid be present, a solution of barium chloride will cause a precipitate of barium 
sulphate in the acid, previously diluted with distilled water. Iron may be detected by satu- 
rating the diluted acid with sodium carbonate, and then adding potassium ferrocyanide, which 
will strike a blue color if that metal be present, or by the simple addition of potassium sul- 
phocyanate, when a blood-red coloration is produced. The absence of arsenic may be inferred 
if it does not tarnish bright copper foil when boiled with it. “If 10 C.c. of the Acid be 
evaporated from a platinum or porcelain capsule, not more than a bare trace of residue should 
be left (limit of non-volatile impurities'). A few drops of chloroform, added to 1 C.c. of Hydro- 
chloric Acid diluted with 2 C.c. of water, should not become colored, either at once, or after 
the addition of a few drops of freshly prepared chlorine water, or of a granule of potassium 
chlorate (absence of iodine or bromine). If 1 C.c. of the acid be diluted with 5 C.c. of water 
and 0-5 C.c. of zinc-iodide-starch test-solution added, no blue color should appear (absence of 
chlorine or bromine). On adding 1 C.c. of stannous chloride test-solution (see List of Reagents, 
BettendorflTs Test for Arsenic), together with a small piece of pure tin-foil, to 1 C.c. of the 
Acid, no coloration should occur within one hour (limit of arsenic). If 1 C.c. of the Acid be 
diluted with 5 C.c. of water, and a few drops of barium chloride test-solution added, no pre- 
cipitate or turbidity should appear within one hour (absence of sulphuric acid), nor should the 
addition to this mixture of a few drops of iodine decinormal volumetric solution produce any 
turbidity (absence of sulphurous acid). When a few C.c. of freshly saturated hydrogen sul- 
phide test-solution are poured carefully on top of an equal volume of Hydrochloric Acid, no 
color should develop at the zone of contact (absence of thallium, arsenic, lead, etc.). If 1 C.c. 
of Hydrochloric Acid be slightly supersaturated with ammonia water, and 1 C.c. of ammonium 
sulphide test-solution added, neither a color nor a turbidity should appear (absence of iron, 
aluminum, etc.).” U. S. “ Each gramme, diluted with water, should require for neutralization 
8 7 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide, and 0-1 gramme should 
require, for complete precipitation, 8-7 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of silver 
nitrate. It leaves no residue on evaporation, and when diluted with water should yield no char- 
acteristic reaction with the tests for arsenium, lead, copper, iron, aluminium, bromides, iodides, 
sulphates, or sulphites. Diluted with much water and solution of potassium iodide added, no 
blue color is produced on the addition of mucilage of starch (absence of free chlorine).” Br. 
Ammonia in excess shows the absence of iron, if it produces no precipitate. 
If another portion of the diluted acid be treated with test zinc, the evolved gas should 
not blacken paper wet with silver nitrate test-solution (arsenous or sulphurous acid). Free 
chlorine or nitric acid may be discovered by its having the power to dissolve gold-leaf. Any 
minute portion of the leaf which may be dissolved is detected by adding a solution of stannous 
chloride, which will give rise to a purplish tint. The free chlorine is derived from the reaction 
of nitric or nitrous acid on a small portion of the hydrochloric acid, which is thus deprived of 
its hydrogen. Hence it is that, when free chlorine is present, nitrous acid or some other oxide 
of nitrogen is also present as an impurity. The nitric and nitrous acids are derived from 
nitrates in the common salt and from nitrous acid in the commercial sulphuric acid employed 
in the preparation of the hydrochloric acid. 
Hydrochloric Acid of Commerce. This acid has the general properties of the pure aqueous 
acid. It has a yellowish color, owing to the presence of iron sesquichloride, or of a minute 
proportion of organic matter, such as cork, wood, etc. It usually contains sulphuric acid, and 
sometimes free chlorine and nitrous acid. But the most injurious impurity, to those who con- 
sume it in the arts, is sulphurous acid. T. H. Savory analyzed three samples of commercial 
hydrochloric acid, each having a sp. gr. of between 1-16 and 1*17, and found them to contain 
from 7 to nearly 11 per cent, of sulphurous acid. To detect this acid, M. Girardin has pro- 
posed a very delicate test, namely, stannous chloride. The mode of using the test is to take 
about half an ounce of the acid to be tested, and to add to it two or three drachms of the 
stannous chloride. The mixture having been stirred two or three times, as much of distilled 
water as of the stannous salt is to be added. If sulphurous acidjbe present, the hydrochloric 
acid becomes turbid and yellow immediately upon the addition of the stannous chloride; and 
upon the subsequent addition of the water a slight evolution of hydrogen sulphide takes place, 
perceptible to the smell, and the liquid assumes a brownish hue, depositing a powder of the 
same color. The manner in which the test acts is as follows. By a transfer of chlorine, the 
test is converted into stannic chloride and metallic tin, the latter of which, by reacting with 56 
Acidum Hgdrochloncum. 
PART I. 
the sulphurous acid, gives rise to a precipitate of stannic and stannous sulphides. In case the 
sulphurous acid forms but one-half of one per cent, of the commercial acid, the precipitate 
may not be perceptible. Under these circumstances, a solution of copper sulphate must be 
added to the liquid previously warmed, when a brown precipitate of copper sulphide will be 
immediately formed. (Heintz.) Or, if a weak solution of iodine be decolorized by the hydrochloric 
acid, sulphurous or arsenous acid may be suspected. M. Lembert has proposed the following, 
which he considers as a more delicate test of sulphurous acid. Saturate the suspected hydro- 
chloric acid with potassium carbonate, and add successively a little weak solution of starch, 
one or two drops of solution of potassium iodate, and sulphuric acid, drop by drop. Sulphur- 
ous acid, if present, will be set free with iodic acid, and these, by reacting on each other, will 
develop iodine, which will cause a blue color with the starch. Or the addition of pure zinc 
will liberate nascent hydrogen, which will cause the evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas detected 
with lead acetate paper. 
Another impurity occasionally present in the commercial acid, as shown by Dupasquier, is 
arsenic. (See U. S. P. tests above.) The immediate source of this impurity is the sulphuric 
acid used to prepare the hydrochloric acid. The sulphuric acid derives the arsenic from the 
sulphur used in its manufacture, and this last from pyrites containing a little of the poisonous 
metal. The arsenic, when present, is in the form of a terchloride, and, from its volatility in 
this state of combination, is transferred to the hydrochloric acid, distilled from the commercial 
acid. This impurity is separated by diluting the acid with an equal volume of water, and 
passing through it hydrogen sulphide, which thus throws down the arsenic as a tersulphide. 
According to Wittstein, hydrochloric acid is freed from arsenic by mercury, according to 
Reinsch, by copper, and in either case it may be deprived of metallic impregnation by careful 
distillation. (A. J. P., 1851, p. 408.) M. Auguste Houzeau asserts that to deprive commercial 
arseniferous hydrochloric acid of arsenic it is sufficient simply to boil it, in a flat-bottomed 
vessel, to two-thirds of its original volume; all the arsenic escaping in the form of the ter- 
chloride. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chirn., 4e ser., i. 97.) Bettendorf! separates arsenous and 
arsenic acids from hydrochloric acid, sufficiently concentrated, by precipitating with stannous 
chloride, and then distilling the acid: when it is so treated, it is perfectly free from arsenic. 
(A. J. P., 1870, p. 219.) When leaden vessels are used in preparing hydrochloric acid, it is 
apt to contain lead chloride, which falls as a white precipitate on neutralizing the acid. The 
nature of the precipitate is verified by dissolving it in nitric acid and adding potassium iodide, 
when the yellow lead iodide will fall. (Hainav.lt.) Prof. E. Scheffer proved the presence of 
lead in a sample used for making solution of iron perchloride. (A. J. P., Nov. 1875.) Another 
instance was noted by F. Reppert. (A. J. P., Dec. 1875.) This impurity, being fixed, may 
be separated by distilling the acid. A small proportion of thallium has been detected in com- 
mercial hydrochloric acid by Mr. Wm, Crookes, being derived from sulphuric acid, in the manu- 
facture of which pyrites were employed. (Cliem. News, 1863, p. 194.) Selenium has been 
found in French hydrochloric acid, causing it to have a characteristic bad odor. 
Properties of Hydrochloric Acid Gas. Hydrochloric acid gas is a colorless elastic 
fluid, possessing a pungent odor, and the property of irritating the organs of respiration. It 
destroys life and extinguishes flame. It reddens litmus powerfully, and has the other proper- 
ties of a strong acid. Its sp. gr. is 1-278 (Gay-Lussac and Biot). Subjected to a pressure of 
40 atmospheres, at the temperature of 10° C. (50° F.), it is condensed into a transparent 
liquid, to which alone the name of liquid hydrochloric acid properly belongs. It is absorbed 
by water with the greatest avidity. 
Composition. Hydrochloric acid gas consists of one atom of chlorine and one of hy- 
drogen, or of one volume of chlorine and one of hydrogen, united without condensation. 
Medical Properties. Hydrochloric acid is tonic, refrigerant, and antiseptic. It is ex- 
hibited, largely diluted with water, in loro fevers, phthisis, some forms of syphilis, and to coun- 
teract phosphatic deposits iu the urine. It is especially valuable in gastro-intestinal indigestion 
when there is no tendency to diarrhoea, and may often be added with advantage to liquid 
preparations of columbo, gentian, and cinchona. It is also frequently given in dyspepsia along 
with pepsin, to aid its solvent powers. The dose for internal exhibition is from five to ten 
minims (0-3—0-6 C.c.), well diluted. (See Acidum Ilydrochloricum Dilutum.') It is a decided 
caustic when applied in concentrated form, although less powerful than nitric acid, and is fre- 
quently used to destroy small dermal growths. 
Toxicological Properties. Hydrochloric acid, when swallowed, is highly irritating and 
corrosive, but less so than sulphuric or nitric acid. It produces hiccough, violent efforts to PART I. 
Acidum Hydrochloricum.—Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum. 
57 
vomit, and agonizing pain in the stomach. There is much thirst, with great restlessness, a dry 
and burning skin, ana a small concentrated pulse. If the acid have been recently swallowed, 
white vapors of a pungent smell will be emitted from the mouth. The best antidote is mag- 
nesia, but soap or sufficiently dilute alkaline solutions are almost equally efficient. In the 
course of the treatment, bland and mucilaginous drinks must be freely given. When inflam- 
mation supervenes, it must be treated on general principles. 
ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM DILUTUM. U. S., Br. Diluted Hydro- 
chloric Acid. [Diluted Muriatic Acid.] 
(Xg'l-DUM HY-DRO-fJHLO'RI-CUM DI-LU'TUM.) 
“ 100 parts by weight should contain 10-58 parts of hydrogen chloride, HC1.” Br. 
Acidum Muriaticum Dilutum, Pharm. 1870; Acide chlorhydrique dilue, Fr.; Verdiinnte Salzsaure, G. 
“ Hydrochloric Acid, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Distilled Water, 
two hundred and nineteen grammes [or 7 ounces av., 317 grains], To make three hundred and. 
nineteen grammes [or 11 ounces av., 110 grains]. Mix them. Keep the product in glass- 
stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“ Hydrochloric Acid, 6 Jl. ounces (more exactly, 6-035, Imperial measure) or 3063 grains, 
or 301-8 cubic centimetres or 350-1 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Intro- 
duce the Hydrochloric Acid into a glass flask, the capacity of which to a mark on the neck is 
one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres; add Distilled Water until the mix- 
ture, at 60° F. (15-5° C.), after it has been shaken, measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one 
thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
The existing U. S. formula differs from that of 1870 in yielding a diluted hydrochloric acid, 
which contains about twelve per cent, more official acid than did the older preparation. The 
change was made in order that the diluted mineral acids might have a uniform strength (ten 
per cent, of absolute acid). It is important to bear this fact in mind in prescribing, although 
the difference is not sufficient to render the present strength dangerous. “ Diluted Hydro- 
chloric Acid contains 10 per cent, of absolute Hydrochloric Acid. Specific gravity, about 
1-050 at 15° C. (59° F.). It does not fume in the air, and is without odor, but otherwise it 
corresponds in properties to Hydrochloric Acid (see Acidum Hydrochloricum), and should con- 
form to the same reactions and tests. To neutralize 3-64 Grm. of Diluted Hydrochloric Acid 
should require 10 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution (each C.c. correspond- 
ing to 1 per cent, of the absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. B. 
The British diluted acid is slightly stronger than the U. S. preparation. “ Sp. gr. 1-052, con- 
taining 10-58 per cent, by weight of absolute acid. Each gramme should require for neutraliza- 
tion 2-9 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. It should be free 
from the impurities mentioned under ‘ Acidum Hydrochloricum.’ ” Br. The extreme precision 
of both formulas, though no doubt useful when the diluted acid is used as a test, is unnecessary 
from the point of view of the practical physician. 
For medical properties and uses, see Acidum Hydrochloricum. The dose of the diluted acid 
is from fifteen to thirty minims (0-92-1-85 C.c.), to be taken in water. 
ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM DILUTUM. U.S., Br. Diluted Hydro- 
cyanic Acid. [Prussic Acid.] 
(Xq'i-dum hy-dbo-cy-Xn'i-cOm di-lu'tum.) 
“ A liquid composed of 2 per cent., by weight, of absolute Hydrocyanic Acid [HCN = 
26-98], and 98 per cent, of water.” U. S. “An aqueous solution containing 2 per cent, by 
weight of hydrogen cyanide, HCN. It may be prepared by the interaction of diluted sul- 
phuric acid and potassium ferrocyanide. Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid should be stored in a 
dark place, in small stoppered bottles of amber-colored glass ; the stoppers being tied over with 
impervious tissue and the bottles inverted.” Br. 
Cyanhydric Acid; Acidum Hydrocyanatum s. Borussicum; Acide cyanhydrique, ou hydrocyanique, Fr.; Cyan- 
wasserstoff-Saure, Blausaure, G. 
“ Potassium Ferrocyanide, in coarse powder, twenty grammes [or 308 grains] ; Sulphuric 
Acid, eight cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidrachm, 11 minims] ; Water, sixty-five cubic centimeters 
[or 2 fluidounces, 95 minims]; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Place the Potassium 
Ferrocyanide in a tubulated retort, and add to it forty cubic centimeters [1 fluidounce, 3 fluid- 
drachms] of Water. Connect the neck of the retort (which is to be directed upward), by 58 
Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum. 
PART I. 
means of a bent tube, with a well-cooled condenser, the delivery tube of which terminates in a 
receiver surrounded with ice-cold water, and containing sixty-jive cubic centimeters [or 2 fluid- 
ounces, 95 minims] of Distilled Water. All the joints of the apparatus, except the neck of 
the receiver, having been made air-tight by means of well-fitting corks, pour into the retort, 
through the tubulure, the Sulphuric Acid, previously diluted with twenty-jive cubic centimeteri 
[6 fluidrachms, 45 minims] of Water. Gently mix the contents of the retort, and then heat 
it, in a sand-bath, so as to keep the liquid in brisk ebullition, until about one-half of its volume 
has passed over into the receiver. Detach the receiver, and assay a small portion of the con* 
tents by the method given below. Then add to the remainder so much Distilled Water as may 
be required to bring the product to the strength of two per cent., by weight, of absolute Hydro- 
cyanic Acid. 
“ Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid may also be prepared, extemporaneously, in the following man- 
ner : Silver Cyanide, six grammes [or 92-5 grains] ; Hydrochloric Acid, jive cubic centimeters 
[or 1 fluidrachm, 21 minims] ; Distilled Water, jiffy-jive cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 6 
fluidrachms, 52 minims]. Mix the Hydrochloric Acid with the Distilled Water, add the Sil- 
ver Cyanide, and shake the whole together in a glass-stoppered bottle. When the precipitate 
has subsided, pour off" the clear liquid. Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid should be kept in small, 
dark amber-colored, cork-stoppered vials, in a cool place.” U. S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia does not give a detailed process for preparing this acid. It de- 
scribes it as “ A colorless liquid writh a peculiar odor. Specific gravity 0997. It only slightly 
reddens litmus. It yields, when neutralized, the reactions characteristic of cyanides.” Br. It 
will be seen that both official acids recognize the same standard (2 per cent, of hydrogen 
cyanide). 
When potassium ferrocyanide is decomposed by sulphuric acid, the residue in the retort is 
potassium sulphate, mixed with an insoluble compound of iron cyanide and potassium cyanide 
(.Everitt's Salt). The reaction is expressed by the following equation: 
2(K4FeCeNe) + 3H2S04 = 3K2S04 + 2(KFeC8N8) + 6HCN. 
Half of the cyanogen present in the potassium ferrocyanide goes to form the hydrocyanic 
acid, while the other half remains in the white residue. Everitt’s salt, so named from its dis- 
coverer, is a yellowish-white powder. Like potassium ferrocyanide, it is a double salt (iron and 
potassium cyanide), but of different molecular ratio. As it appears in practice, it is apt to be 
greenish, owing probably to the presence of a little Prussian blue. 
In the U. S. process for obtaining hydrocyanic acid extemporaneously, the reacting materials 
are single molecules respectively of silver cyanide and hydrochloric acid. These, by double 
decomposition, generate hydrocyanic acid, which dissolves in the water, and silver chloride, 
which subsides, and from which the acid is poured off when clear. (See Argenti Cyanidum.) 
The extemporaneous process is useful to country practitioners, because the acid will not generally 
keep. A portion of hydrocyanic acid, if purchased by a practitioner, may spoil on his hands 
before he has occasion to use it; but if he supply himself with silver cyanide, he may readily 
at any moment prepare a small portion of the acid, by following the directions of the formula. 
On the other hand, it is questionable whether all of the silver cyanide will be decomposed, 
except under much more careful treatment than the process is likely to receive. 
The change which was made in the process of the Pharmacopoeia of 1880, in the substitution 
of diluted alcohol for the distilled water formerly used as the solvent for the hydrocyanic acid, 
was in accordance with the views of Gault and others, wrho asserted that greater stability was 
thus secured. It has not proved of sufficient value to retain in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia (1890), 
and the use of diluted alcohol has been abandoned. (See F. T. Drake, Proceedings A. P. A. 
1891, p. 147.) 
Another process for obtaining medicinal hydrocyanic acid, proposed by Dr. Clark, and adopted 
by Mr. Laming, is by the reaction of tartaric acid on potassium cyanide in solution. Laming’s 
formula has been modified as follows. Potassium cyanide, pure, 65 parts; tartaric acid, 150 
parts; alcohol, 675 parts; water sufficient to make 1538 parts. Mix the potassium cyanide 
and tartaric acid with 500 parts of water in a well-stoppered bottle, or dissolve each separately 
in 250 parts of water, and mix the solutions; then add the alcohol and sufficient water to 
make 1538 parts. After the acid potassium tartrate has subsided as a heavy crystalline powder, 
the clear supernatant liquid is decanted. 
The yield of official acid is 1350 parts, but the generated cream of tartar weighs 188 parts, 
thus making the 1538 parts as above directed. The solution contains mere traces of the acid 
tartrate. (A. J. P., 1883, p. 559, from Fownes's Chemistry.) PART I. 
Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum. 
59 
Great care must be observed in using this process to procure pure potassium cyanide, the 
commercial article usually being adulterated. 
Recent investigations show that potassium ferrocyanide is decomposable not only by the 
weakest acids but also by numerous non-acid organic substances, hydrocyanic acid being liber- 
ated. The dilute mineral acids, containing even less than 0.1 per cent., formic, acetic, butyric, 
lactic, tartaric, benzoic acids, even carbonic acid and hydrogen sulphide, phenols, peptones, 
casein, etc., will decompose potassium ferrocyanide more or less quickly at temperatures below 
100° C., liberating a portion of the hydrocyanic acid. (A. J. P., 1893, p. 283.) 
The processes thus far given are intended to furnish a dilute hydrocyanic acid for medicinal 
purposes. The methods of obtaining the anhydrous acid are different. Yauquelin’s process 
for the anhydrous acid is to pass a current of hydrogen sulphide gas over mercury cyanide 
contained in a glass tube, connected with a receiver kept cold by a freezing mixture of ice and 
salt. The first third only of the tube is filled with cyanide; the remaining two-thirds being 
occupied, half with lead carbonate, and half with calcium chloride; the carbonate being 
intended to detain the hydrogen sulphide gas, the chloride to separate water. 
The process of Wohler for the anhydrous acid is the following. The potassium cyanide 
selected is a black cyanide, formed by fusing together, in a covered crucible, 8 parts of dry 
ferrocyanide, 3 of ignited cream of tartar, and 1 of charcoal in fine powder. The cyanide, 
while still warm, is exhausted by 6 parts of water; and the clear solution, placed in a retort, 
is decomposed by cold diluted sulphuric acid, gradually added. The hydrocyanic acid is 
condensed first in a U-tube containing calcium chloride and surrounded with ice-cold water, 
and afterwards in a small bottle, connected with the U-tube by a narrow tube, and immersed 
up to the neck in a mixture of ice and salt. After the acid has been condensed and dehy- 
drated in the U-tube, the cold water surrounding it is withdrawn by a siphon, and replaced by 
water at a temperature between 29-4° and 32-2° C. (85°-90° F.), whereby the anhydrous acid is 
made to distil over into the small bottle. 
M. Berthelot has made hydrocyanic acid synthetically. lie first prepares, by a direct syn- 
thesis of its elements, acetylene (C2H2). He then mixes vapors of acetylene with pure nitrogen, 
passes a series of electric discharges from a Ruhmkorff coil through the mixture, and, when 
the odor of prussic acid is perceptible, agitates with a solution of potassa to get the fixed 
cyanide. It has also been made by heating chloroform with ammonia and caustic potash 
solution. (Hofmann, Ann., 144, 116.) 
Properties of the Medicinal Acid. Diluted hydrocyanic acid, of the proper medicinal 
strength, is a transparent, colorless, volatile liquid, possessing a smell resembling that of 
peach kernels, and a taste at first cooling and afterwards somewhat irritating. As it is 
very poisonous, great care should be taken in tasting it. “ If to 1 C.c. of the Acid, ren- 
dered alkaline by potassium hydrate test-solution, a few drops, each, of ferrous sulphate test- 
solution and ferric chloride test-solution be added, and the mixture then acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid, a blue precipitate will be formed.” U. S. It imparts a slight and evanescent 
red color to litmus. If it reddens litmus strongly and permanently, some acid impurity is 
present. It loses strength rapidly in open vessels. It is not reddened by potassium and 
mercury iodo-cyanide. The non-action of this test shows the absence of contaminating acids, 
which, if present, would decompose the test and give rise to red mercuric iodide. The red 
color produced when ammonium picrate is added to a solution of an alkaline cyanide and 
heated has been proposed as a test for prussic acid. (P. Guyot, JV. R., May, 1877.) It is liable 
to undergo decomposition if exposed to the light, but it may be kept for a longer time in a 
bottle covered with black paint or black paper. From experiments carefully conducted by 
MM. Bussy and Buignet, it appears that, when the alteration in the acid under the influence 
of light has begun, it will afterwards go on very rapidly in the dark; and that after exposure 
for a certain time to the light, though no alteration may be apparent, an influence has never- 
theless been exerted which disposes to change, and promotes decomposition even in the absence 
of light. Hence the necessity of immediately enclosing the acid in bottles from which the 
light is excluded. (Journ. de Pharm., 1863, p. 475.)* Experience has shown that it is best 
* Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid sometimes undergoes an apparently spontaneous molecular change by which it is 
converted into a black solid body, which was supposed to be paracyanogen (C3N3), or its compounds. This change 
takes place more slowly in watery solutions of the acid, which are converted into a black liquid; and it is only in a 
state of extreme dilution, when, for example, water contains not more than one per cent, of the acid, that it is alto- 
gether prevented. It sometimes takes place in the official diluted acid; and Prof. Procter exhibited a bottle, which 
had been most carefully closed, and kept excluded from the light, and in which, nevertheless, the acid had become 
as black as ink. The cause of this phenomenon remained long unknown: some years ago M. E. Millon satisfied 60 
Acidum Hydi'ocyanicum Dilutum. 
PART I. 
preserved in cork-stoppered bottles of amber glass ; when glass and rubber stoppers were used, 
decomposition frequently took place rapidly, its most usual impurities are sulphuric and hydro- 
chloric acids ; the former of which may be detected by barium chloride, which will produce a 
precipitate of barium sulphate, and the latter by precipitating with silver nitrate, when so much 
of the precipitate as may be silver chloride will be insoluble in boiling nitric acid, while the 
silver cyanide is readily soluble. The presence of these acids in slight amount is injurious 
only by rendering uncertain the strength of the medicinal acid, as ascertained by its saturating 
power. It is now generally acknowledged that mineral acids prevent the deterioration of the 
dilute prussic acid. But the presence of a mineral acid is not necessary for its preservation ; 
for Dr. Christison has known the medicinal acid from potassium ferrocyanide to keep perfectly 
well, although barium nitrate did not produce the slightest muddiness. Nevertheless it has 
been recently shown that much of the acid as kept in the drug-stores is often below the official 
strength. Various remedies have been proposed. (P. J. Tr., July, 1871; Feb. 1,1874; Sept. 
1874.) One of these is to reduce the strength to one-tenth per cent., this weak solution being 
said not to undergo change. In our experience a one-per-cent, acid retained its properties 
through very severe tests of exposure. Mr. John Williams has found in a series of experi- 
ments that the addition of 20 per cent, of glycerin has a very pronounced influence in prevent- 
ing deterioration. (P. J. Tr., Sept. 1874; Sept. 1875.) 
Formerly the medicinal acid was of different strengths, as ordered by the different pharma- 
ceutical authorities ; but happily the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias conform in this important 
point. At one time its strength was indicated by its specific gravity, which is lower in pro- 
portion as it is stronger ; but this unprecise mode of estimate is not now relied on ; and, though 
the British Pharmacopoeia gives the sp. gr. of its dilute acid at 0-997, both Pharmacopoeias 
give quantitative tests as indices of the strength. 
Assay. “ To ascertain the percentage strength, mix in a flask (of the capacity of about 100 
C.c.) 0-27 Gm. of Hydrocyanic Acid (obtained by distillation as above directed) with sufficient 
water and magnesia to make an opaque mixture of about 10 C.c. Add to this 2 or 3 drops 
of potassium chromate test-solution, and then, from a burette, silver nitrate decinormal volu- 
metric solution, until a red tint is produced which does not again disappear by shaking. Each 
C.c. of silver nitrate volumetric solution used indicates 1 per cent, of absolute Hydrocyanic Acid. 
After ascertaining the strength of the distillate, dilute it with Distilled Water so as to bring 
it to the strength of 2 per cent, of absolute acid. Lastly, test the finished product again, 
when 1-35 Gm. of it should require, for complete precipitation, 10 C.c. of silver nitrate deci- 
normal volumetric solution.” U.S. This method of assay is based upon Pappenheim’s pro- 
cess for the determination of hydrocyanic acid in bitter almond water, as described by Veilhaber 
in Archiv d. Pharm., 1878, p. 408 ; the addition of an alkali to a solution of hydrocyanic acid, 
previous to titration, not only prevents the volatilization of the acid, but, as has been shown by 
Siebold, the double cyanides of silver with the alkali metals are very permanent. The use of 
potassium chromate as an indicator, whereby a red color, due to a combination of the chromic 
acid with the silver, is produced, is highly recommended. The Br. Pharmacopoeia directs 
that “ Each gramme of Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid, rendered alkaline by the addition of solu- 
tion of sodium hydroxide, and maintained faintly alkaline throughout the operation, should 
require the addition of 3-7 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of silver nitrate before 
a permanent precipitate begins to form. 5 cubic centimetres evaporated in a platinum dish 
should leave no residue. It should yield only the slightest reactions with the tests for sul- 
phates or chlorides.” To explain this test it is necessary to notice that silver cyanide, 
though itself insoluble, is rendered soluble by combining with sodium cyanide, in the propor- 
himself, by experiment, that the real agency was the presence of ammonia, which may sometimes operate even 
through the air. It has also been asserted that the cause of the decomposition is the presence of a microscopic plant. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 1862, p. 48.) The preservative influence of a little sulphuric acid in the diluted hydrocyanic 
acid would be thus explained; and it is not impossible that the greater resistance offered to the change by the prep- 
aration made by the original process, in which sulphuric acid is used, than by the others, may be owing to the 
influence of this acid, either passing over with its vapor, or acting on the acid vapor before it leaves the retort. An 
important practical inference from all this is the necessity of providing, as far as possible, that ammonia should in 
no manner have access to the acid, during or after its preparation. The effect of ammonia in inducing changes in 
dilute hydrocyanic acid is denied by Pettit. (A. J. P., 1873.) Mr. Rimmington asserts that hydrocyanic acid acts 
upon the alkali of some varieties of glass. Mr. Siebold, who has confirmed this, declares that the addition of hydro- 
chloric acid is perfectly useless as a preservative, except when the prussic acid is kept in bottles which yield the 
alkali. (Pharm. Journ., Sept. 1874.) MM. Lescolm and Rigaut (Gomptes-Rendua, Aug. 4, 1879) state that pure 
hydrocyanic acid can he preserved fora long time; that the presence of potassium cyanide brings about this decom- 
position even in the absence of water. Acidum Mydrocyanicum Dilidum. 
61 
PART I. 
tion of one molecule of each. When, therefore, the diluted hydrocyanic acid is converted, 
by the addition of soda, into sodium cyanide, no permanent precipitate will begin to appear, 
upon the addition of silver nitrate, until more than sufficient silver cyanide is produced to 
form the soluble compound referred to, which happens when one-half of the sodium cyanide 
has been converted into silver cyanide. An acid of the strength indicated by either of these 
methods contains two per cent, of anhydrous acid. The test of entire solubility in boiling 
nitric acid, applied to the precipitate obtained by silver nitrate, is intended to verify its nature ; 
for, if the hydrocyanic acid contained hydrochloric acid, part of this precipitate would be silver 
chloride, not soluble in the boiling acid. Scheele’s medicinal hydrocyanic acid contains about 
5 per cent, of anhydrous acid; and therefore two minims of it are equal to five of the U. S. 
acid. The use of Scheele’s acid should be discouraged as unnecessary and very dangerous. 
In view of the deterioration of hydrocyanic acid upon keeping through loss by volatilization, 
the following approximate practical test is recommended by Dr. Squibb. If one drop of diluted 
hydrocyanic acid be added to 15 C.c. of distilled water in one vessel, and one drop of silver 
nitrate test-solution (U. S. P.) be added to 7 C.c. of distilled water in a test-tube, and the first 
solution be dropped into the second from a pipette, and the contents be closely observed for 
a few seconds between the drops, a distinct opalescence should be observed before the fourth 
drop is added, and should become very marked as the fourth and fifth drops are added. 
MM. Fordos and Gelis have proposed, as a test of the strength of the compounds containing 
cyanogen, an alcoholic solution of iodine of known strength; as, for example, three grains to 
the fluidounce. The test-solution is added, drop by drop, to the cyanogen compound, until a 
permanent yellowish tinge is produced. The iodine unites with the cyanogen, and with the 
substance in combination with the cyanogen, in the ratio of their several equivalents; and 
hence the cyanogen present is easily calculated from the proportion of iodine expended in 
uniting with it. This test is commended for its accuracy by Mr. James Roberton, of Man- 
chester, Eng. (See A. J. P., 1853, p. 551.) A. Link and R. Moeckel (Zeitsch. f. Analyt. 
Chem., 1878, p. 455) made a series of experiments, and showed that the most delicate test for 
hydrocyanic acid was that of iron sulphocyanate. (A. J. P., 1879, p. 86.) 
Properties of the Anhydrous Acid. Hydrocyanic acid, perfectly free from water, is 
a colorless, transparent, inflammable liquid, of extreme volatility, boiling at 27° C. (80° F.), 
and congealing at —15° C. (5° F.). Its sp. gr. as a liquid is 0 6969, at the temperature of 
18° C. (64° F.) ; and as a vapor 0-9423. Its taste is at first cooling, then burning, with an 
after-taste in the throat like that of bitter almonds; but, from its extremely poisonous nature, 
it must be tasted with the utmost caution. Its odor is so strong as to produce immediate head- 
ache and giddiness, and its vapor so deleterious that the smallest portion of it cannot be inhaled 
without the greatest danger. Both water and alcohol dissolve it readily. It is much more 
prone to undergo decomposition than the dilute acid. In the course of a few hours it some- 
times begins to assume a reddish-brown color, which becomes gradually deeper, till at length 
the acid is converted into a black liquid, which exhales a strong smell of ammonia. It is a 
very weak acid in its chemical relations, and reddens litmus but slightly. It does not form 
solid compounds with metallic oxides, but cyanides of metals, the elements of water being 
eliminated. According to Sobero, hydrocyanic acid is generated, in sensible quantities, by the 
action of weak nitric acid on the volatile oils and resins. Wohler affirmed in 1828 that picric 
acid when treated with baryta water yields it; and Julius Post and H. Iliibner have found that 
nitrobenzene and dinitrobeuzene do also when treated, the former with fusing potassa, the latter 
with boiling dilute solution of potassa. It has also been formed by the slow action of potas- 
sium carbonate on tincture of hyoscyamus, given together as a medicine. (Dr. J. T. Plummer, 
of Indiana, A. J. P, xxv. 513.) Though a product of art, it exists in some plants, and is 
generated by reaction between the constituents of many vegetable products upon contact with 
water. These principles are usually amygdalin and emulsin, but according to Peckhoit the root 
of Maniliot utilissima copiously generates hydrocyanic acid with water, although he was unable 
in 15 analyses to find amygdalin in it. (A. J. P., Oct. 1872.) (See Amygdala Amara.)* 
Composition. Hydrocyanic acid consists of the atomic group cyanogen and one atom 
of hydrogen; or, in volumes, of one volume of cyanogen and one of hydrogen without con- 
* It has been proposed to employ solutions of these vegetable products for the extemporaneous preparation of 
hydrocyanic acid, and in the Swedish Pharmacopoeia the Emulsio Hydrocyanata has replaced entirely the dilute 
prussic acid. An emulsion is first made of 3 parts of sweet almonds, 2 of sugar, and 24 of water. To 80 parts of 
this emulsion is added one part of amygdalin. In an hour the mixture is ready for use; one ounce of it contains 
one-third of a grain of anhydrous acid. Dose, one to two teaspoonfuls. {Nat. Med. Journ., July, 1871.) Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum. 
62 
PART I. 
densation, its formula being HCN or HCy. Cyanogen, (CN)a, is a colorless gas, of a strong and 
penetrating smell, inflammable, and burning with a beautiful bluish-purple flame. Its sp. gr. 
is 1-8157. It was discovered in 1815 by Gay-Lussac, who viewed it as a compound radical 
which when combined with hydrogen becomes hydrocyanic acid. Hydrocyanic acid, in a 
dilute state, was discovered in 1780 by Scheele, who correctly stated its elements to be carbon, 
nitrogen, and hydrogen; but the peculiar way in which they are combined was first pointed 
out by Gay-Lussac, by whom also the anhydrous acid was first obtained. 
Medical and Toxical Properties. Hydrocyanic acid is one of the most deadly poisons 
known, and frequently exceedingly rapid in its action. According to Dr. Christison, a grain 
and a half of the anhydrous acid are capable of producing death in the human subject. One 
or two drops of the pure acid are sufficient to kill a vigorous dog in a few seconds. Sometimes 
death occurs almost instantaneously. Usually, however, three stages of the poisoning are 
manifest: a first, very brief one, of difficult respiration, slow cardiac action, and disturbed 
nervous action; a second, violent convulsive stage, with dilated pupils, vomiting, often loud 
cries, unconsciousness, etc.; and a third, closing period, of asphyxia, collapse, and paralysis, 
sometimes interrupted by convulsions. When smaller doses are ingested, the symptoms come 
on more slowly, but are similar to those just described, and when paralysis is developed it affects 
both motility and sensation. A peculiar bloated look of the deeply-suffused face and neck, 
with frothing at the mouth, occurring along with the symptoms previously described, is almost 
pathognomonic of the poisoning. The odor of hydrocyanic acid is sometimes very strong, and 
should always be searched for about the mouth. It is very important as an aid in the diag- 
nosis, but is certainly not always present. Death is usually the result of asphyxia, produced 
by a direct paralyzing action of the poison upon the respiratory centres. The poison appears 
also to have a direct paralyzing action upon the heart, and sometimes to produce fatal syncope. 
The post-mortem appearances are glistening and staring expression of the eyes, gorged state 
of the venous system with fluid, dark, or bluish-black blood, especially of the veins of the 
brain and spinal marrow, and sometimes redness of the internal coat of the stomach. The 
lungs are sometimes natural, at other times turgid with blood. When the death has been very 
rapid, all of the blood may be found of a bright arterial hue. After a slow death the blood 
is cyanotic. It is rarely true that all the muscles are insensible to the galvanic current. If 
the autopsy be not too long deferred, the odor of the acid is generally perceptible when the 
cadaver is opened. The odor after nitrobenzene poisoning resembles very closely that of the 
acid, but it is affirmed that the diagnosis can be made by leaving the opened body exposed, when 
the smell of the acid will disappear, and that of the nitrobenzene remain. Notwithstanding the 
tremendous energy of this acid as a poison, it has been ventured upon in a dilute state as a 
sedative, anodyne, and antispasmodic. Though occasionally applied as a remedy prior to 1817, 
it did not attract very much attention until that year, when Magendie published his observa- 
tions on its use in diseases of the chest and recommended it to the profession. When given 
in medicinal doses gradually increased, it produces the following symptoms in different cases: 
peculiar bitter taste; increased secretion of saliva; irritation of the throat; nausea; dis- 
ordered respiration ; pain in the head ; giddiness ; faintness ; obscure vision ; and tendency to 
sleep. It appears to have a special action on the larynx and trachea. (Dr. Cogswell.) The 
pulse is sometimes quickened, at other times reduced in frequency. It has been extensively 
used in complaints of the respiratory organs, but later experience has shown that it has but 
little virtue, except in the quieting of cough. Its influence upon the circulation is not suffi- 
ciently pronounced to render the drug of any value as an arterial sedative in acute pulmonary 
or other inflammations. In phthisis it may be resorted to with advantage as a palliative for 
the cough. In various other affections of the chest attended with dyspnoea or cough, such as 
asthma, whooping-cough, and chronic catarrh, it has often been decidedly beneficial, by allaying 
irritation or relaxing spasm. In certain gastric affections characterized by pain and spasm 
(gastrodynia), and sometimes attended with vomiting, but unconnected with inflammation, and 
in similar painful affections of the bowels, it has proved beneficial in the hands of several prac- 
titioners. In these cases it probably acts locally upon the nerve-endings in the stomach and 
intestines. It has been used with asserted good results in the paroxysmal excitement of mania. 
(Ann. de Therapy 1865, p. 111.) Sometimes it is used externally, diluted with water, as a 
wash in cutaneous diseases. The late Dr. A. T. Thomson insisted particularly on its efficacy 
in allaying the itching of impetiginous affections. 
The dose of the diluted hydrocyanic acid is from two to four drops (0-12-0-24 C.c.), dissolved 
in distilled water, or mixed with gum-water or syrup. It should be administered with the Acid inn Hydrocyanicum Dilution. 
PART I. 
63 
greatest caution, on account of its minute dose, and its variable strength as usually found. 
The proper plan, therefore, is to begin with a small dose, two drops, for example, and gradually 
to increase the quantity until some obvious impression is produced. On account of the rapidity 
and fugaciousness of its action, it should be given at intervals of not more than two hours; 
indeed, it is very improbable that the largest therapeutic dose of the substance exerts any in- 
fluence whatever upon the system one hour after its ingestion. If giddiness, weight at the top 
of the head, sense of tightness at the stomach, or faintness come on, its use should be discon- 
tinued. In all cases in which a fresh portion of medicine is used, the dose should be lowered 
to the minimum quantity, lest the new sample should prove stronger than that previously em- 
ployed. When resorted to as a lotion, from thirty minims to a fluidrachm may be dissolved in 
a fluidounce of distilled water. 
Toxicology. Hydrocyanic acid is so rapidly fatal as a poison that physicians have seldom 
an opportunity to treat its effects. Death, if it occur at all, usually takes place in from one 
to forty minutes. One case has, however, been reported in which it was delayed one hour and 
a quarter. When recovery is brought about, the symptoms in most cases abate very rapidly. 
The antidotes and remedies most to be relied on are chlorine, ammonia, cold affusion, and arti- 
ficial respiration. Chlorine in the form of chlorine water, or weak solutions of chlorinated 
lime or soda, may be exhibited internally, or applied externally. When chlorine is not at hand, 
water of ammonia, largely diluted, may be given, and the vapor arising from it cautiously 
inhaled. Cold affusion was first proposed in 1828, by Herbst, of Gottingen, and its utility was 
subsequently confirmed by Orfila. Its efficacy is strongly supported by experiments performed 
in 1839 by Dr. Robinson and M. Lonyet upon poisoned rabbits. In a case of poisoning reported 
by Dr. Christison in 1850, the patient recovered under a stream of cold water poured upon 
the head from a moderate height. In another case, reported in the Lancet in 1854, in which 
the largest reported quantity was taken to be followed by recovery (2-4 grains of anhydrous 
acid), the cold-water douche was the principal remedy. (See Am. Journ. Med. Sci., July, 
1854, p. 276.) Messrs. T. & H. Smith, of Edinburgh, have recommended especially as an 
antidote for the medicinal acid a mixture of the ferric salts, swallowed after a solution of 
potassium carbonate. So soon as the antidote comes in contact with hydrocyanic acid, po- 
tassium sulphate is formed, and the poison is converted into Prussian blue. It may be pre- 
pared extemporaneously, by adding ten grains of iron sulphate, and a drachm of the tinc- 
ture of iron chloride, to a fluidounce of water contained in one vial, and twenty grains of 
potassium carbonate to a fluidounce of water in another vial. The patient is made to swallow 
the solution of potassium carbonate, and immediately afterwards the mixed ferruginous solu- 
tion. This quantity is estimated to be sufficient to render insoluble nearly two grains of the 
anhydrous acid* In one instance this antidote is said to have proved very effectual. (P. J. Tr., 
1865, p. 139.) Hydrogen peroxide (see Aqua Hydrogenii Dioxidi) has been found by Kobert 
to be antidotal, acting by changing the acid into oxamide. (Pharm. Central., 1891.) Johann 
Antal {Pharm,. Zeitschr. f. Rusal., 33, 518) recommends cobaltous nitrate as an antidote, and, 
according to the experiments of Spenzer, it is effective. The action of the poison is, however, 
so rapid that there is rarely time for any antidote to be of value. Atropine, which has been 
suggested as physiologically antagonistic to prussic acid, is of no value. 
Tests. After suspected death from poison, it is sometimes necessary to ascertain whether 
the event was caused by this acid. At a period long after death it would be needless to search 
for so volatile a poison ; but it has been recognized three weeks after death, in a case reported 
by M. Brame, in which about six drachms of acid, containing between 8 and 9 per cent, of 
anhydrous acid, had been swallowed. The best test is that proposed by Liebig in 1847, con- 
sisting in the change of the hydrocyanic acid into ammonium sulphocyanate, which salt is 
then tested with a ferric salt. Two drops of the acid, so dilute as not to afford the least blue 
tint with the salts of iron, upon being mixed with a drop of ammonium sulphydrate (yellow 
* In a subsequent communication the Messrs. Smith recommend the following proportions. Mix of solution of 
perchloride of iron (Br.) 37 minims, ferrous sulphate, as pure as possible and in fine crystals, 25 grains, and about half 
a fluidounce of water. Dissolve 77 grains of crystallized sodium carbonate in the same measure of water. These 
quantities will neutralize between 150 and 200 minims of the medicinal hydrocyanic acid. (P. J. Tr., 1865, p. 147.) 
Still more recently the authors propose to substitute magnesia for sodium carbonate, as better fitted to neutralize 
any considerable quantity of gastric acid that might be present. The following is the formula now recommended. 
From one to two drachms of magnesia, made into a smooth cream with water, are to be first administered, and then 
16 minims of solution of perchloride of iron (Br.) and 124 grains of ferrous sulphate are dissolved in water. These 
quantities are calculated for 100 minims of medicinal hydrocyanic acid. Should more than this be supposed to 
have been taken, the ferruginous ingredients must be increased in proportion, but not the magnesia. (Ibid,., 1865, 
p. 276.) 64 
Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum. 
PART I. 
from dissolved sulphur), and heated upon a watch-glass until the mixture is colorless, yield 
a solution of ammonium sulphocyanate which becomes of a deep blood-red color upon the 
addition of ferric sulphate, in consequence of the formation of iron sulphocyanate. (Chem. 
Gaz., April 1, 1847 ; from Liebig’s Annalen.) This test is praised by Mr. A. S. Taylor, who 
found it to act characteristically on two grains of dilute hydrocyanic acid, containing only 
l-3930th of a grain of anhydrous acid. To render the test thus delicate, Mr. Taylor deems 
it necessary to evaporate the liquid gently to dryness, after the addition of the ammonium 
sulphydrate, in order to bring the sulphocyanate to the solid state before adding the iron test, 
a fractional part of a drop of which will commonly suffice to produce the characteristic color. 
The red color is instantly discharged by solution of corrosive sublimate or mercuric nitrate, 
and is thus distinguished from that which might possibly be produced under similar circum- 
stances by acetic acid. Should the acid be mixed with organic matters, Mr. Taylor proposes a 
modification of Liebig’s test, as follows. . Place it in a watch-glass, and invert over it another, 
holding in the centre a drop of ammonium sulphydrate. In from half a minute to ten minutes, 
without heat, the ammonium sulphydrate will be converted into ammonium sulphocyanate, and 
upon removing the upper glass, and evaporating its contents to dryness, the iron test will produce 
the blood-red color. MM. 0. Henry and E. Humbert have proposed, as a test of hydrocyanic 
acid, first to convert it into silver cyanide by distilling the suspected matters into a dilute 
solution of silver nitrate, and then to decompose the cyanide by iodine, so as to form cyanogen 
iodide. The dried cyanide is added to half its estimated weight of pure iodine, contained 
in a test-tube. Upon the application of a gentle heat, cyanogen iodide is formed, and charac- 
teristic crystals of it are deposited on the cool surface of the tube. (Journ. de Pharm., 1857, 
p. 173.) Prof. Wormley (Micro-Chemistry of Poisons, 2d ed., p. 186) considers the silver 
nitrate test as the most delicate of all when the hydrocyanic acid vapor is distilled from a 
mixture and received in a drop of silver nitrate solution placed in a watch-glass above it. 
An extremely sensitive test of hydrocyanic acid in the state of vapor has been offered by 
Schonbein. It consists of white filtering paper imbued with the resin of guaiacum by dip- 
ping it in a solution of 3 parts of the resin in 150 of alcohol, and then drying. At the 
moment of use it is to be moistened with a solution of copper sulphate containing 1 part in 
500 parts of water. If now brought into contact with hydrocyanic acid, whether dissolved in 
water or diffused in the air in the form of vapor, it instantly becomes blue. According to 
Schonbein, it will change color in air containing only a forty-millionth part of hydrocyanic 
acid. (See A. J. P., 1869, p. 174.) The test cannot, however, be relied on, since a similar 
reaction is yielded by numerous other substances, such as nitrous, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, 
chlorine, bromine, iodine, ammonia, dilute sulphuric acid, chromic acid, potassium bichromate, 
etc. The paper should be exposed to a current of air drawn through the suspected liquid, 
and, if indications be yielded, distillation practised to get the volatile acid in a state of suffi- 
cient purity to be submitted to the sulphur-iron test. This, as performed by Almen and Strieve, 
consists in adding ammonium sulphide, to form the sulphocyanate; converting this into the 
non-volatile potassium sulphocyanate by the addition of a few drops of liquor potassse; then 
evaporating nearly or quite to dryness; adding a few drops of water acidulated with hydro- 
chloric acid, and finally adding a drop or two of iron sesquichloride, when the blood red of the 
sulphocyanate will be developed. (Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., July, 1873.) Another test, 
which was proposed by Schonbein, and which was found to be exceedingly delicate by M. 
Buchner, is dependent upon the power prussic acid has of preventing the catalytic action of 
the red blood-corpuscles. Normally, when these are brought into contact with hydrogen per- 
oxide, the latter is decomposed and oxygen liberated; if prussic acid be present, no oxygen is 
set free, but the mixture becomes of a deep brown color. In this way Buchner recognized 5 
milligrammes of the anhydrous acid in 600 grammes of blood and water. This test is not 
applicable to old blood. (A. J. P., Sept. 1869.) 
A very delicate test proposed for hydrocyanic acid is as follows. About one-half centigramme 
(tV grain) °fi ammonio-ferrous sulphate (or other pure ferrous salt) and the same quantity of 
uranic nitrate are dissolved in 50 C.c. of water, and 1 C.c. of this test-liquid is placed in a 
porcelain dish. On now adding a drop of a liquid containing the smallest quantity of prussic 
acid, a gray purple color or a distinct purple precipitate is produced. (M. Carey Lea, Amer. 
Journ. of Sci. [3], ix. 121-123.) PART I. 
Acidum Hypophosphorosum Dilutum.—Acidum Lacticum. 
65 
ACIDUM HYPOPHOSPHOROSUM DILUTUM, U. S. Diluted Hypophos- 
phorous Acid. 
“A liquid composed of about 10 per cent., by weight, of absolute Hypophosphorous Acid 
[HPH202 = 65-88], and about 90 per cent, of water.” U. S. 
This acid has been introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890, mainly because of its 
value as an addition to pharmaceutical preparations containing iodides liable to decomposition 
through exposure to light and air. It has proved to be the most satisfactory preservative to 
these easily decomposed salts. It may be added directly, or, as in the case of syrup of hydri- 
odic acid, a hypophosphite can be employed, and the salt decomposed by an acid during the 
manipulation. The National Formulary has given a very excellent process for its preparation 
(see Part II.). It may be made on a large scale, however, by decomposing barium hypophos- 
phite with sulphuric acid, or by boiling phosphorus with milk of lime and subsequently decom- 
posing the calcium hypophosphite with a strong acid, oxalic acid being frequently used. The 
following process of Prof. Procter’s (A. J. P'., 1858, p. 121) is based on this principle. Take 
of hypophosphite of lime 480 grains, crystallized oxalic acid 350 grains, distilled water 9 fluid- 
ounces. Dissolve the hypophosphite of lime in 6 fluidounces of the water, and the acid in the 
remainder with the aid of heat; mix the solutions, pour the mixture on a white paper filter, 
and when the liquid has passed add distilled water carefully till it measures 10 fluidounces; 
evaporate this to 81 fluidounces. Charles T. Tyrer prefers to make this acid by decomposing 
barium hypophosphite carefully with diluted sulphuric acid. It can be made to contain 30 
per cent, of real acid; such an acid has the sp. gr. 1-137 and does not deposit on long stand- 
ing. ( Yearbook of Pharmacy, 1896, 298.) 
Properties. Diluted hypophosphorous acid is a colorless, odorless liquid, having a sour 
taste and acid reaction ; its specific gravity is 1-046 at 15° C. (59° F.). It is miscible in all 
proportions with water or alcohol. The following official tests are appended : 
“ When heated in a porcelain capsule, it evaporates, losing at first principally water and 
becoming more concentrated. On further heating it decomposes, forming hydrogen phosphide 
which ignites, and phosphoric acid. The pasty residue finally reddens, ignites, and the last 
portions of phosphorus burn out at higher heat. From silver nitrate test-solution it reduces 
black metallic silver. When the Acid is gently heated with copper sulphate test-solution, a 
yellow precipitate of copper hydride falls, which rapidly assumes a reddish-brown color. The 
addition of hydrogen sulphide test-solution to the Acid should produce neither a precipitate 
nor a coloration (absence of lead, etc.). If some of the Acid be neutralized with ammonia 
water, separate portions of the liquid should not yield a precipitate with ammonium sulphide test- 
solution (absence of iron, etc)., nor with ammonium oxalate test-solution (absence of calcium) ; 
nor should more than a slight turbidity be produced by barium chloride test-solution (limit of 
phosphoric, sulphuric, oxalic, and tartaric acids). Neither platinic chloride test-solution nor 
sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution should produce more than a slight yellow turbidity in the 
diluted acid (limit of potassium). If 0-5 Gm. of Diluted Hypophosphorous Acid be mixed 
with 7 C.c. of sulphuric acid and 35 C.c. of potassium permanganate deeinormal volumetric 
solution, and the mixture boiled for fifteen minutes, it should require about 4-7 C.c. of oxalic 
acid deeinormal volumetric solution to discharge the red color, corresponding to about 10 per 
cent, of absolute Hypophosphorous Acid. To neutralize 6-6 Gm. of Diluted Hypophosphorous 
Acid should require about 10 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution (each C.c. 
corresponding to 1 per cent, of the absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This acid is believed by many clinicians to have tonic 
properties, but is very rarely if ever used except in combinations with strychnine, quinine, or 
iron, which are thought by many to be especially valuable in nervous debility. The dose is 
from ten to thirty minims (0-62-1-85 C.c.). 
(Xg'l-DtJM HY-PO-PHOS-PHO-RO'SUM dI-lu'tum.) 
ACIDUM LACTICUM. U. S., Br. Lactic Acid. 
“ An organic acid, usually obtained by subjecting milk-sugar or grape-sugar to lactic fermen- 
tation ; composed of 75 per cent., by weight, of absolute Lactic Acid [HC3H603 = 89-79], 
and 25 per cent, of water.” IT. S. “ A liquid containing 75 per cent, of hydrogen lactate, 
CHg.CHOH.COOH, with 25 per cent, of water. It may be produced by the fermentation of 
lactose.” Br. 
Oxypropionic Acid, Etliidene-lactic Acid; Acide lactique, Fr.; Milchsaure, 0. 
(Xg'i-DUM iAc'ti-cum.) Acid am Lacticum. 
PART I. 
Lactic acid was discovered by Scheele. It exists in sour milk, and lias been found in a 
number of the secretions, including the healthy gastric juice, in which its presence has been 
incontestably proved by Bernard and Barreswil. It has been detected by Prof. Wittstein in the 
vegetable kingdom, especially in the peduncles of Solatium dulcamara, and the liquid which 
oozes from freshly-cut vine branches. It is a product of the viscous or lactic fermentation of 
rice-water, or of the juices of the beet, turnip, and carrot. Indeed, it is formed whenever 
sugar in solution, of whatever kind, is placed in contact with an alkaline or earthy carbonate 
in presence of a special ferment, as, for example, the casein of milk, or cheese which contains 
it. Pasteur has demonstrated that the lactic acid fermentation, like the vinous, is caused by 
a peculiar microscopic plant or mycoderm. It is attended with the production not only of 
lactic acid, but of other substances also, and among them a peculiar gum-like substance in abun- 
dance, wrhich, first noticed by Kirchof, has been isolated in a pure state by Briining. Though 
similar to arabin and dextrin, with the formula C6II1006, it is not exactly identical with either. 
(See Chem. Gaz., 1858, p. 197.) The lactic acid of fermentation is one of four isomeric acids 
possessing the formula C3H603. The first of these is the official lactic acid, and is inactive 
optically. The second is identical chemically with this, but physically different, being dextro- 
rotatory, and is found in the juice of flesh. It is called paralactic acid. The third or ethylene 
lactic acid is found mixed with the second in the so-called “ sarcolactic" acid extracted from 
meat. The fourth acid has only been obtained synthetically, and is known as hydracrylic acid. 
Preparation. Lactic acid may be obtained by the following process, which was recom- 
mended by M. Louradour as the first step in preparing ferrous lactate. Ferment whey by keep- 
ing it at a temperature between 211° C. (70° F.) and 26-6° C. (80° F.), whereby it becomes 
charged with a considerable quantity of lactic acid. Evaporate the liquor to one-third of its 
bulk, decant and filter, and then saturate with milk of lime. This converts the lactic acid into 
calcium lactate, which remains in solution, and throws down a precipitate, consisting princi- 
pally of calcium phosphate. The liquor is filtered again, and precipitated by oxalic acid, 
which throws down the lime as calcium oxalate, and sets free the lactic acid. By a new filtration 
a solution of lactic acid is obtained, containing lactose (sugar of milk) and certain salts. 
From these it may be purified by concentrating it to a syrupy consistence and treating it with 
alcohol, which dissolves the acid, and precipitates the lactose and foreign salts. The solution 
is filtered, and the lactic acid is obtained pure by distilling off the alcohol. Wackenroder’s 
method is to mix 10 parts of skimmed milk, 2-5 of milk sugar, 2 of chalk, and 20 of water, 
to digest at about 23-8° C. (75° F.) for a month, or till the chalk is dissolved, then to express, 
clarify, and evaporate so as to crystallize the calcium lactate, and, having recrystallized this 
salt, to decompose it with sulphuric or oxalic acid in exact saturating proportions. 
Alan A. Claflin thus describes the manufacture of lactic acid as carried out at the present 
time on a large scale under the patent of Charles E. Avery (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., June 30, 
1897). A saccharine solution varying in density from 1-05 to 1 075 is taken. This will contain 
from 7 5 to 11 per cent, of saccharine matter. It is advantageous to have from 10 to 15 per 
cent, of this cane sugar, the rest being grape sugar. The saccharine solution, having been 
made up and boiled for an hour to insure sterilization, is conveyed into the fermentation-tank 
and cooled to from 55° to 45° C., and then impregnated with nitrogenous matter (such as 
is extracted from bran by the action of boiling water and dilute acid) in amount equal to 
about 8 per cent, of the saccharine matter, and the Bacillus acidi lactici. In continuous 
manufacture the ferment solutions are impregnated from a preceding ferment liquor in which 
a lively fermentation is in progress. 20 per cent, of such impregnating liquor may be added. 
The impregnation having taken place at 45° C. or over, the temperature is allowed to decrease 
somewhat as the fermentation grows older. The glucose is practically all decomposed, and the 
yield of lactic acid is over 98 per cent. As the fermentation progresses the solution must be 
neutralized with milk of lime, as the limits of acidity in which lactic acid bacteria are healthy 
are rigidly confined between 0-02 and 0 5 per cent. If the fermenting solution is overneutral- 
ized, the butyric ferment will immediately begin to act, and once active is difficult to control. 
The lactic fermentation is best completed in from three to six days ; and when the fermentation 
is ended, the liquor must be heated sharply to kill all bacteria and spores and prevent subse- 
quent fermentation. The solution is now filtered and evaporated, when the calcium lactate 
may be crystallized out; or if commercial syrupy acid only is required, the solution may be at 
once decomposed by sulphuric acid. 
Kiliani (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., xv. 136 and 699) has found that lactic acid may be readily pre- 
pared by the action of potassium or sodium hydrate upon both grape sugar and invert sugar Acidum Laeticum. 
PART i 
67 
(or cane sugar after treatment with dilute acids). He considers invert sugar to be the best 
material for the preparation of the acid, as it gives a better yield than ordinary glucose, and 
recommends caustic soda in preference to caustic potash. His procedure is the following: 
500 grammes of cane sugar are placed with 150 grammes of water and 10 C.c. of the sul- 
phuric acid, to be used later, in a stoppered flask of 2 litres’ capacity and heated for 3 hours 
to about 50° C. (122° F.). The solution of invert sugar so obtained is colorless, or at most 
faintly yellow. After cooling there is to be added to it in portions of 50 C.c. at a time 400 
C.c. Of a caustic soda solution made by dissolving 1 part of caustic soda in 1 part of water. 
The strong alkali settles at first as a slimy mass on the bottom, and a new portion is only to 
be added when the mixture has become perfectly homogeneous by shaking. The flask should 
also be cooled with water while the alkali is being added. The mixture nevertheless becomes 
colored and greatly heated. Finally the mixture is heated to 60° or 70° C. (140° F.—158° F.) 
until a test heated over a boiling water-bath does not separate cuprous oxide from Fehling’s 
solution, but gives it only a slight greenish tinge. Into the cooled mixture the calculated 
amount of sulphuric acid (made by mixing 3 parts of sulphuric acid with 4 of water) is then 
run. As soon as the acid liquid has cooled to the temperature of the room, a crystal of Glau- 
ber’s salt is dropped in and the flask dipped in cold water until a thin crystalline crust forms on 
the sides, which is removed by a rapid shaking of the flask. Cooling and shaking are continued 
until a crust no longer forms, when the mixture is allowed to stand at rest for 12 to 24 hours. 
At the end of this time the contents of the flask appear to consist of a crystalline cake soaked 
with a reddish liquid. There is then added alcohol of 93 per cent., and the whole is shaken 
up until on further addition no precipitate separates out. The separated Glauber’s salt is freed 
from the alcoholic solution by a vacuum filter, and can be washed with relatively very little 
alcohol. The half of the alcoholic solution is neutralized over the water-bath with zinc car- 
bonate, filtered boiling hot, and united with the other half. The crystallization begins imme- 
diately upon cooling, and is complete after standing 36 hours. The zinc lactate so obtained 
can be pressed free from mother-liquor and crystallized once, when it is perfectly pure. The 
weight of this first crystallization amounts to from 30 to 40 per cent, of the sugar used.. The 
concentrated mother-liquor yields yet another portion of nearly pure, although slightly yellow- 
ish, crystals. For a method of making lactic acid from corn meal, see New Remedies, 1882, 
p. 235. 
George Jacquemin adds the pure lactic ferment, prepared by Pasteur’s method, with a quan- 
tity of pure sterilized calcium carbonate, to a wort at 45° C. Fermentation is conducted at 
that temperature, care being taken to exclude dust, to admit filtered air at the bottom of the 
vessel, and to allow the carbonic acid to escape. Fermentation is complete in five or six days, 
and the solution of calcium lactate is freed from nitrogenous matters by the addition of tannic 
acid. The calcium lactate crystallizes out on evaporation of the filtrate. This may be 
decomposed with an exact quantity of sulphuric or oxalic acid. ( Chem. News, 1891, lxiv. 62.) 
Properties. Lactic acid is a syrupy liquid, nearly colorless, of a slight not unpleasant 
odor, and a very sour taste. Its sp. gr. is 1-213 at 15° C. (1-21 Br.), but acid of this strength 
is considered as containing only 75 per cent, of absolute lactic acid, tbe specific gravity of which 
is 1-248. (Allen, Commercial Org. Anal., 2d ed., i. p. 419.) It is not solidified by evaporation, 
and not vaporized by a heat not exceeding 160° C. (320° F.). At a higher temperature it 
emits inflammable vapors. “ 5 Gm., after combustion, should not leave more than 0.05 Gm. 
of fixed residue.” U. S. It unites in all proportions with water, alcohol, and ether, but is 
nearly insoluble in chloroform. Exposed to a heat of 150° C. (302° F.), it is for the most 
part converted into a new body, called concrete lactic acid or lactide, an anhydride of the for- 
mula CsH402. It coagulates albumen and dissolves a large quantity of freshly precipitated 
calcium phosphate; a property which doubtless renders it important in the animal economy. 
“ On adding some potassium permanganate to a mixture of equal volumes of Lactic and 
sulphuric acids, and gently heating, the odor of aldehyde will become perceptible. 10 C.c. 
of a 1-per-cent, aqueous solution of the Acid should not be rendered opalescent by the 
addition of 1 C.c. of silver nitrate test-solution (limit of chloride'). 10 C.c. of a 10-per-cent, 
aqueous solution should remain unaffected by the addition of 1 C.c. of barium chloride test- 
solution (absence of sidphate), or by 1 C.c. of copper sulphate test-solution (absence of sarco- 
lactic acid), or, after supersaturation with ammonia, by 1 C.c. of ammonium sulphide test- 
solution (absence of iron, lead, etc.). On adding a few drops of Lactic Acid to 10 C.c. of hot 
alkaline cupric tartrate volumetric solution, no red cuprous oxide should be separated (absence 
of sugars). If a small portion of the Acid be heated with an excess of zinc carbonate, the mix- 68 
Acidum Lacticum.—Acidum Nitricum. 
PART I. 
ture dried at 100° C. (212° F.), and then extracted with absolute alcohol, upon evaporation 
of the latter no sweet residue should remain (absence of glycerin). On mixing equal volumes 
of Lactic and colorless, concentrated sulphuric acids in a small, clean, glass-stoppered vial, the 
mixture should not acquire a tint deeper than a pale straw color (absence of more than traces of 
organic impurities). To neutralize 4 5 Gm. of Lactic Acid should require 37 5 C.c. of potassium 
hydrate volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 2 per cent, of absolute acid), phe- 
nolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. “ Warmed with potassium permanganate it gives 
the odor of aldehyde. Each gramme should require for neutralization 8-3 cubic centimetres 
of the volumetric solution of sodium, hydroxide. Gently warmed, there should be no rancid 
odor (absence of fatty acids). No turbidity, either permanent or transient, should be produced 
when the Acid is added drop by drop to twice its volume of ether (absence of gum, sugar, man- 
nite, calcium phosphate). It should give no precipitate with solution of lead subacetate (ab- 
sence of malic and sulphuric acids).” Br. At the late revision, diluted lactic acid {Acidum 
Lacticum Dilutum, Br., 1885) was dropped from the British Pharmacopoeia; the old prepara- 
tion was of the strength of three fluidounces to the pint (Imp. meas.) and had a specific gravity 
of 1-040. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Lactic acid was proposed by Magendie, on account 
of its being a normal constituent of gastric juice, as a remedy in dyspepsia, and for the removal 
of phosphatic deposits in the urine. It is also used in tuberculous diarrhoea, and in the green 
diarrhoea of children. The remedy should be taken at the time of meals, in solution sweet- 
ened with sugar, prepared like lemonade. From one to three drachms (3-75-11-25 C.c.) may 
be taken in the course of the day. Professor Cantani, of Naples, was induced by theoretical 
considerations to employ lactic acid in diabetes, in connection with an exclusively meat diet, and 
reported very remarkable success. {Ed. Med. Journ., 1871, p. 533.) Certain other practitioners 
have achieved similar results, but the remedy has not answered the expectations formed of it, 
and is at present not very frequently employed. If used, half a fluidounce in a pint of water 
should be administered daily. Hypnotic properties have also been ascribed to lactic acid, but 
the claim has not been verified. In solution the acid has been found very efficacious, locally 
applied, in dissolving false membrane, and it has consequently been employed, with much ap- 
parent advantage, in diphtheritic affections and croup* the solution employed containing one 
part of the acid to five parts of the menstruum. {Ann. de Therap., 1869, p. 220.) Half a 
drachm to half an ounce (1-85 C.c. to 14-78 C.c.) may be given to an adult in divided doses 
during the twenty-four hours. 
Lactic acid is a useful addition to medicinal pepsin, increasing the solvent power of that 
agent upon the food, when taken into the stomach. Some importance has also been attached to 
it from the supposition that it might be the materies morbi in rheumatism, as uric acid has been 
supposed to be in gout; but in either case the acid is probably the effect rather than the cause 
of the disease. 
ACIDUM NITRICUM. U. S., Br. Nitric Acid. 
“ A liquid composed of 68 per cent., by weight, of absolute Nitric Acid [HN03 = 62-89], 
and 32 per cent, of water. Nitric Acid should be kept in dark amber-colored, glass-stoppered 
bottles.” U. S. “A liquid containing 70 per cent, by weight of hydrogen nitrate, HN03, and 
30 per cent, of water, prepared by the interaction of sulphuric acid and potassium or sodium 
nitrate.” Br. 
Acidum Nitri s. Azoticum, Spiritus Nitri Acidus; Spirit of Nitre; Aqua Fortis; Acide nitrique, Acide azotlque, 
Fr.; Salpetersaure, G.; Zaltpeterzuur, Sterkwater, Dutch ; Shedwater, Sw.; Acido nitrico, It., Sp. 
Nitric oxide is one of the five compounds formed by nitrogen and oxygen. These are 
nitrogen protoxide or hyponitrous oxide (laughing gas), N20 ; nitrogen dioxide, N202 or (N0)2 ; 
nitrous oxide, N203; nitrogen tetroxide or peroxide, N204; and nitric oxide, N206. From 
this latter by the addition of water is formed nitric acid : N206 -j- H20 == (HN03)„. 
Nitric acid is now official in two forms; the pure acid of the sp. gr. 1-42, and the diluted. 
The strong acid, of the sp. gr. 1-5, has long been abandoned. 
(Xq'i-dum ni'tri-cum.) 
* Lactic Acid Sticks. Zippel proposes to use lactic acid in the form of sticks for tuberculous fistulas, etc. 50 Gnu 
each of gelatin, lactic acid, and water are melted at a gentle heat, 30 Gm. of menthol added, and poured into moulds. 
After allowing the moulds to remain in the ice-box for 24 hours, the sticks are taken out, and dried over calcium 
chloride. The sticks are afterwards coated with collodion, or kept under oil, to prevent deliquescence. (Zeits. Oester. 
Apoth. Ver., 1892, 222.) Acidum Nitncum. 
69 
PART I. 
Preparation. The usual practice adopted in the laboratory for obtaining nitric acid is to 
add to potassium nitrate in coarse powder, contained in a retort, an equal weight of strong 
sulphuric acid, poured in by means of a tube or funnel, so as not to soil the neck. The ma- 
terials should not occupy more than two-thirds of the capacity of the retort. A receiver being 
adapted, heat is applied by means of a spirit- or gas-lamp, the naked fire, or a sand-bath, 
moderately at first, but afterwards more strongly when the materials begin to thicken, in order 
to bring the whole into a state of perfect fusion. Red vapors will at first arise, and afterwards 
disappear in the course of the distillation. Towards its close they will be reproduced, and 
their reappearance will indicate that the process is completed. 
The proportion of equal weights, as above given, corresponding nearly to one mol. of potassium 
nitrate and one of sulphuric acid, is the best for operations on a small scale in the laboratory. 
A practical disadvantage in this method of obtaining very strong nitric acid is that, owing 
to the high heat and the presence of the crystals, the retort is frequently fractured. Prof. 
Trimble recommends adding one part of commercial nitric acid to two parts of strong sul- 
phuric acid in a retort and distilling slowly until the nitric acid is all collected.* 
Monohydrated Nitric Acid. Hydrogen Nitrate. This is the strongest liquid nitric acid 
that can be procured, and may be supposed to be obtained by distilling one molecule of pure 
and dry nitre with one molecule of monohydrated sulphuric acid. One molecule of mono- 
hydrated nitric acid distils over, and one molecule of potassium bisulphate remains behind: 
KNOg -j- H2S04 = HN03 -f- HKS04. Acid of this strength is very difficult to make, and 
requires for its preparation the most elaborate attention to separate the superabundant water. 
According to Mr. Arthur Smith, of London, acid dehydrated as far as possible is perfectly 
colorless, boils at 84° C. (184° F.), has the sp. gr. 1-517 at 15-4° C. (60° F.), and nearly ap- 
proaches, in composition, to a monohydrate. Acid of this strength, even at the boiling tem- 
perature, has not the slightest action on tin or iron. (Phil. Mag., Dec. 1847.) According to 
Kolb (Ann. Chem. Phys. [4], x. 140), the true HNOa has a sp. gr. at 15° C. (59° F.) as high 
as 1-530. 
The acid of the former Br. Pharmacopoeia, having the sp. gr. 1-5, is of a yellowish color, 
and strongly corrosive. Strictly speaking, it is hydrogen nitrate diluted with half a molecule 
of water (HN03 -f- An acid of this strength is inconveniently strong, is constantly 
undergoing decomposition under the influence of light, and was consequently replaced by a 
pure acid of the density 1-42. This substitution was made in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 
1850, and in the British of 1867. 
Nitric Acid (sp. gr. 1-42 and 1-414). This is the acid now official in both the U. S. and 
Br. Pharmacopoeias. Acid of the density 1-5 was not usually found in commerce, and much 
pains was required to get it of that strength. Besides, acid of this density was not necessary 
for any process of the Pharmacopoeia. Considerations of this kind induced the revisers of 
our national standard of 1850 to lower the strength of official nitric acid to 1-42, its purity 
in other respects remaining the same. In the Pharmacopoeia of 1890 the strength has again 
been very slightly reduced from 1-42 to 1-414, since it has been shown that 68-per-cent, acid 
has this specific gravity, the acid of U. S. P. 1880, of the specific gravity 1-42, having an 
inconvenient fraction in its percentage (69-4 per cent.). 
“ If 1 C.c. of Nitric Acid be slightly supersaturated with ammonia water, no precipitate 
should be formed (absence of iron, or much lead); nor should the liquid assume a blue tint 
(copper) ; nor should the further addition of a few drops of colorless ammonium sulphide test- 
solution produce any coloration or precipitate (lead, iron, copper, etc.). On diluting some of 
the Acid with 5 times its volume of water, a portion of this liquid, when gently heated and 
treated with freshly prepared hydrogen sulphide test-solution, should not show a colored pre- 
cipitate (absence of lead, arsenic, copper) ; nor should any precipitate be produced in other 
portions of the diluted Acid by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphuric acid), or by 
silver nitrate test-solution (absence of hydrochloric acid). If the diluted Acid be shaken with 
* Pure Concentrated Nitric Acid—Preparation. Lunge and Rey obtain pure, colorless, concentrated nitric acid 
by the following method. A quantity of nitric acid, prepared and deprived of coloring impurities in the usual 
manner, and containing 98’7 per cent, of absolute nitric acid, was put into a retort together with twice its volume 
of absolute sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and distilled in vacuo, the pressure being reduced to 20 Mm. by means of a 
water-jet pump. This was found to be the only way to prevent the acid from becoming yellow. The connection 
between the neck of the retort and the receiver was effected by wrapping with asbestos-paper and an external coat 
of moulder’s clay. Great care was taken to insure the absence of organic matter. The distillation took place at a 
temperature of 35° C. (95° F.), and the distillate was completely colorless. It contained 99'7 per cent, of HNOg. 
{Amer. Drug., June 1, 1891, 170; from Ztechr.f. Analyt. Chem.) Acidum Nitricum. 
70 
PART I. 
a few drops of chloroform, the latter should remain colorless (absence of iodine or bromine), 
even after introduction of a small piece of metallic zinc (absence of iodic or bromic acid). 
To neutralize 3T45 Gm. of Nitric Acid should require 34 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal 
volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 2 per cent, of absolute acid), phenolphtalein 
being used as indicator.” U. S. “ Each gramme diluted with water should require for neu- 
tralization 11*1 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. It should 
yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, iron, chlorides, bro- 
mates, iodates, or sulphates. It should yield no residue or not more than 0 005 per cent, on 
evaporation to dryness.” Br. 
To correspond with the tests given in the U. S. P., it must be colorless, and entirely volatil- 
izable by heat; must dissolve copper, silver, and other metals with evolution of red vapors, 
and stain woollen fabrics and animal tissues a bright yellow. Acid of the density 1-42 is the 
most stable of the hydrated compounds of nitric acid, and boils at 121° C. (250° F.), T414 
acid boiling at 120-5° C. (248-9° F.). When either stronger or weaker than this, it distils 
over at a lower temperature, and, by losing more acid than water in the first case, and more 
water than acid in the second, constantly approaches to the sp. gr. 1-42, when its boiling point 
becomes stationary. These facts in relation to nitric acid of this strength were first observed 
by Dalton, and have since been confirmed by Mr. Arthur Smith, of London. This acid may 
be assumed to have the composition HNOa -\- l^H^O. 
Nitric Acid of the Arts. Two strengths of this acid occur in the arts: double aqua 
fortis (sp. gr. 1-36), which is of half the strength of concentrated nitric acid, and single aqua 
fortis (sp. gr. 1*22), which is half as strong as the double. Aqua fortis is sometimes obtained 
by distilling a mixture of nitre and calcined ferric sulphate. By an interchange of ingredients, 
potassium sulphate and ferric nitrate are formed, the latter of which, at the distilling heat, 
readily abandons its nitric acid. The potassium sulphate is washed out of the residue, and 
the iron sesquioxide which is left is sold, under the name of colcothar, to the polishers of 
metals. The distillation is performed in large cast-iron retorts, lined on the inside with a thick 
layer of red ferric oxide, to protect them from the action of the acid. The acid is received in 
large glass vessels containing water. A considerable portion of the acid is decomposed by the 
heat into reddish vapors, which subsequently dissolve in the water and absorb the oxygen 
which had been disengaged. The acid thus obtained is red and tolerably strong, but is diluted 
with water before being sold. 
The reddish acid called nitrous acid is nitric acid containing more or less nitrogen tetroxide 
(N204). The same acid may be formed by impregnating, to a limited extent, nitric acid with 
nitrogen dioxide (N202). If the saturation be complete, every two molecules of nitric oxide 
become three molecules of nitrogen tetroxide by the aid of one molecule of nitrogen dioxide 
(2N206 -f- N202 = 3N204). The commercial nitrous acid maybe converted into nitric acid 
by exposing it to a gentle heat. As nitrogen tetroxide (N204) forms, in contact with bases, a 
nitrate and nitrite, there being no hyponitrates, some chemists consider it as a compound of 
nitric and nitrous oxides (2N204 — N206 -f- N203). 
In making nitric acid on the commercial scale, sodium nitrate is substituted for nitre, as it 
is much cheaper, and the salt is decomposed with sulphuric acid as before. The proportions 
of these two substances employed are not the same in all works. If one molecule of sulphuric 
acid and two of sodium nitrate be taken, the following are the reactions: H2S04 -f- NaNOa = 
NaHS04 -f- HN03. When the heat is raised, the acid sodium sulphate acts upon a second 
molecule of sodium nitrate, thus: NaHS04 -j- NaN03 == Na2S04 -j- HN03. In this case a 
part of the acid is decomposed, owing to the high temperature, and nitrogen peroxide is evolved 
in the form of red fumes, which dissolve in the concentrated acid, giving it the red appearance 
usually noted in the strong commercial product. When a large excess of sulphuric acid is 
employed, some acid sodium sulphate is formed, which lowers the melting point of the residua! 
mass so that it can be withdrawn from the retorts in a fused state, whereas in the other case 
the residue can only be removed in the solid state after the cylinder has cooled. 
The ordinary commercial acid has a specific gravity of from 1-30 to 1-41, and is usually pre- 
pared by means of chamber (sulphuric) acid; but if a more concentrated acid is required, a 
stronger sulphuric acid must be employed. The strongest nitric acid occurring in commerce 
lias a sp. gr. of 1-43, and this is obtained by distilling well-dried Chili saltpetre with sulphuric 
acid having a sp. gr. of 1-85. 
The retorts in which nitric acid is usually prepared in England consist of cast-iron cylinders, 
built in a furnace in such a way that they may be heated as uniformly as possible. Some PART I. 
Acid am Nitncum. 
71 
manufacturers cover the upper half of the cylinder with fire-bricks, in order to protect the iron 
from the action of the nitric acid vapors. This is unnecessary, however, if the retorts are so 
thoroughly heated that no nitric acid condenses on the surface of the iron. 
M. Mallet, of Paris, has proposed to obtain nitric acid by distilling sodium nitrate with well- 
dried boric acid, sodium biborate or borax being the residue. Another method, employed by 
Kuhlmann, is to expose a mixture of sodium nitrate and manganese chloride to a heat of about 
232° C. (450° F.), and to pass the mixed gases which escape through water. Hyponitric acid 
and oxygen are disengaged, which become nitric acid when they enter the water. CP. J. Tr.. 
1862.) 
General Properties of Nitric Acid. Nitric acid, so called from nitre, is an extremely 
sour and corrosive liquid. It was discovered by Raymond Lully, in the thirteenth century, and 
its constituents by Cavendish, in 1784. When perfectly pure it is colorless; but, as usually 
obtained, it has a straw color, owing to the presence of hyponitric acid. The concentrated 
acid, when exposed to the air, emits wrhite fumes, possessing a disagreeable odor. By the action 
of light it undergoes a slight decomposition, and becomes yellow. It acts powerfully on ani- 
mal matter, causing its decomposition. On the living fibre it operates as a strong caustic. It 
stains the skin and most animal substances of an indelible yellow color. On vegetable fibre it 
acts peculiarly, abstracting hydrogen or water, and combining with the remaining elements. 
When diluted, nitric acid converts most animal and vegetable substances into oxalic, malic, and 
carbonic acids. The general character of its action is to impart oxygen to other bodies, which 
it is enabled to do, as oxygen in the nascent state is liberated in its decomposition. If this 
liberation take place while in contact with bodies capable of oxidation, the oxygen goes to effect 
this oxidation. Free nitric acid, however, will evolve oxygen at a red heat, according to the 
following reaction: 
4HN03 = (N204)2 -f 02 + (H20)2. 
It oxidizes sulphur and phosphorus, giving rise to sulphuric and phosphoric acids, and all 
the metals, except chromium, tungsten, columbium, cerium, titanium, osmium, rhodium, gold, 
platinum, and iridium. It combines with salifiable bases and forms nitrates. When mixed 
with hydrochloric acid, mutual decomposition takes place, according to the reaction HN03 -j- 
3II Cl — NOC1 -j- Cl2 -|- 2H20, and nitrohydrochloric acid is formed. 
Great care must be used in transporting nitric acid, for if the strong acid come in contact 
in quantity with vegetable substances like hay, tow, excelsior, paper, etc., fire will be apt to 
occur. The occurrence of such accidents was proved by the official inquiry of Prof. R. Haas. 
(Per. d. Chem. Ges., 1881, 597.) A trace of nitric acid has been detected in the atmosphere. 
It is said to be always present in the air in summer. (Kletsinsky.) 
Tests. Nitric acid, when uncombined, is recognized by its dissolving copper with the pro- 
duction of red vapors, and by its forming nitre when saturated with potassa. When in the 
form of a nitrate, it is known by its action on gold-leaf, after the addition of hydrochloric acid, 
in consequence of the evolution of chlorine; or it may be discovered, according to Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy, by heating the supposed nitrate in a test-tube with a drop of sulphuric acid, 
and then adding a crystal of morphine. If nitric acid be present, it will be set free by the 
sulphuric acid, and reddened by the morphine. The same effect is produced by brucine, by 
commercial strychnine, on account of its containing brucine, and still more strongly, accord- 
ing to M. Braun, by aniline sulphate, which affords an exceedingly delicate test. (Journ. de 
Pharm., 1867, p. 157.) To prevent all ambiguity arising from the accidental presence of 
nitric acid in the sulphuric acid employed, the operator should satisfy himself, by a separate 
experiment, that the latter acid has no power to produce the characteristic color with mor- 
phine. Another test for nitric acid is to add pure sulphuric acid to the concentrated liquid 
suspected to contain it, together with a little concentrated solution of ferrous sulphate. The 
smallest trace of nitric acid-affords, when the mixture is warmed, a pink red color; and if it 
be present in considerable amount, the liquid becomes almost black* Rosa recommends the 
use of ammonio-ferrous sulphate, in place of ferrous sulphate, as a test for nitric acid. It is 
* A quantitative text for nitric acid in water, first proposed by M. Boussingault, in 1857, was simplified by M. 
Marx, and finally perfected by M. Fischer, who substituted indigotin for indigo, on account of its solution being 
permanent. His method is first to prepare a test-solution by mixing 5 cubic centimeters of solution of indigotin 
with 30 cubic centimeters of pure sulphuric acid, and then adding a titrated solution of potassium nitrate (5 
decigrammes to the litre) until the blue color is changed to a faint green. Then the solution of indigotin is diluted 
until one cubic centimeter is decolorized by 0'2525 milligramme of potassium nitrate. In using this test-solution 
the temperature should always be at least 110° C. (230° F.), and the amount of sulphuric acid should always be at 
least double the joint volume of the indigotin solution and the water. {Journ. de Pharm., Nov. 1874.) Acidum Nitricum. 
72 
PART I. 
more stable than the latter, either in crystals or in solution. Equal measures of the liquid to 
be tested for nitric acid and of concentrated sulphuric acid are mixed, the mixture cooled, and 
then a layer of solution of ammonio-ferrous sulphate poured slowly on top; if even a trace of 
nitric acid be present, a brown zone will form at the line of contact of the liquids. (Am. Drug., 
1886, p. 13.) For official tests of purity, etc., see pages 69 and 70. 
A method particularly useful in the determination of the nitrates contained in drinking- 
water depends upon the fact that a thin zinc plate, which has been covered with a deposit of 
spongy metallic copper by dipping it in a solution of copper sulphate, on being heated with 
water containing nitrates reduces them to ammonia, zinc hydroxide and free hydrogen also 
being formed (Gladstone and Tribe), thus : KN03 -j- 4H2 = NH3 -f- KOH -f- 2HaO. 
The nitric acid of commerce sometimes contains iodine, probably derived from the native sodium 
nitrate, in which iodate frequently occurs. This may be reduced by passing hydrogen sulphide 
into the diluted acid, taking care not to use an excess. A few drops of chloroform or carbon 
disulphide shaken up with the liquid will then show the iodine color. Still better is the test 
proposed by Mr. Stein, which is to introduce a stick of tin into the suspected acid, and, after 
red vapors have begun to escape, to withdraw the metal, add a few drops of carbon disulphide, 
and agitate. If iodine be present, the drops of the sulphide which soon separate will be col- 
ored more or less deeply red, according to the amount of impurity. These impurities, however, 
do not affect the medical properties of the acid. 
The following table of Lunge and Hey is the recognized standard at present: 
Table showing percentage of absolute Nitric Acid in Nitric Acid of different densities, at 15° C. 
(59° F.f 
Per Cent. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
Per Cent. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
Per Cent. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
Per Cent. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
n2o5. 
hno3. 
NA, 
hno3. 
NA- 
hno3. 
n2o5. 
HNOj. 
0-08 
0-10 
1-0001 
25-00 
1-152 
42-06 
49-07 
1-311 
66-24 
77-28 
1-452 
0-85 
1-00 
1-0059 
21*94 
25-60 
1-156 
42-76 
49-89 
1-316 
67-38 
78-60 
1-457 
1-62 
1-90 
1-0109 
22-60 
26-36 
1-161 
50-00 
1-317 
68-56 
79-98 
1-462 
2-89 
2-80 
1-0159 
23-25 
27-12 
1-166 
43-47 
50-71 
1-3215 
80-00 
1-4655 
3-17 
3*70 
1-021 
23-90 
27-88 
1-171 
44-67 
51-53 
1-327 
69-79 
81-42 
1-467 
3-94 
4-60 
1-026 
25-54 
28-63 
1-176 
44-89 
52-37 
1-332 
71-06 
82-90 
1-472 
5-00 
1-028 
25-00 
1-180 
45-00 
1-333 
72-39 
84-45 
1-477 
4-71 
5-50 
1-031 
25-18 
29-38 
1-181 
45-62 
53-22 
1-337 
85-00 
1-479 
5-00 
1-033 
30-00 
1-185 
46-35 
54-07 
1-342 
73-76 
86-05 
1-482 
5-47 
6-38 
1-036 
25-83 
30-13 
1-186 
47-08 
54-93 
1-347 
75-18 
87-70 
1-487 
, 6-22 
7-26 
1-041 
26-47 
30-88 
1-191 
55-00 
1-3474 
76-80 
89-60 
1-492 
fi-97 
8-13 
1-046 
27-10 
31-62 
1-196 
47-82 
55-79 
1-352 
90-00 
1-493 
7-71 
8-99 
1-051 
27-74 
32-36 
1-201 
48-57 
56-66 
1-357 
78-52 
91-60 
1-497 
• 8-43 
9-84 
1-056 
28-36 
33-09 
1-206 
49-35 
57-57 
1-362 
80-00 
1-5005 
10-00 
1-057 
28-99 
33-82 
1-211 
50-00 
1-366 
80-65 
94-09 
1-502 
9-15 
10-68 
1-061 
29-61 
34-55 
1-216 
50-13 
58-48 
1-367 
81-09 
94-60 
1-503 
• 9-87 
11-51 
1-066 
30-00 
35-00 
1-219 
50-91 
59-39 
1-372 
95-00 
1-5038 
10-00 
1-067 
30-24 
35-28 
1-221 
60-00 
1-375 
8P50 
95-08 
1-504 
JO-57 
12-33 
1-071 
30-88 
36-03 
1-226 
5P69 
60-30 
1-377 
81-91 
95-55 
1-505 
11-27 
13-15 
1-076 
31-53 
36-78 
1-231 
52-52 
61-27 
1-382 
82-29 
96-00 
1-506 
11-96 
13-95 
1-081 
32-17 
37-53 
1-236 
53-35 
62-24 
1-387 
82-63 
96-39 
1-507 
12-64 
14-74 
1-086 
32-82 
38-29 
1-241 
54-20 
63-23 
1-392 
82-94 
96-76 
1-508 
15-00 
1-088 
33-47 
39-05 
1-246 
55-00 
1-3966 
83-26 
97-13 
1-509 
13-31 
15-53 
1-091 
34-13 
39-82 
1-251 
55-07 
64-25 
1-397 
83-58 
97-50 
1-510 
13-99 
16-32 
1-096 
40-00 
1-252 
65-00 
1-401 
83-87 
97-84 
1-511 
14-67 
17-11 
1-101 
34-78 
40-58 
1-256 
55 97 
65-30 
1-402 
84-09 
98-10 
1-512 
15-00 
1-103 
35-00 
1-258 
56-92 
66-40 
1-407 
84-21 
98-32 
1-513 
15-34 
17-89 
1-106 
35-44 
41-34 
1-261 
57-86 
67-50 
1-412 
84-46 
98-53 
1-514 
16-00 
18-69 
1-111 
36-09 
42-10 
1-266 
68-00 
1-414 
84-63 
98-73 
1-515 
16-67 
19-45 
1-116 
36-75 
42-87 
1-271 
58-83 
68-63 
1-417 
84-78 
98-90 
1-516 
20-00 
1-1195 
37-41 
43-64 
1-276 
59-83 
69-80 
1-422 
84-92 
99-07 
1-517 
17-34 
20-23 
1-121 
38-07 
44-41 
1-281 
60-00 
70-00 
1-4228 
85-00 
1-5177 
18-00 
21-00 
1-126 
45-00 
1-285 
60-84 
70-98 
1-427 
85-04 
99-21 
1-518 
18-66 
21-77 
1-131 
38-73 
45-18 
1-286 
61-86 
72-17 
1-432 
85-15 
99-34 
1-519 
19-32 
22-54 
1-136 
39-39 
45-95 
1-291 
62-91 
73-39 
1-437 
85-26 
99-46 
1-520 
19-98 
23-31 
1-141 
40-00 
1-2957 
64-01 
74-68 
1-442 
85-35 
99-57 
1-521 
20-00 
. . 
1-1412 
40-05 
46-72 
1-296 
75-00 
1-443 
85-44 
99-67 
1-522 
20-64 
24-08 
1-146 
40-71 
47-49 
1-301 
65-00 
1-446 
21-29 
24-84 
1-151 
41-37 
48-26 
1-306 
65-13 
75-98 
1-447 PART I. 
Acidum Nitricum.—Acidum Nitricimi Dilutum. 
73 
Composition. The composition of the official acid of the density D414 has already been 
given. It contains about 75 per cent, of nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1’5. Nitric oxide or anhy- 
dride consists of two atoms of nitrogen and five atoms of oxygen ; or, in volumes, of two vol- 
umes of nitrogen and five volumes of oxygen, supposed to be condensed, to form nitric oxide 
vapor, into two volumes. In 1849 the interesting discovery was made by M. Deville, of Be- 
sangon, of the means of isolating nitric oxide or anhydride. The method pursued was to pass 
perfectly dry chlorine over silver nitrate. The oxide is in the form of colorless, brilliant, 
limpid crystals, which melt at 29-5° C. (85° F.) and boil at 45° C. (113° F.). In contact 
with water they form a colorless solution with evolution of heat, without the disengagement 
of gas. (Joum de Pharm., 1849, p. 207.) 
Medical Properties. Nitric acid is tonic, antiseptic, astringent, and appears to act upon 
the intestinal glands in some way so as to modify their function. It is a very useful remedy 
in cases of intestinal indigestion : in this it resembles hydrochloric acid : the choice between the 
two acids in any individual case should be guided by the existence or non-existence of diarrhoea, 
the nitric acid being given when there is looseness of the bowels. In syphilis, and in the chronic 
hepatitis of India, this acid was highly extolled by Dr. Scott, formerly of Bombay. It has oc- 
casionally excited ptyalism. It cannot be depended upon as a remedy in syphilis, but, in worn- 
out constitutions, is often an excellent adjuvant. In hepatic troubles it is markedly inferior 
to the nitrohydrochloric acid, unless, it may be, when there is much diarrhoea. As nitric acid 
dissolves both uric add and the phosphates, it was supposed to be applicable to cases of gravel 
in which the uric acid and the phosphates are mixed; but experience has not confirmed the 
opinion. Nevertheless, when the sabulous deposit depends upon disordered digestion, this acid 
may prove serviceable by restoring the tone of the stomach. The dose is from five to ten 
minims (0-3—0-6 C.e.), in three fluidounces or more of water, three or four times a day. 
Externally, nitric acid has been used with advantage as a lotion to ulcers, in the strength of 
about twelve minims to the pint of water. This practice originated with Sir Everard Home, 
and is particularly applicable to those ulcers which are superficial and not disposed to cicatrize. 
In sloughing phagedsena, strong nitric acid is one of the best remedies, applied by means of a 
piece of lint tied round a small stick, or by the use of a glass brush. Sometimes a piece of 
lint is soaked with the strong acid, and pressed into the sore, being allowed to remain for sev- 
eral hours. In cancrum oris, concentrated nitric acid, freely applied, is one of the best local 
remedies that can be employed for arresting the phagedaenic ulceration and disposing the sore 
to heal, but great care must be exercised to protect the teeth. The strong acid is also used as 
an escharotic in venereal ulcers and other affections. Nitric acid vapors were formerly used as 
a disinfectant. Half an ounce of powdered nitre was put into a saucer, placed in an earthen 
dish containing heated sand, and two drachms of sulphuric acid were then poured over it. 
Properties as a Poison. The swallowing of concentrated nitric acid is at once followed 
by burning heat in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, acute pain, disengagement of gas, 
abundant eructations, nausea, and hiccough. These effects are soon followed by repeated and 
excessive vomiting of matter having a peculiar odor and taste, tumefaction of the abdomen 
with exquisite tenderness, a feeling of coldness on the surface, horripilation, icy coldness of 
the extremities, small depressed pulse, great anxiety, continual tossings and contortions, and 
extreme thirst. The cases are almost always fatal. Sometimes the collapse has been imme- 
diate and has masked all the other symptoms. The best remedies are repeated large doses 
of alkaline solutions, soap, magnesia, chalk, as antidotes, mucilaginous drinks in large quan- 
tities, olive or almond oil in very large doses, emollient fomentations, etc. 
ACIDUM NITRICUM DILUTUM. U.S., Br. Diluted Nitric Acid. 
(Xg'l-DUM NI'TRI-CUM DI-LU'TUM.) 
“ 100 parts by weight should contain 1744 parts of hydrogen nitrate, HN03.” Br. 
Acide azotique dilu6, Fr.; Yerdiinnte Salpetersaure, G. 
“ Nitric Acid, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Distilled Water, five 
hundred and eighty grammes [or 20 ounces av., 201 grains], To make six hundred and eighty 
grammes [or 23 ounces av., 431 grains]. Mix them. Keep the product in dark amber- 
colored, glass-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“ Nitric Acid, 3 fl. ounces and 7 fit. drachms (more exactly, 3-86 ft. ounces, Imperial measure) 
or 2400 grains, or 193’2 cubic centimetres or 2743 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient 
quantity. Introduce the Nitric Acid into a glass flask, the capacity of which to a mark on 
the neck is one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres; add Distilled Water 74 
Acidum Nitricum Dilutum.—Acidum Nitrohydrochloricum. 
PART I. 
until the mixture, at 60° F. (15-5° C.), measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic 
centimetres).” Br. 
The U. S. acid, as now directed, does not vary appreciably from that formerly official. “ Di- 
luted Nitric Acid contains 10 per cent., by weight, of absolute Nitric Acid. Specific gravity, 
about 1-057 at 15° C. (59° F.). It corresponds in properties to Nitric Acid (see Acidum Ni- 
tricum), and should conform to the same reactions and tests. To neutralize 6-29 Gm. of 
Diluted Nitric Acid should require 10 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution 
(each C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, of absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as 
indicator.” U S. 
The British diluted acid is considerably stronger than our own in the same measure. It has 
the sp. gr. 1-101 ; and “ Each gramme should require for neutralization 2-7 cubic centimetres 
of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. ” Br. In making the U. S. diluted acid, 
pharmacists should be careful to use acid of the sp. gr. 1-414; or, if the acid be weaker, to 
add proportionally less water; otherwise the diluted acid would be weaker than is directed in 
the Pharmacopoeia. 
The medicinal properties of the diluted acid are the same as those of the strong acid. (See 
Acidum Nitricum.) Dose of U. S. diluted acid, from twenty to forty drops or minims (1-25- 
2-5 C.c.), that of the British, from fifteen to thirty drops (0-9-1-9 C.c.), properly diluted. 
ACIDUM NITROHYDROCHLORICUM. U. S. Nitrohydrochloric Acid. 
[Nitromuriatic Acid.] 
Aeidum Chloro-nitrosum, G.; Acidum Niiromuriaticum, Pharm. 1870; Acide chlorazotique, Eau regale, Fr.; 
Salpetersalzsaure, Konigswasser, G. 
“ Nitric Acid, one hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 41 minims] ; Hydro- 
chloric Acid, eight hundred and twenty cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 5 drachms, 48 
minims]. Mix the acids in a capacious glass vessel, and, when effervescence has ceased, pour 
the product into dark amber-colored, glass-stoppered bottles, which should not be more than 
half filled, and keep them in a cool place.”* U. S. 
Nitroliydrochloric acid is the aqua regia of the earlier chemists, so called from its property 
of dissolving gold. Nitric and hydrochloric acids, when mixed together, are mutually decom- 
posed. According to the researches of Gay-Lussac, the reaction gives rise to two compounds, 
NOjjCl (nitroxyl chloride) and NOC1 (nitrosyl chloride), mixed wflth free chlorine. Later 
researches seem, however, to show that the latter of the two chlorides exclusively is produced, 
the reaction for the decomposition of aqua regia being HN03 -f- 3IIC1 = 2HaO -j- NOC1 -j- Cla. 
The power of nitroliydrochloric acid to dissolve gold, and similar metals having a weak 
affinity for oxygen, is owing exclusively to the free chlorine present, and is in no wise depend- 
ent on the compound above referred to, which remains entirely passive during the solution of 
the metal. When nitroliydrochloric acid is made from strong acids, there is always a loss 
of the nitrosyl chloride and of free chlorine by effervescence, in consequence of the acids not 
containing sufficient water to hold the gaseous products in solution. Hence the substitution, 
in the former Pharmacopoeia, of nitric acid of 142 for the acid of 1-5 was an improvement. 
Properties. A golden-yellow, fuming, and very corrosive liquid, having a strong odor of 
chlorine and a strongly acid reaction. By heat it is wholly volatilized. It readily dissolves 
gold-leaf, and a drop added to potassium iodide test-solution liberates iodine 
Nitrohydrocliloric acid has an orange color, soon changing to a golden yellow, and the odor of 
chlorine. It possesses the power of dissolving gold and platinum. It should be kept in a cool 
dark place, on account of its liability to lose chlorine by beat, and to have its chlorine con- 
verted into hydrochloric acid by the action of light and the decomposition of water. On 
account of its tendency to decomposition, it should not be made in large quantities, nor be 
kept very long by the apothecary; and care should be taken not to transfer it to the bottle in 
which it is to be dispensed, until effervescence has ceased, lest the pressure within should drive 
out the stopper. Nitric and hydrochloric acids, as found in commerce, are sometimes so weak 
that when mixed they will not readily act on gold-leaf. In this case their solvent power may 
be rendered effective by the addition of a little sulphuric acid, w hich, by its superior affinity 
for water, concentrates the other acids, and causes immediate action. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Nitrohydrocliloric acid was brought to the notice of 
the profession in consequence of the favorable report of its efficacy as an external remedy 
( Xq' i-du m n i-tko-hy-dko-chlo'ri-cum .) 
* For an apparatus for making nitrohydrocliloric acid upon a large scale, see P. ./. Tr., si. 422. PART I. 
A cidum Nitrohydrochloricum.—Acidum Oleicum. 
75 
in hepatitis, made by Dr. Scott, formerly of Bombay. When thus employed, it produces a 
tingling sensation of the skin, thirst, a peculiar taste in the mouth, and occasional soreness of 
the gums and plentiful ptyalism, and at the same time stimulates the liver, as is evinced by an 
increased flow of bile. It is used either by sponging or in the form of a local or general bath. 
When applied by sponging, the acid is first diluted so as to have the sourness of strong vine- 
gar. When used as a foot-bath, three gallons of water, contained in a deep narrow wooden 
tub, may be acidulated with six fluidounces of the acid. In this the feet and legs are to be 
immersed for twenty minutes or half an hour. The bath may be employed at first daily, and 
afterwards twice or thrice a week ; and the sponging may be used at the same time. The bath 
is said to be effective in promoting the passage of biliary calculi. The solution, prepared for 
a bath as above mentioned, may be used for a week, adding to it daily a pint of water acidu- 
lated with two fluidrachms of the acid, to make up for the waste by evaporation. The bath 
should have a temperature of about 97° F., which may be attained by heating part of the 
acid solution and throwing it back into the remainder. 
Nitrohydrochloric acid is much used internally, and it is an excellent remedy in chronic 
hepatic affections, in oxaluria, and in dyspepsia with a tendency to constipation. It is sometimes 
given also in syphilitic diseases. The strong fresh acid is preferable to the dilute, and may be 
given in doses of from three to six drops (0-18—0-36 C.c.), well diluted, after meals, care being 
exercised to prevent its injuring the teeth. It should never be prescribed in combination with 
strong alcoholic liquids undiluted, as gases may be generated in sufficient volume to cause 
explosion. (See A. J. P., 1878, p. 67.) 
ACIDUM NITROHYDROCHLORICUM DILUTUM. U. S., Br. Diluted 
Nitrohydrochloric Acid. [Diluted Nitromuriatic Acid.] 
(XQ'I-DUM NI-TRO-HY-DRO-CHLO'RI-CUM DI-LU'TUM.) 
“ An aqueous solution of free chlorine, hydrochloric, nitric, and nitrous acids.” Br. 
Aeidum Nitromuriaticum Dilutum, Pharm. 1870; Acide chlorazotique dilu<3, Fr.; Verdiinnte Salpetersalzsaure, G. 
“ Nitric Acid, forty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 2 fluidrachms, 49 minims] ; Hydro- 
chloric Acid, one hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 41 minims] ; Distilled 
Water, seven hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 26 fluidounces, 3 fluidrachms]. Mix the 
Acids in a capacious glass vessel, and, when effervescence has ceased, add the Distilled Water. 
Keep the product in dark amber-colored, glass-stoppered bottles, in a cool place.” U. S. 
“ Nitric Acid, 3 Ji. ounces (Imperial measure) or 60 cubic centimetres; Hydrochloric Acid, 
4 Ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 80 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, 25 Jt. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 500 cubic centimetres. Mix the Acids with the Distilled Water, and keep the mixture in 
a glass-stoppered bottle for fourteen days before it is used. Colorless, with a pungent acid 
taste and odor. Specific gravity 1-07. 4 grammes should require for neutralization about 10 
cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. Br. 
“ A colorless, or pale yellowish liquid, having a faint odor of chlorine, a very acid taste 
and reaction. By heat it is wholly volatilized. On adding a few drops to potassium iodide 
test-solution, iodine is liberated.” U. S. 
Between diluted nitric and hydrochloric acids no reaction occurs ; and therefore the U. S. Phar- 
macopoeia directs that the acids shall be mixed before dilution. But according to the researches 
of Mr. Tilden, confirmed by Mr. Redwood (P. J. Tr., x. 508), water determines a decomposi- 
tion of the products resulting from the reaction between nitric and hydrochloric acids, and the 
reformation of hydrochloric and nitric acids, with a little nitrous acid. It would seem, there- 
fore, that diluted nitrohydrochloric acid is not an eligible preparation, a conclusion confirmed 
by clinical experience. The dose is from ten to twenty drops or minims (0-6-1-25 C.c.). 
HCigHssCh; 281*38. (Xg'I-DUM 0-LE'l-CUM.) HC18H33 02; 282. 
“ An organic acid, prepared in a sufficiently pure condition by cooling commercial Oleic Acid 
to about 5° C. (41° F.), then separating and preserving the liquid portion.” U. S. “ Oleic 
Acid, CH3(CH2)7CH : OH(CH2)7COOH, or hydrogen oleate, is obtained by the saponifying 
action of alkalies and subsequent action of acids, or by the action of superheated steam, upon 
the olein of fats. Usually not quite pure.” Br. 
Acide olSique, Fr.; Oleinsaure, G. 
This acid, although known for many years, was not used medicinally until 1872 (London 
Lancet, 1872, p. 709), when Prof. John Marshall introduced the oleates to the profession as 
ACIDU*M OLEICUM. U. S., Br. Oleic Acid. 76 
Acidum Oleicum. 
PAET I. 
substitutes for some of the older ointments, stating that they are not only cleaner and more 
elegant, but also much more efficacious. (See Oleata.') 
Preparation. The difficulty in preparing oleates of good quality arises usually from the 
use of the commercial oleic acid, which, being obtained as a by-product in the manufacture 
of glycerin and candles, has a reddish-brown color and a disagreeable fatty odor. It is almost 
always contaminated with stearic and palmitic acids with undecomposed glycerides when ob- 
tained by the autoclave process, and hydrocarbons when obtained by the distillation of the fat 
acids. Various processes have been suggested for the purification of oleic acid. Charles Rice 
(A. J. P., xlv. 2) exposes the commercial acid to a temperature of 4° C. (39° F.), and expresses 
the liquid portion, which is oleic acid deprived of the greater part of the contaminating sub- 
stances. The odorous and coloring principles are not removed by this process. A writer in 
A. J. P. (xlv. 97) prepares oleic add for making oleates by saponifying almond oil with potassa ; 
decomposing by tartaric acid, separating the precipitated bitartrate; heating for several hours 
on a water-bath with half its weight of finely powdered lead oxide ; after cooling, mixing with 
three times its volume of ether, settling, decanting, and treating the residue with ether as be- 
fore ; agitating the mixed ethereal solutions with dilute hydrochloric acid; skimming off the 
ethereal solution of oleic acid, washing it with water, reskimming, and recovering the ether by 
distillation. L. Wolff (A. J. P., 1879) saponifies oil of sweet almond with lead oxide, agi- 
tates the lead soap in benzin, which retains lead oleate in solution, the lead palmitate being 
deposited. The benzin solution of lead oleate is shaken repeatedly with diluted hydrochloric 
acid (1 to 7), when lead chloride separates, and a benzin solution of purified oleic acid is left; 
finally the benzin is driven off by evaporation. The objection to this process is the difficulty 
of freeing the oleic acid from traces of a disagreeable benzin odor. Ernest C. Saunders (W. 
P., June, 1880) makes a solution of 5 pounds of white castile soap in 20 pounds of boiling 
water, adds 10 ounces of sulphuric acid, and boils with stirring, until two clear layers are 
formed. The upper layer is decanted, shaken with 5 pounds of hot water, and the oily layer 
again decanted; 4 ounces of lead oxide are dissolved in it with a gentle heat, and while hot 
5 pounds of alcohol, previously heated to 65-5° C. (150° F.), are added. It is filtered after 
standing 24 hours, and 1 ounce of hydrochloric acid shaken with the filtrate; 10 pounds of 
water are added, the acid decanted, again washed with 10 pounds of water, and finally recov- 
ered ; the yield is about 2£ pounds. See also process by Charles T. George, 1881 (A. J. P., p. 
379). Low grade oleic acids, obtained by the distillation of wool-grease, etc., may contain 
cholesterin and other unsaponifiable materials from this source (Allen). Commercial oleic acid 
is often adulterated with linoleic acid. Hazura claims to be able to show the presence of one 
per cent, of this by saponifying the mixture and then adding potassium permanganate. (For 
details see A. J. P., 1889, p. 356). Grandval and Valser (Chem. News, 1890, p. 85) give 
the following tests for linoleic acid: If a thin layer of the fraudulent oleic acid be placed 
upon a slip of lead scraped quite clean, and some pure oleic acid be put upon a similar slip of 
lead for comparison, the next day the impure acid will be more or less resinified, whilst the 
pure acid will be scarcely altered. If some drops of oleic acid adulterated with linoleic acid 
be mixed with an equal volume of soda-lye, an intense yellow color will be produced; pure 
oleic acid, if similarly treated, will merely take a grayish tint. 
Properties. “ A yellowish or brownish-yellow, oily liquid, having a peculiar, lard-like 
odor and taste ; becoming darker and absorbing oxygen on exposure to air. Specific gravity: 
about 0-900 at 15° C. (59° F.).” U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia gives the specific gravity 
as 0 890 to 0-910. Oleic Acid is “insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, 
benzin, oil of turpentine, and fixed and volatile oils. When cooled to about 4° C. (39.2° F.), 
Oleic Acid becomes semi-solid, and, on further cooling, congeals to a whitish, solid mass. 
When heated to a temperature of about 95° C. (203° F.), the Acid begins to be decomposed, 
giving ofi' acrid vapors.. At a higher temperature it is completely dissipated. An alcoholic* 
solution of Oleic Acid has a feebly acid reaction upon litmus paper. Equal volumes of Oleic 
Acid and of alcohol, mixed at the ordinary temperature, should give a clear solution without 
separating any oily drops upon the surface (absence of fixed oils). If 1 Gm. of Oleic Acid 
be heated with 20 C.c. of alcohol, 2 drops of phenolphtalein test-solution added, and then a 
strong solution (1 in 4) of sodium hydrate, drop by drop, until the liquid has acquired a per- 
manent red tint and the Acid is saponified; next acetic acid added until the red color of the 
liquid is just discharged, and the liquid filtered,—10 C.c. of the filtrate mixed with 10 C.c. of 
ether should not be rendered more than slightly turbid by the addition of 1 C.c. of lead acetate 
test-solution (absence of notable quantities of palmitic and stearic acids)." U. S. PART I. 
Acidurn Oleicum.—Acidum Phosphoricum Concentratum. 
77 
“ At 40° to 41° F. (4-5° to 5° C.) it becomes semi-solid, melting again at 56° to 60° F. 
(13-3° to 15-5° C.). Dissolve about 1 gramme of the Acid in 15 to 20 times its volume of 
alcohol (90 per cent.); add two drops of solution of phenol-phthalein and, drop by drop, a 25 
per cent, aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide until the liquid after shaking remains slightly 
red and the acid is completely neutralized ; then drop in diluted acetic acid until, after shaking, 
the red tint just disappears; filter the liquid, and mix about 10 cubic centimetres of it with an 
equal volume of Purified Ether and 1 cubic centimetre of a 10 per cent, aqueous solution of 
lead acetate; only a slight turbidity should result (absence of more than traces of stearic or 
palmitic acid).” Br. 
Chemical Constitution. Oleic acid, does not belong to the “ fatty acid” 
series, but differs from the corresponding acid of that series, stearic acid, C18H3602, by 
having two atoms less of hydrogen. It belongs to a series derived by oxidation from alco- 
hols, which, like allyl alcohol, C3H60H, have two atoms of hydrogen less than the normal 
monatomic alcohols, like propyl alcohol, C3H7OH. The alcohol from which oleic acid is in 
theory derivable is not, however, known. Oleic acid is monobasic, as shown in the formula 
hc18h3302. 
Medical Properties. Oleic acid is not itself used in medicine, but is official for the 
preparation of oleates, which act as corresponding ointments, but are more elegant. 
ACIDUM PHOSPHORICUM. U. S. Phosphoric Acid. 
(XQ'I-DCm PHOS-PHOR'I-CUM.) 
“ A liquid composed of not less than 85 per cent., by weight, of absolute Orthophosphoric 
Acid [H3P04 = 97-8], and not more than 15 per cent, of water. The above-mentioned per- 
centage (85) is that assumed for Phosphoric Acid in the formulas of pharmacopceial prepara- 
tions. Phosphoric Acid should be kept in glass-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
ACIDUM PHOSPHORICUM CONCENTRATUM. Br. Concentrated 
Phosphoric Acid. 
“ A liquid containing 66-3 per cent, of hydrogen orthophosphate, H3P04, with 33-7 per 
cent, of water. It may be prepared by treating, with water and nitric acid, the residue left 
after burning phosphorus in air.” Br. 
The U. S. P. 1890 phosphoric acid is much stronger than that of the U. S. P. 1880 ; it is now 
85 per cent., instead of 50 per cent. The United States Pharmacopoeia has very properly 
abandoned the former official process for this acid ; it is more profitably and conveniently 
made on a large scale, and with such precautions and safeguards as cannot he easily used by 
the apothecary; the process of the U. S. P. 1880, however, will be found in the foot-note.* 
This preparation is recommended on account of its small bulk and its great convenience to 
the apothecary for preparing the diluted acid. The glacial phosphoric acid is no longer official, 
it having been shown that it is practically impossible to obtain it of sufficient purity to be 
reliable. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1875, pp. 666, 672.) The present syrupy acid is a great im- 
provement in every way, as it can be obtained of undoubted purity and strength, and by 
(Xg'l-DUM PHOS-PHOR'I-CUM CON-CEN-TRA'TUM.) 
* “ Phosphorus, sixteen parts ; Nitric Acid, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred parts. 
Mix one hundred parts of Nitric Acid with one hundred parts of Distilled Water, in a glass retort having the ca- 
pacity of four hundred parts. Having placed the retort upon a sand-bath or wire-gauze support, connect it loosely 
with a well-cooled receiver and add to the acid in the retort the Phosphorus previously cut into fine pieces. Insert 
a funnel through the tubulure of the retort, and then gradually apply heat until the reaction is seen to commence. 
Regulate the heat carefully so as to prevent the reaction from becoming too violent, or, if necessary, check it by 
the addition of a little Distilled Water through the funnel. From time to time return the acid liquid, which col- 
lects in the receiver, into the retort, until all the Phosphorus is dissolved. Then transfer the liquid to a weighed 
porcelain capsule, and continue th6 heat, at a temperature not exceeding 190° C. (374? F.), until the excess of Nitric 
Acid is driven off, and an odorless syrupy liquid remains. Cool the dish and contents, and add enough Distilled 
Water to make the liquid weigh one hundred parts. Test small portions for Nitric, Phosphorous, and Arsenic Acids 
by the following methods. If Nitric Acid should be present, evaporate the liquid until no reaction for Nitric Acid 
can be obtained. Then cool the Acid and add enough Distilled Water to make the product weigh one hundred parts. 
If Phosphorous Acid be present, add to the liquid a mixture of six parts of Nitric Acid and six parts of Distilled 
Water, and again evaporate until no reaction for Phosphorous or Nitric Acid can be obtained. Then, having 
cooled the Acid, add sufficient Distilled Water to make the product weigh one hundred parts. If Arsenic Acid be 
present, dilute the Acid with one hundred and fifty parts of Distilled Water, heat to about 70° C. (158° F.), and 
pass through the liquid a stream of Hydrosulphuric Acid Gas for half an hour, then remove the heat and continue 
passing the gas until the liquid is cold. Close the vessel tightly, set it aside for 24 hours, filter the liquid, heat it 
until all the odor of the gas has been driven off, again filter, and evaporate until the residue weighs one hundred 
parts. Preserve the precinct in glass-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 1880. 78 
Acidum Phosphoricum Concentratum. 
PART I. 
the addition of water diluted phosphoric acid of any desired strength can easily be produced 
from it * The process for its preparation is the well-known one of oxidizing phosphorus 
by the use of nitric acid, the former British method not differing materially from that of the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880, except in the absence of the use of hydrogen sulphide for pre- 
cipitating the arsenical compounds usually found in phosphorus, and in the greater strength 
of the finished product. The British concentrated phosphoric acid contains 66'3 per cent, of 
orthophosphoric acid, whilst the U. S. phosphoric acid now contains 85 per cent. Phosphorus 
is oxidized at the expense of the nitric acid, any excess of nitric acid and all the lower oxides 
of nitrogen being driven off by heat. Strong nitric acid acts too energetically on phosphorus, 
producing explosion and rapid combustion ; but when diluted, as in the processes above given, 
it parts with its oxygen slowly, and it is even desirable to aid the operation with a gentle heat. 
Along with the nitrous fumes, a portion of the undecomposed nitric acid also rises in vapor, 
which, in the British process, to prevent loss, is collected by means of a distillatory apparatus 
and returned to the retort. In the U. S. process of 1870 the same result wTas effected by 
placing over the liquid in the capsule a. glass funnel, upon the inner surface of which the acid 
was condensed, and returned of itself into the capsule so as considerably to simplify the oper- 
ation. This modification was originally suggested by Mr. Geo. W. Andrews, of Baltimore, 
who, however, inverted a dish over the materials; the suggestion of the funnel being due to 
Prof. Procter. The operation was continued till the whole of the phosphorus was converted 
into phosphoric acid and dissolved: the liquid having been deprived of any remaining acid, 
and reduced to a certain weight by concentration, the process was completed by adding a cer- 
tain measure of water, so that an acid of definite strength was obtained. Prof. Diehl found, 
in carrying this process into effect, that the glass funnel covering the capsule almost always 
breaks through the violence of the reaction, thus causing loss of phosphorus, besides annoy- 
ance to the operator. He therefore prefers using a French tubulated glass retort, and this 
suggestion was adopted in the process for Phosphoric Acid (£Z S. P. 1880). (A. J. P., 18G7, 
p. i38.) Prof. G. F. H. Markoe (Proc. A. P. A., 1875, p. 677) proposed a method for 
making phosphoric acid which is particularly adapted for making large quantities, yet works 
well in a smaller way. Into a flask (or stone jar) having double the capacity of the materials 
used, 12 troy ounces of water, 2 troy ounces of phosphorus, and 10 grains of iodine are placed, 
then 40 grains of bromine are cautiously dropped in; f when the reaction has ceased, 12 troy- 
ounces of nitric acid are added; a glass funnel is adjusted in the neck of the flask, and a 
smaller inverted funnel set inside of it; the apparatus is placed in a stoneware dish, and sur- 
rounded with cold water or ice; the reaction takes place slowly and regularly. In about 24 
hours, if all the phosphorus be not acted upon, heat may be applied until it disappears, and 
the excess of bromine, iodine, and nitric acid is driven off. The acid may then be diluted to 
the desired specific gravity. Prof. J. U. Lloyd (N. B., July, 1880) suggests the use of pure 
alcohol to unite with the nitric acid to form nitrous ether, which is more volatile and thus 
easier to drive off. Prof. Markoe adds a small quantity of pure oxalic acid, and heats the 
mixture to 300° F.; at this temperature it is asserted that all the oxalic acid splits into carbon 
monoxide and carbon dioxide. 
Nicolas prepares a pure phosphoric acid by adding a known quantity of pure calcium phos- 
phate gradually to a slight excess of pure dilute hydrofluoric acid contained in a lead or 
platinum vessel, the mixture being well stirred after each addition. An energetic action 
takes place. When all the calcium phosphate has been added, the temperature is still main- 
tained for a time to complete the reaction. The calcium fluoride is then filtered off and the 
solution evaporated. As the solution becomes viscid, the excess of hydrofluoric acid all passes 
oft' by evaporation. A syrup containing from 60 to 70 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride can 
be thus obtained. H. N. Warren suggests a method for preparing phosphoric acid in a pure 
state, which consists in introducing sodium or other soluble phosphate into a solution of 
copper sulphate; washing the insoluble copper phosphate formed, and dissolving in solution 
of phosphoric acid; then electrolyzing the mixture. A pure and very dense copper is said 
* James T. Shinn (A. J. P., Oct., 1880) proposes a formula for Liquor Acidi Phosphorici and Liquor Acidi Phos- 
phorici Oompositus. A similar preparation, under the name of Horsford’s Acid Phosphates, has a large use in this 
country. The formula is as follows. Liquor Acidi Phosphorici (without Iron) : Calcii Phosphat. 884 gr.; Magnesii 
Phosphat. 256 gr.; Potassii Phosphat. 192 gr.; Acidi Phosphorici (60 per cent.) 640 minims; Aquae, q. s. ft. 1 pint. 
Liquor Acidi Phosphorici Compositus (with Iron): Calc. Phosphat. 384 gr.; Magnes. Phosphat. 64 gr.; Potassii 
Phosphat. 32 gr.; Ferri Phosphat. 64 gr.; Acidi Phosphorici (60 per cent.) 816 minims; Aquae, q. s. ft. 1 pint. 
f Dr. W. H. Pile, of Philadelphia, met with a serious accident in preparing diluted phosphoric acid by this process, 
by adding the bromine too rapidly. (A. ./. P., 1875, p. 525.) PART I. 
Acidum Phosphoricum Concentratum. 
79 
to be thrown down, and a large quantity of phosphoric acid of sp. gr. 1-75 is obtained. 
(Clievi. News, lxviii. 66.) 
Much dissatisfaction has been caused among pharmacists by the fact that diluted phosphoric 
acid frequently produces a white precipitate in solutions of ferric salts. An examination 
proved that this occurred when the glacial acid is used, or when high heat had been employed in 
the concentration. Experiments conducted by Louis Dohrne and Prof. Remington seemed to 
indicate that the precipitation resulted from the presence of pyrophosphoric acid. (Proc. A. 
P. A., 1874, pp. 431, 511 ; 1875, pp. 663, 670, 677.) Considerable difficulty was experienced 
in driving off all the nitric acid, and in the attempt to do so the temperature became so ele- 
vated as to reconvert some of the tribasic acid to the bibasic form. This occurred slightly at 
148-8° C. (300° F.), but to a much greater extent between 176-6° C. (350° F.) and 204-4° C. 
(400° F.). The diluted acid, made from phosphorus, can be brought to the boiling-point of 
232-2° C. (450° F.), and will then only produce a slight cloud with tincture of ferric chloride, 
but if diluted, when cool, with about half its bulk of cold water, which causes considerable ele- 
vation of temperature, it forms a clear solution. The same acid evaporated, heated to redness, 
allowed to congeal, and then dissolved in water, precipitated the iron solution. The addition of 
twenty per cent, of sodium pyrophosphate to the same dilute acid made a preparation which in 
all respects resembled that made from the glacial acid; thus giving evidence that the presence 
of this contamination was the cause of the difference in the two preparations. 
It has been suggested that red phosphorus might be substituted for common phosphorus, as 
producing the same results, with less danger of explosion ; but the official process, when care- 
fully followed in reference to due dilution and a moderate heat, is not dangerous. 
The following is Lyon’s table exhibiting the quantity of orthophosphoric acid and phos- 
phoric anhydride contained in solutions of different densities at 15° C. (59° F.). 
Specific 
Gravity 
15° 0. 
at 
Percentage 
of 
Specific 
Gravity 
15° C. 
at 
Percentage 
of 
Specific 
Gravity 
15° C. 
at 
Percentage 
of 
59° F. 
in air. 
h3po4. 
P206. 
59° F. 
in air. 
h3po4. 
Pa06. 
59° F. 
in air. 
h3po4. 
PS05 
1*0000 
0 
o-o 
1-1816 
29 
21-011 
1-4215 
58 
42-021 
1-0056 
1 
0-725 
1-1889 
30 
21-735 
1-4312 
59 
42-745 
1-0113 
2 
1-449 
1-1962 
31 
22-460 
1-4409 
60 
43-470 
1-0170 
3 
2-174 
1-2035 
32 
23-184 
1-4508 
61 
44-194 
1-0226 
4 
2-808 
1-2110 
33 
23-909 
1-4607 
62 
44-919 
1-0283 
5 
3-623 
1-2184 
34 
24-633 
1-4706 
63 
45-643 
1-0340 
6 
4-347 
1-2260 
35 
25-358 
1-4807 
64 
46-368 
1-0398 
7 
5-072 
1-2336 
36 
26-082 
1-4908 
65 
47-092 
1-0457 
8 
5-796 
1-2412 
37 
26-807 
1-5010 
66 
47-817 
1-0517 
9 
6-521 
1-2489 
38 
27-531 
1-5113 
67 
48-541 
1-0577 
10 
7-245 
1-2567 
39 
28-256 
1-5216 
68 
49-266 
1-0637 
11 
7-970 
1-2645 
40 
28-980 
1-5321 
69 
49-990 
1-0698 
12 
8-094 
1-2724 
41 
29-704 
1-5426 
70 
50-714 
1-0759 
13 
9-419 
1-2804 
42 
30-429 
1-5532 
71 
51-439 
1-0821 
14 
10-143 
1-2885 
43 
31-153 
1-5638 
72 
52-163 
1-0882 
15 
10-868 
1-2967 
44 
31-878 
1-5746 
73 
52-888 
1-0945 
16 
11-592 
1-3050 
45 
32-602 
1-5854 
74 
53-612 
1-1008 
17 
12-317 
1-3134 
46 
33-327 
1-5963 
75 
54-337 
1-1072 
18 
13-041 
1-3219 
47 
34-051 
1-6073 
76 
55-061 
1-1136 
19 
13-766 
1-3304 
48 
34-776 
1-6193 
77 
55-786 
1-1201 
20 
14-490 
1-3391 
49 
35-500 
1-6304 
78 
56-510 
1-1266 
21 
15-215 
1-3479 
50 
36-225 
1-6416 
79 
57-235 
1-1332 
22 
15-939 
1-3568 
51 
36-949 
1-6529 
80 
57-959 
1-1399 
23 
16-664 
1-3657 
52 
37-674 
1-6642 
81 
58-684 
1-1467 
24 
17-388 , 
1-3748 
53 
38-398 
1-6756 
82 
59-408 
1-1535 
25 
18-113 
1-3840 
54 
39-123 
1-6871 
83 
60-133 
1-1604 
26 
18-837 
1-3932 
55 
39-847 
1-6986 
84 
60-857 
1-1674 
27 
19-562 
1-4026 
56 
40-562 
1-7102 
85 
61-582 
1-1745 
28 
20*286 
i 
1-4120 
57 
41-286 
Properties. “ A colorless liquid, without odor, but having a strongly acid taste. Specific 
gravity, not below 1-710 at 15° C. (59° F.) [1-5 BrJ\ Miscible, in all proportions, with 
water or alcohol. When heated, the liquid loses water; at 200° C. (392° F.) it gradually 
begins to change to pyrophosphoric acid. At a still higher temperature it is converted into 80 
Acidum Phosphoricum Concentratum. 
PART I. 
metaphosphoric acid, which volatilizes in dense fumes, or forms, on cooling, a transparent mass 
of glacial Phosphoric Acid. The Acid, even when largely diluted, has an intensely acid re- 
action upon litmus paper. If a small portion of Phosphoric Acid be supersaturated with 
ammonia water, the addition of magnesium sulphate test-solution (or of magnesia mixture) pro- 
duces a white, crystalline precipitate. If this precipitate be dissolved in diluted acetic acid, 
the solution yields a yellow precipitate with silver nitrate test-solution. If a crystal of ferrous 
sulphate be dropped into a cooled mixture of 1 C.c., each, of Phosphoric and sulphuric acids, 
no brown or brownish-black color should appear around the crystal (absence of nitric acid). 
If 1 C.c. of Phosphoric Acid be diluted with 5 C.c. of water, and the liquid gently warmed, it 
should not be blackened upon the addition of a small amount of silver nitrate test-solution, or 
rendered turbid by mercuric chloride test-solution (absence of phosphrjrous acid). If 1 C.c. of 
Phosphoric Acid (in which nitric and phosphorous acids have previously been shown to be 
absent) be mixed with 1 C.c. of stannous chloride test-solution (see List of Reagents, Betten- 
dorff’s Test for Arsenic), and a small piece of pure tin-foil added, no coloration should appear 
within one hour (limit of arsenic). Upon adding to 1 C.c. of Phosphoric Acid a mixture of 
3 C.c. of alcohol and 1 C.c. of ether, no turbidity should appear (absence of phosphate). After 
neutralizing a portion of the Acid with ammonia water, the addition of ammonium sulphide 
test-solution should produce neither a color nor a precipitate (absence of iron, etc.). After 
diluting a portion of the Acid with 5 volumes of water, no precipitate should be produced, in 
separate portions of the liquid, by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sidphuric acid), 
or by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of hydrochloric acid) ; nor should any precipitate be 
formed, even after several hours, by the addition of an equal volume of tincture of ferric 
chloride (absence of pyrophosphoric and metaphosphoric acids). 0978 Gm. of Phosphoric 
Acid, diluted with water, should require, for neutralization, not less than 17 C.c. of potassium 
hydrate normal volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 5 per cent, of the absolute 
acid), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” IT. S. 
“ Evaporated, it leaves a residue which melts at a low red heat, and when cold forms a 
glass-like mass. The Acid yields, when neutralized, the reactions characteristic of phosphates. 
Specific gravity 1-5. Each gramme of it mixed with 2-5 grammes of Lead Oxide in fine 
powder should leave on evaporation a residue which, after it has been heated to dull redness, 
weighs 2-98 grammes. It should yield, when diluted with water, no characteristic reaction 
with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, calcium, potassium, sodium, ammonium, chlorides, or 
nitrates, and only slight traces of iron or sulphates. Diluted, with five or six times its bulk 
of water, it is not precipitated by solution of albumen (absence of metaphosphoric acid), nor 
on adding Tincture of Ferric Chloride and setting the mixture aside for several hours (absence 
of metaphosphoric and pyrophosphoric acids). Diluted with water and the mixture set aside, 
no precipitate occurs (absence of silica). Diluted and mixed with an equal volume of test- 
solution of mercuric chloride and heated, no precipitate is formed (absence of phosphorous 
acid).” Br. 
Medical Properties. This acid is rarely used medicinally. It has the same properties 
and uses as the diluted Phosphoric Acid (see p. 82). The dose is 2 to 5 minims (0-12—0.3 C.c.), 
about one-eighth that of the diluted acid. 
AciDUM PnosPHORICUM GLACIALE. (Glacial Phosphoric Acid; Metaphosphoric Acid, 
Monobasic Phosphoric Acid ; Monohydrated Phosphoric Acid ; Acidc phosphorique glacial, Fr. ; 
Glasige Phosphorsdure, G.) Formula HP03 ; mol. wt., 80. Phosphoric oxide consists of two 
atoms of phosphorus and five atoms of oxygen, P206, and can be obtained only by the direct 
union of its constituents, which takes place when phosphorus is burned in perfectly dry oxygen 
gas. Thus procured, it is in the form of a white amorphous powder, extremely deliquescent, 
volatilizable at a red heat, and assuming, when it cools after fusion, a vitreous appearance. The 
classic researches of Prof. Graham first established clearly the character of the several varieties 
of phosphoric acid, which may be considered as derived from this oxide. When amorphous phos- 
phorus is boiled with nitric acid, or when phosphoric oxide is boiled with water, the oxide takes up 
three molecules of water, and yields tribasic or ordinary phosphoric acid, according to the reac- 
tion : P206 -f- 3II20 = HeP20g or (H3P04)2. If this acid be heated for a considerable time to 
215° C. (419° F.), the two molecules lose one molecule of water and yield pyrophosphoric acid, 
a tetrabasic variety, according to the reaction: H6P208 — H20 = H4P207. Lastly, at a red 
heat the ordinary phosphoric acid is converted into metaphosphoric acid, a monobasic variety, 
according to the reaction : II3P04 — H20 = HP03. This last variety may also be obtained 
direct from the oxide by dissolving it in cold water, when it takes up one molecule of water: PAET I. 
Acidum Phosphoricum Concentratum. 
81 
PaO0 -j- H20 = Hap206 or (HPOg)2. (SeeChem. News, Jan. 7,1876 ; or A. J. P., 1876, p. 109.) 
An aqueous solution of either of the three acids, heated so long as water escapes, yields the 
monobasic or metaphosphoric acid ; and as, upon cooling, it becomes a transparent ice-like solid, 
it has received in this state the name of glacial phosphoric acid. Conversely, this monobasic 
acid is slowly transformed, in aqueous solution, and more rapidly if the solution is heated, 
into the tribasic form. Prof. Maisch has ascertained that nitric acid, added to the solution of 
the monobasic acid, with the aid of heat, causes the change from the monobasic to the tri- 
basic form, viz., to the common phosphoric acid, without the intermediate production of the 
tetrabasic variety. 
Tests. The three acids are distinguishable by peculiar reactions. Thus, the monobasic is 
characterized by coagulating albumen, and giving white, gelatinous, uncrystallizable precipi- 
tates with the soluble salts of barium, lime, and silver; the tetrabasic does not coagulate 
albumen, and, though it causes a %vhite precipitate with silver nitrate, must first be neutralized ; 
the tribasic does not coagulate albumen, and, until neutralized, does not precipitate silver 
nitrate, but after neutralization throws down a yellow precipitate of silver phosphate. 
Glacial phosphoric acid is most advantageously obtained from calcined bones, by first treat- 
ing them with sulphuric acid, which produces an insoluble calcium sulphate and soluble acid 
phosphate; then dissolving out the latter salt, and saturating it with ammonium carbonate, 
which generates ammonium phosphate in solution ; and, finally, obtaining the ammonium phos- 
phate by evaporation to dryness, and then igniting it in a platinum crucible. The ammonia 
and all the water except the one molecule needed for the formation of metaphosphoric acid are 
driven off, and the glacial acid remains. 
Properties. Thus procured, glacial phosphoric acid is in the form of a white, uncrystal- 
lizable, fusible solid, inodorous, very sour to the taste, slowly deliquescent, slowly soluble in 
water, and soluble also in alcohol. Its formula is HP03, and it is made up of 11-2 per cent, 
of water in combination with 88-8 per cent, of phosphoric oxide. As already stated, it is 
characterized by producing white gelatinous precipitates with albumen, and with the soluble 
salts of lime, barium, and silver; and the precipitate produced with the barium chloride is 
readily redissolved by an excess of the acid. This is the form of the acid which results when 
the oxide, produced by burning phosphorus in dry oxygen gas, is introduced into cold water. 
Impurities. Glacial phosphoric acid is seldom prepared in this country. That found in 
commerce is almost all imported, and chiefly from Germany. It is often more or less impure, 
containing, as shown by the experiments of Prof. Maisch, silica, and calcium and magne- 
sium phosphates, which are precipitated from a neutralized solution of the acid by ammonia. 
In one instance 8 per cent, of these impurities was found, but in some others little or none. 
Prof. Maisch never found nitric or hydrochloric acid, and sulphuric acid rarely; and, though 
the presence of ammonia might be suspected from the source whence the acid is obtained, he 
did not detect it. (A. J. P., 1860, p. 194.) The chief impurity, however, is soda, as has been 
pointed out by Brescius, Remington, Dohrne, Prescott, and others (see Proc. A. P. A., 1875, 
666, 672) ; the acid has been found to contain occasionally as much as 60 per cent, of sodium 
metaphosphate, and rarely less than 55 per cent. (N P., Feb. 1879.) Hodgkin (P. J. Tr., 
1891, p. 217) examined eight samples of German and English glacial phosphoric acid, and 
found in them, respectively, the following proportions ol absolute orthophosphoric acid: 92-8, 
91-5, 90-8, 85-4, 84-4, 83-8, 80-1, and 78-1 per cent. In consequence of its deliquescence 
upon exposure to the air, a portion of the monobasic acid passes into the tribasic state. This 
may be detected, if in considerable quantity, by its giving a yellowish color to the precipitate 
with silver nitrate. The U. S. P. 1870 directed that the acid, in aqueous solution, should 
yield no precipitate with hydrogen sulphide, showing the absence of metals; should cause a 
white precipitate with barium chloride soluble in an excess of acid; with an excess of am- 
monia should cause only a slight turbidity, proving the almost total absence of earthy salts; 
and should yield no ammonia when treated with potassa in excess. Should the presence of 
arsenic be ascertained by the tests for that metal, it may be separated by boiling with hydro- 
chloric acid, so as to convert the arsenic into its very volatile chloride, which would escape 
with the vapors of the hydrochloric acid. 
Glacial phosphoric acid was introduced into the Pharmacopoeia of 1860 as affording a conve- 
nient method of preparing the medicinal acid, but, owing to its unreliability, was very properly 
dismissed from the Pharmacopoeia. Thirty-eight and a half grains, dissolved in a fluidounce 
of water, form a solution about equal in strength to the U. S. diluted acid of Pharmacopoeia 
1860. 82 
Acidum Phosphoricum Dilutum. 
PART I. 
ACIDUM PHOSPHORICUM DILUTUM. U. S., Br. Diluted Phosphoric 
Acid. 
(AQ'I-DUM PHOS-PHOR'l-CUM DI-LU'TUM.) 
“ A liquid containing, by weight, 13-8 parts of hydrogen orthophosphate, H3P04, and 86-2 
parts of water.” Br. 
Acide phosphorique medicinal, Fr.; Yerdiinnte Phosphorsaure, G. 
“ Phosphoric Acid, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Distilled Water, 
seven hundred and fifty grammes [or 26 ounces av., 199 grains], To make eight hundred and 
fifty grammes [or 29 ounces av., 430 grains]. Mix them. Keep the product in well-stoppered 
bottles. Diluted Phosphoric Acid contains 10 per cent., by weight, of absolute Orthophos- 
phoric Acid. Specific gravity, about 1-057 at 15° C. (59° F.). It corresponds in properties 
to Phosphoric Acid (see Acidum Phosphoricum), and should conform to the same reactions 
and tests. 4-89 Gm. of Diluted Phosphoric Acid should require for neutralization 10 C.c. of 
potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, of the 
absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. 
“ Concentrated Phosphoric Acid, 3 fi. ounces (Imperial measure) or 4-5 ounces, or 150 cubic 
centimetres or 225 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dilute the Concentrated 
Phosphoric Acid with sufficient Distilled Water to form, at 60° F. (15-5° C.), one pint (Imp. 
meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of Diluted Phosphoric Acid.” Br. 
It will be observed that in both Pharmacopoeias diluted phosphoric acid is made by simple 
dilution of the stronger acid, and that the older method of dissolving the glacial acid has been, 
very properly, abandoned. (See Acidum Phosphoricum Glaciale.) The official diluted acid is 
weaker than the British, the U. S. P. acid containing 10 per cent, of orthophosphoric acid, 
whilst the British contains 10 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride, P20„, which corresponds to 
about 14 per cent, of orthophosphoric acid. The specific gravity of the British acid is 1-08, 
and “ Each gramme of it mixed with 0-5 gramme of Lead Oxide in fine powder should leave 
on evaporation a residue which after it has been heated to dull redness weighs 0-6 gramme.” Br. 
Properties. Diluted phosphoric acid is a colorless, inodorous, sour liquid, acting strongly 
on litmus, and possessing powerful acid properties. Although evaporated so as to become 
dense, it is not corrosive like the other mineral acids. Dr. Neubauer found that the strong- 
acid, when pure and warm, was capable of dissolving calcium oxalate. The official acid is not 
precipitated by barium chloride or silver nitrate. If precipitates are produced, barium chloride 
indicates sulphuric ac-id or a sulphate; silver nitrate, hydrochloric acid or a chloride. Strips 
of copper or silver are not affected by the acid, showing the absence of nitric acid; it is not 
colored by hydrogen sulphide, proving the general absence of metals; and albumen produces 
no precipitate with it, indicating the non-existence of metaphosplioric acid. If sodium car- 
bonate cause a precipitate, calcium phosphate, or some other phosphate insoluble in water, is 
probably held in solution. It has been supposed that one-tenth of phosphorous acid would 
render the diluted acid dangerous to life; but experiments go far to show that this was an 
erroneous opinion, as half a drachm of that acid given to a dog produced no obvious poisonous 
effect. (See A. J. P., 1858, p. 359.) Phosphorous acid maybe detected by testing the medici- 
nal acid with a solution of corrosive sublimate, which will be converted into calomel if this 
impurity be present. (Pagels, Chem. Gaz., Jan. 15, 1857.) 
Old diluted phosphoric acid is very apt to contain microscopic plants. The presence of traces 
of hydrochloric acid is said to prevent their formation. (Bother, Drug. Circ., 1886, p. 99 ; Prof. 
L. E. Sayre, Proc. A. P. A., 1885 ; Samuel G. Ade, Proc. A. P. A., 1884.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Diluted phosphoric acid is deemed tonic and refrigerant. 
It is free from astringency, and is certainly a valuable remedy in many cases of dyspepsia. 
Various properties have been ascribed to it, such as allaying pain and spasm, strengthening the 
sexual organs, preventing the morbid secretion of bony matter, and correcting phosphatic de- 
posits in the urine. The last two properties are supposed to depend upon its power of dissolving 
calcium phosphate. It has been recommended in hysteria, in diabetes, and in leucorrhcea when 
the secreted fluid is thin and acrid; it has also been used with asserted good results in low 
fevers, but probably has no action upon the system other than that upon the digestive organs, 
although Dr. A. Judson (Ann. de Thirap., 1871 and 1872, p. 152) asserts that in doses of 
from one to three drachms it acts as a stimulant, increasing the force and frequency of the 
pulse, and causing headache and cerebral confusion,—effects which may be the result of gas- 
tric irritation. The dose is from twenty drops to a teaspoonful (1-25—3-75 C.c.), largely diluted. Acidum Salicylicum. 
83 
PAET I. 
HC7H5O3; 137*67. (Xg'l-DUM SiL-I-gYL'l-CUM.) HC7H5O3; 138. 
ACIDUM SALICYLICUM. U. S., Br. Salicylic Acid. 
“ An organic acid, existing naturally, in combination, in various plants, but most largely pre- 
pared synthetically from carbolic acid.” U. S. “A crystalline acid, CeH4.0H.C00H, obtained 
from natural salicylates such as the oils of wintergreen (Gault!)eria procumbens, Linn.) and 
sweet-birch (Betula lenta, Linn.), or by the interaction of sodium carbolate and carbonic 
anhydride.” Br. 
Ortho-Oxybenzoic Acid, E.; Acide salicylique, Fr.; Salicylsaure, G. 
In 1834 salicyl aldehyde (salicylous acid) was discovered by Pagenstecher in the flowers of 
Spirsea ulmaria. In 1837, Piria and Ettling found that by oxidizing agents salicyl aldehyde 
was converted into a new body, salicylic acid, and in 1839, Lbwig and Weidmann derived the 
latter principle directly from the flowers of the Spirsea ulmaria. Shortly afterwards Prof. 
Procter (A. J. P., 1843; Aug. 1875) discovered that the acid could be procured from the 
oil of wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens'), which is now known to contain fully 90 per cent, 
of methyl salicylate. Methyl salicylate is indeed obtainable by distillation from very many 
plants, but the probabilities are that it never exists already formed in the plant, but is 
produced during the process of distillation. (See Betula lenta, Part II.) When potassa is 
added to methyl salicylate, a new salt is formed, from which the acid is readily obtained by 
means of hydrochloric acid. Notwithstanding the discovery of this fact, and also the inven- 
tion of still another process of manufacture by Ettling in 1845, salicylic acid remained so 
expensive as to be of no value in the arts until Kolbe and Lautemann discovered that it could 
be prepared by uniting phenol with carbonic acid through the instrumentality of sodium. 
The article now began to attract some attention, but remained beyond the reach of general 
use until Prof. Kolbe, continuing his researches, succeeded, in 1874 (Joum.fiir Prakt. Chemie, 
July, 1874), in producing it at a moderate cost. 
Preparation. While salicylic acid may be prepared from salicin by fusion with potassium 
hydrate, or from oil of wintergreen by saponification with potassium hydrate solution, practi- 
cally it is now obtained, according to Kolbe’s patent, by treating sodium phenol (or carbolate) 
with carbon dioxide gas. For this purpose, the most concentrated caustic soda solution is 
evaporated with the corresponding amount of phenol to a dry powder, which is then heated to 
100° C. (212° F.), while a stream of dry carbon dioxide gas is passed over it. The tempera- 
ture is gradually raised to 180° C. (356° F.), increased to 220° C. (428° F.) as soon as phenol 
distils over, and finally raised to 250° C. (482° F.), until no more phenol distils. In the retort, 
the half of the phenol used remains as sodium salicylate, while the other half has distilled over un- 
changed. The reaction is as follows : 2CeH6ONa -(- C02 = C6H60H -f- C6H4(0Na),C00,Na. 
The sodium salt thus obtained is dissolved in water, decomposed by hydrochloric acid, the 
salicylic acid filtered off, washed, and crystallized out of hot water, or purified by sublimation 
in a current of superheated steam. P. W. Hofmann subsequently patented a process whereby 
distillation with superheated steam, with its attendant loss, is obviated; to the crude solution 
is added stannous chloride, which precipitates a dark mass containing the impurities, the clear 
supernatant liquid is then decomposed -with hydrochloric acid and the crystals of salicylic acid 
purified by washing and the use of centrifugals. (Pharm. Centralh., 1892, 412.) An im- 
portant improvement was subsequently made in Kolbe’s process whereby all, instead of only 
half, of the phenol-sodium is converted into salicylate. 11. Schmitt has found (Wagner's 
Jahresbericht fur Chem. Tech., 1885, p. 490) that if dry sodium phenolate and dry carbon 
dioxide are allowed to act on each other at ordinary temperatures, as long as absorption takes 
place a phenyl-sodium carbonate, CO j j is formed. If this is now heated for several 
hours in a closed vessel to 140° C., a molecular rearrangement takes place, and simple sodium 
salicylate, CgIT4(0H)C00Na, is formed without any separation whatever of phenol. Schmitt's 
process has been purchased by the owners of Kolbe’s patent.* Salicylic acid has also been 
* Professor J. U. Lloyd gives the following process for preparing salicylic acid from oil of wintergreen. Pure 
wintergreen oil, 3 parts; white caustic potash, 3 parts; hydrochloric acid, 8 parts ; water, q. s. Dissolve the caustic 
potassa in two parts of water in a glass or porcelain vessel, and heat to the temperature of 180° F. Stir into this 
gradually the oil, using a glass or porcelain spatula. Into another vessel place 64 parts of cold distilled water, and 
add the hydrochloric acid. Then with constant stirring add the solution of the potassium salicylate. The magma 
of minute crystals of salicylic acid must be separated with a thin muslin strainer (previously moistened) and pressed, 
then dried by exposure to a temperature of 150°. The yield of this crude acid will be slightly over two parts. 
Dissolve this in six parts of cold alcohol, and filter through a funnel stopped with cotton. Then with constant stir- 
ring pour the filtrate into 32 parts of cold water. The magma of minute crystals must be separated with a thin 
muslin strainer, and dried by exposure to a heat of 150° F. The yield is a trifle less than 2 parts. Acidum Salicylicum. 
PART I. 
84 
obtained synthetically from copper benzoate and water, which, when heated together in sealed 
tubes, yield cuprous oxide, free benzoic acid, and salicylic acid. (E. F. Smith, Am. Chem. 
Journ., 2, p. 338.) Dr. A. Rautert has found that the acid volatilizes with steam of 170° C. 
(338° F.), and has devised a process of purification based upon this, which yields at very little 
cost a beautiful product. Biel (Pharm. Zeitscli. f. Russl., 1876) reports that the sublimed 
acid is liable to decompose spontaneously. Dialyzed salicylic acid of beautiful appearance 
has been in the market since 1876. All traces of tarry matter can be removed by dialysis, 
and this acid is unexceptionable. Kolbe also obtained salicylic acid from the barium and 
calcium carbolates, but the yield was less than when the sodium salt was employed. The 
potassium phenol yielded only a trace of the salicylic acid, but an abundance of paraoxybenzoic 
acid. 
Properties. Salicylic acid, when pure, occurs as a snow-white crystalline powder, free 
from odor, and also from taste, but leaving a sense of astringency on the tongue and of irrita- 
tion in the fauces, with an increased flow of saliva. “ Light, fine, white, prismatic needles, or 
a light, white, crystalline powder ; odorless, having a sweetish, afterwards acrid taste, and per- 
manent in the air.” U. S. To the mucous membrane of the nose it is irritating, and it will 
sometimes produce sneezing. It crystallizes out of its hot aqueous solution on cooling in 
slender, often very long needles, and on the spontaneous evaporation of its alcoholic solution in 
large four-sided prisms. It is strongly acid, acting decisively on blue litmus, and forming salts 
not only with alkalies, but also with metallic oxides. Salicylic acid is “ soluble, at 15° C. (59° 
F.), in about 450 parts of water, and in 2-4 parts of alcohol; in 14 parts of boiling water, and 
very soluble in boiling alcohol. Also soluble in 2 parts of ether, 2 parts of absolute alcohol, 
and 80 parts of chloroform. When heated to 156° C. (312-8° F.), the Acid begins to melt, 
and is completely melted at 157° C. (314-6° F.) ; at a higher temperature it is gradually dissi- 
pated without leaving more than 0-6 per cent, of fixed residue. The saturated, aqueous solu- 
tion has an acid reaction, and is colored intensely bluish-violet (in high dilution violet-red) by 
ferric chloride test-solution.” U. S. “ Soluble in 3 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), in 2 of ether, 
or in 200 of glycerin. Dissolves in solutions of ammonium citrate, ammonium acetate, sodium 
phosphate, and in solution of borax, also in solutions of alkaline hydroxides and carbonates, 
salicylates being produced; such solutions of salicylates, if not weaker than 1 per cent., afford 
a yellowish-brown precipitate with solution of uranium nitrate (distinction from carbolates and 
sulphoearbolates). The crystals melt at 312-8° to 314-6° F. (156° to 157° C.), and below 
392° F. (200 C.) volatilize without decomposition. Test-solution of ferric chloride gives with 
the aqueous solution a violet color, or, if the solution be largely diluted, a reddish-violet 
color.” Br. When heated rapidly it is converted into carbolic and carbonic acids. It is stated 
that, by careful heating, glycerin can be made to dissolve 1 part in 50, and that the solution 
not only remains clear on cooling, but also may be diluted with water without separating. (A. 
J. P., 1875, p. 212.) Dr. Goldsborough affirms that a mixture of the acid with alcohol, 1 to 
10, may be diluted with 150 parts of water without crystallizing. By the presence of various 
neutral salts its solubility is increased without its antiseptic value being interfered with. Thus : 
Mixed with 1 part potassium nitrate, it dissolves in 50 parts cold water. 
“ “ II parts ammonium citrate, “ 60 “ “ “ 
“ “ 2 “ sodium sulphite, “ 50 “ “ “ 
“ “ 2 “ sodium phosphate, “ 50 “ “ “ 
“ “ 2\ “ sodium phosphate, “ 121 “ “ “ 
(Allen, Commerc. Org. Analysis, 1879, p. 344 ; see, also, R. Rother, A. J. P., 1886, p. 420.) 
On distilling salicylic acid or one of its salts with wood-spirit and sulphuric acid, acid methyl 
salicylate is formed, having an agreeable aromatic odor. The reaction with ferric salts is much 
more delicate (1 in 100,000) than that of phenol with the same reagent (1 in 3000). Com- 
mercial salicylic acid is often very impure. Sodium chloride, carbolic acid, cresotic acid, and 
oxybenzoic and para-oxybenzoic acids are the usual impurities. The first of these substances 
remains on igniting the acid. Carbolic acid may be detected by nearly neutralizing the sample 
with soda and agitating the liquid with ether. On evaporating, the ethereal liquid leaves the 
carbolic acid recognizable by its smell and taste. (Allen, Commerc. Org. Anal., p. 347.) 
The most sensitive test for it is a ferric salt, with which it develops a beautiful violet color. 
Goldsborough states that to insure the delicacy of this reaction it is necessary that the iron 
salt be perfectly neutral; also that with this precaution he has clearly detected 1 part of the 
acid in 400,000 parts of water. On the addition of ammonia the violet color is changed to a 
reddish brown, then to an orange, then to a permanent greenish yellow. Sulphuric and nitric PART i. 
Acidum Salicylicum. 
85 
acids change the violet to a light brown ( Goldsborough). It must be remembered that salicyl- 
ous acid reacts similarly with ferric salts. Salicylous acid, however, precipitates the silver 
potassio- or ammonio-nitrate white, the salicylic acid yellow. Dr. A. Fagans (A. J. P., 1893, 
p. 133) points out that salicylic acid cannot be colorimetrically estimated in aqueous solutions 
in presence of phenols, but that in alcoholic solution only the former reacts with ferric chloride. 
Kolbe recommends a simple test to detect impurities. A little of the acid is dissolved in 10 
times its weight of strong alcohol, and the solution allowed to evaporate spontaneously from a 
watch crystal. If the salicylic acid which remains in the dish be perfectly colorless, the acid 
is strictly pure; it should not be of a brown color, although a slight yellowish color would not 
indicate sufficient impurity to affect its medicinal value. Hager states that pure salicylic acid 
equal in volume to the size of a bean produced, after agitation with about 5 C.c. of pure sul- 
phuric acid, a colorless solution, while others which yielded a white residue from the alcoholic 
solution produced yellowish to brown-yellow solutions. (A. J. P., June, 1877.) 
By distilling with alcohol and strong sulphuric acid, salicylic acid forms methyl- and ethyl- 
salicylic acids. 
Tests. “On adding to a small portion of Salicylic Acid, in a test-tube, about 1 C.c. of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, then, cautiously, about 1 C.c. of methylic alcohol, in drops, and 
heating the mixture to boiling, the odor of methyl salicylate will be evolved. On allowing a 
saturated, alcoholic solution of the Acid to evaporate spontaneously in a glass or porcelain 
capsule, in a place protected from dust, a perfectly white, crystalline residue sheuld remain 
(absence of iron, carbolic acid, or coloring matter). If 1 Gm. of the Acid be dissolved in an 
excess of cold sodium carbonate test-solution, the liquid agitated with an equal volume of 
ether, and the ethereal solution allowed to evaporate spontaneously, the residue, if any, should 
be free from the odor of carbolic acid. On treating about 0-5 Gm. of the Acid, in a clean 
test-tube, with 10 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, no color should be imparted to the latter 
within fifteen minutes (absence of readily carbonizable, organic impurities'). A solution of 0\5 
Gm. of the Acid in 10 C.c. of alcohol, mixed with a few drops of nitric acid, should remain 
unaffected upon the addition of a few drops of silver nitrate test-solution (absence of hydro- 
chloric acid)." U. 8. “ Shaken up with a small proportion of water, the mixture filtered, and 
the solution evaporated, there remains a white residue, having no buff-tinted fringe (absence 
of iron, organic impurities, and coloring matter). Salicylic Acid dissolves in cold sulphuric 
add, imparting to the liquid no color in 15 minutes (absence of organic impurities). When 
1 gramme of the Acid is dissolved in an excess of cold solution of sodium carbonate, the liquid 
agitated with an equal volume of ether, and the ethereal solution allowed to evaporate spon- 
taneously, the residue, if any, should be free from the odor of phenol (absence of phenol).” Br. 
Traces of salol are found in salicylic acid. (Hoffmann, Proc. A. P. A., 1896, 232.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Salicylic acid was originally brought to the notice of 
the profession on account of its inhibitory influence on putrefaction. Kolbe found that 0-04 
per cent, had great influence in preventing souring of milk. Bucholz found that 0*15 per cent, 
of the acid is sufficient to prevent the development of bacteria in ordinary organic mixtures, 
and that the influence of 0-005 per cent, is plainly visible; 0-3 to 0-4 per cent, of the acid 
killed bacteria in vigorous growth. (Arch. Exper. Path. u. Pharm., Bd. iv.) The sodium sali- 
cylate was about equal to the pure acid, 0-4 per cent, destroying the bacteria. In the preser- 
vation of urine, Meyer and Kolbe found that one part of salicylic acid to two thousand of 
urine was sufficient to prevent putrefaction. (Journ. fur Prakt. Chem., Bd. xii.) According to 
Kolbe and others, salicylic acid arrests or prevents the action of the non-organized organic fer- 
ments. Thus, it will prevent the development of the hydrocyanic acid by the action of emulsin 
upon amygdalin in the presence of water, and will also inhibit the formation of the volatile oil 
of mustard. Dr. Miller found that one per cent, of salicylic acid was sufficient to check the 
action of ptyaline upon stareh, thus equalling in power ten per cent, of carbolic acid. He 
also found that 0-2 per cent, of salicylic acid distinctly affected outside of the body the diges- 
tive action of pepsin. The test of clinical experience has shown that salicylic acid is capable 
of accomplishing much in antiseptic surgery; but, in spite of certain advantages which the 
remedy has, it has failed to maintain itself against carbolic acid and other more recent drugs 
of the antiseptics, so that it is at present but little used by the surgeon. Nevertheless, as it 
is still employed to some extent, we give the following methods of use. 
Thiersch’s salicylic acid wadding for hermetically sealing wounds is made by dissolving two 
ounces of the acid in two pints of alcohol (sp. gr. 0 83), diluting with twenty pints of water at 
from 158° to 178° F., saturating with this six pounds and eight ounces of cotton batting deprived 86 
A cidurn Salicylicum. 
PART I. 
of oily matter, and afterwards drying. This wadding contains 3 per cent, of the acid ; for 
some purposes a stronger batting, containing 10 per cent., is prepared. When the wound or 
abscess is discharging profusely, jute is substituted for the cotton batting, because it is much 
more permeable to pus. An efficient ointment may be prepared by dissolving one and a half 
parts of the acid in two parts of alcohol and adding lard, or the solubility of the drug in 
glycerin may be taken advantage of. The following solutions are used in St. Bartholomew’s 
Hospital. Sodium phosphate three parts ; salicylic acid one part; water fifty parts.—Salicylic 
acid one part; olive oil forty-nine parts.—Salicylic acid one part; sodium bicarbonate half 
part; water one hundred parts.—Salicylic acid ten parts ; borax eighteen parts ; water one hun- 
dred parts. A 25-per-cent, solution, which will bear dilution with water or alcohol, may be 
prepared according to the following formula. R Acid, salicyl. 3ii; Sodii biborat. 3i; Glycerini 
q. s. Mix the acid and borax with four fluidrachms of glycerin ; heat gently until dissolved ; 
then add enough glycerin to make one fluidounce.* Prof. Thiersch has found that the drug 
cannot be employed for cleaning surgical instruments, because it corrodes the steel. 
When salicylic acid is given to man in doses just sufficient to manifest its presence, symptoms 
closely resembling those of cinchonism result. These are fulness of the head, with roaring 
and buzzing in the ears. After larger doses, to these symptoms are added distress in the head, 
or positive headache, disturbances of hearing and vision (deafness, amblyopia, partial blind- 
ness), and excessive sweating. In some cases there is a decided fall of temperature without 
alteration of the pulse; but probably more commonly the bodily temperature remains unal- 
tered. The actions upon the system of the acid and of its sodium, ammonium, potassium, and 
methyl (oil of gaultheria) salts appear to be identical, and, as several cases of poisoning with 
one or other of these agents have occurred, we are able to trace the toxic manifestations. Along 
with an intensification of the symptoms already mentioned, there are ptosis, deafness, strabis- 
mus, mydriasis, disturbance of respiration, excessive restlessness passing into delirium, slow 
laboring pulse, olive-green urine, and involuntary evacuations. In some cases the temperature 
has remained about normal, but in others has approached that of collapse. The respiration 
seems to be characteristic, it being both quickened and deepened, often sighing. Sweating 
usually is very free, and the urine early becomes albuminous. Various local evidences of vaso- 
motor weakness may supervene, such as rapidly appearing bed-sores at points subjected to 
pressure, and transitory dark-colored maculae on various parts of the body. In several cases 
death was probably produced by the acid, although there is scarcely one instance which is 
beyond doubt. In certain cases the mental disturbance has been strangely prolonged, last- 
ing for eight days. In some instances it is cheerful, in others melancholic in type. It is 
stated that upon drunkards the acid acts very unfavorably, violent delirium being an early 
symptom. 
Upon the lower mammals salicylic acid acts very much as it does upon man, causing mydri- 
asis, marked disturbance of respiration, great nervous prostration, delirium, dyspnoea, and, if 
the dose has been large enough, death by respiratory paralysis. Moderate therapeutic doses 
appear to have no powerful influence upon the circulation, such physiological evidence as we 
have indicating that they increase arterial pressure somewhat by exciting the vaso-motor centre 
and directly increasing the cardiac force. In overdoses salicylic acid causes fall of the arterial 
pressure, partly by a direct action upon the heart. Our knowledge of the action of the acid 
upon the nervous system is very imperfect, but it seems to be a depressant of the motor 
centres. Moderate doses increase the frequency of the respiration, probably in part by an 
action upon the peripheral pneumogastrics, but chiefly by a direct influence upon the respira- 
tory centres. Toxic doses paralyze the respiratory centres. The action of salicylic acid upon 
the temperature of normal man is slight and inconstant, unless toxic doses be given ; in fever 
its antipyretic influence is pronounced, but we have no exact knowledge as to the method 
of its action. It is absorbed arid circulates in the blood probably as sodium salicylate, and is 
eliminated partly unchanged as a salicylate and partly as salicyluric acid, the green discolora- 
tion of the urine being due to indican, or perhaps to pyrocatechin, which may be an educt 
from the acid. The elimination both of urea and uric acid is increased by the salicylates, 
which appear in some way to profoundly affect the general protoplasmic chemical activities. 
When given in very large doses the salicylates irritate the kidneys. 
The first effect of a single antipyretic dose in fever is usually a profuse sweat, which may 
* Mixture of Salicylic Acid and Iron is largely used in hospital practice. The following is the formula of the 
New York Hospital. Salicylic acid, 20 gr.; pyrophosphate of iron, 5 gr.; phosphate of sodium, 60 gr.; water, suf- 
ficient to make II fluidounces. Filter. (Pharm. Bee., 1886, p. 115.) PART I. 
Acidum Salicylicum.—Acidum Steancum. 
87 
appear fifteen minutes after the ingestion of the remedy. Very shortly after this the tempera- 
ture begins to fall, the depression reaching its maximum in from five to six hours. The sweating 
is profuse and exhausting, amounting, according to Ewald, not rarely to seven hundred and fifty 
grammes. The perspiration cannot be the chief factor in the reduction of temperature, as there 
appears to be no relation between its amount and the degree of the fall, and it usually ceases 
before the latter reaches its maximum. The antipyretic dose employed varies somewhat. 
Ewald gives as a minimum to the adult seventy-five grains, repeated in five hours if necessary; 
Justi, from ninety to one hundred and twenty-five grains. The question as to whether good 
is achieved in fevers by its administration is, of course, entirely separate from that as to its 
power of reducing temperature. It is certainly possible for a drug to lower the fever-heat 
and yet to do far more harm than good, and the evidence at hand appears to show that in 
typhoid and other allied febrile affections salicylic acid is not an eligible remedy. It is, indeed, 
no longer used, having been replaced by antipyrin. The possession of very marked antiperi- 
odic powers has been claimed for salicylic acid, but experience has not substantiated this claim. 
In rheumatism the remedy is the most valuable one known. Although some cases do not seem 
to yield to the drug, in the great majority of instances improvement sets in within twenty- 
four hours, and is rapidly followed by disappearance of the pain and fever. The dangers of 
cardiac and cerebral complications are certainly lessened, but not altogether done away with. 
In excessive rheumatic hyperpyrexia it cannot be depended upon to the exclusion of the cold 
bath. In chronic rheumatism and in gout, indeed in all the various forms of the uric acid 
diathesis, salicylic acid is an extremely valuable remedy, in many cases bringing relief when 
all other known remedies fail. To gouty patients it is often administered with great advantage 
in combination with preparations of colehicum. In all of these cases, however, salicylic acid 
must be considered as essentially palliative rather than curative. Most of the symptoms of 
gouty or rheumatic affections are due to an excess of uric acid, locally deposited or circu- 
lating in the blood or other fluids of the system. The salicylates bring relief by causing the 
elimination of this accumulated uric acid, but, so far as we know, they do not in any way 
affect the fundamental lesions or conditions which cause the excessive production of uric 
acid. The dose of salicylic acid in acute rheumatism may be set down as a drachm (3-88 Gm.) 
in the twenty-four hours, although it is employed by some practitioners in much larger doses. 
It may be given in powder, but is best administered in the form of ammonium or sodium 
salicylate (fifteen grains (0-971 Gm.) five times in twenty-four hours), which are equally 
efficacious and much less irritant to the stomach than is the acid. If ringing in the ears or 
other evidences of intoxication appear, the remedy should at once be partially or entirely 
withdrawn. 
Although Kolbe took fifteen grains of salicylic acid daily for nine months without sensible 
effect, and Lehmann (Archiv f. Hygiene, v.) carried similar experiments even to a greater length 
with similar results, yet the practice of using salicylic acid for a preservative of beer and of 
articles of food is to be condemned. A commission appointed by the French government re- 
ported that the prolonged use even of very small amounts of salicylic acid is dangerous, espe- 
cially to very aged persons* 
ACIDUM STEARICUM. U. S. Stearic Acid. 
HC18H35O2; 283-38. (XQ'I-DUM STB-AR'I-CUM.) HC,S H35 O2; 284. 
“ An organic acid, in its commercial, more or less impure form, usually obtained from the 
more solid fats, chiefly tallow.” XJ. S. 
This acid has been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia of 1890 solely because of its use in 
making glycerin suppositories. It is officially described as “ a hard, white, somewhat glossy 
solid, odorless and tasteless, #nd permanent in the air. Insoluble in water; soluble in about 45 
parts of alcohol at 15° C. (59° F.) ; readily soluble in boiling alcohol, and in ether. Stearic 
Acid, when pure, melts at 69*2° C. (156-6° F.). The commercial acid should have a melting 
* The question of the comparative medical value of the artificial and the natural salicylic acid is one of great prac- 
tical importance. It is seemingly established that the commercial artificial acid is distinctly more poisonous than 
the natural acid. According to the researches of Prof. Dunstan, the poisonous properties of the artificial acid are 
due to the presence of three impurities,—-namely, meta-, ortho-, and para-cresotic acid, of which acid the ortho- 
and para- are centric poisons. (See Part II.) Salicylic acid produced from synthetic carbolic acid does not contain 
these poisons. According to the researches of M. Charteris, any artificial salicylic acid which does not closely re- 
semble in crystalline forms the natural acid, and also have a melting point of almost 157° C., should be rejected 
as probably poisonous. 88 
Acidum Sulphuricum. 
PAET I. 
point not lower than 56° C. (132 8° F.), and the melted acid should not become opaque and 
begin to congeal at a temperature lower than 54° C. (1292° F.). If 1 Gm. of Stearic Acid 
and 1 Gm. of sodium carbonate be boiled with 30 C.c. of water, in a capacious flask, the result- 
ing solution, while hot, should not be more than opalescent (limit of undecomposed fat)." 
Medical Properties. Stearic acid probably has no general action upon man. 
ACIDUM SULPHURICUM. U. S., Br. Sulphuric Acid. 
H2SO4; 97*82. (XQ'I-DUM SUL-PHU'BI-CUM.) H2SO4; 98. 
“ A liquid composed of not less than 92-5 per cent., by weight, of absolute Sulphuric Acid 
[H2S04 — 97’82], and not more than 7’5 per cent, of water. The above-named percentage 
(92-5) is that assumed for Sulphuric Acid in the formulas of pharmacopoeial preparations. 
Sulphuric Acid should be kept in glass-stoppered bottles.” U: IS. “ An acid produced by the 
combustion of sulphur or pyrites and the oxidation and hydration of the resulting sulphurous 
anhydride by means of nitrous and aqueous vapors. It should contain about 98 per cent, by 
weight of hydrogen sulphate, II„S04.” Br. 
Acidum Sulfuricum, P.G.; Oil of vitriol, Vitriolic Acid; Acide sulfurique, Huile de Vitriol, Fr.; Vitriolol, 
Schwefelsaure, G.; Acido solforico, It.; Acido sulfurico, Sp. 
Preparation. Sulphuric acid is obtained by burning sulphur or iron pyrites, FeS2, and 
allowing the product of combustion, S02, to mix with nitrous fumes obtained from the decom- 
position of nitre, which change S02 into S03, and this uniting with steam yields H2S04. If 
the sulphur were burned by itself, the product would be sulphurous oxide, which contains only 
two-thirds as much oxygen as sulphuric oxide. The object of the nitre is to furnish, by its 
decomposition, the requisite additional quantity of oxygen. To understand the process, it is 
necessary to remember that several of the oxides of nitrogen have oxidizing power. Thus, 
the main reactions of the sulphuric acid process are universally conceded to be 2S02 +N204 
= 2S03 + N202, S03 -p H20 = H2S04, N202 02 = N204 ; in which the sulphurous oxide 
from the burning pyrites or sulphur is oxidized to sulphuric oxide by the nitrogen tetroxide, 
which readily parts with two atoms of oxygen to such bodies as sulphurous oxide, and then 
takes two atoms of oxygen again from the atmosphere, regenerating the original tetroxide. 
The nitrogen tetroxide thus acts simply as a carrier of atmospheric oxygen, whereby the S02 
is changed into S03. This latter compound then unites with steam to form H2S04, the final 
product. If the supply of steam be insufficient, at the same time white crystals (lead chamber 
crystals) will form, which have the composition HS03(N02), and whose formation is explained 
by the following reactions : 2S02 -J- II20 -j- N203 -|-02 = 2HS03(N02) ; when steam enters in 
larger amount they disappear, with formation of sulphuric acid, while red fumes are given off, 
thus: 2HS03(N02) -f H20 = 2H2S04 -f- N203. In this case, therefore, nitrous oxide, N203, 
assists in the oxidation. 
Preparation on the Large Scale. The manufacture of this most important chemical 
has grown to enormous proportions. In England, where it is very largely manufactured, 
the present annual production is over 1,000,000 tons, six-sevenths of which are from Spanish 
pyrites and one-seventh from crude sulphur (Lunge). In this country Sicilian sulphur is 
mainly used, although American pyrites, which is practically free from arsenic, is being em- 
ployed in increasing amount. The American production of sulphuric acid for the year 1896 was 
1,019,501 short tons, valued at $17,331,517, and in 1897 1,128,741 tons, valued at $21,446,079. 
The production of Germany for 1896 was 577,942 metric tons, valued at $3,536,455. Of the 
American production in 1897, 591,401 tons were made from pyrites, and the balance from 
native sulphur. As carried out in England, the process is as follows. Beginning with the 
pyrites-kilns, or burners, the broken mineral is placed in moderate-sized lumps on the bars of the 
burners, which have previously been heated to redness, and when the burning is once started, 
the fire is kept up by placing a new charge on the top of that nearly burned out. The ordi- 
nary charge for each burner of pyrites, containing about 48 per cent, of sulphur, is from 5 to 
6 cwt., which is burnt out in twenty-four hours. The hot sulphur dioxide and air are drawn 
from the pyrites-burners through the whole system of tubes, towers, and chambers by help of 
the powerful draught from a large chimney which is placed in connection with the apparatus. 
These gases then pass either into a tall tower (called the Glover or denitrating tower), where 
they meet a descending stream of strong sulphuric acid charged with nitrous fumes, which at 
this moment of descent is mixed with a weaker sulphuric acid, thereby liberating the nitrous 
fumes, and these then mix with the sulphur dioxide and air, or they are charged with nitrous 
fumes direct from the nitre-pots, where a mixture of Chili saltpetre and sulphuric acid liber- PART I. 
Acidurn Sulphuricum. 
89 
ates them. The mixed gases are then delivered at a temperature of about 75° C. (167° F.) 
into the first of the leaden chambers. These chambers, of which there are three, are now 
made of much larger size than was formerly the case, having often a capacity of 38,000 cubic 
feet. Here the gases meet jets of steam and deposit liquid sulphuric acid, as also in the 
second chamber. In the third or exhaust chamber all the sulphur dioxide should have 
been converted into sulphuric acid, and red nitrous fumes must always be visible. These must 
not be lost, but are drawn into a so-called Gay-Lussac tower filled with coke, over which a 
finely-divided shower of strong acid is allowed to fall. The nitrous fumes are absorbed by 
this, and give the so-called nitrated acid used as before mentioned in the Glover tower. The 
acid obtained in the leaden chamber has a sp. gr. of 1-55, or contains 64 per cent, of H2S04. 
The acid which comes from the Glover tower (or, in case this is not used, is obtained by fur- 
ther concentration of chamber acid in leaden pans) has a sp. gr. of 171, and contains 78 per 
cent. H2S04. The strongest acid must be procured by still further concentration in glass or 
platinum vessels, and will contain 98 per cent. H2S04. (Roscoe and Schorlemmer, Chem., vol. 
i. pp. 321—338.) Within recent years it has been found that to continue the concentration to 
the limit of 98 per cent, acid in platinum vessels is very destructive to these. Therefore it 
has been proposed, after a strength of 65° B. or about 90 per cent, acid has been reached, to 
finish in vessels of cast iron. It is found that the concentrated acid does not attack this, and 
therefore it can be substituted for platinum to advantage. 
According to theory, 100 parts of sulphur burnt should yield 305-9 parts of pure sulphuric 
acid. In practice the yield is 290—294. The amount of sodium nitrate used varies very 
much. Manufacturers who employ Glover and Gay-Lussac towers require from 3-5 to 6-5 
parts of nitrate for every 100 of sulphur burnt, while works unprovided with these appliances 
may take from 12 to 13 parts. (Roscoe and Schorlemmer, vol. i. p. 337.) 
The only way to obtain pure sulphuric acid is by distillation. Owing to the high boiling 
point of this acid, the operation is rather precarious, in consequence of the danger of the 
fracture of the retort from the sudden concussions to which the boiling acid gives rise. Dr. 
Ure recommends that a retort of the capacity of from two to four quarts be used in distilling 
a pint of acid. This is connected, by means of a wide glass tube three or four feet long, with 
a receiver surrounded with cold water. All the vessels must be perfectly clean, and no luting 
employed. The retort is then gradually heated by a small furnace of charcoal, or, what is 
better, by means of a sand-bath, the retort being buried in the sand up to the neck. It is 
useful to put into the retort a few sharp-pointed pieces of glass, slips of platinum foil, or clay 
tobacco-pipe tubes, with the view of diminishing the shocks produced by the acid vapor. The 
distilled product ought not to be collected until a dense grayish-white vapor is generated, the 
appearance of which is a sign that the pure concentrated acid is coming over. If this vapor 
should not immediately appear, it shows that the acid subjected to distillation is not of full 
strength; and the distilled product, until this point is attained, will be an acid water. In the 
distillation of sulphuric acid, M. Lembert uses, instead of pieces of glass or platinum foil, 
fragments of the mineral called quartzite; these after a time get worn and must be changed. 
What is said above relates to the mode of preparing common sulphuric acid; but there is 
another kind, known on the continent of Europe by the name of the fuming sulphuric acid of 
Nordhausen, so called from its properties, and a place in Saxony where it is largely manufac- 
tured. This acid is obtained by distilling dried sulphate of iron in large stoneware retorts, 
heated to redness, and connected with receivers of glass or stoneware. The fuming acid distils 
over, and ferric oxide is left in the form of colcothar or polishing rouge, a material used for 
polishing metals, particularly gold and silver. The formula usually given to this product is 
h2s2o7 or H2S04-|- S03. This would demand about 45 per cent, of sulphuric oxide or S03. 
In fact, the so-called Nordhausen acid seldom contains more than 10 per cent, of SOg, and to 
obtain that demanded by the formula a re-distillation is necessary. This product is semi-solid, 
and is now obtainable in commerce put up in sealed glass flasks. Its sale has been largely cur- 
tailed lately, owing to the introduction into commerce of the anhydride under the name of Solid 
Sulphuric Acid. When moisture is rigidly excluded, the acid has little action on metals, and 
it is put up in soldered boxes of tinned sheet-iron; it is used largely in the arts in the manu- 
facture of artificial alizarin. Persulphuric acid, and the persulphates are among the newest 
products of electrolysis. The ammonium persulphate, (NH4)„S208, and potassium persulphate, 
K2S208, both form white crystalline salts. The former has already found a considerable tech- 
nical application as an energetic oxidizing agent in connection with the manufacture of organic 
dyestuffs and the cyanide extraction of gold. 90 
Acidurn Sidphuricum. 
PART I. 
Properties. Sulphuric acid (hydrogen sulphate), commonly called oil of vitriol, is a dense, 
colorless, inodorous liquid, of an oily appearance, and strongly corrosive. On living tissues it 
acts as a powerful caustic. It unites with water in all proportions, and much heat is evolved 
on the mixture of the two fluids. When pure, and as highly concentrated as possible, as manu- 
factured in leaden chambers, its sp. gr. is 1-840 (1-8485, Ure), a fluidounee weighing a small 
fraction over 14 drachms. If its density exceed this, the presence of lead sulphate or other 
impurity may be inferred. Kohlrausch (Pogg. Ann. Erganzungs, Bd. viii. p. 675, Lunge) found 
the sp. gr. of pure sulphuric acid, real hydrate, to be 1-8342, and believes that a higher sp. gr. 
than this is due to impurities (probably lead sulphate). The commercial acid is seldom of 
this strength. According to Mr. Phillips, it has generally the sp. gr. 1-8433, and this is about 
the strength of the Br. acid, of which the sp. gr. is stated to be 1-843. The sp. gr. of the 
official acid is 1-835. Mendelejeff, after a careful determination, found that pure mono- 
hydrated sulphuric acid had the specific gravity 1-8371 at 15° C. (59° F.) compared with water 
at its maximum density, 4° C. (Amer. Drug., 1885, p. 16.) The strong acid boils at 338° C. 
(640-4° F.), and freezes at—26° C. (—15° F.). When diluted, its boiling point is lowered. 
When of the sp. gr. 1-78, it deposits crystals of the formula II2S04-|- H20 at about 0° C. 
(32° F.), and hence it is hazardous for manufacturers to keep an acid of that strength in glass 
vessels in cold weather, as they are liable to burst. With salifiable bases it forms a numerous 
class of salts, called sulphates. It acts powerfully on organic bodies, whether vegetable or ani- 
mal, depriving them of the elements of water, developing charcoal, and turning them black. 
A small piece of cork or wood dropped into the acid will for this reason render it of a dark 
color. It absorbs water with avidity, and is used as a desiccating agent. It has been ascer- 
tained by Professors W. B. and B. E. Rogers to be capable of absorbing 94 per cent, of car- 
bonic acid gas, a fact having an important bearing on analytical operations. When diluted 
with distilled water, it ought to remain limpid; and, when heated sufficiently in a platinum 
spoon, the fixed residue should not exceed one part in 400 of the acid employed. When 
present in small quantity in solution, it is detected unerringly by barium chloride, which causes 
a precipitate of barium sulphate. The most usual impurities in it are arsenous acid and lead 
sulphate; the former derived from the presence of arsenides in the pyrites, where that has 
been used iu the production of the sulphurous oxide; the latter from the leaden boilers in 
which the acid is concentrated. Sodium or magnesium sulphate is said to have been added to 
increase its specific gravity. “ If Sulphuric Acid be dropped upon sugar or wood, it blackens 
them. Diluted with 5 volumes of water, it yields, with barium chloride test-solution, a white 
precipitate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid.” TJ. S. Occasionally nitre is added to render dark 
samples of acid colorless. This addition gives rise to the impurity of potassium sulphate. 
These impurities often amount to 3 or 4 per cent. The commercial acid cannot be expected to 
be absolutely pure ; but when properly manufactured it should not contain more than one- 
fourth of 1 per cent, of impurity. The fixed impurities are discoverable by evaporating a por- 
tion of the acid, when they will remain. If lead sulphate be present, the acid will become 
turbid on dilution with an equal bulk of water. This impurity is not detected by hydrogen 
sulphide unless the sulphuric acid be saturated with an alkali. If only a scanty muddiness 
arise, the acid is of good commercial quality. 
Other impurities occur in the commercial sulphuric acid. The several oxides of nitrogen 
are always present in greater or less amount. They may be detected by gently pouring a solu- 
tion of ferrous sulphate over the commercial acid in a tube, when the solution, at the line of 
contact, will acquire a deep red color, due to the liberation of nitrogen tetroxide. Another 
method is to pass into tincture of guaiac the gases proceeding from the suspected acid heated 
with iron filings. If nitrogen tetroxide be present, the tincture becomes blue. The commer- 
cial acid, however, is not to be rejected unless the test shows the presence of nitrogen tetroxide 
in unusual quantity. Nitrogen tetroxide is an injurious impurity when the sulphuric acid is 
employed iu the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, which is decomposed by the nitrogen 
tetroxide with evolution of chlorine. To remove this impurity it was recommended by Wack- 
enroder, before distilling it, to heat the acid with a little sugar. This and the N204 mutually 
decompose each other, and the products are dissipated by heat. For the removal of the nitro- 
gen acids generally, I)r. J. Lowe recommends the addition to the heated sulphuric acid of 
small portions of dry oxalic acid, so long as it exhibits a yellow tinge. The oxalic acid is de- 
composed into carbonic acid and oxide, the latter of which, in becoming carbonic acid, deoxi- 
dizes and destroys the nitrogen acids. A slight excess of oxalic acid produces no harm, as it 
is immediately decomposed. Perhaps a better method of getting rid of these acids is to distil Acidum Sulphuricum. 
91 
PART I. 
with a little ammonium sulphate. Potassium sulphate, fraudulently introduced into the acid 
to increase its density, may be detected by saturating the acid with ammonia and heating to 
redness in a crucible, when ammonium sulphate will be expelled, and the potassium sulphate 
left. 
Arsenic is sometimes present in sulphuric acid. In consequence of tlie high price of Sicilian 
sulphur, most English manufacturers have employed iron pyrites for the purpose of furnishing 
the necessary sulphurous acid in the manufacture of oil of vitriol. As the pyrites usually 
contains arsenic, it happens that the sulphurous acid fumes are accompanied by arsenous 
oxide, and thus the sulphuric acid becomes contaminated. From 22 to 35 grains of arsenous 
acid have been found in 20 fluidounces of oil of vitriol, of English manufacture, by Dr. G. 0. 
Rees and Mr. Watson, and a still larger proportion by Mr. J. Cameron, of South Wales. To 
detect this impurity, the acid, previously diluted with five or six measures of distilled water, 
must be examined by Marsh’s test. (See Acidum Arsenosum.') But a more easy method, said 
to be nearly as delicate, is that of Bettendorff. A little stannous chloride is treated, in a shal- 
low dish, with pure hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1-12) until dissolved. The suspected sulphuric 
acid is then added, drop by drop, to the solution, the vessel being shaken on each addition. 
Considerable heat will be produced, and the liquid, if no arsenic be present, will remain clear; 
but if the acid be in the slightest degree contaminated with the poison, first a yellow, then 
a brown, and finally a dark grayish brown color will appear, and the liquid become turbid. 
(W. R., April, 1873, p. 367.) To separate the arsenous acid, Dr. J. Lowe recommends that the 
concentrated sulphuric acid should be gently heated in a flat dish, in a place where the fumes 
may be carried off, and then treated with small quantities of finely powdered sodium chloride, 
constantly stirred in with a glass rod. By the reaction between the arsenous acid and disen- 
gaged hydrochloric acid arsenic terchloride is formed, which, being volatile, is separated by 
the heat. The heat is afterwards continued, to expel the excess of hydrochloric acid. This 
mode of purification introduces into the oil of vitriol a little sodium sulphate. Buchner pro- 
poses a similar process; instead of sodium chloride employing hydrochloric acid, or a stream 
of the acid gas. This plan does not introduce sodium sulphate into the acid, but is less con- 
venient than that of Lowe, and, when the aqueous hydrochloric acid is used, tends to weaken 
the oil of vitriol by introducing water. Experience, however, has shown that neither plan can 
be entirely relied on. An excess of sulphuric acid is said to prevent the formation of the 
arsenic chloride. (See A. J. P'., 1860, p. 88.) For other methods of detecting arsenic in sul- 
phuric acid, see N. R., 1876, p. 297 ; 1880, p. 101. Until within recent years all the sul- 
phuric acid produced in the United States was made from sulphur. At the present time (1893) 
nearly half of the sulphuric acid works are using pyrites. Most of the American pyrites ore 
is entirely free from arsenic. Dupasquier states that tin is sometimes present in commercial 
sulphuric acid, derived from the solderings of the leaden chambers; but this could scarcely 
happen now, as care is taken to avoid soldering, and to effect the union of the metal by fusion 
by means of the blow-pipe. It may be discovered by hydrogen sulphide, which precipitates 
sulphide of tin, convertible by nitric acid into the white insoluble stannic oxide. Should the 
precipitate be the mixed sulphides of arsenic and tin, the former would be converted by nitric 
acid into arsenic acid and dissolved, and the latter into insoluble stannic oxide and left. An- 
other impurity occasionally existing in French sulphuric acid is selenium, supposed to be de- 
rived from copper pyrites sometimes substituted for sulphur in the manufacture of the acid. 
For the mode of detecting and separating this impurity, see the Journal de Pharmacie (1872, 
p. 42). “ To neutralize 0-489 Gm. of Sulphuric Acid, diluted with about 10 C.c. of water, should 
require not less than 9-25 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution (each 0-1 C.c. 
corresponding to 1 per cent, of the absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. 
Tests. “ On mixing the Acid carefully with 4 or 5 volumes of alcohol, no precipitate 
should be formed within one hour (absence of lead). If there be carefully poured upon it, in 
a test-tube, a layer of ferrous sulphate test-solution, the zone of contact should not assume a 
brown or reddish color (limit of nitric or nitrous acid). In Sulphuric Acid, diluted with 20 
volumes of water, no precipitate should be formed by the addition of silver nitrate test-solution 
(absence of hydrochloric acid), or of hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of lead, arsenic, 
copper) ; nor by supersaturation with ammonia water {iron) ; nor should the acid thus super- 
saturated leave any fixed residue on evaporation and ignition (absence of non-volatile impurities), 
nor yield any precipitate on addition of ammonium sulphide test-solution {iron, thallium, etc.). 
1 C.c. of Sulphuric Acid, diluted with 5 C.c. of water, and cooled, should not at once discharge 
the color of 0-1 C.c. of potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric solution (limit of sul- 92 
Acidum Sulphuricum. 
PART I. 
phurous or nitrous acid). If 1 C.c. of a mixture of 1 volume of Sulphuric Acid with 2 vol- 
umes of water be mixed with 1 C.c. of stauuous chloride test-solution (see List of Reagents, 
BettendorfFs Test for Arsenic), no coloration should appear within one hour (limit of arsenic)." 
U S. “ Each gramme diluted with 20 or 30 cubic centimetres of water should require for 
neutralization 20-1 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. It should 
yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, iron, ammonium, 
chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, or sulphites. It should yield no appreciable residue on evaporation. 
Hydrochloric acid containing sodium sulphite, when poured carefully upon an equal volume of 
Sulphuric Acid contained in a test-tube, should not cause a red coloration at the junction of 
the two liquids, and no red precipitate should form on warming the tube (absence of sele- 
nium).” Br. Deniges proposes to detect arsenic in sulphuric acid by the use of a liquid con- 
taining equal volumes of a solution of ammonium molybdate (1 to 10) and sulphuric acid. 
(Drug. Circ., 1894, 12.) 
The following table by Lunge and Isler shows how much hydrated sulphuric acid and how 
much sulphuric oxide (S03) are contained in acid of a given density. 
Table of Percentage and Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid. 
Specifia 
Gravity. 
100 Parts contain at 
15° C. (59° P.) 
Specific 
Gravity. 
100 Parts contain at 
15° C. (59° F.) 
Specific 
Gravity. 
100 Parts contain at 
15° C. (59° F.) 
so3. 
H2SO4. 
S03. 
h2so4. 
S03. 
H2SO4. 
1-0008 
0-07 
0-09 
1-1829 
25-00 
1*372 
38*32 
46-94 
1-0059 
0-68 
0-83 
1-186 
20*73 
25-40 
1*377 
38*75 
47-47 
1-0109 
1-28 
1-57 
1-191 
21*26 
26*04 
1*382 
39-18 
48-00 
1-0159 
1-88 
2-30 
1-196 
21-78 
26*68 
1*387 
39*62 
48-53 
1-021 
2-47 
3-03 
1-201 
22-30 
27*32 
1-3914 
40-00 
1-026 
3-07 
3-76 
1-206 
22-82 
27-95 
1-392 
40-05 
49-06 
1-031 
3-67 
4-49 
1-211 
23-33 
28-58 
1-397 
40-48 
49-59 
1-0345 
5 00 
1-216 
23-84 
29-21 
1-401 
50-00 
1-036 
4-27 
5-23 
1-221 
24*36 
29-84 
1-402 
40-91 
50-11 
1-041 
4-87 
5-96 
1-222 
30-00 
1-407 
41-33 
50-63 
1-042 
5-00 
1-226 
24-88 
30-48 
1-412 
41-76 
51-15 
1-046 
5-45 
6-67 
1-227 
25-00 
1-417 
42-17 
51-66 
1-051 
6-02 
7-37 
1-231 
25-39 
31-11 
1-422 
42-57 
52-15 
1-056 
6-59 
8-07 
1-236 
25-88 
31-70 
1*427 
42-96 
52-63 
1-061 
7-16 
8-77 
1-241 
26*35 
32-28 
1-432 
43-36 
53*11 
1-066 
7-73 
9-47 
1-246 
26-83 
32-86 
1-437 
43-75 
53-59 
1-0697 
10-00 
1-251 
27-29 
33-43 
1-442 
44-14 
54-07 
1-071 
8-32 
10-19 
1-256 
27-76 
34*00 
1*447 
44-53 
54-55 
1-076 
8-90 
10-90 
1-261 
28-22 
34-57 
1-4517 
55-00 
1-081 
9-47 
11-60 
1-265 
35-00 
1-452 
44-92 
55-03 
1-0856 
10-00 
• • • 
1-266 
28-69 
35-14 
1-453 
45-00 
1 086 
10-04 
12-30 
1-271 
29-15 
35-70 
1-457 
45-31 
55-50 
1-091 
10-60 
12-99 
1-276 
29-62 
36-29 
1-462 
45*69 
55-97 
1-096 
11-16 
13-67 
1-280 
30-00 
1*467 
46-07 
56-43 
1-101 
11-71 
14-35 
1-281 
30*10 
36-87 
1*472 
46-45 
56-90 
1-1058 
15-00 
1-286 
30*57 
37-45 
1-477 
46-83 
57-37 
1-106 
12-27 
15-03 
1-291 
31-04 
38-03 
1-482 
47-21 
57-83 
1-111 
12-82 
15-71 
1-296 
31-52 
38-61 
1-487 
47-57 
58-28 
1-116 
13-36 
16-36 
1-301 
31-99 
39-19 
1-492 
47-95 
58-74 
1-121 
13-89 
17-01 
1-306 
32-46 
39-77 
1-497 
48-34 
59-22 
1-126 
14-42 
17-66 
1-308 
40-00 
1-502 
48-73 
59-70 
1-131 
14-95 
18-31 
1-311 
32-94 
40-35 
1*505 
60-00 
1-1315 
15-00 
1*316 
33*41 
40-93 
1-507 
49-12 
60-18 
1-136 
15-48 
18-96 
1-3215 
33-88 
41-50 
1*512 
49-51 
60-65 
1-141 
16-01 
19-61 
1*327 
34-35 
42-08 
1-517 
49-89 
61-12 
1-144 
20-00 
1-332 
34-80 
42-66 
1-5184 
50-00 
1-146 
16-54 
20-26 
1-334 
35-00 
1-522 
50-28 
61-59 
1-151 
17-07 
20-91 
1-337 
35T27 
43*20 
1-527 
50-66 
62-06 
1-156 
17-59 
21-55 
1-342 
35-71 
43*74 
1-532 
51-04 
62-53 
1-161 
18-11 
22-19 
1-347 
36-14 
44-28 
1-537 
51-43 
63-00 
1-166 
18-64 
22-83 
1-352 
36-58 
44-82 
1*542 
51-78 
63*43 
1-171 
19-16 
23-47 
1-354 
45*00 
1*547 
52-12 
63-85 
1-176 
19-69 
24-12 
1-357 
37-02 
45-35 
1-552 
52-46 
64-26 
1-179 
20-00 
1-362 
37-45 
45*88 
1-557 
52-79 
64-67 
1-181 
20-21 
24-76 
1-367 
37-89 
46-61 
1-561 
65-00 PART I. 
Acidurn Sulphuricum. 
93 
Table of Percentage and Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid. ( Continued.) 
Specific 
Gravity. 
100 Parts contain at 
15° C. (59° F.) 
Specific 
Gravity. 
100 Parts contain at 
15° C. (59° F.) 
Specific 
Gravity. 
100 Parts contain at 
15° C. (59° F.) 
so3. 
h2so4. 
so3. 
h2so4. 
so3. 
H*S04. 
1*562 
53-12 
65*01 
1-702 
63-00 
77-17 
1-826 
73-96 
90-60 
1*567 
53-46 
65-49 
1*707 
63-35 
77-60 
1-827 
74-12 
90-80 
1-572 
53*80 
65-90 
1-712 
63-70 
78-04 
1-828 
74-29 
91-00 
1-577 
54-13 
66-30 
1-717 
64-07 
78-48 
1*829 
74-49 
91-25 
1-582 
54-46 
66-71 
1*722 
64-43 
78-92 
1-830 
74-69 
91-50 
1-587 
54-80 
67-13 
1-727 
64-78 
79-36 
1-831 
74-86 
91-70 
1*5896 
55-00 
1-730 
65-00 
1-8318 
75-00 
1-592 
55-18 
67-59 
1-732 
65-14 
79*80 
1-832 
75-03 
91-90 
1-597 
55-55 
68-05 
1-734 
80-00 
1-833 
75-19 
92-10 
1-602 
55-93 
68-51 
1-737 
65-50 
80-24 
1-834 
75-35 
92-30 
1-607 
56-30 
68-97 
1-742 
65-86 
80-68 
1-835 
75-53 
92-52 
1*612 
56-68 
69-43 
1-747 
66-22 
81-12 
1-836 
75-72 
92-75 
1-617 
57*05 
69-89 
1-752 
66-58 
81-56 
1-837 
75-96 
93-05 
1-618 
70-00 
1-757 
66-94 
82-00 
1-838 
76-27 
93-43 
1-622 
57-40 
70-32 
1-762 
67-30 
82-44 
1-839 
76-57 
93-80 
1-627 
57-75 
70-74 
1-767 
67-65 
82-88 
1-8396 
76-90 
94-20 
1-632 
58-09 
71-16 
1-772 
68-02 
83-32 
1-840 
76-99 
94-31 
1-637 
58-43 
71-57 
1-777 
68-49 
83-90 
1-841 
77-23 
94-60 
1-642 
58-77 
71-99 
1-782 
68-98 
84-50 
1-842 
95-00 
1-647 
59-10 
72-40 
1-786 
85-00 
1-842 
77-55 
95-00 
1-652 
59-45 
72-82 
1*787 
69-47 
85-10 
1-843 
78-04 
95-60 
1-657 
59-79 
73-23 
1-792 
69-96 
85-70 
1-8431 
78-33 
95-95 
1-661 
60-00 
1-7924 
70-00 
1-8436 
79-19 
97-00 
1-662 
60-11 
73-64 
1-797 
70-45 
86-30 
1-8441 
79-76 
97-70 
1-667 
60-46 
74-07 
1-802 
70-94 
86-90 
1-8438 
80-00 
1-672 
60-82 
74-51 
1-8075 
71-50 
87-60 
1-8436 
80-16 
98-20 
1-677 
61-20 
74-97 
1-813 
72-08 
88-30 
1-8431 
80-57 
98-70 
1-6773 
75-00 
1-818 
72-69 
89-05 
1-8426 
80-98 
99-20 
1-682 
61*57 
75-42 
1*8227 
. . • 
90-00 
1-8421 
81-18 
99-45 
1-687 
61-93 
75-86 
1-823 
73-51 
90-05 
1-8416 
81-39 
99-70 
1-692 
62-29 
76-30 
1-824 
73-63 
90-20 
1-8411 
81-59 
99-95 
1-697 
62-64 
76-73 
1-825 
73-80 
90-40 
Composition. The normal acid of the sp. gr. l-842 (l-8485, Ure) consists of one mol. 
of oxide and one mol. of water. As the hydrogen acts the part of a metal in the compound, 
the systematic name would be hydrogen sulphate. The oxide consists of one atom of sulphur 
and three atoms of oxygen. The ordinary commercial acid consists, according to Phillips, of 
one mol. of oxide and one and a quarter mol. of water. The hydrated acid of Nordhausen 
has a density as high as 1-89 or 1*9, and consists of two mols. of oxide and one mol. of water 
(2S03 + H20). This acid is particularly adapted to the purpose of dissolving indigo for dye- 
ing the Saxon blue. When heated gently in a retort, connected with a dry and refrigerated 
receiver, sulphuric oxide or anhydride distils over, and the common monohydrated acid remains 
behind. In performing this operation, much difficulty from concussion is avoided, and the 
product of oxide increased, by introducing a coil of platinum wire into the retort. The oxide 
may also be obtained by the action of phosphoric oxide on concentrated sulphuric acid, accord- 
ing to the method of Ch. Barreswil. The mixture must be made in a refrigerated retort, and 
afterwards distilled by a gentle heat into a refrigerated receiver. Sulphuric oxide (solid sulphuric 
add) under 18° C. (64°"F.) is in small colorless crystals, resembling asbestos. It is tenacious, 
difficult to cut, and may be paoulded in the fingers like wax, without acting on them. Exposed 
to the air, it emits a thick opaque vapor of an acid smell. Above 18° C. (64° F.) it is a liquid, 
very nearly of the density 2. 
Medical Properties. For the therapeutic powers and uses of sulphuric acid when ad- 
ministered internally, see Addum Sulphuricum Dilutum. Externally it is sometimes employed 
as a caustic; but, from its liquid form, it is very inconvenient for that purpose, and should be 
applied with caution. A plan, however, has been proposed by Professor Simpson by which it 
becomes very manageable. This consists in mixing it with dried and powdered zinc sulphate 
sufficient to give it a pasty consistence. Michel’s Paste consists of strong sulphuric acid three 
parts, and finely powdered asbestos one part, thoroughly rubbed together. When mixed with 94 
Acidum Sulphuricum.—Acidum Sulphuncum Aromaticum. 
PART I. 
saffron to the consistence of a ductile paste, Velpeau found it a convenient caustic, not liable 
to spread or be absorbed, and producing an eschar which is promptly detached. 
Toxicological Properties. The symptoms of poisoning by this acid are the following. 
Burning heat in the throat and stomach, extreme fetidness of the breath, nausea and excessive 
vomitings of black or reddish matter, excruciating pains in the bowels, difficulty of breathing, 
extreme anguish, a feeling of cold on the skin, great prostration, constant tossing, convulsions, 
and death. Sometimes there is no pain whatever in the stomach, sensibility being apparently 
destroyed by the violence of the caustic action. The intellectual faculties remain unimpaired. 
Frequently the uvula, palate, tonsils, and other parts of the fauces are covered with black or 
white sloughs. The treatment consists in the administration of large quantities of magnesia, 
or, if this be not at hand, of solution of soap. The safety of the patient depends upon the 
greatest promptitude in the application of the antidotes. After the poison has been neutral- 
ized, mucilaginous and other bland drinks must be taken freely. 
Upon the skin sulphuric acid acts as a very rapid and powerful corrosive. When it has 
been spilt or thrown upon the person the part should be immediately washed with a weak solu- 
tion of sodium carbonate or bicarbonate, or soap may be well rubbed into the surface. After 
the removal and neutralization of the acid, Carron oil or similar protective may be applied. 
The further treatment is that of a burn. 
The holes burnt in linen by sulphuric acid, so long as the texture is undisturbed, are dis- 
tinguished from those produced by red-hot coals, by the paste-like characters of their edges. 
Uses in the Arts. Sulphuric acid is more used in the arts than any other acid. It is 
employed to obtain many of the other acids; to extract soda from common salt; to make alum 
and ferric sulphate; to refine petroleum and paraffin ; to decompose the neutral fats; to dissolve 
indigo; to prepare skins for tanning; to prepare phosphorus, chlorinated lime, magnesium 
sulphate, etc. The arts of bleaching and dyeing cause its principal consumption. 
ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM. U. S., Br. Aromatic Sul- 
phuric Acid. 
(Xg'l-DUM SUL-PHU'RI-CUM AK-O-MXT'I-CTTM.) 
Tinctura Aromatica Acida, P. G.; Elixir Vitrioli Mynsichti, G.; Elixir of Vitriol; Elixir vitriolique, Teinture 
(alcooI6) aromatique sulphurique, Fr.; Saure Aromatische Tinctur, Mynsicht’s Elixir, G. 
“ Sulphuric Acid, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 3 fluidrachms, 3 minims] ; 
Tincture of Ginger, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 5J fluidrachms] ; Oil of Cinnamon, 
one cubic centimeter [or 16 minims] ; Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Add the Sulphuric Acid gradually, and with 
great caution, to seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 24 fluidounces] of Alcohol, and allow the 
mixture to cool. Then add to it the Tincture of Ginger and the Oil of Cinnamon, and after- 
wards enough Alcohol to make the whole measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6J fluidrachms]. Keep the product in glass-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“ Tincture of Ginger, 10 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 250 cubic centimetres; Spirit of 
Cinnamon, £ Ji. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 12-5 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 29 \ ji. 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or 737 5 cubic centimetres ; Sulphuric Acid, 3 Ji. ounces (Imp. meas>) or 
2419 grains, or 75 cubic centimetres or 138 2 grammes. Mix the Sulphuric Acid gradually 
with the Alcohol; add the Spirit of Cinnamon and Tincture of Ginger.” Br. 
u It should be preserved in glass-stoppered bottles. Aromatic Sulphuric Acid has the sp. gr. 
about 0-939, and contains about 20 per cent., by weight, of official Sulphuric Acid, partly in 
the form of Ethyl-sulphuric Acid. If 4-89 Gm. of Aromatic Sulphuric Acid be mixed, in a 
small flask, with 15 C.c. of water and boiled for several minutes (so as to decompose the ethyl- 
sulphuric acid), and the liquid be then allowed to cool, it should require, for complete neutral- 
ization, about 18-5 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution (each C.c. correspond- 
ing to 1 per cent, of absolute or about T08 per cent, of official Sulphuric Acid), phenolphtalein 
being used as indicator.” U. S. 
The specific gravity of the British preparation is “ 0-922 to 0-926. The neutralizing power of 
100 grammes should be equivalent to that of 13-8 grammes of hydrogen sulphate, II2S04.” 
The formula adopted at the 1880 revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia was that recommended 
by Thomas N. Jamieson, A. J. P., 1867, p. 201. The change in the appearance and properties 
from the preparation of the U. S. P. 1870 was so marked that the wisdom of making so 
radical a change was doubted. Experience has proved, however, that the new preparation lias part I. Acidum Sulphuncum Aromaticum.—Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum. 
95 
not the same tendency to precipitate, and the lightness in color has been offset by more sub- 
stantial advantages. The British formula has been remodelled to accord with the U. S. P. 
Properties. Aromatic sulphuric acid of the older Pharmacopoeias was of a deep reddish 
brown, but it is a straw-colored liquid when freshly prepared according to the direction of the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880, of a peculiar aromatic odor, and, when sufficiently diluted, of a 
grateful acid taste. It has been supposed by some to contain ethylic ether or sulphovinic acid, 
its main ingredients justifying such a suspicion; but the late Dr. Duncan, of Edinburgh, who 
originally held this opinion, satisfied himself that the alcohol and sulphuric acid, in the pro- 
portions here employed, do not generate a single particle of ethylic ether; and Prof. Attfield 
has shown that there is no ethyl-sulphuric acid in the official preparation. (P. J. Tr., 1869, p. 
471.) It cannot, however, be viewed merely as a sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol and con- 
taining the essential oils of ginger and cinnamon, for the difference in odor between fresh and 
old preparations is quite marked, and a peculiar and agreeable ethereal odor is developed by 
age. Samples of fresh aromatic sulphuric acid as well as older specimens have been assayed 
by E. AV. Clark, and all were found to be more or less deficient in sulphuric acid ; the infer- 
ence is quite clear that there is some decomposition of sulphuric acid in the preparation upon 
keeping. (Pharm. Era, 1887, p. 69.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. This valuable preparation is tonic and astringent. It 
acts precisely as does the Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum. The dose is from ten to thirty drops 
(0-6-1-9 C.c.), in a wineglassful of water, repeated two or three times a day. Care must be 
taken that the teeth are not injured. 
ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM. U. S., Br. Diluted Sulphuric Acid. 
Acide sulphurique dilu6, F>\; Verdiinnto Schwefelsaure, Cr. 
“ 100 parts by weight should contain 13-65 parts of hydrogen sulphate, H2S04.” Br. 
“ Sulphuric Acid, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Distilled Water, 
eight hundred and twenty-five grammes [or 29 ounces av., 44 grains], To make nine hundred 
and twenty-five grammes [or 32 ounces av., 274 grains]. Pour the Acid gradually, under 
constant stirring, into the Distilled Water. Keep the product in glass-stoppered bottles. 
Diluted Sulphuric Acid contains 10 per cent., by weight, of absolute Sulphuric Acid. Specific 
gravity, about 1-070 at 15° C. (59° F.). It should respond to the reactions and tests given 
under Sulphuric Acid (see Acidum Sulphuricum'). To neutralize 4-89 Gm. of Diluted Sul- 
phuric Acid should require 10 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution (each 
C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, of the absolute acid), phenolphtalein being used as indi- 
cator.” 17. S. 
“ Sulphuric Acid, 1 fl. ounce and 51 /?. drachms (more exactly, 1-65 Jl. ounces, Imperial 
measure) or 1333 grains, or 82-7 cubic centimetres or 152-4 grammes; Distilled Water, a suf- 
ficient quantity. Half fill with Distilled Water a glass flask the capacity of which to a mark 
on the neck is one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres. Then introduce the 
Sulphuric Acid, and add very gradually Distilled Water until the mixture, after it has been 
shaken and cooled to 60° F. (15-5° C.), measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic 
centimetres.” Br. 
This preparation is sulphuric acid diluted to such an extent as to make it convenient for 
prescription. It is not exactly coincident in strength as directed in the two Pharmacopoeias, 
the U. S. acid (sp. gr. 1-070) being weaker than the British (sp. gr. 1-094), but slightly stronger 
than that formerly official ; but the difference is not so great as to be of practical importance. 
The British Pharmacopoeia requires that “ Each gramme should require for neutralization 2-8 
cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide.” The strong acid is added 
gradually to the water, to guard against the too sudden production of heat, which might cause 
the fracture of the vessel. During the dilution, when commercial sulphuric acid is used, the 
liquid becomes slightly turbid, and in the course of a few days deposits a grayish-white powder, 
which is lead sulphate, and from which the diluted acid should be poured off. This noxious 
salt is thus disposed of; but potassium sulphate, another impurity in the strong acid, still re- 
mains. The presence of a little potassium sulphate will do no harm; but, if it should be 
fraudulently introduced into the strong acid to increase its specific gravity, its amount may be 
ascertained by saturating the acid, after dilution, with ammonia, and expelling by a red heat 
the ammonium sulphate formed. Whatever potassium sulphate is present will remain behind. 
If the directions of the Pharmacopoeias are strictly carried out, and the kind of sulphuric 
(AQ'I-DUM StJL-PHU'RI-CUM DI-LC'TUM.) 96 
Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum.—Acidum Sulphurosum. 
PART I. 
acid is used which is known in commerce as chemically pure, responding to the tests given 
under the head of Acidum Sulphuricum, the official manipulations will be all-sufficient. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Diluted sulphuric acid is tonic, refrigerant, and 
astringent. It is given in typhoid fevers, and often with advantage. In the convalescence from 
protracted fevers it acts beneficially as a tonic, exciting the appetite and promoting digestion. 
As an astringent, it is employed in colliquative sweats, passive hemorrhages, and diarrhoeas de- 
pendent on a relaxed state of the mucous membrane of the intestines, i.e., in serous diar- 
rhoeas. In 1851, Mr. Buxton, of London, called attention to its great value in choleraic diar- 
rhoeas : his assertions have received abundant confirmation both in this country and in England. 
(See Med. Times and Gaz., Oct. 1853; Med. and Surg. Rep., ix. 199 ; Phila. Med. Times, iii. 
649.) In incipient cholera it is an efficient remedy; diluted with water, it may be given every 
twenty minutes in ordinary cases, every quarter of an hour in severe cases. For bilious diar- 
rhoea the acid is not a suitable remedy. In calculous affections attended with phosphatic 
sediments it is the proper remedy, being preferable to hydrochloric acid, as less apt, by con- 
tinued use, to disorder the stomach. The dose is from ten to thirty drops (0-6—1-9 C.c.), three 
times a day, in a wineglassful of plain or sweetened water. It is added with advantage to 
infusions of cinchona, the organic alkalies of which it tends to hold in solution. As it is apt 
to injure the teeth, it is best taken by sucking it through a glass tube or quill. It is much 
less used in the United States than is the elixir of vitriol. An elegant form of administration 
is the Compound Infusion of Bose, U S. 1870. 
SUL-PHU-RO'SUM.) 
“ A liquid composed of not less than 6-4 per cent., by weight, of Sulphurous Acid Gas [Sul- 
phur Dioxide, S02 — 63-9], and not more than 93-6 per cent, of water.” U. S. “ An aqueous 
solution containing 6 4 per cent, of hydrogen sulphite, H2S03, corresponding to 5 per cent, by 
weight of sulphurous anhydride, S02. The sulphurous anhydride may be prepared by burning 
sulphur in air or oxygen, or by boiling sulphuric acid with carbon, mercury, or copper.” Br. 
Acide sulfureux, Fr.; Schweflige Saure, G. 
“ Sulphuric Acid, eighty cubic centimeters [or 2 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms, 38 minims] ; Char- 
coal, in coarse powder, twenty grammes [or 308 grains] ; Distilled Water, one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms]. Introduce the Charcoal into a glass flask 
having a capacity of about five hundred cubic centimeters [or 17 fluidounces], add the Acid, and 
mix them well. Connect the flask, by means of suitable glass tubing, with a wash-bottle having 
a capacity of about two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces], which is filled to about 
one-third of its height with water. Through the stopper of the wash-bottle pass a safety-tube, 
which should reach nearly to the bottom of the bottle, and connect the latter, by means of 
glass tubing, with a bottle having a capacity of about fifteen hundred cubic centimeters [or 
about 4 pints] and containing one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms] 
of Distilled Water deprived of air by being boiled shortly before use. The tube should dip 
about twenty-five millimeters [or 1 inch] below the surface of the Distilled Water. By 
means of a second tube connect this bottle with another containing a dilute solution of 
sodium carbonate, to absorb any gas which may not be retained by the Distilled Water. 
Having ascertained that all the connections are air-tight, apply a moderate heat to the flask 
containing the Sulphuric Acid and Charcoal, until the evolution of gas has nearly ceased, 
and, during the passage of the gas, keep the bottle containing the Distilled Water at or below 
10° C. (50° F.), by surrounding it with cold water or ice. Finally pour the Sulphurous Acid 
into dark amber-colored, glass-stoppered bottles, and keep them in a cool place, protected from 
light.” U.S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia no longer gives a detailed process. The process of the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia is essentially that of Wittstein. The sp. gr. of the U. S. preparation is about 
1-022, of the British, 1-025, the latter being slightly stronger. 
The rationale of the process is simple. When the sulphuric acid (H2S04) and charcoal are 
heated together, two molecules of the former give up each an atom of oxygen to the latter, 
and there are thus produced sulphurous and carbonic acid gases, which, having been first 
passed through a wash-bottle containing a little water to absorb impurities, are received into 
the distilled water, where the sulphurous acid is absorbed, whilst the greater part of the 
carbonic acid escapes, 4H2S04 -f- C2 = 2COa+ 4HaO -(- 4S02. The excess of sulphurous 
acid gas which escapes absorption is in the U. S. process received into a solution of sodium 
ACIDUM SULPHUROSUM. U. S., Br. Sulphurous Acid. PART It 
Acidum Sulphuromm. 
97 
carbonate, and condensed. In the Br. process the point of saturation is roughly indicated by 
the bubbles formed by the escape of the gas from the distilled water being equal in size to 
those formed in the wash-bottle. If there be any difficulty in getting the solution up to the 
official strength, the proportionate amount of sulphuric acid and of charcoal should be in- 
creased, and care exercised that the gas pass through the water in an abundant stream. The 
direction to keep the acid in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, is necessary in consequence 
of the strong tendency of the gas to escape and to undergo oxidation. An incidental advan- 
tage of the U. S. process is the production of sodium sulphite. Old sulphurous acid often 
contains sulphuric acid, which may be nearly all removed by the cautious addition of barium 
sulphite and the removal by filtration of the precipitated sulphate. 
According to Mr. W. L. Scott (P. J. Tr., Oct. 1869, p. 217), the best results are obtained 
when sulphuric acid containing 75 per cent, of anhydrous acid is employed; when a too con- 
centrated acid is used, a part of it is entirely reduced and sulphur deposited, while a too dilute 
acid causes the evolution of hydrogen sulphide. He also affirms that a purer gas is obtained 
by placing a little lead sulphite and a few pieces of charcoal in the wash-bottles. 
.Prof. F. C. Calvert gives a process for preparing this acid on a large scale by which he avoids 
all the inconveniences usually attendant on its manufacture, and has prepared thousands of 
gallons daily of a saturated solution. It consists in burning sulphur in a small furnace, and 
conducting the acid gas through earthenware tubes surrounded with water so as to cool them. 
The gas is then made to ascend through a wooden tube 40 feet high and about 4 feet wide, 
sometimes called a coke scrubber, filled with pumice stone previously washed first with hydro- 
chloric acid and then with water. A certain amount of water is introduced into the tube from 
above, which, in its descent, meets and dissolves the gas, and runs out saturated from the 
bottom of the tube into an air-tight reservoir. (P. J. Tr., xvii. 512.) Where sulphurous acid 
is to be used as a disinfectant, carbon disulphide, either pure or mixed with petroleum, may 
be burned in the room to be disinfected. Keates (Chem. News, Dec. 8, 1876) suggests the 
use of a suitable lamp. Stevenson uses an open copper dish or porcelain capsule, and simply 
ignites the liquid: care should be used, however, as the disulphide is very inflammable and 
volatile. A purer sulphurous acid than the official may be made by John Kennedy’s process, 
that of reducing sulphuric acid with metallic copper and passing the gas through a cylinder 
containing lumps of moist charcoal and then through a wash-bottle. The by-product is 
available as copper sulphate. (A. J. P, 1886, p. 226.) 
Properties. The official sulphurous acid is a strong solution of sulphurous oxide gas. 
The oxide is an irrespirable gas, of a suffocating odor familiar to every one as that of burning 
sulphur, which is converted into it by combustion. If inhaled in the concentrated state, it 
proves fatal. Cold reduces it to a colorless liquid, which boils at—10-5° C. (13-1° F.). It 
has the sp. gr. 2-21, liquefies at—10° C. (14° F.), has a strong acid reaction, extinguishes 
burning bodies, has the power of bleaching many colored substances, and has a strong affinity 
for oxygen, with which it combines in the presence of water, forming sulphuric acid. Water 
at 18° C. (65° F.) takes up about 50 volumes of gas, and the solution has the sp. gr. 1-04. 
(Braude and Taylor.) Liquefied sulphurous acid gas (oxide) is now manufactured by Pictet 
in Geneva, and is sent into commerce in copper cylinders. It also forms the basis of the 
Pictet ice-making process. The Pictet machines are constructed to use either the pure S02 or 
the “ Pictet fluid,” a mixture of compressed carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.* 
Sulphurous acid sometimes exists as an impurity in hydrochloric, acetic, and other acids; 
according to P. Schweitzer, the minutest quantity may be detected by dissolving zinc in the 
suspected acid, when, if sulphurous acid be present, the odor of hydrogen sulphide will be at 
once perceived. (Chem. News, xxiii. 293.) 
Official sulphurous acid is a colorless liquid, having a smell of burning sulphur, and a sul- 
phurous somewhat astringent taste. When exposed to the air it slowly absorbs oxygen, with 
the formation of sulphuric acid, and acquires a sour taste, and the property of changing vege- 
* T hiocamph. Under this name Dr. J. E. Reynolds has introduced a disinfectant, which is prepared by acting on 
camphor with sulphur dioxide. At ordinary temperatures SO2 requires a pressure of more than two atmospheres to 
liquefy it; but eamphor, owing to chemical attraction, can liquefy it without any pressure whatever. In the liquid 
thus prepared several known bactericides are dissolved. Thiocamph can be preserved without pressure in bottles at 
mean temperature; mere exposure of the liquid in a thin layer to the air determines the steady evolution of sulphur 
dioxide. The contents of a six-ounce bottle will yield over 20,000 C.c. of SO2. One ounce of thiocamph shaken up 
with a quart of water forms a powerful disinfectant for ordinary purposes, while a more dilute solution (1 oz. to the 
gallon) can be used for soaking clothes which have been in contact with infected persons. (Chem. News, June 22, 
1890, p. 29,1.) Acidum Sulphurosum.—Acidum Tannicum. 
98 
PART I. 
table blues to red. When kept in closed vessels exposed to the sunlight, a portion of it is 
decomposed, sulphur being deposited and sulphuric acid formed by the union of the liberated 
oxygen with other portions of the acid. (A. J. P., xlii. 352.) It should be entirely volatilized 
by heat. It decolorizes iodine by producing hydriodic acid, and on this fact is based the Br. 
test before given. It decomposes bone calcium phosphate. 
“ A colorless liquid, of the characteristic odor of burning sulphur, and of a very acid, sul- 
phurous taste. Specific gravity, not less than 1-035 at 15° C. (59° F.). By heat it is com- 
pletely volatilized. Litmus paper moistened with the Acid is first reddened and afterwards 
bleached. On gently heating a few C.c. of the Acid in a test-tube, the gas evolved will blacken 
a strip of paper moistened with mercurous nitrate test-solution, but will not affect one moist- 
ened with lead acetate test-solution. On mixing, in a test-tube, 1 C.c. of Sulphurous Acid with 
5 C.c. of diluted hydrochloric acid, and adding a small piece of pure zinc, hydrogen sulphide 
gas will be evolved, which will blacken a strip of paper moistened with lead acetate test-solu- 
tion. If to 10 C.c. of Sulphurous Acid there be added 1 C.c. of diluted hydrochloric acid, and 
afterwards 1 C.c. of barium chloride test-solution, not more than a very slight turbidity should 
be produced (limit of sulphuric acid'). If 0-7 Gm. of Sulphurous Acid be diluted with 25 C.c. 
of distilled water and a little starch test-solution be added, at least 14 C.c. of iodine decinormal 
volumetric solution should be required, before a permanent blue tint is developed (each C.c. 
corresponding to 0-16 per cent, of Sulphur Dioxide).” U. S. “ It gives but a slight precipi- 
tate with solution of barium chloride (absence of excess of sulphates), but a copious precipitate 
if solution of chlorine also be added. When evaporated it leaves no residue. Specific gravity 
1-025. Mixed with 100 times its volume of recently boiled and cooled water, and a little 
mucilage of starch, it should not acquire a permanent blue color with the volumetric solution 
of iodine until, for each gramme of the acid, 15-7 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution 
of iodine have been added.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Sulphurous acid is a powerful antiseptic and germi- 
cide, arresting putrefaction and other fermentations by killing the organisms which produce 
them. It is supposed to be thus destructive by its anti-oxygenizing or reducing influence, 
suffocating organic beings by denying them the oxygen necessary to their existence; but it 
probably acts also by a physiological property independently of its mere chemical effect. Ac- 
cording to the experiments of Dr. L. Pfeiffer (Arch. f. Exper. Path., xxvii.), the sulphites are 
capable of causing death by paralyzing the heart and also the respiratory and other motor 
nerve-centres, but are so rapidly and completely changed into the sulphates that unless given 
in enormous amount they exert very little influence upon the system: 96-5 per cent, of the 
sulphite was regained from the urine as a sulphate, and 86 per cent, passed out in five hours 
after ingestion. Although Dr. Robert. Bird affirms that sulphurous acid and its salts are pow- 
erful antipyretics (Amer. Journ. Med. Sci., lviii. 236), and the acid in the form of the fumes 
of burning sulphur has been used by inhalation in low fevers, diphtheria, and whooping-cough with 
alleged advantage, yet the sulphites are at present employed in medicine almost solely as ger- 
micides and parasiticides. In pyrosis and in cases of sarcinse ventriculi sulphurous acid may be 
taken internally ; but one of the sulphites, as sodium sulphite, is perhaps preferable for the pur- 
pose, as it yields the acid always by decomposition in the stomach. As an external application, 
it is used in psora, the different forms of porrigo, trichosis of the scalp, pityriasis versicolor, and 
the thrush of children, all parasitic affections, either animalcular or cryptogamous, generally 
yielding to it, if proper care be taken, by previous removal of scabs or scales, to bring it into 
contact with the morbific cause. The dose for internal use is a fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.), largely 
diluted with water. When locally used it should be diluted with two or three measures of water 
or of glycerin, and applied as a lotion, or by cloths wet with it. Sulphurous acid constitutes the 
active principle of the fumes of burning sulphur, so much used for disinfecting purposes. 
ACIDUM TANNICUM. U. S., Br. Tannic Acid. [Gallotannic Acid, Digallic Acid.] 
HC14H9O9; 321*22. (Xg'l-DUM TlN'NI-CUM.) C14H10O9 (chiefly); 322. 
“ An organic acid obtained from nut-gall.” U. S. “ Tannic acid, C14H1009,2H?0, may be 
extracted by water-saturated ether from Galls which have been subjected to a special fermen- 
tation.” Br. 
Tannin, Acidum Gallo-tannicum, Tanninum; Acide tannique, Tannin, Fr.; Gerbsaure, Tannin, G. 
The present British Pharmacopoeia does not give a detailed process for preparing tannic 
acid, the former British Pharmacopoeia adopted a process which was almost identical with 
that of the U. S. P. (1870), both being essentially the process of Leconnet, modified by Dornine, Acidum Tannicum. 
PART I. 
99 
which had been substituted for that of Pelouze previously employed in both Pharmacopoeias. 
The process of the British Pharmacopoeia (1885) is as follows. “ Galls in powder, Ether, of 
each a sufficient quantity. Expose the powdered galls to a damp atmosphere for two or three 
days, and afterwards add sufficient ether to form a soft paste. Let this stand in a well-closed 
vessel for twenty-four hours, then, having quickly enveloped it in a linen cloth, submit it to 
strong pressure in a suitable press, so as to separate the liquid portion. Reduce the pressed 
cake to powder, mix it with sufficient ether, to which one-sixteenth of its bulk of water has been 
added, to form again a soft paste, and press this as before. Mix the expressed liquids, and 
expose the mixture to spontaneous evaporation until, by the aid subsequently of a little heat, 
it has acquired the consistence of a soft extract; then place it on earthen plates or dishes, and 
dry it in a hot-air chamber at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).”* 
While the Pelouze process yields the tannic acid probably in a somewhat purer state than 
Leconnet’s, it is less easy of performance, and much less productive; and the product of the 
existing formula is sufficiently pure for all practical purposes. The addition of a little alcohol— 
8 per cent., for example—to the ethereal menstruum still further increases the product. The 
exposure of the powdered galls to a damp atmosphere for two or three days is for the purpose 
of inducing a special fermentation, whereby the yield of tannin is materially increased. There 
appear to be two coloring principles in galls, one soluble in ether and not in alcohol, the other 
in alcohol and not in ether. Hence, while the tannic acid, in whichever way procured, is 
yellowish, that obtained by ether has a greenish tint, while that obtained by the addition of 
alcohol is slightly brownish. In consequence of the mode in which the acid is dried, in thin 
layers, on tinned or glass plates, and equally exposed to the heat above and below, it froths 
up on the escape of the ether, and concretes in a soft, cellular, friable form, which is strikingly 
characteristic of the preparation made in strict accordance with the formula. 
From a superficial examination of this process, it might appear that the result can be noth- 
ing more than an ethereal extract; but it is necessary that the ether employed should contain 
water, as it is directed to be washed; and yet the quantity of water is so small that it can 
hardly operate by its mere solvent power. The circumstances attendant upon the process of 
Pelouze afford the means of a satisfactory explanation, which was first suggested by M. Beral. 
In this, the powdered galls are submitted to percolation by watered ether, and the liquid which 
passes separates into two layers, a heavier which sinks to the bottom and a lighter which floats 
upon the surface. It is the heavier which contains the tannic acid, and from which the acid is 
obtained by evaporation. The most probable explanation is that ether, water, and tannic acid 
unite to form a definite compound, in which the affinities are too feeble to resist the tendency 
of the ether to rise in vapor, and which is, therefore, decomposed by its evaporation. The 
proportion of the menstruum to the galls is very small, much smaller than would be employed 
to obtain an extract; and the whole or nearly the whole of both liquids is probably occupied 
in the formation of the definite compound referred to, thus leaving little or none to act merely 
as solvents. Hence the exclusion from the resulting acid, in great measure, of the other solu- 
ble constituents of the galls; and the slight amount of impurity really present in the acid is 
probably owing to the action of that small quantity of the menstruum not occupied in forming 
the liquid compound. Opinion is not altogether united in this explanation, but it is that 
which appears to us the best to account for the phenomena of the case. It has been stated 
that the tannic acid obtained by either process has a more or less yellowish tint. From this, 
according to F. Kummel, it may be freed by the percolation, through recently ignited animal 
charcoal, of its solution in a mixture of ether and alcohol. It has, too, a slight odor, which, 
according to Prof. Procter, is derived from a volatile odorous principle existing in galls, which 
he succeeded in separating from the acid by the action of benzol. From 30 to 35 per cent, of 
tannic acid is obtained from galls by Pelouze’s method; 60 per cent, by that of Leconnet. 
Prof. Henry Trimble and J. C. Peacock recommend acetone as a valuable solvent for ex- 
tracting tannin from oak bark (.Proc. A. P. A., 1893, p. 110). B. L. DeGraffe (A. J. P 
1896, 313) recorded investigations upon the plants of the Ericaceae to determine the character 
of their tannins; acetone and acetic ether were used as solvents. For Sisley’s method of pre- 
paring pure tannin, see Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 1087. 
* For the preparation of tannin from Chinese galls, Oscar Rothe proposes the following as a superior process. 
Macerate eight parts of the powdered galls with twelve of ether and three of strong alcohol for two days, decant, 
renew the menstruum, and finally express. Mix the liquids, and after standing decant from the sediment, add 
twelve parts of water, recover the alcohol and ether by distillation, rapidly filter the aqueous solution, and quickly 
evaporate by means of a steam bath; dry, and pulverize the residue. (A. J. P., xlii. 403.) Acidum Tannicum. 
PAET I. 
100 
The terra tannin is applied to a class of vegetable principles the aqueous solutions of which 
give blue or green colors or precipitates with ferric salts, and precipitate solutions of gelatin 
and albumen. They are mainly glucosides. Chemists have recognized two kinds, one distin- 
guished by producing a bluish-black precipitate with ferric salts, and the other characterized 
by producing a greenish-black or dark olive precipitate with the same salts. The former is 
the one which has received most attention, and from an examination of which the characters 
of tannin have generally been given. It is the substance described in this article. It is called, 
for the sake of distinction, gallotannic acid. According to Pettenkofer, it is found only in 
perennial plants, indicating some relation to the production of woody fibre. (Buchner's Neues 
Report., iii. 74—76.) Prof. Henry Trimble (The Tannins, vol. ii. p. 132, Phila., 1894) 
classifies the tannins into two main groups: Group a. Gallotannic acid, chestnut wood tannin, 
chestnut bark tannin, pomegranate bark tannin, and sumac tannin. Group b. Oak bark tan- 
nin, mangrove tannin, canaigre tannin, rhatany tannin, kino tannin, catechu tannin, and tor- 
mentil tannin. 11. Wagner (Bull. Soc. Chim., 1866, ii. 461) divides tannin into two great 
classes: pathological, found only in diseased vegetable tissue, as gallotannic acid, etc.; and 
physiological, occurring in leaves, bark, wood, etc., in a natural state, as quercitannic acid, etc. 
For another scheme of classification of the tannins, based on the products they yield when 
heated alone, when heated with dilute acid, and when fused with caustic alkali, see Allen, 
Com. Org. Anal., 2d ed., vol. iii., part i., p. 77. 
Properties. Pure tannic acid is solid, uncrystallizable, white, or slightly yellowish, in- 
odorous* without bitterness, very soluble in water, much less soluble in alcohol and ether, 
especially when anhydrous, insoluble in the fixed and volatile oils. 
The Pharmacopoeia thus describes Tannic Acid: “ A light yellowish, amorphous powder, 
usually cohering in form of glistening scales or spongy masses, odorless, or having a faint, 
characteristic odor, and a strongly astringent taste; gradually turning darker when exposed to 
air and light. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in about 1 part of water, and in 0-6 part of alco- 
hol ; very soluble in boiling water, and in boiling alcohol; also in about 1 part of glycerin, 
with the intervention of a moderate heat; freely soluble in diluted alcohol, sparingly in abso- 
lute alcohol; almost insoluble in absolute ether, chloroform, benzol, or benzin. When heated 
on platinum foil, the Acid is gradually consumed without leaving more than 0-2 per cent, of 
ash. Tannic Acid has an acid reaction upon litmus paper. The addition of a small quantity of 
ferric chloride test-solution to an aqueous solution of the Acid produces a bluish-black color or 
precipitate. On adding to an aqueous solution (1 in 100) of Tannic Acid a small quantity of 
calcium hydrate test-solution, a pale bluish-wliite, flocculent precipitate is produced which is 
not dissolved on shaking (difference from gallic acid), and which becomes more copious and of 
a deeper blue by the addition of a moderate excess of calcium hydrate test-solution, while a 
large excess of the latter imparts a pale pinkish tint to the solution. The aqueous solution of 
the Acid produces precipitates with most alkaloids and bitter principles, and with test-solutions 
of gelatin, albumen, and starch (distinction from gallic acid). On dissolving 2 Gm. of Tannic 
Acid in 10 C.c. of boiling water, and allowing the liquid to cool, no turbidity should be pro- 
duced on diluting 5 C.c. of the solution with 10 C.c. of alcohol (absence of gum or dextrin), 
or with 10 C.c. of water (absence of resin).” TJ. S. “ It is precipitated from its aqueous solu- 
tion and loses its astringency in the presence of many mineral salts and acids. The aqueous 
solution precipitates solutions of isinglass, albumen, alkaloids, and tartarated antimony, and gives 
with test-solution of ferric chloride a bluish-black color. It should leave no appreciable residue 
when incinerated with free access of air.” Br. 
Exposed to heat, tannic acid partly melts, swells up, blackens, takes fire, and burns with a 
brilliant flame. Thrown on red-hot iron, it is entirely dissipated. Its solution reddens litmus, 
and it combines with most of the salifiable bases. It forms with potassa a compound but 
slightly soluble, and is, therefore, precipitated by this alkali or its carbonates from a solution 
which is not too dilute, though a certain excess of alkali will cause the precipitate to be redis- 
solved. Its combination with soda is much more soluble ; and this alkali affords no precipitate, 
unless with a very concentrated solution of tannic acid. With ammonia its relations are simi- 
* Commercial tannic acid often has a decided odor, which Prof. Procter, after a practical investigation, believed 
to he owing chiefly to the presence of the odorous principle of the galls, though sometimes to matter derived from 
the ether with which it is prepared. (A. J. P., 1865, p. 53.) According to M. Heinz, the odor is due to a greenish 
resinous principle, which may be separated by dissolving the acid in twice its weight of hot water, adding one- 
fourth part of ether, agitating slowly, allowing the coagulated coloring matter to precipitate, filtering, and evapo- 
rating. (Journ. de Pharm., xv. 308.) Commercial tannic acid is often impure; in 9 samples tested by T. Mabea 
{P. J. Tr., xv. 851) the percentage of pure tannio acid varied from 54 to 86 per cent. PART I. 
Acidum Tcinnicum. 
101 
lar to those with potassa. Lime and magnesia, added in the state of hydrates, form with it 
compounds of little solubility. The same is the case with most of the metallic oxides, when 
presented in the state of salts to a solution of potassium tannate. Tannic acid even when 
in the uncombined state precipitates many of the metallic salts, especially those of lead, 
copper, silver, uranium, chromium, mercury, antimony teroxide, and stannous oxide. With 
ferric salts it forms a black precipitate, which is a compound of tannic acid and the iron, and 
is the basis of ink. It does not disturb the solutions of the pure salts of ferrous oxide. Sev- 
eral of the alkaline salts precipitate it from its aqueous solution, either by the formation of 
insoluble compounds or by simply abstracting the solvent. Potassium chlorate when rubbed 
up with it explodes with great violence, and several serious accidents have occurred during the 
attempt to dispense such a mixture. 
Tannic acid unites with all the vegetable alkaloids, forming compounds which are for the 
most part of a whitish color, and but very slightly soluble in water; though they are soluble 
in the vegetable acids, especially acetic, and in alcohol. In this latter respect they differ from 
most of the compounds which tannic acid forms with other vegetable principles. On account 
of this property of tannic acid, it has been employed as a test of the vegetable alkaloids; and 
it is so delicate that it will throw down a precipitate from their solution, even when too feeble 
to be disturbed by ammonia. 
It has an affinity for several acids, and when in solution affords precipitates with sulphuric, 
nitric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, and arsenic acids, but not with oxalic, tartaric, lactic, acetic, or 
citric. The precipitates are considered as compounds of tannic acid with the respective acids, 
and are soluble in pure water, but insoluble in water with an excess of acid. Hence, in order 
to insure precipitation, it is necessary to add the acid in excess to the solution of tannic acid. 
Strecker, however, denies that the precipitates are compounds of the tannin with the acid, and 
maintains that they are tannin imbued with free acid. (Chem. Gaz., No. 287, p. 370.) 
When tannic acid, iodine, and water are mixed, a reaction takes place, by which the water is 
decomposed ; its hydrogen forming with the iodine hydriodic acid, which combines with a por- 
tion of the tannic acid and remains in solution; while the oxygen of the water combines with 
another portion of the tannic acid, to form a compound, which, being insoluble, is precipitated. 
The iodized solution thus obtained is capable of dissolving more iodine, and holding it in per- 
manent solution, however much diluted. (Socquet and G-uilliermond, Journ. de Pharm., xxvi. 
280.) Iodine in a liquid containing tannic acid cannot be detected by starch; but if the 
liquid is placed in a watch-glass, ferrous sulphate added, and the glass covered with a starched 
paper, ferric tannate being precipitated, the blue color soon appears. (A. J. P., xlvii. 398.) 
Griessmayer (Zeitschr. f. Chemie, 1873) proposes a test for tannin and free alkalies. On 
mixing a drop of a solution of tannin with 1 C.c. of normal solution of iodine, the red- 
dish color of the iodine solution instantly disappears; if one drop of solution of ammonia be 
now added (previously diluted with ten times its bulk of water), a brilliant red color is pro- 
duced which is quite permanent. Tannic acid precipitates solutions of starch, albumen, and 
gluten, and forms with gelatin an insoluble compound, which is the basis of leather. J. Napier 
Spence (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1891, p. 1114) has reviewed all the current tests for distin- 
guishing between tannic acid and gallic acid ; for an abstract see Proc. A. P. A., 1892, p. 1032. 
Liebig first gave it the formula C,8H8013. Mulder, however, considered it isomeric with 
gallic acid, and gave for its formula C14H1009; and both Julius Lowe and Hugo Schiff con- 
firmed the correctness of this formula. (A. J. P., xxv. 223 ; xlvii. 208.) Strecker looked upon 
it as a compound of gallic acid and glucose, the latter of which is destroyed in the spontaneous 
change that moistened galls undergo by time. (See Acidum Gallicum.) Hugo Schiff, how- 
ever, asserts that it is not a glucoside; that glucose exists in commercial tannic acid as an im- 
purity, and is not a necessary part of it, and that it is a “ first anhydride,” formed from two 
molecules of gallic acid by the abstraction of water, according to the reaction 2C7H0O6 — 
H20 = C14H10Og, and is consequently digallic acid, and this view at present prevails. (See 
Acidum Gallicum.') (Chem. News, xxix. 73; also A. J. P., xlvi. 234.)* 
* Various plans have been proposed of estimating the quantity of tannic acid, which is an object of importance 
to tanners, as enabling them to judge of the value of their tanning materials; but on this point we must content 
ourselves, from want of space, with referring to A. J. P. (1859, p. 427; 1861, p. 164; 1863, p. 519; 1864, p. 314); 
also a paper by Mr. John Watts in the P. J. Tr. (1867, p. 515); also one by H. R. Procter, in the Chem. News (1874, 
p. 51), and one by MM. A. Muntz and Ramspacher (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 287); also Journ. de Pharm., 1874, pp. 
445-447; A. J. P., March, 1874, and Aug. 1877 ; N. R., Aug. 1878; N. R., 1882, pp. 150, 185 ; P. J. Tr.y 1885, pp. 
121, 850. See also paper by S. J. Hinsdale in Western Druggist, 1891, p. 445, and a monograph on “ The Tannins,” by 
Prof. Henry Trimble (J. B. Lippincott Company, 1892). John H. Yocum, after reviewing various methods of estimating 
tannin, concludes that the “ hide-powder” method is the most practical and useful. (Amer. Chem. Soc., Jan. 9, 1897.) 102 
Acidum Tannicum.—Acidum Tartaricum. 
PART I. 
Commercial tannin from galls is an indefinite mixture of digallic acid (see Acidum Gallicum) 
and the glucoside. That this view is correct is evident from the fact that it yields from 0 to 
22 per cent, of glucose when acted upon by dilute acids. The glucoside C34H28022 would yield 
23 per cent. (Allen, Com. Org. Anal., 2d ed., i. 283.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Tannic acid is the chief principle of vegetable astrin- 
gents, and has an advantage over the astringent extracts in the comparative smallness of its 
dose, which renders it less apt to offend an irritable stomach. In most of the vegetable as- 
tringents it is associated with more or less bitter extractive, or other principle which modifies 
its operation and renders the medicine less applicable than it otherwise would be to certain 
cases in which there is an indication for pure astringency without any tonic power. Such is 
particularly the case in the active hemorrhages ; and tannic acid, in its separate state, is here 
preferable to the native combinations in which it ordinarily exists. In diarrhoea it is probably 
more beneficial than ordinary astringents, as less liable to irritate the stomach and bowels. 
Owing to its very powerful coagulant action upon albumen, it is, however, absorbed only after 
conversion into gallic acid, and consequently has been superseded by the latter agent in all cases 
in which it must reach the diseased surface through the blood, or in which a general astringent 
action is desired. Locally applied, it is much more powerful than gallic acid, and is very 
largely employed (see Collodium Stypticum), as in hemorrhages from external surfaces or from 
mucous membranes which can be reached from without, relaxation of the. uvula, coryza, chronic 
inflammation of the fauces, diphtheria, toothache, aphthse, excessive salivation, leucorrhoea, chapped 
nipples, gleet, gonorrhoea, flabby and phagedsenic ulcers, piles, chilblains, etc. It may be applied 
in solution of varying concentration according to the necessities of the case. When a very 
powerful influence is desired, the solution in glycerin may be used. (See Glyceritum Acidi 
Tannici.) In affections of the rectum it may be used in the form of a suppository. In diseases 
of the uterus it has been recommended in the form of a cylindrical pencil about an inch long 
and two lines thick, made with 4 parts of the acid to 1 part of tragacanth, with a little crumb 
of bread to give the mixture due flexibility. Dose, from three to ten grains (0'20-0-67 6m.). 
As already stated, tannic acid is probably converted into gallic acid before absorption: it 
is eliminated through the kidneys in the form of gallic and pyrogallic acids. (Cliem. Gaz., 
No. 136, p. 231.) In the largest amounts it produces only a mild gastro-intestinal irritation. 
ACIDUM TARTARICUM. U.S., Br. Tartaric Acid. 
H2 Ci Hi Os; 149-64. (Xg'i-DUM tar-tXr'i-cum.) H2C4H4 0«; 150. 
“ An organic acid usually prepared from argols.” U. S. “ Tartaric Acid, or dextro-rotatory 
hydrogen tartrate, C4II606, prepared from acid potassium tartrate. In constitution it may be 
regarded as dioxysuccinic acid, or dihydroxysuccinic acid, 
CH.OH.COOH 
I 
CH.OH.COOH.” Br. 
Sal Essentiale Tartari; Acide du Tartre, Acide tartrique, Fr.; Weinsteinsaure, Weinsaure, G.; Aoido tartarico, 
It., Sp. 
No formula for the preparation of tartaric acid is given in either Pharmacopoeia. It is ex- 
tracted from tartar, or argol, a peculiar substance which is deposited on the inside of wine-casks 
during the fermentation. Tartar, when purified and reduced to powder, is the cream of tartar 
of the shops, and consists of acid potassium tartrate. (See Potassii Bitartras.) The following 
is the former British process: 
“ Take of Acid Tartrate of Potassium forty-five ounces [av.] ; Distilled Water a sufficiency ; 
Prepared Chalk twelve ounces and a half [av.] ; Chloride of Calcium thirteen ounces and a half 
[av.] ; Sulphuric Acid thirteen fluidounces. Boil the Acid Tartrate of Potassium with two 
gallons [Imp. measure] of the Water, and add gradually the Chalk, constantly stirring. When 
the effervescence has ceased, add the Chloride of Calcium dissolved in two pints [Imp. meas.] 
of the Water. When the tartrate of calcium has subsided, pour off the liquid, and wash the 
tartrate with Distilled Water until it is rendered tasteless. Pour the Sulphuric Acid, first 
diluted with three pints [Imp. meas.] of the Water, on the tartrate of calcium, mix thoroughly, 
boil for half an hour with repeated stirring, and filter through calico. Evaporate the filtrate 
at a low temperature until it acquires the sp. gr. of 1-21, allow it to cool, and then separate 
and reject the crystals of sulphate of calcium which have formed. Again evaporate the clear PART I. 
Acidum Tartaricum. 
103 
liquor till a film forms on its surface, and allow it to cool and crystallize. Lastly, purify the 
crystals by solution, filtration (if necessary), and recrystallization.” Br. (1885). 
Tartaric acid was first obtained in a separate state by Scheele in 1770. The process con- 
sists in saturating the excess of acid in potassium bitartrate or cream of tartar with calcium 
carbonate, and decomposing the resulting insoluble calcium tartrate by sulphuric acid, which 
precipitates in combination with the lime, and liberates the tartaric acid. The equivalent 
quantities are two mols. of the acid tartrate and one mol. of calcium carbonate. The process, 
when thus conducted, furnishes one half only of the tartaric acid. The other half may be pro- 
cured, as in the British process, by decomposing the neutral potassium tartrate, remaining in 
the solution after the precipitation of the calcium tartrate, by calcium chloride in excess. By 
double decomposition, potassium chloride will be formed in solution, and a second portion of 
calcium tartrate will precipitate, which may be decomposed by sulphuric acid together with 
the first portion. The process, when thus conducted, will, of course, furnish twice as much 
tartaric acid as when the acid salt only is decomposed. 
The reactions are as follows : 2 KHC4H40e + CaC03 — K2C4H 0 -f- CaC4H 0 -f H O -(- 
CO„, then CaC4H4O0 + H2S04 = CaS04 + H2C4H406, and K2C4H406 + CaCl2 = (KC1). + 
Cad.H.o thei&(!4H4q.+fifso4=Lso4*-f-V,(f4H,o.. " 
Formerly all the tartaric acid used in America was imported from England and France, 
the amount in some years being as much as 500,000 lbs. annually; but it is now made in the 
United States not only of better quality, but actually cheaper than the imported acid costs in 
bond. The importations of argol, or crude tartar, are, however, considerable. In 1895 they 
amounted to 27,911,122 lbs., valued at $1,893,730 ; in 1896, 28,481,665 lbs., valued at $2,724,- 
700 ; in 1897, 23,457,576 lbs., valued at $1,967,042. 
Preparation on the Large Scale. To obtain the tartaric acid from the crude materials 
(argol and wine lees), the only method suitable for technical purposes is the precipitation of 
the acid potassium tartrate as calcium tartrate and subsequent preparation of the tartaric acid 
from the latter. The methods of obtaining the calcium tartrate vary according to the nature 
of the crude material. A suitable method of producing it from argol is to mix the argol, pref- 
erably in the form of a powder, with water, and boil, after the addition of some hydrochloric 
acid; the best proportions are 4 to 5 cubic millimetres of water with 110 to 120 kilos of crude 
hydrochloric acid (20° to 22° B.) to about 500 kilos of argol. Milk of' lime is then added to 
the boiling mass until this is nearly neutral, when calcium tartrate is precipitated and neutral 
potassium tartrate and calcium chloride left in solution. The neutral potassium tartrate is 
decomposed either by boiling with a sufficient amount of calcium sulphate or by adding calcium 
chloride solution, an excess of the precipitant being avoided in either case. The small amount 
of acid potassium tartrate purposely left in the liquid, when treating the latter with milk of lime, 
is decomposed with pure precipitated calcium carbonate. The object of not adding the milk 
of lime to the neutral point or in excess is to avoid the precipitation of iron oxide or alumina. 
The solution must still remain perceptibly acid after the addition of the calcium carbonate. 
When cooled to about 40° C., the liquid is filtered with the aid of a suction-pump, and the 
residue washed with water. The dark brown filtrate was formerly treated to recover the cal- 
cium chloride and potassium sulphate, but, owing to the expense of the recovery and purifica- 
tion, it is now a waste product. 
In the oldest methods of obtaining calcium tartrate from wine lees the latter were boiled 
with water and hydrochloric acid, the clear solution removed, and the residue treated with more 
water. As the extraction was very incomplete, these methods have not been employed for the 
last thirty years. When filtration of the lees was first attempted it was found that the pores 
of the filter became clogged, and that even under a pressure of four or five atmospheres no 
liquid would pass through. This difficulty was overcome by the process of Dietrich and 
Schnitzer, in which the albuminoid substances are coagulated by heating for about six hours 
under a pressure of four or'five atmospheres. This method has been in general use for about 
thirty years. Wet lees, when thus treated, can be readily filtered. Dried lees are crushed, 
stirred in a tank with water, and heated by steam for some time, until air is completely expelled, 
before being heated in the pressure-boiler. According to the author’s experience, preliminary 
boiling for more than half an hour is superfluous. 
During the process of heating the lees the steam passing from the apparatus carries with it 
volatile empyreumatic products derived from the decomposed albuminoids. These have a 
very offensive odor, and should be conveyed into a factory chimney of sufficient height, so that 
the evil-smelling vapors are drawn up and decomposed by the furnace gases. 104 
Acidum Tartancum. 
PART I. 
When the heating is finished, the steam outlet-pipe is opened and the pressure allowed to fall 
to from one to one-half atmosphere, this pressure being required to force the lees from the boiler 
into a tank, which may be suitably constructed of wood. Here they are mixed with water, 
which has previously been put into the tank, and the requisite quantity of crude hydrochloric 
acid (21° to 22° B.). Experience has shown that for every 100 parts by weight of argol in the 
lees 100 parts of acid are required. Too little acid causes decomposition of argol in the cloths 
of the filter-press, while too much destroys the cloths, and more lime is needed to neutralize 
the filtrate. If the conditions are right, the filtered liquid should have a specific gravity of 
about 6° B. 
The acidified lees are pressed and washed, the washings being used instead of clear water for 
mixing with the next charge of lees from the pressure-boiler. The tartaric acid in the filtrate 
is precipitated with lime and calcium carbonate, and the remainder of the process is the same 
as in the case of the argols, with the exception that there is no necessity to add calcium chlo- 
ride or calcium sulphate. 
The calcium tartrate obtained from wine lees is of a clear gray color, and considerably purer 
than the dark gray or dark brown product from argol. (Joum. JSoc. Chem. Ind.') 
Oscar Ficinus, of Bensheim, proposes the following process to procure a pure tartaric acid. 
Saturate the crude tartar with calcium carbonate, and decompose the resulting calcium tartrate 
with solution of zinc chloride, whereby calcium chloride and zinc tartrate are produced. The 
latter is almost insoluble, and is completely decomposed by hydrogen sulphide. The residuary 
zinc sulphide may again be converted by means of hydrochloric acid into zinc chloride and 
hydrogen sulphide, so that the expense of the process is very small. The liquid filtered from 
the precipitated zinc sulphide, containing tartaric and sulphydric acids in solution, is heated 
for some time to 60°—80° C. (140°-176° F.), in order to dissipate the latter acid, filtered from 
the precipitated sulphur, and concentrated to the point of crystallization. (Arch. d. Pharm., 
April, 1879, p. 810.) It is asserted that in Hungary and Southern Italy tartaric acid of ex- 
treme purity is prepared ; that occurring in flat, crystalline crusts being chemically pure, that 
in pointed crystals containing a little sulphuric acid. 
Properties. “ Colorless, translucent, monoclinic prisms, or crystalline crusts, or a white 
powder, odorless, having a purely acid taste, and permanent in the air. Soluble at 15° C. (59° 
F.), in about 0*8 part of water, and in 2-5 parts of alcohol; in about 0-5 part of boiling water, 
arid in about 0*2 part of boiling alcohol; also in 250 parts of ether; nearly insoluble in 
chloroform, benzol, or benzin. When heated for some time at 100° C. (212° F.), the pow- 
dered crystals do not suffer a sensible loss of weight. At 135° C. (275° F.) the Acid melts* 
At higher temperatures it is gradually decomposed, emitting the odor of burning sugar, and is 
finally consumed without leaving more than 0-05 per cent, of ash.” U. S. “ Readily soluble 
in less than its own weight of water and in less than three times its weight of alcohol (90 per 
cent.). An aqueous solution rotates the plane of a ray of polarized light to the right.” Br. 
The powder is sometimes directed to be kept in well-stoppered vials; but Prof. Otto has shown 
that this direction tends to spoil rather than to preserve it. A better plan is to keep the powder 
in ordinary boxes. 
As found in the shops, it is in the form of a fine white powder, prepared by pulverizing the 
crystals. A weak solution undergoes spontaneous decomposition by keeping, becoming covered 
with a mouldy pellicle; but, if boiled and filtered, it is said to lose this tendency. (W. H. 
Wood, Chem. News, 1871, p. 246.) It is asserted that the addition of °f salicylic acid 
will effectually preserve solutions of tartaric acid. In uniting with bases it has a remarkable 
tendency to form double salts, several of which constitute important medicines. It combines 
with several of the vegetable organic alkalies, so as to form salts. It is distinguished from all 
other acids by forming a crystalline precipitate, consisting of potassium bitartrate, when added 
to a neutral salt of that alkali. When associated with an excess of boric acid, it is detected 
with difficulty; potassa not precipitating it, even with the addition of acetic or hydrochloric 
acid. Its separation, however, may be effected, according to Barfoed, by means of potassium 
fluoride, which detaches the boric acid, to form potassium fluoborate, and renders free the 
tartaric acid, which then responds to the ordinary test. (Joum. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e s£r., 
ii. 70.) Its most usual impurity is sulphuric acid, which may be detected by the solution 
* Tartaric Acid—Melting Point of Commercial Samples. Fred. H. Smith observes that the melting point of 
tartaric acid is variously given at 135° C. and 170° to 180° C. He has determined the melting point of seven dif- 
ferent commercial samples, using a corrected Yale thermometer, and obtained the following results : 162-8° : 163-5°; 
159-1°; 163-5°; 163'5°; 167-5°; 162°. {A.J.P., 1890, pp. 164, 165.) PART I. 
Acidum Tartancum. 
105 
affording with lead acetate a precipitate only partially soluble in nitric acid. When inciner- 
ated with mercuric oxide, it leaves no residuum, or a mere trace. The British Pharma- 
copoeia directs that “ Each gramme of tartaric acid dissolved in water should require for neutrali- 
zation 13 3 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide. It should yield no 
characteristic reaction with the tests for copper, arsenium, iron, potassium, sodium, or oxalates, 
only the slightest reactions with the tests for calcium or sulphates, and no reaction for lead by the 
test described under ‘ Acidum Citricum.’ On incineration with free access of air, it should not 
yield more than 0-05 per cent, of ash.” “ An aqueous solution (1 in 2) of the Acid mixed with a 
strong solution (1 in 3) of potassium acetate yields a white, crystalline precipitate which is soluble 
in solutions of alkalies and in mineral acids, but insoluble in acetic acid. The aqueous solu- 
tion (1 in 10) of the Acid, acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, should remain un- 
affected by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphuric acid). Another portion of the 
aqueous solution (1 in 10), in which the free acid has been nearly but not entirely neutralized 
by ammonia, should not be affected by calcium sulphate test-solution (absence of, and differ- 
ence from, oxalic and uvic acids). On supersaturating 10 C.c. of the aqueous solution (1 in 
10) with ammonia water, no turbidity should be produced in the liquid by ammonium oxalate 
test-solution (absence of calcium), nor should the further addition of 1 drop of ammonium 
sulphide test-solution produce any dark coloration or precipitate (absence of iron, lead, copper, 
etc.). To neutralize 3-75 Gin. of Tartaric Acid should require 50 C.c. of potassium hydrate 
volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 2 per cent, of the pure acid), phenolphtalein 
being used as indicator.” U S. Deniges gives the following modification of Mohler’s test for 
tartaric acid. A solution of 2 Gm. of resorcinol in 1 per cent, dilute sulphuric acid is added 
to 20 times its volume of strong sulphuric acid. In the presence of tartaric acid this liquid 
gives with a few drops of the fluid to be tested a characteristic violet-red color when the mix- 
ture is heated to 115°-140°. (Amer. Drug., 1896, 182.) 
Tartaric acid is incompatible with salifiable bases and their carbonates; with salts of potas- 
sium, with which it produces a crystalline precipitate of bitartrate; and with the salts of cal- 
cium and lead, with which it also forms precipitates. It consists of four atoms of carbon, six of 
hydrogen, and six of oxygen. Of the six hydrogen atoms, however, only two are replaceable by 
metal, so that it is dibasic, and can form both acid and neutral salts with monad elements like 
potassium and sodium. Thus, cream of tartar is the acid potassium tartrate, potassium bitar- 
trate, and so-called “ soluble tartar,” the neutral potassium tartrate. 
Modifications of Tartaric Acid. Five distinct modifications of tartaric acid exist. 
Their chief physical and chemical differences are as follows: 
a. Dextro-tartaric acid, or ordinary tartaric acid, forms anhydrous, hemihedral, rhombic crys- 
tals, the aqueous solution of which turns the plane of polarization of a luminous ray to the right. 
The crystals fuse at 135° C. (275° F.),—later authorities give 170° C. (338° F.),—have a sp. 
gr. of 1-74 to l’75,and are readily soluble in absolute and in aqueous alcohol. 
h. Lsevo-tartaric acid forms anhydrous, hemihedral, rhombic crystals, the aqueous solution 
of which turns the plane of polarization of a luminous ray to the left. 
c. Racemic or para-tartaric acid forms hydrated, holohedral, triclinic crystals of H2C4H40e + 
HaO, which are optically inactive. The crystals have a sp. gr. of 1'69, and are soluble in five 
parts of cold water and with difficulty in cold alcohol. The calcium racemate is less soluble 
in water than calcium dextro-tartrate, and is also distinguished by its insolubility in acetic 
acid and in ammonium chloride solution. Racemic acid can be prepared by mixing a and b 
tartaric acids, and can be resolved into them by appropriate methods. Racemic acid exists 
naturally in small proportion in the juice of grapes growing in particular localities, and was 
first obtained artificially in 1853 by M. Pasteur. 
d. Inactive or meso-tartaric acid, optically inactive, but not resolvable into a and b acids. 
e. Meta-tartaric acid, produced by fusing the ordinary variety. It is deliquescent and un- 
crystallizable. Its solution and the solutions of its salts are converted by boiling into those of 
the ordinary modification. 
Medical Properties. Tartaric acid, being cheaper than citric acid, forms, when dis- 
solved in water and sweetened, an available substitute for lemonade. It may be improved by 
adding a drop of fresh volatile oil or a few drops of essence of lemon. Dried by a gentle 
heat, and then mixed with sodium bicarbonate, in the proportion of thirty-five grains of the 
acid to forty of the bicarbonate, it forms a good effervescing powder, the dose of which is a 
teaspoonful (3-75 C.c.) stirred in a tumbler of water. Tartaric acid resembles citric acid in 
its medical properties., but is more irritant, and taken in large amount and concentrated form 106 
Aconitina. 
PART I. 
has caused fatal gastro-intestinal inflammation. It is chiefly used in medicine in the prepara- 
tion of effervescing draughts* Dose, from five to thirty grains (0-32-1-94 Gin.). 
ACONITINA. Br. Aconitine. 
“An alkaloid obtained from Aconite Root, and having the formula C3gH46N012.” Br. 
Aconitia, Aconitina, Aconitinum, Aconitin; Aconitine, Fr.; Aconitin, G. 
Formerly a process for the manufacture of aconitine was given in the U. S. and Br. Phar- 
macopoeias, but in the 1880 revision the so-called alkaloid was dropped from the U. S. P., whilst 
in the late revision of the Br. Ph. the process of manufacture was omitted.f 
Pure aconitine may exist in an amorphous or in a crystalline form. The official product is 
always crystalline, but of amorphous aconitine there are two varieties, the hydrated and the 
anhydrous. When the alkaloid is dried at ordinary temperature, it retains 20 (Hager) or 25 
(Hottot) per cent, of water; hut when dried at the temperature of the water-bath, it is an- 
hydrous, and is then not soluble in 50 parts of boiling water. (Hager, A. J. P., xlvii. 210.) 
For Hottot’s process of preparing aconitine, see 15th ed. U. S. D. 
Aconitine as defined by the Br. Pharmacopoeia is “ in colorless hexagonal prisms of the 
rhombic system. Melting point 372-2° to 374° F. (189° to 190° C.). Slightly above this 
temperature it yields acetic acid. Readily soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.) or chloroform, less 
readily in ether. Nearly insoluble in water and in petroleum, spirit. An alcoholic solution of 
the alkaloid turns the plane of a ray of polarized light to the right. A drop of even an 
extremely dilute solution (not more than one-tenth per cent.) when placed on the tongue pro- 
duces a persistent tingling sensation. The salts of Aconitine are crystalline. The hydro- 
chloride melts at 300-2° F. (149° C.) and the hydrobromide at 327-2° F. (164° C.). A dilute 
solution of the alkaloid, even 1 part in 4000 parts of water, faintly acidulated with acetic acid, 
deposits a red crystalline precipitate on the addition of a few drops of solution of potassium 
permanganate." It restores the blue color of litmus reddened by acids, and neutralizes the 
acids, forming crystallizable salts. The solution of these salts produces a white precipitate 
with platinic chloride, a yellowish with auric chloride, and a yellowish brown with free iodine. 
Aconitine is precipitated from the solution by caustic alkalies, but not by ammonium carbonate 
or potassium and sodium bicarbonates. A spurious substance has sometimes been sold under 
the same name, which is nearly or quite inert; and at best the alkaloid is apt to be of uncer- 
tain strength as found in commerce. 
Crystallized aconitine was first made known by the researches of Mr. Groves (P. J. Tr., 2d 
ser., viii. 121), but it was elaborately studied by Duquesnel. The methods of obtaining 
it differ, but, according to Patrouillard (Joum. de Pharm., 4e ser, xix. 151), that of Du- 
quesnel gives much the larger yield.J It occurs in regular rhombic tables, sometimes having 
(a-con-i-t!'na.) 
Solution of Magnesium Tartrate as a Purgative. Owing to the relatively high price of citric acid, attempts 
have been made to substitute for that acid, in the solution of magnesium citrate, a cheaper acid, which might 
yield with magnesia an equally acceptable solution. M. E. Leger thinks he has accomplished this object by means 
of tartaric acid. The ordinary tartaric acid, however, will not answer, as the solution of the magnesian tartrate 
made with it, though at first limpid, soon becomes turbid, and most of the salt is deposited. But by employing a 
metatartaric acid he prepared a solution having all the desired properties. He prepares the metatartaric acid in 
the following manner. 
Heating over a gentle fire, in a porcelain or preferably silver capsule, a little tartaric acid until it melts, stirring 
carefully from time to time, he adds successively small portions of fresh acid, taking care not to use so much as to 
cause the liquid to cool and solidify, and continuing to add until the vessel is two-thirds full. The heat is main- 
tained until the mass, at first pasty and puffed up, becomes completely liquid. When bubbles are formed on the 
surface, the acid assumes a slight amber hue, and the desired modification has been effected. The vessel is now 
removed from the fire, and the contents .allowed to cool until the acid can be handled without adhering to the fingers, 
when it is pressed into cakes, quickly cooled, and put into well-stoppered bottles. 
In the preparation of the magnesian solution, three-fourths of the water to be used is poured, cold, on a mixture 
of the acid and magnesium carbonate (two parts of the former and one of the latter); a very brisk reaction takes 
place, and in less than ten minutes the solution is complete. Heat must be avoided ; as otherwise the acid returns 
to the former state, and the salt is precipitated. When the acid has been completely modified, the solution will 
keep unchanged for several weeks. The cathartic action of the magnesium tartrate is, according to M. Leger, 
much more certain than that of the citrate, and nearly equal to that of the sulphate. The solution is without 
unpleasant taste. < P. J. Tr., 12, 1873, p. 29; from Repertoire de Pkarm., Juin 25, 1873.) 
I See U. S. Dispensatory, 15th and 17th editions. 
The method of Duquesnel is as follows. 100 parts of the powdered roots having been mixed with one part of 
tartaric acid, and the whole exhausted by repeated percolation with cold alcohol, the liquid is evaporated at a low 
temperature on a water-bath to the consistence of a fluid extract. To this distilled water is added, and the precipi- 
tated resinous and oily matters removed by filtration. The solution of aconitine tartrate is then precipitated 
with a slight excess of potassium bicarbonate, agitated with washed ether, and the two fluids separated with the 
siphon. The ethereal solution is shaken four or five times with a 10 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid, which part 1. 
Aconitina. 
107 
the angles modified so as to look like hexagons, or else in small, short, four-sided prisms; it is 
anhydrous, nearly insoluble in water, insoluble in glycerin, but soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic 
acid, and benzin, and freely so in chloroform, inodorous, of an intensely bitter taste, followed 
by the characteristic tingling, not volatile at 100° C. (212° F.), and forms with most acids 
crystallizable salts. Juergens states that aconitine is soluble in (14 parts of absolute ether, 37 
parts of absolute alcohol, 2800 parts of light petroleum of 0-670 sp. gr., 5-5 parts of chloro- 
form or benzin, and 750 parts of water. (See Journ. Chem. Soc., June, 1886.) For Dr. Squibb’s 
physiological tests for aconitine and aconite preparations, see page 111. Its only peculiar color 
reaction is obtained with difficulty by dissolving in dilute phosphoric acid and evaporating; 
when at a certain degree of concentration a violet coloration appears. 
The investigations of Dr. C. R. A. Wright upon Aconitum napellus, which were fully 
stated in the previous edition (16th ed., p. 125), have been corrected in part by later studies 
by Prof. Wyndham Dunstan (Journ. Chem. Soc., May, 1891, April and May, 1892.) He 
has shown that the roots of true Aconitum napellus contain four alkaloids, of which one is 
crystallized and three are amorphous: aconitine, to which he gives the formula 
instead of the formula C33H43N012 proposed by Wright; aconine, C2eH41N011 instead of the 
formula proposed by Wright; napelline, or isoaconitine, was shown by Dunstan 
(P. J. Tr., 1893, 625) to have the composition C33H46NOia, and is thus isomeric with aconitine. 
Aconitine melts at 188-6° C. (371-5° F.), “ 189°-190° C. (372-2°-374° F.),” Br.; and aconine 
when purified melts at 132° C. (269-6° F.). Dunstan was able by heating aconine together 
with ethyl benzoate in a sealed tube to effect the synthesis of the anhydride of aconitine. The 
picraconitine of Wright is considered by Dunstan to have been a mixture. In a later com- 
munication (P. J. Tr., 1893, p. 1045) Dunstan shows that the roots of Aconitum napellus con- 
tain, besides the highly poisonous aconitine, an almost non-poisonous isomeride, isaconitine. 
Both furnish the same hydrolytic products,—viz., aconine and benzoic acid. Aconitine hydro- 
bromide (melting point 163° C.), when heated in aqueous solution, is very gradually changed into 
the isomeric isaconitine hydrobromide (melting point 282° C.). The change is facilitated by the 
presence of a small quantity (1-2 per cent.) of free hydrobromic acid, but is not assisted if suffi- 
cient is present to induce hydrolysis of a large proportion of the aconitine. The hydrolysis of 
napelline, or aconitine, into aconine and benzoic acid is represented by the following equation : 
C33H45NO + h2o - c26h41no + c7h6o2. 
Aconitum ferox was examined by Dr. Wright. In it he found chiefly the alkaloid pseud- 
aconitine, C30H49NO12. It crystallizes in transparent needles and sandy crystals, but is apt to 
separate as a varnish if not evaporated extremely slowly. It forms crystallized salts with diffi- 
culty. It can be dehydrated, forming apo-pseudaconitine, C36H47N011, and when saponified 
yields dimethyl-protocatechuic acid instead of benzoic, and a new base, pseudaconine, C36H49- 
N012 -j- H20 = C9H1004 -f- C27H41N09. Pseudaconitine crystallizes with H20 and melts at 
104°-105° C. (220° F.). Dunstan and Carr (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1897, 350) give a process for 
making the very poisonous alkaloid pseudaconitine, which they obtained in crystals; it dis- 
solves in hot water, very slightly in cold water, readily in alcohol, chloroform, and acetone, less 
readily in ether. The products of hydrolysis, which occurs in two stages, result in the separation 
of veratryl-pseudaconine, C34H47N011, and pseudaconine, C25H3908; veratric acid is eliminated. 
Pyropseudaconitine, C34H45N010, an anhydride of veratryl-pseudaconine, did not appear to be 
poisonous. In Japanese aconite roots (species not certainly known) Wright found a larger 
percentage of active alkaloids than in either of the other varieties. He also considers that he 
has obtained here a new base, japaconitine, CeeH8aN„02r This base on saponification splits 
up into benzoic acid and a base, japaconine, C26H41NO10. 
Aconitine exists in the root in combination with aconitic add, CeH606. Dragendorff and 
Spohn (Journ. Pharm. (5), 10, 361—368) find in Aconitum lycoctonum two alkaloids ; lycaconitine, 
7H34No06 + 2H20, which, is not crystalline, nor does it yield a crystalline aurochloride or 
platinochloride, and myoctonine, -f- 5H20, which is amorphous. The former alka- 
takes up the alkaloids from the ethereal solution. The acid liquids are treated with calcium carbonate to saturation 
in order to prevent the prolonged and injurious action of the acid upon the crystallizable aconitine, the mixture is 
evaporated at a very gentle heat, filtered, and while still warm mixed with a solution of sodium nitrate (2 of salt to 
3 of water) having the same temperature. The whole is allowed to cool slowly during several hours, and set away 
for several days’ rest, when the crystals separate out as a crust on the bottom. (N. R., 1883, p. 265 ; see also a paper 
by Williams, Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1886, p. 428.) 
* Freund and Beck state that after making fourteen determinations of crystallized aconitine they have adopted 
the formula of C34H47NO11 (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 1894, 433), and they defend this formula in a subsequent communi- 
cation (Ber. d. Chem. Gee., 1895, 192). 108 
Aconitina.—Aconitum. 
PART I. 
loid, heated with water under pressure, gives rise to two acids, a volatile one and a crystalline 
one, lycoctonic acid, C17H18N207, while two alkaloids remain dissolved, one, lycaconine, soluble 
in ether, the other soluble in chloroform, and apparently Hiibschmann’s acolytine.* 
Medical Properties and Uses. It is practically true that the various products which 
are sold under the name of aconitine represent the activity of aconite, but it is well known 
that commercial aconitine is a very improper remedy for internal use, varying immensely in its 
purity, its composition, and its powers.f Two and a half grains have been taken almost with 
impunity, and l-50th of a grain has nearly proved fatal; indeed, a fatal case of poisoning by 
half a milligramme (l-128th gr.) of pure aconitines reported (Journ. de Pharm. d' Anvers, Feb. 
1890). One-tenth of a milligramme (l-640th gr.) should be considered the maximum dose 
of the alkaloid. Tison (Atti Bell xi. Cong. Med. Intern., iii., 1894) considers this the ordi- 
nary dose of the crystallized aconitine nitrate, and repeats it at such intervals that one milli- 
gramme is taken in the twenty-four hours. As aconitine possesses no obvious advantage 
over the other preparations of aconite, and is so uncertain and powerful in its action, its in- 
ternal use is rarely called for. Even as an external remedy, as first recommended by Dr. 
Turnbull, aconitine is of very limited value. It produces in the skin a sensation of heat and 
prickling, followed by numbness, lasting, according to the quantity applied, from two to twelve 
hours or more. Applied much diluted and in a minute quantity to the eye, or even to the 
upper eyelid, it causes contraction of the pupil, with an almost intolerable sense of heat and 
tingling. Dr. Turnbull employed it with benefit in neuralgia, gout, and rheumatism. If the 
alkaloid be pure, the ointment should not exceed ten grains to the ounce, and even then must 
be used with great caution by friction over the part affected, to be continued till the peculiar 
sensation above described is produced, and to be repeated three or four times, or more fre- 
quently, during the day. No good can be expected unless the sensation alluded to be ex- 
perienced in a greater or less degree. Care should be taken not to apply the medicine to an 
abraded surface, or to a mucous membrane, for fear of poisoning. 
ACONITUM. U. S. (Br.) Aconite. • 
(ac-o-nI'tCm.) 
“ The tuber of Aconitum Napellus, Linne (nat. ord. Ranunculaceae).” U. S. “ The root of 
Aconitum Napellus, Linn., collected in the autumn from plants cultivated in Britain, and 
dried.” Br. 
Aconiti Radix, Br.; Aconite Root, Monkshood, Wolfsbane; Tubera Aconiti, P. G.; Racine d’Aconit, Aconit, 
Coqueluchon, Fr.; Eisenhut, Eisenhutknollen, Sturmhut, Monchskappe, Akonitknollen, G.; Aconito Napello, It.; 
Aconito, Sp. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia formerly recognized the aconite leaves under the name of Aconiti Folia. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals five, the highest arched. Nectaries two, peduncled, recurved. 
Pods three or five. Willd. 
The plants belonging to this genus are herbaceous, with divided leaves, and violet, yellow, or 
white flowers, in spikes, racemes, or panicles. In the Paris Codex three species were recog- 
* M. Hubschmann is said to have extracted two alkaloids from A. lycoctonum ; one in the form of a white powder, 
insoluble in ether, but soluble in water and alcohol, which he names acolytine ; the other crystallizable, very soluble 
in alcohol, and but slightly so in ether or water, and named by him lycoctonine. (A.J. P., 1866, p. 376.) According 
to Prof. Fliickiger, lycoctonine is in white acicular crystals, melting like aconitine in boiling water, though at a some- 
what higher heat. On cooling it crystallizes only when moistened with water, when the amorphous mass is con- 
verted into tufted crystals. It leaves no water upon melting, and combines with none on crystallizing. It readily 
dissolves in chloroform, and upon evaporation is left as an amorphous varnish, which on the addition of a little 
water becomes strikingly crystalline. It is largely dissolved by sulphide of carbon, ether, alcohol, the fixed and vola- 
tile oils, amylic alcohol, and petroleum spirit; but requires 600 parts of boiling water for solution. The solution is bitter 
and has an alkaline reaction, and with bromine water produces fine yellow crystals ; and this effect results though the 
solution contain only one part of the alkaloid in 30,000. Lycoctonine is an alkaloid quite distinct from aconitine and 
pseudaconitine, and is much less poisonous than either. (Fliickiger, P. J. Tr., 1870, p. 122.) Drs. Wright and Luff 
concluded that lycoctonine and acolytine are identical with aconine and pseudaconine, decomposition-products re- 
spectively of aconitine and pseudaconitine, but according to Dragendorff and Spohn they are really decomposition- 
products of two previously unnoticed alkaloids of A. lycoctonum, namely, lycnconitine and myoctonine. (See p. 107, 
also P. J. Tr., viii. 169, and xv. 104.) Jacobowsky found lycaconitine to resemble curare in its physiological action, 
but to be of no value in practical medicine. 
| Even different specimens of apparently pure crystallized aconitine made by the same chemist in the same man- 
ner vary greatly in toxic property. See K. F. Mandelin, Archiv d. Pharm., 1885, xxiii.; abstracted, P. J. Tr., xvi.; 
Bunzen and Madsen, Trans. Internat. Congress, Copenhagen, 1884. Lepine states that the crystallized alkaloid made 
from plants gathered in Switzerland is much more active than that from plants of the Vosges or of the Pyrenees. 
(La Sent. Mid., March 30, 1892.) For method of assaying aconitine, see Dr. Dohme’s paper (Proc. A. P. A 1895 
206); also P. J. Tr., 1895, 860. Aconitum. 
109 
PART I. 
nized as official, A. anthora, A. cammarum, and A. napellus; but the French authorities 
unite at present with our own and the British in acknowledging only A. napellus. There has 
been much difference of opinion as to the plant originally employed by Storck. Formerly 
thought to be A. napellus, it was afterwards generally believed to be A. neomontanum of Will- 
denow, and by De Candolle was determined to be a variety of his A. paniculatum, designated 
as storckianum. It is probable that this species, which is not infrequent in the Alps, yields 
much of the aconite of commerce, as probably does also A. lycoctonum. But, according to 
Geiger, A. neomontanum is possessed of little acrimony; and Dr. Christison states that A. 
paniculatum, raised at Edinburgh from seeds sent by De Candolle himself, was quite destitute 
of that property. Neither of these, therefore, could have been Storck’s plant, which is repre- 
sented as extraordinarily acrid. A. septentrionale (Koelle), which is generally considered by 
botanists to be a variety of A. lycoctonum, although it differs somewhat in the shape of its 
leaves and is a native of Finland, Sweden, and other northern portions of Europe, has been 
elaborately studied by H. V. Rosendahl (Arbeiten des Pharmakol. Institutes zu Dorpat, 1895), 
who believes it to be a distinct species.* There are five American species of the genus, each 
of which is probably active, although none of them are commercial sources of the drug. 
Aconites used in medicine appear to be indiscriminately called by English writers wolfsbane or 
monlcshood. Under the name of Bish or Bikh, Nepaul aconite is largely sold in the bazaars 
in India. It is probably often a mixed product of a number of Indian species, such as 
A. lucidum, A. napellus, and A. palmatum, but is chiefly derived from A. ferox, which grows 
in the Himalayas, attaining a height of from 3 to 6 feet, and having large dull-blue flowers. 
The tuberous roots of A. heterophyllumf are also met with in the bazaars. This native of the 
Himalayas has dull-yellow flowers veined with blue or purple. 
Aconitum napellus. Linn., Flor. iSuec., ed. 1755, p. 168.—A. neubergense. De Candolle, 
Prodrom., i. 62.—A. variabile neubergense. Hayne, Darstel. u. Beschreib., etc., xii. 14. This is 
a perennial herbaceous plant, with a spindle-shaped, tapering root, seldom exceeding at top the 
thickness of the finger, three or four inches or more in length, brownish externally, whitish 
* Rosendahl found in A. septentrionale three alkaloids, to which he gave the names of Lappaconitine, Septentri- 
onaline, and Cynoetonine. 
Lappaconitine, C34H48N2O8, occurs in crystals belonging to the hexagonal system, bitter in taste, melting point 
205° C.; soluble in 126 parts of alcohol, 330 of ether, 1472 of water. Its alcoholic or ethereal solution shows a 
reddish-violet fluorescence. It is colored yellowish red by sulphovanadic acid, afterwards becoming green. It is a 
convulsant, which finally paralyzes the respiratory muscles; at the same time it lowers blood-pressure by a direct 
action upon the heart, and also by an influence on the vaso-motors. During the convulsion the pupils are contracted; 
during the paralysis they are dilated. Upon muscles, blood, lower organisms, and general protoplasm the alkaloid 
has no influence. It is rapidly eliminated by the urine. 
Septentrionaline, C31H48N2O9, occurs in a white or yellowish powder of a bitter taste with a pronounced local 
anaesthetic influence; melting point 128-9° C. It is very soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 58 parts of water; its 
solutions are without fluorescence. It is colored cherry-red by fresh furfurol sulphuric acid. When given by the 
mouth, septentrionaline, according to Rosendahl, produces no poisonous effects; its subcutaneous or intravenous 
injection is followed by increased salivation, nausea, and wide-spread anaesthesia, due to an action upon the periph- 
eral sensory nerves. If the dose has been sufficient, after the paralysis of sensibility a motor peripheral paralysis 
comes on, which finally invades the muscles of respiration so that the function ceases, although the heart is still 
working, and if artificial respiration be employed recovery occurs. The heart is said to be almost completely unaf- 
fected, excepting that the force of its contractions is augmented. Intestinal peristalsis is arrested; the pupils are 
not affected. Elimination is very rapid. Rosendahl asserts that the alkaloid is of great value as a substitute to 
curare in the physiological laboratory. The dose for curarization is per kilogramme of bodily weight: frogs, 
0-000174 to 0-0005 ; dogs, 0-0070; cats, 0-0100; rabbits, 0-003000 to 0-0050; fowls, 0-0090 grammes. 
Cynoetonine, C36H55N2O13, is an amorphous hygroscopic grayish powder, having a feebly bitter taste, melting at 
137° C.; easily soluble in alcohol and water, soluble in 1373 parts of ether without fluorescence. If evaporated to 
dryness with fuming nitric acid, the residue becomes blood-red on the addition of an alcoholic solution of potash, 
afterwards changing to reddish brown. It is a very violent convulsant, producing also vomiting, temporary loss of 
superficial sensibility, followed by heightened reflexes, violent convulsions, and respiratory death. Upon the heart 
and blood-pressure it has very little influence. The pupils are in the advanced poisoning dilated. On the lower 
organisms it does not act as a poison. 
f Under the name of Utees, Ateks, or A tie, the root of Aconitum heterophyllum is said to be largely used in India as 
an antiperiodic. It is stated that it is free from poisonous properties and is given in doses of 20 grains. The plant 
grows in the western Himalayas, at an elevation of from 8000 to 13,000 feet. The roots are ovoid, oblong, or coni- 
cal, i to H inches in length, to of an inch in diameter, bitter without acridity, of a light ash color. Their 
transverse section shows a white, farinaceous, homogeneous tunic, traversed by from 4 to 7 yellowish vascular bundles. 
According to Wasowicz, the root yielded of 1 per cent, of ateeine, an amorphous, very slightly poisonous alkaloid 
(the same alkaloid was previously pointed out by Broughton), aconitic acid, an acid similar to tannic acid, a soft fat, 
cane sugar, mucilage, and pectinous substances. Wakhma, another Indian drug, appears to be a variety of Atis. 
(See P. J. Tr., xvi. 86.) Jowett studied atiaine, C22H33NO3, as he prefers to name the alkaloid; his results show that 
it does not present any close analogy to the other aconite alkaloids. Prof. Cash reports that it is not toxic in small 
doses, and its physiological action resembles that of aeonine. (Journ. Ghent. Soc., 1896, 1518, 1526.) He also con- 
firms the presence of aconitic acid. 110 
Aconitum. 
PART I. 
and fleshy within, and sending forth numerous long, thick, fleshy fibres. When the plant is in 
full growth, there are usually two roots joined together, of which the older is dark brown and 
supports the stem, while the younger is of a light yellowish brown, and is destined to furnish 
the stem of the following year, the old root decaying. The stem is erect, round, smooth, leafy, 
usually simple, and from two to six or even eight feet high. The leaves are alternate, petio- 
late, divided almost to the base, from two to four inches in diameter, deep green upon their 
upper surface, light green beneath, somewhat rigid, and more or less smooth and shining on 
both sides. Those on the lower part of the stem have long footstalks and five or seven 
divisions ; the upper, short footstalks and three or five divisions. The divisions are wedge-form, 
with two or three lobes, which extend nearly or quite to the middle. The lobes are cleft or 
toothed, and the laciniae or teeth are linear or linear-lanceolate and pointed. The flowers are 
of a dark violet-blue color, large and beautiful, and are borne at the summit of the stem upon 
a thick, simple, straight, erect, spike-like raceme, beneath which, in the cultivated plant, sev- 
eral smaller racemes arise from the axils of the upper leaves. Though without calyx, they 
have two small calycinal stipules, situated on the peduncle within a few lines of the flower. 
The petals are five, the upper helmet-shaped and beaked, nearly hemispherical, open or closed, 
the two lateral roundish and internally hairy, the two lower oblong-oval. They enclose two 
pediceled nectaries, of which the spur is capitate, and the lip bifid and revolute. The fruit 
consists of three, four, or five pod-like capsules. 
The plant is abundant in the mountain forests of France, Switzerland, and Germany. It is 
also cultivated in the gardens of Europe, and has been introduced into this country as an or- 
namental flower. All parts of the plant are acrid and poisonous. The leaves and root are 
used. The leaves should be collected when the flowers begin to appear, or shortly before. 
After the fruit has formed, they are less efficacious. The root is much more active than 
the leaves; and an extract from the latter is said to have only one-twentieth of the strength 
of one made from the former. It should be gathered in autumn or winter after the leaves 
have fallen, and is not perfect until the second year. It has been mistakenly substituted for 
horseradish root, as a condiment, with fatal effect. The wild plant is said to be more active 
than the cultivated. (Schroff.) Prof. Wm. Procter found the roots of the plant cultivated in 
this country richer in the active alkaline principle than the imported roots, having obtained 
as much as 0-85 per cent, from the former. (AVoc. A. P. A., I860.)* 
The aconite root is brought into market in packages or bales, originally, in general, either 
from the continent of Europe or from India. It is of variable quality; some parcels being 
unobjectionable, while others contain a considerable proportion of inert or defective roots 
Among these roots that of Imperatoria ostruthium has been expressly noted. (A*. J. Tr., vii. 749.) 
The best test is the taste; roots should be rejected which have not in a fair degree the 
characteristic properties in this respect described below, especially the sensation of numbness 
and tingling on the tongue, lips, and fauces. 
Nepaul aconite is composed of elongated, conical, tuberous, or nearly cylindrical roots, 3 to 
4 inches long, £ to If inches in diameter at the base; unbranched; often abruptly broken off 
below; more or less flattened; shrivelled chiefly in a longitudinal direction, and sparsely 
marked with the scars of rootlets. Japanese aconite has also been largely sold in London.f 
It consists of plump, oblong or ovoid, dark grayish or blackish tubers, from half an inch to 
an inch in length, and to J- of an inch in diameter. 
Properties. The fresh leaves have a faint narcotic odor, most sensible when they are 
rubbed. Their taste is at first bitterish and herbaceous, afterwards burning and acrid, with a 
* The recent studies of P. W. Squire seem to show that at this period the root is the most active. So far how- 
ever, as concerns the whole plant, the practical difficulty is that the root of A. paniculatum cannot be distinguished 
from that of A. napellus, except by taste: so that the custom which seems to prevail of gathering the root about the 
flowering period is probably well founded. The plant is being cultivated to some extent for medicinal purposes in 
England, but much of the stock is of doubtful nature, owing to the extraordinary tendency of A. napellus to hybrid- 
ize with other species and to alter under cultivation. (See P. J. Tr., xix.) For C. C. Keller’s tests for aconite root 
and leaves, see Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 539. 
t Japanese Aconite.—Seven varieties of aconite tubers are said by Dr. Langaard to be found in the Japanese 
drug-stores, usually preserved in vinegar or child’s urine, or by drying. The botanical source of these aconite roots 
is not accurately determined, but they are probably, at least in part, yielded by A. japonicum, Thunb., and A. jis- 
cheri, Reich., believed by many botanists to be respectively identical with A. lycoctonum, Linn., and' A. chinense 
Sieb. Several alkaloids have been separated; of these, japaconitine is said to be the most poisonous of the known 
aconite alkaloids. (See P. J. Tr., 3 ser., xi. 149, 1021.) Dr. 0. Lezius (Inaug. Biss., Dorpat, 1890) asserts that the 
active principle of Japanese aconite is true crystallizable aconitine, and in an elaborate physiological study Alfred 
E. Bradley found the physiological activity of A. fischeri very similar to that of A. napellus. ( Weekly Med Rev 
April, 1888.) * * PART I. 
Aconitum. 
111 
feeling of numbness and tingling on the inside of the lips, tongue, and fauces, which is very 
durable, lasting sometimes many hours. When long chewed, they inflame the tongue. The 
dried leaves have a similar taste, but the acrid impression commences later. Their sensible 
properties and medicinal activity are impaired by long keeping. They should be of a green 
color, and free from mustiness. The root has a feeble earthy smell. Though sweetish at first, 
it has afterwards the same effect as the leaves upon the mouth and fauces. It shrinks much 
in drying, and becomes darker, but does not lose its acrimony. Those parcels, whether of 
leaves or roots, should always be rejected which are destitute of this property. As found in 
commerce, the aconite root is described as being “from 10 to 20 Mm. (three-eighths to three- 
quarters of an inch) thick at the crown; conically contracted below; from 50 to 75 Mm. 
(two to three inches) long, with scars or fragments of radicles ; dark brown externally ; whitish 
internally; with a rather thick bark, the central axis about seven-rayed; without odor; taste 
at first sweetish, soon becoming acrid, and producing a sensation of tingling and numbness, 
which lasts for some time.” U. S. “ The transverse section exhibits a thick parenchymatous 
cortex and a large stellate pith with about seven projecting angles; the groups of vessels are 
small and few in number.” Br. The seeds also are acrid. The British Pharmacopoeia 
formerly recognized the flowering tops of the Aconite (Aconiti Folia). To be effective they 
should be collected just as the flowers are beginning to expand, at which time they are richest 
in alkaloid. The dried leaves are stated to contain about 0-3 per cent, and the flower-buds 
about 0-4 per cent, of aconitine. For an account of the chemistry of aconite, see Aconitina, 
page 106. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Aconite was well known to the ancients as a powerful 
poison, but was first employed as a medicine by Baron Storck, of Vienna, whose experiments 
with it were published in the year 1762. In moderate doses, it produces warmth in the stomach 
and sometimes nausea, general warmth of the body, numbness and tingling in the lips and 
fingers, muscular weakness, diminished force and frequency of the pulse, and diminished fre- 
quency of respiration. From larger doses all these effects are experienced in an increased 
degree. The stomach is more nauseated; the numbness and tingling extend over the body; 
headache, vertigo, and dimness of vision occur; the patient complains occasionally of severe 
neuralgic pains; the pulse, respiration, and muscular strength are greatly reduced ; and a state 
of general prostration may be induced, from which the patient may not quite recover in less 
than two or three days. The effects of remedial doses are felt in twenty or thirty minutes, are 
at their height in an hour or two, and continue with little abatement from three to five hours. 
In poisonous doses, besides the characteristic tingling in the mouth and elsewhere, aconite 
occasions burning heat of the oesophagus and stomach, thirst, violent nausea, vomiting and 
purging, severe gastric and intestinal spasms, headache, dimness of vision, with contracted or 
expanded pupils, numbness or paralysis of the limbs, diminished sensibility in general, stiffness 
or spasm of the muscles, great prostration, pallid countenance, cold extremities, an extremely 
feeble pulse, and death in a few hours, sometimes preceded by delirium, stupor, or convulsions. 
All these effects are not experienced in every case; but there is no one of them which has not 
been recorded as having occurred in one or more instances. The proper treatment of aconite 
poisoning consists in the maintenance of absolute rest in a position horizontal, or with the head 
lower than the feet; the evacuation of the stomach by the siphon tube or stomach-pump, if 
free vomiting do not occur; the administration of stimulus, and the use of external heat to 
keep up the bodily temperature. Whiskey or brandy should be given freely in a concentrated 
form by the mouth and rectum ; when the symptoms are very urgent, it may be injected under 
the skin. The chief reliance in any case, however, must be on the tincture of digitalis aided 
by strychnine, the two remedies being given hypodermically, but separately, in large doses. 
Ammonia may be employed carefully. We have known life to be apparently saved by lauda- 
num given in drachm doses. 0 Fall of the bodily temperature must be met by external heat. 
The symptoms produced by aconite are chiefly due to its action upon the circulation and the 
nervous system. It _is a direct and powerful depressant of the heart, if in sufficient amount 
completely paralyzing the cardiac muscle. The lowering of the force of the circulation is 
certainly in large part due to this action ; but it is probable, although not proved, that it also 
paralyzes the vaso-motor system. Upon the cerebrum the drug exerts very little if any direct 
influence. Upon the peripheral sensory nerves it acts as a powerful depressant, thereby causing 
the characteristic tingling and numbness of aconite poisoning. The influence upon the spinal 
marrow seems to be less pronounced than that upon the sensory nerves; but, if in sufficient 
amount, the poison depresses the motor centres of the cord. To this, and not to any effect 112 
A conitum.—Adeps. 
PART I. 
upon the motor trunks or the muscles, is due the loss of reflex activity and of*voluntary power 
caused by toxic doses. 
As an internal remedy, aconite is very valuable in sthenic fever from any cause ; when the 
condition is asthenic it should never be administered. It is also useful in some cases for the 
purpose of benumbing sensitive nerves: thus, it will sometimes arrest the vomiting of pregnancy, 
and has often been used with excellent results in rheumatic neuralgia. To obtain such effects 
it must be given boldly. Applied locally to a sensitive or painful part, it is very efficient, owing 
to its being brought in a concentrated state into contact with the irritated nerves. It is a 
favorite application in neuralgias, and will probably achieve good more often than any other 
narcotic local remedy. Applied to the skin, aconite occasions heat and prickling or tingling, 
followed by numbness, and, if in contact with a wound, produces its peculiar constitutional 
effects. Applied to the eye, it causes decided contraction of the pupil.* The dose of the 
extract of the leaves is from half a grain to a grain (0-03-0-065 Gm.), of the tincture of 
leaves twenty or thirty drops (1-25-1-9 C.e.), to be repeated twice or three times a day, 
and gradually increased till the effects of the medicine are experienced. The preparation 
now almost exclusively employed is the tincture of the root, Tinctura Aconiti. U. S. Of this, 
from 2 to 5 drops (0-12-0-3 C.c) may be given every two to four hours until its effects become 
obvious. It is very important to distinguish between the tincture of the leaves formerly 
official and still used and the much stronger tincture of the root just referred to. Few 
patients will bear at first more than four minims of the latter. Very properly, we think, the 
tincture of the leaves was abandoned at the revision of the U. S. P. 1860. Aconite may be 
used externally in the form of the saturated tincture of the root, of extract mixed with lard, 
of a plaster or liniment, or of aconitine ointment. The tincture may be applied by means of 
a soft piece of sponge on the end of a stick. 
ADEPS. U. S., Br. Lard. 
(A'DEPS.) 
“ The prepared internal fat of the abdomen of Sus Scrofa, Linn6 (class, Mammalia; order, 
Pachydermata), purified by washing with water, melting, and straining. Lard should be kept 
in well-closed vessels impervious to fat, and in a cool place.” U. S. “ The purified fat of the 
hog, Sus scrofa, Linn.” Br. 
Adeps Suillus, P. G.; Axungia Porci, s. Porcina, Axungia, Lai.; Prepared Lard, Hog’s Lard, Eng.; Axonge, 
Graisse, Graisse de Pore, Saindoux, Fr.; Schweineschmalz, G.; Grasso di Porco, Lardo, It.; Manteca de Puerco, 
Lardo, Sp. 
Preparation. Lard is the prepared fat of the hog. The Br. Pharmacopoeia gives a pro- 
cess for its preparation; but in this country it is generally purchased by the druggists already 
prepared. The adipose matter of the omentum and mesentery, and that around the kidneys, 
are usually employed; though the subcutaneous fat is said to afford lard of a firmer consist- 
ence. In the crude state it contains membranes and vessels, and is more or less contaminated 
with blood, from all which it must be freed before it can be fit for use. For this purpose, the 
fat, having been deprived of membranous matter as far as possible by the hand, is cut into 
pieces, washed with water till the liquor ceases to be colored, and then, after carefully sepa- 
rating the water, it is melted in a copper or iron vessel, over a slow fire.f The heat is continued 
till all the moisture is evaporated, which may be known by the transparency of the melted fat 
and the absence of crepitation when a small portion of it is thrown into the fire. Care should 
* Squibb’s Test for Aconite and its Preparations.—In the absence of any reliable chemical tests for aconitine, Dr. 
Squibb suggests that a fluidrachm of a solution of the various preparations be taken into the anterior part of the 
mouth (after the latter has been thoroughly rinsed) and held there for one minute by the watch, and then dis- 
charged. The peculiar numbing sensation should be experienced within fifteen minutes, and it should continue for 
fifteen or thirty minutes. Tested in this way, he found the commercial aconitines, in solution of the strength of 
£j0- grain in 1 fluidrachm of water, to have the following relative strengths : 1 grain of good powdered aconite root is 
equal to 1 grain of ordinary commercial aconitine, | grain of Merck’s ordinary aconitine, grain of Merck’s pseud- 
aconitine, grain of Duquesnel’s aconitine crystallized (really aconitine nitrate). He also found by this approxi- 
mate method that 1 grain of powdered aconite root was equivalent to 1 minim of fluid extract, £ grain of alcoholic 
extract of aconite root, 2-66 minims of U. S. P. tincture of aconite root, 8-43 minims of British tincture of the root, 
11’8 minims of German tincture of the root, 1*5 minims of Fleming’s tincture, 9 grains of powdered aconite leaf, 1*5 
grains of alcoholic extract of dried aconite leaf, 1 grain of Allen’s English extract of fresh plant, and 72 minims of 
tincture of aconite leaf. 
■j- Prof. Procter recommends the following method of operating. After careful removal of the membranes and 
adhering flesh, the crude lard is to be cut into small pieces, malaxated with successive portions of cold water until 
this remains clear, and then heated moderately, in a tinned vessel, until the melted fat becomes perfectly clear and 
anhydrous. Lastly, it is to be strained into earthen pots, being occasionally stirred as it cools; and the pots 
should be securely covered with waxed or varnished paper, and kept in a cool, dry cellar. (A. J. P., xxxv. 114.) PART I. 
Adeps. 
113 
be taken that the heat be not too great, as otherwise the lard might be partially decomposed, 
acquire a yellow color, and become acrid. This may be guarded against by using a water-bath 
in melting the lard. The process is completed by straining the liquid through linen, and pour- 
ing it into suitable vessels, in which it concretes upon cooling. To render it, however, per- 
fectly free from particles of membrane and tissue, which are often the cause of rancidity and 
unfit lard for its finer and more permanent uses, Mr. Ed. Smith, of Torquay, insists on the 
necessity of filtering the lard through paper, after freeing it from its coarser impurities by 
straining through linen. By this author it is recommended that the process of purification 
should be completed by remelting the lard, by means of a water-bath, and then carefully filter- 
ing it through paper in a warm closet. Lard may be rendered quite inodorous by melting it, 
when fresh, by means of a salt-water bath, adding a little alum or common salt, continuing 
the heat till a scum rises which is to be skimmed oif, and, after the lard has concreted, sepa- 
rating the saline matter by washing it thoroughly with water. For a particular account of 
the process, see A. J. P., xxviii. 176. 
The following is the process of the British Pharmacopoeia for preparing lard. “ From the 
perfectly fresh fat of the abdomen of the hog remove as much of the external membranes as 
possible; suspend the fat so that it shall be freely exposed to the air for some hours; cut it 
into small pieces; reduce these to a uniform mass in which the membranous vesicles are com- 
pletely broken, by beating in a mortar or by some similar process; put the mass thus produced 
into a vessel surrounded by warm water; heat to a temperature not exceeding 135° F. 
(57-2° C.) until the fat has melted and separated from the membranous matter; strain.” The 
process of the British Pharmacopoeia differs from that formerly used, and is modelled upon 
the suggestions of Prof. Redwood, that the use of water be especially avoided, and that the 
selected fat be exposed freely to air and light before rendering. (P. J. Tr., 1883, p. 364; also 
Pphemeris, 1884, p. 504.) 
Lard, as offered for sale, often contains common salt, which renders it unfit for pharma- 
ceutical purposes. This may be detected, when the quantity is insufficient to be sensible to the 
taste, by means of silver nitrate, which will produce a precipitate of silver chloride with water 
in which the salted lard has been boiled, after cooling and filtration. To free it from this im- 
purity, it may be melted with twice its weight of boiling water, the mixture well agitated and 
set aside to cool, and the fat then separated. Lard is sometimes adulterated with water, starch, 
and a small proportion of alum and quicklime, which render it whiter, but unfit for medical 
use. But by far the most common adulteration of lard in recent years is through the use 
of cotton-seed oil. Indeed, some specimens of lard consist almost wholly of mixtures of 
stearin and cotton-seed oil. Lard of this kind can easily be detected by the disagreeable and 
characteristic odor of cotton-seed oil which is evolved when it is heated. For Taylor’s method 
of differentiation, see Nat. Drug., 1892, p. 103. Crookes (Analyst, 1893, p. 221) gives the fol- 
lowing very delicate modification of Milliau’s test. Pure white filtering paper is first moistened 
with 12 per cent, solution of silver nitrate and held over a small sample of the lard, which is 
gradually heated in an oil-bath to 115-5° C. (240° F.), when, if even less than 1 per cent, of 
cotton-seed oil is present, the paper will turn light brown to nearly black. Pure fresh lard 
does not affect the paper. Schweitzer and Lungwitz propose as a test phosphomolybdic acid, 
which gives no coloration with a solution of pure lard in chloroform or ether, but a blue color 
with cotton-seed oil. Jean states that vegetable oils added to lard increase the density, raise 
the iodine number, lower the melting point, the standard of fatty acids, and Koettsdorffer’s 
number, and diminish the optical deviation. (Chem. News, 1896, p. 83.) 
Properties. Lard is “ a soft, white, unctuous solid, having a faint odor free from ram 
cidity, and a bland taste. Insoluble in water; very slightly soluble in alcohol; readily soluble 
in ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide, or benzin. Specific gravity, about 0-932 at 15° C. 
(59° F.). It melts at 38° to 40° C. (100-4° to 104° F.) to a perfectly clear liquid, which is 
colorless in thin layers, and which should not separate an aqueous layer. At or below 30° C. 
(86° F.), it is a soft solid. Distilled Water boiled with Lard should not acquire an alkaline re- 
action (absence of alkalies), nor should another portion be colored blue by iodine test-solution 
(absence of starch). A portion of the water, when filtered, acidulated with nitric acid, and 
treated with silver nitrate test-solution, should not yield a white precipitate soluble in ammonia 
(absence of chlorides). If 10 Gm. of Lard be dissolved in chloroform, and the solution mixed 
with 10 C.c. of alcohol and 1 drop of phenolphtalein test-solution, it should not require more 
than 0-2 C.c. of potassium hydrate normal volumetric solution to produce a pink tint after 
strong shaking (limit of free fatty acids). If 5 C.c. of melted and filtered Lard be, while 
8 114 
Adeps.—Adeps Benzoinatus. 
PART I. 
warm, intimately mixed, by agitation, in a test-tube, with 5 C.c. of an alcoholic solution of 
silver nitrate (made by dissolving 0T Gm. of silver nitrate in 10 C.c. of deodorized alcohol and 
adding 2 drops of nitric acid), and the mixture then heated for five minutes in a water-bath, 
the liquid fat should not acquire a reddish or brown color, nor should any dark color be pro- 
duced at the line of contact of the two liquids (absence of more than about 5 per cent, of 
cottonseed fats')!' U. 8. “ Is neutral to litmus; dissolves entirely in ether. It should yield no 
reaction with the tests for sodium, chlorides, or starch. If a solution of 0-05 gramme of 
silver nitrate in 5 cubic centimetres of alcohol (90 per cent.), to which a drop of nitric acid 
has been added, be heated with 5 cubic centimetres of melted Lard on a water-bath for 5 
minutes and then vigorously shaken, the fatty layer which separates on standing should not 
darken in color (absence of cotton-seed oil). 10 grammes of Lard dissolved in a mixture of 
equal volumes of chloroform and alcohol (90 per cent.), two drops of solution of phenol-phthalein 
being added, should not require more than 0-2 cubic centimetre of the volumetric solution of 
sodium hydroxide to produce a permanent red color (limit of acidity).” Br. When melted, it 
readily unites with wax and resins. Like most animal fats and oils, it consists of stearin, 
palmitin, and olein; its consistence, when pure, depending largely upon the relative propor- 
tions of these principles; olein, being the liquid principle, can readily be separated from the 
other two by subjecting lard in cold weather to strong pressure, when the olein (lard oil) is 
pressed out, the solid residue (stearin) being used for various purposes, more particularly the 
manufacture of candles. Olein may also be separated by means of boiling alcohol, which, 
on cooling, deposits the concrete principles of the lard. Lard oil (see Oleum Adipis) is exten- 
sively employed for burning in lamps, as a lubricant, and for greasing wool. Vast quantities 
of it are prepared in Cincinnati, Chicago, and other centres of the pork-slaughtering industry. 
It is a very large article of export, the amount exported in 1896 having been 509,534,256 lbs., 
valued at $33,589,856, and in 1897, 568,315,640 lbs., valued at $29,126,485. 
Exposed to the air, lard absorbs oxygen and becomes rancid. It should, therefore, be kept 
in well-closed vessels, or procured fresh when wanted for use. In the rancid state, it irritates 
the skin, and sometimes exercises an injurious reaction on substances mixed with it. Ban- 
cidity in lard and other fats is prevented by digesting them with benzoin or poplar buds, and 
rancid lard may often be greatly improved by washing it with lime water. (See Unguenta.) 
Lard even when fresh is slightly acid, as was proved by Dieterich, Arch, de Pharm., 1887. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Lard is emollient, and is occasionally employed by 
itself in frictions, or in connection with poultices to preserve their soft consistence; but its 
chief use is in pharmacy as an ingredient of ointments and cerates. 
ADEPS BENZOINATUS. U. S. (Br.) Benzoinated Lard 
(A'DfiPS BKN-ZO-I-NA'TftS.) 
Adeps Benzoatus, Br.; Benzoated Lard; Unguentum Benzoini, U. S. 1870; Axungia Balsamica, s. Benzoinata, 
s. Benzoata; Ointment of Benzoin, E.; Axonge (Graisse) benzoinle (balsamique), Fr.; Benzoinirtes Schmalz, G. 
Preparation. “ Lard, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Benzoin, in 
coarse powder, twenty grammes [or 308 grains]. Melt the Lard by means of a water-bath. 
Tie the Benzoin loosely in a piece of coarse muslin, suspend it in the melted Lard, and, stir- 
ring frequently, continue the heat for two hours, covering the vessel and not allowing the tem- 
perature to rise above 60° C. (140° F.). Lastly, having removed the Benzoin, strain the Lard, 
and stir occasionally while it cools. When Benzoinated Lard is to be kept or used during 
warm weather, 5 per cent, (or more, if necessary) of the Lard should be replaced by White 
Wax.” U.S. 
“ Lard, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Benzoin, in powder, 210 grains (Imperial) or 
15 grammes. Melt the Lard on a water-bath ; add the Benzoin ; continue the application of heat 
for two hours, frequently stirring; remove the residue of the Benzoin by straining; stir the 
Benzoated Lard until cold.” Br. That the balsamic or resinous principles in certain substances 
like benzoin exercise a valuable function in preserving fats has been proved by abundant ex- 
perience. It has been shown that when made, as originally suggested by Doliber and directed 
in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870, by incorporating the tincture with lard, ointment of ben- 
zoin was irritating to the skin in certain diseases: hence the return to the old process of digest- 
ing the benzoin in lard, kept at a temperature of 60° C. (140° F.). The present U. S. formula 
does not differ materially from the British, except in the directions to enclose the benzoin in a 
muslin bag and the regulation of the temperature ; the first improvement has for its object the 
prevention of the hard cake of benzoin, which otherwise collects at the bottom of the water- FART I. 
Adeps Lanse.—Adeps Lanse Hydrosus. 
115 
bath, and is apt to be imperfectly acted upon. A much pleasanter and more agreeable product 
is insured by heeding the U. S. directions as to limiting the temperature, a high heat volatil- 
izing the odorous principles and communicating an empyreumatic odor. 
ADEPS LAN®. Br. Wool-Fat. 
(A'DEPS LA'ILE.) 
“ The purified cholesterin-fat of sheep’s wool.” Br. 
The British Pharmacopoeia recognizes both wool-fat and hydrous wool-fat. Wool-fat is 
“ A yellowish, tenacious, unctuous substance; almost inodorous; melting point varies from 
104° to 112° F. (40° to 44-4° C.) ; readily soluble in ether or in chloroform, sparingly soluble 
in alcohol (90 per cent.). 1 gramme should dissolve almost completely in 75 cubic centimetres 
of boiling alcohol (90 per cent.), the greater part separating in flocks on cooling. When in- 
cinerated with free access of air, it leaves not more than 0-3 per cent, of ash, which should 
not be alkaline to litmus. 10 grammes dissolved in 25 cubic centimetres of ether, two drops 
of solution of phenol-phthalein being added, should not require more than 0-1 cubic centimetre 
of volumetmc solution of sodium hydroxide to produce a permanent red coloration (limit of 
acidity). The solution in chloroform poured gently over the surface of sulphuric acid acquires 
a purple-red color. Heated with solution of sodium hydroxide, no ammoniacal odor should be 
evolved (absence of nitrogenous animal matter).” Br. (See next article.) 
ADEPS LAN.® HYDROSUS. U. S., Br. Hydrous Wool-Fat. 
(A'DEPS LA'NjE HY DRO'SUS.) 
“ The purified fat of the wool of sheep (Ovis Aries, Linne; class, Mammalia; order, Rumi- 
nantia), mixed with not more than 30 per cent, of water.” U. S. 
Lanoline; Lanolin, G. 
“Wool-Fat, 7 ounces (Imperial) or 140 grammes; Distilled Water, 3fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 60 cubic centimetres. Place the Wool-Fat in a warm mortar; add the Distilled Water 
gradually and with constant trituration.” Br. 
The two Pharmacopoeias differ in that whilst the U. S. P. recognizes only hydrous wool-fat 
and gives no formula for its preparation, the Br. P. recognizes wool-fat and gives the preceding 
directions for preparing hydrous wool-fat. Both the anhydrous and hydrous should be official 
in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
Preparation. The wool of sheep contains on the average about 45 per cent, of its 
weight of fat, which must be removed before the wool can be used in the manufacture of 
woollen tissues. The crude fat has been termed oesipus and cesipum. This fat, to which the 
name of lanolin has been given, is a mixture of ethers of cholesterin, C26H43(0H), with the 
several fatty acids contained in ordinary fats. Darmstaedter and Lifscheitz obtained from 
the alkaline washings of partially saponified lanolin two unsaturated alcohols, C10H200 and 
both being colorless, odorless, and tasteless powders; lanolin alcohol, C12H240, also a 
colorless, odorless powder, was isolated by G. Marchetti (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 1895, No. 19) ; by 
the action of chromic acid the latter is converted into lanolinic acid, C12H2203, a white, crystal- 
line powder (P. J. Tr., 1895, p. 75). Lanolin was originally recommended by Dr. Oscar Liebreich, 
and may be readily procured from the washings of the wool by a process which has been pat- 
ented by him, or it may be obtained by treating the wool with petroleum benzin and distilling 
off the benzin. The objection to the latter process is the difficulty of getting rid of the benzin 
odor. Liebreich’s patented process is as follows. The fresh undecomposed waste liquor or 
lye is passed through a centrifugal machine, in which the dirt and the fat are separated from 
each other, while the cleansed soap liquor is continually drawn off by means of a pipe and led 
directly into the vat which serves for the acidulation. The raw lanolin thus obtained is thor- 
oughly kneaded by suitable machinery, in cold flowing water until the water which flows off is 
as clear as the water which flows in. The raw lanolin is then heated with water, whereby it is 
split up into water and fat. The latter is skimmed off from the surface and cooled, and for 
further purification it can be treated in the centrifugal machine in a melted condition, or it can 
be dissolved in ether, ethylated or methylated spirits, or other solvents, and the solution can be 
separated from the residue by filtration or other means. The solvents can be recovered by 
treatment in suitable stills. After the fat has been cleaned as above stated, it is thoroughly 
kneaded with water for a long time, and a perfectly white neutral colorless ointment is ob- 
tained. From the deposit in the lowest part of the centrifugal machine a further portion of 116 
Adeps Lanse Hydrosus.—fEther Aceticus. 
PART I. 
lanolin can be obtained by stirring the same up with clean or salt water and again treating it 
in the centrifugal machine, or extracting it, either in a wet or a dry condition, by means of a 
solvent, after which it is treated as above. 
Instead of producing lanolin from wool-washing water it may be obtained from commercial 
wool-fat by stirring this wool-fat together with water containing sodium carbonate, caustic 
soda, or an alkali, or a mixture of these to form a thin milky solution, which is treated in the 
manner above described. 
“ A yellowish-white or nearly white, ointment-like mass, having a faint, peculiar odor. In- 
soluble in water, but miscible with twice its weight of the latter, without losing its ointment- 
like character. With ether or chloroform it yields turbid solutions which are neutral to litmus 
paper. Hydrous Wool-Fat melts at about 40° C. (104° F.). When heated on a water-bath, 
it finally leaves a residue amounting to not less than 70 per cent., which is transparent while 
melted, and, when cold, appears as a yellow, tough, unctuous mass, completely soluble in ether 
or chloroform, and only partially soluble in alcohol. A solution (1 in 50) of a portion of this 
mass in chloroform, when poured on the surface of concentrated sulphuric acid, gradually de- 
velops a deep brown color at the line of contact of the two layers. When a portion of this 
mass is ignited, it should leave not more than 0-3 per cent, of ash, which should not have an 
alkaline reaction on litmus (absence of alkalies). If 2 Gm. of the same mass are dissolved in 
10 C.c. of ether, and mixed with 2 drops of phenolphtalein test-solution, a colorless liquid 
results (absence of free alkalies), which should be decidedly reddened by 1 drop of potassium 
hydrate normal volumetric solution (absence of free fatty acids). If 10 Gm. of Hydrous 
Wool-Fat be heated, together with 50 C.c. of water, on a water-bath, until the fat is melted, 
there should result an upper, translucent and light yellow, fatty layer, and a lower, clear, aque- 
ous layer, which latter should not yield glycerin upon evaporation, and when a portion of it is 
heated with some potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, it should not emit vapors of 
ammonia.” IT. S. “ 10 grammes heated on a water-bath, with stirring, until the weight is 
constant, should yield not less than 7 grammes of residue, which should answer to the tests 
for Wool-Fat.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. It has been claimed for lanolin that it passes through 
the skin much more readily than do ordinary fatty substances. According to Patschkowski, 
half an hour after inunction of a mixture of lanolin and potassium iodide, iodine can be 
recovered from the urine, whilst the official ointment yields a negative result. This has been 
confirmed by Kaspar; but Ritter and Pfeiffer in a long series of experiments were unable to 
perceive that lanolin had any superiority over other fats in promoting absorption. Further, 
when it is remembered that lanolin is a sebaceous secretion, largely composed of cholesterin 
and allied substances, and not intended by nature to be absorbed, but to grease and soften the 
fibres of the wool, the possession by it of the property of aiding absorption through the skin 
becomes very doubtful. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly soothing to the skin, and often 
makes an excellent basis for ointments expected to act especially upon the skin. Lanolin has 
been used as a basis for suppositories and bougies. (Amer. Drug., 1898, 35.) 
See page 118. 
/ETHER. U.S., Br. Ether. 
./ETHER ACETICUS. U. S., Br. Acetic Ether. [Acetate of Ethyl.] 
C2H5, C2H3O2; 87*8. (AETHER A-QET'I-CUS.) C2H5C2H3O2; 88. 
Naphtha Acete; Ethyl Acetate; Ether ac6tique, Naphte acfitique, Fr.; Essigaethcr, Essignaphtha, G. 
“ A liquid composed of about 98-5 per cent., by weight, of Ethyl Acetate [C2H6C2H302 = 
87’8], and about 1-5 per cent, of Alcohol containing a little water. It should be kept in well- 
stoppered bottles, in a cool and dark place, remote from lights or fire.” U. S. “ An ethereal 
liquid consisting of ethyl acetate, CH3.C00(C2II5), together with unimportant amounts of 
ethylic alcohol or other substances, obtained by distillation from a mixture of ethylic alcohol, 
sulphuric acid, and dried sodium acetate, digestion of the distillate with dried potassium car- 
bonate, and subsequent separation, by distillation, of the portion boiling between 165° and 
172° F. (73-9° and 77-8° C.).” Br. 
Preparation. A process for preparing this ether will be found in a former British 
Pharmacopoeia (1885). It is a modification of the process recommended by W. I. Clark (B. 
J. lb'., 1883, p. 777), and is as follows: “Take of Rectified Spirit, 321 fluidounces [Imp. 
meas.] ; Sulphuric Acid, 321 fluidounces [Imp. meas.] ; Acetate of Sodium, 40 ounces [av.] \ PART I. 
JEther Aceticus. 
117 
Carbonate of Potassium, freshly dried, 6 ounces [av.]. To the spirit slowly add the acid, keep- 
ing the fluid cool, and, the product being cold, add the acetate, mixing thoroughly. Distil 
forty-five fluidounces [Imp. meas.J. Digest the distillate with the carbonate of potassium for 
three days in a stoppered bottle. Separate the ethereal fluid, and again distil until all but about 
four fluidounces have passed over. Preserve the resulting acetic ether in a well-closed bottle 
and in a cool place.” Br. In addition to this method, acetic ether may be made by several 
processes, the chief of which are the following. 1. Mix 100 parts of alcohol (sp. gr. 0-83) 
with 63 parts of concentrated acetic acid, and 17 parts of strong sulphuric acid, and distil 125 
parts into a receiver, kept cold with wet cloths. 2. Distil to dryness a mixture of three parts 
of sodium acetate, three of alcohol, and two of sulphuric acid, mix the distilled product 
with one-fifth of sulphuric acid, and distil a second time an amount of ether equal to the al- 
cohol employed. 3. Distil two parts of effloresced lead acetate -with one part of alcohol, and 
a little more than one part of sulphuric acid. In the last two processes, the acetic acid is set 
free by the action of the sulphuric acid on the acetate employed. J. A. Pabst has devised a 
process for acetic ether in imitation of that for the preparation of common ether. 50 C.c. of 
sulphuric acid and the same quantity of alcohol are heated together in a retort to 140° C. 
(284° F.), and then a mixture of one liter of 96 per cent, alcohol and one liter of acetic acid 
(93 per cent.) is allowed to flow in slowly. At first some ethyl ether goes over, and then a liquid 
which contains, with considerable uniformity, 85 per cent, acetic ether. The reaction takes place 
between 130° C. (266° F.) and 135° C. (275° F.) ; at 145° C. (293° F.) some sulphurous 
acid is produced. The yield is about 1350 grammes, or 78 per cent., which is 90 per cent, of 
the theoretical amount. With reference to the solubility of acetic ether in saturated calcium 
chloride solution, it is to be remarked that pure acetic ether is not dissolved, although it is if 
mixed with 90 per cent, alcohol. One volume acetic ether, one volume alcohol, and two vol- 
umes calcium chloride solution give a homogeneous liquid. The methyl acetic ether can be 
prepared exactly as the ethyl compound, but in the attempt to prepare the amyl acetic ether 
in an analogous manner side reactions were found to interfere. In order to study the propor- 
tional power of combination possessed by the two alcohols, Mr. Pabst allowed a mixture of 
100 C.c. methyl alcohol and 100 C.c. acetic acid to flow into a mixture of 50 C.c. sulphuric 
acid and 50 C.c. ethyl alcohol. The first distillates contained essentially methyl acetate and the 
latter pure ethyl acetate. In the flask were found remaining nearly equal amounts of sulphuric 
and ethyl sulphuric acids, and in addition alcohol, acetic acid, and some residual ethyl acetate. 
(Bull. Soc. Chim., vol. xxxiii. pp. 350, 351 ; A. J. P., 1880.) 
The United States Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ a transparent, colorless liquid, of a fra- 
grant and refreshing, slightly acetous odor, and a peculiar acetous and burning taste. Specific 
gravity, 0-893 to 0-895 at 15° C. (59° F.). Boiling point, about 76° C. (168-8° F.). Solu- 
ble in about 8 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.) ; miscible, in all proportions, with alcohol, 
ether, fixed and volatile oils. Acetic Ether is readily volatilized, even at a low temperature. 
It is inflammable, burning with a yellowish flame and an acetous odor. It is neutral to litmus 
paper. When evaporated in a capsule, Acetic Ether should leave no residue. If a portion be 
allowed to evaporate spontaneously from clean, odorless blotting paper, the final odor should 
not resemble that of pine-apples (absence of butylic and amylic derivatives). When 25 C.c. 
of Acetic Ether are shaken, in a graduated tube, with 25 C.c. of water just previously sat- 
urated with the Ether, upon separation, the ethereal layer should not measure less than 
24-5 C.c. (absence of an undue proportion of alcohol or water). When a small portion of 
the Ether is carefully poured upon some concentrated sulphuric acid, no dark ring should be 
developed at the point of contact of the two layers (absence of readily carbonizable, organic 
impurities).” U. S. “ 1 part by weight dissolves in not less than 10 parts of cold water. Spe- 
cific gravity 0 900 to 0-905. If should have no action on solution of litmus. It is not colored 
when mixed with an equal volume of sulphuric acid (absence of organic impurities). Filter- 
paper moistened with Acetic Ether should remain odorless when the liquid has evaporated.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Acetic ether is occasionally used in medicine as a 
stimulant and antispasmodic. Its action upon the system is probably very similar to that of 
ether; but as it is less volatile it is less rapidly absorbed and eliminated, and consequently is 
much less prompt and fugacious in its influence than is ether. It is locally irritating. It has 
been found by Dr. H. C. Wood to be capable of being used as an anaesthetic, but to be too 
slow in its action for practical purposes. The dose by the mouth is from fifteen to fifty drops 
(0-9-3-08 C.c.), sufficiently diluted with water. It is sometimes employed externally, by friction, 
as a resolvent, and for rheumatic pains. 118 
JEther.—sEther Purificatus. 
PART I. 
/ETHER. U. S., Br. Ether. 
“ A liquid composed of about 96 per cent., by weight, of absolute Ether or Ethyl Oxide 
[(C2H6)20 = 73-84], and about 4 per cent, of Alcohol containing a little Water. Ether should 
be kept in well-stoppered containers, preferably in tin cans, in a cool place, remote from lights 
or fire.” IT. S. “A volatile liquid prepared from ethylic alcohol by interaction with sulphuric 
acid. It contains not less than 92 per cent, by volume of ethyl oxide, (C2H6)20.” Br. 
iEther Sulphuricus, Ed., Dub.; Ether, Ilydric Ether, Sulphuric Ether, Naphtha Vitrioli, Hydrate of Ethylen, 
Oxide of Ethyl; Ether hydrique, ou vinique, ou sulfurique, Fr.; Aether, Sehwefelather, G. 
(AS'THER—e'ther.) 
/ETHER PURIFICATUS. Br. Purified Ether. 
(AS'THER PU-RI-FI-CA'TUS.) 
“ Ether from which most of the ethylic alcohol has been removed by washing with distilled 
water, and most of the water by subsequent distillation in the presence of calcium chloride 
and recently prepared lime.” Br. 
Ether hydrique, Fr.; Reiner Aether, G. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 recognized /Ether and /Ether Fortior, giving the definitions 
appended in the foot-note* The present /Ether of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia replaces the /Ether 
Fortior of the U. S. P. 1880, the /Ether of the U. S. P. 1880 being dropped, as its deficient 
strength rendered it of little use. The /Ether Purificatus of the British Pharmacopoeia is 
somewhat stronger than the /Ether of the present U. S. Pharmacopoeia, the latter permitting 
the presence of 4 per cent, of alcohol. The British purified ether, on account of its having 
the alcohol removed by washing with water, is sometimes termed jEther Lotum. or washed 
ether. 
The preparation of ether embraces two stages: its generation,f and its subsequent rectifica- 
tion | to remove impurities. All formulas agree in obtaining it by the action of sulphuric acid 
on alcohol. In the former United States process, which was adopted, with modifications, from 
the French Codex, one-third of the alcohol taken is mixed with the acid, and while still hot 
from the reaction, distilled from a glass retort, by a heat quickly applied, into a refrigerated 
receiver. When the heat of the mixture has risen to between 130° C. (266° F.) and lBT'T0 
C. (280° F.), the remainder of the alcohol is allowed to enter the retort in a continuous 
stream, the supply being so regulated that the heat shall be maintained between the degrees 
mentioned. By a complicated reaction which is explained on page 121, the acid converts the 
alcohol into ether; and, were it not that the acid becomes more and more dilute as the process 
proceeds, it would be able to etherize an unlimited quantity of alcohol. Although the acid, 
* jEther, U. S. 1880. “A liquid composed of about 74 per cent, of Ethyl Oxide [(CjHrHO; 74_C4H50; 37] 
and about 26 per cent, of Alcohol containing a little Water. Sp. gr. about 0-750 at 15° C. (50° F.).” 
JEther Fortior, U. S. 1880. “ A liquid composed of about 91 per cent, of Ethyl Oxide ; 74—C4II5O; 
37] and about 6 per cent, of Alcohol containing a little Water. Sp. gr. not higher than 0-725 at 15° C. (59° F.l, or 
0-716 at 25° C. (77° F.).” r o o v ” 
t The U. S. Pharmacopoeia has abandoned all processes for preparing or purifying ether. (See U. S. D., 16th ed., 
p. 133.) The British process for making ether is appended : 
“Take of Rectified Spirit fifty fluidounces [Imp. meas.] ; Sulphuric Acid ten fluidounces [Imp. meas.] ; Chloride 
of Calcium ten ounces [avoird.] ; Slaked Lime half an ounce [avoird.] ; Distilled Water thirteen fluidounces [Imp. 
meas.]. Mix the Sulphuric Acid with twelve fluidounces of the Spirit in a glass flask having a wide neck and capa- 
ble of containing at least two pints [Imp. meas.], and not allowing the mixture to cool, connect the flask by means 
of a bent glass tube with a Liebig’s condenser, and distil at a temperature sufficient to maintain the liquid in brisk 
ebullition. As soon as the ethereal fluid begins to pass over, supply fresh Spirit through a tube into the flask in a 
continuous stream, and in such quantity as to equal the volume of the fluid which distils over. For this purpose 
use a tube furnished with a stop-cock to regulate the supply, connecting one end of the tube with a vessel contain- 
ing the Spirit raised above the level of the flask, and passing the other end into the acid fluid through a cork fitted 
into the flask. When the whole of the Spirit has been added, and forty-two fluidounces have distilled over, the pro- 
cess may be stopped. Dissolve the Chloride of Calcium in the Water, add the Lime, and agitate the mixture in a 
bottle with the impure ether. Leave the mixture at rest for ten minutes, pour off the light supernatant fluid, and 
distil it until a glass bead of specific gravity 0-735 placed in the receiver begins to float. The ether and spirit re- 
tained by the chloride of calcium, and by the residue of each rectification, may be recovered by distillation and used 
in a subsequent operation.” Br. 
t Pure Ether (ASther Purus) of the British Pharmacopoeia is made by the following process: 
“Take of Ether, Distilled Water, of each, two pints [Imperial measure]; Lime, recently burned, one ounce 
[avoirdupois] ; Chloride of Calcium, four ounces [av.]. Put the Ether with one pint [Imp. meas.] of the Water into 
a bottle, and shake them together; allow them to remain at rest for a few minutes, and when the two liquids have 
separated, decant off the supernatant ether. Mix this with the remainder of the Water, and again, after separation, 
decant as before. Put now the washed ether, together with the Lime and Chloride of Calcium, into a retort to which 
a receiver is closely attached, let them stand for 24 hours, then distil with the aid of a gentle heat. Sp. gr. not 
exceeding 0-720.” Br. PART I. 
jEther Purificatus. 
119 
before it becomes too dilute, is capable of determining the decomposition of a certain amount 
of alcohol, yet it is not expedient to add this amount of alcohol at once; as a considerable 
portion of it would distil over undecomposed with the ether. The proper way, therefore, is 
that indicated in the formulas; namely, to commence the process with the use of part of the 
alcohol, and, when the decomposition is fully established, and a portion of ether has distilled, 
to add the remainder in a gradual manner, so as to replace that which, every moment of the 
progress of the distillation, is disappearing by its conversion into ether. 
The modifications of the old process were made in conformity with suggestions by Dr. 
Squibb, contained in a paper published in the Proc. A. P. A., 1858, p. 390. The direction in 
the 1850 process to reserve a small portion of acid, to be added gradually with the reserved 
alcohol, upon the supposition that the acid in the retort might be too much weakened to per-, 
form its part duly, has been found upon trial to result in no practical advantage. As the 
proper proportion between the acid and the alcohol is that which requires for ebullition a term 
perature somewhat above 130° C. (266° F.), or that at which the ether is formed, there is an 
obvious propriety in supplying the alcohol just so rapidly as may be sufficient to maintain this 
temperature in the liquid of the retort. If the alcohol be supplied so rapidly as to reduce the 
temperature below the point mentioned, alcohol will distil over in undue proportion; if too 
slowly supplied, the temperature will rise so high as to produce other reactions in the materials 
than that required for etherification, and various other products will result. The rising of the 
temperature to 141-1° C. (286° F.), after all the alcohol has been added, is, therefore, an 
indication that the process should be suspended. Nevertheless, the caution to check the pro- 
cess when white vapors appear in the retort is not amiss, as affording an additional security 
that it shall not be carried too far. At the temperature of 160° C. (320° F.), there will be 
generated sulphurous acid, heavy oil of wine, olefiant gas, and a large quantity of resino-car- 
bonaceous matter, blackening and rendering thick the residuary liquid; all of them products 
arising from the decomposition of a portion of sulphuric acid, alcohol, and ether. 
The British process is that of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia slightly modified. The prin- 
ciples are the same as those of the U. S. 1870 process; but the directions about temperature 
are wanting; and the regulation of the supply of alcohol, and the cessation of the operation, 
are made to depend on the less reliable method of determining the measure of liquid, in the 
first place in the retort, and in the second place in the receiver. 
In both processes, whatever care may be taken in conducting them, and to stop them in due 
time, the ether obtained is apt to be contaminated with sulphurous acid, heavy oil of wine, 
alcohol, and water; and hence its purification becomes necessary. For this purpose the crude 
ether is agitated with purifying agents and submitted to a new distillation at a gentle heat, 
called the rectification. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870 employed an aqueous solution of 
potassa; the British Pharmacopoeia (1885) used a saturated solution of calcium chloride to which 
had been added lime. The British method of purification as embodied in the formula for iEther 
Purificatus (see page 118) is preferable to the old United States method, as more thoroughly 
removing the water. In either case the lime and the potash are equally efficacious in neutral- 
izing any sulphurous acid which may be present in the crude material. The calcium chloride 
solution, after having been used, yields on distillation a further portion of ether of the official 
density; and, by concentrating it, filtering while hot, and separating the crystals of calcium 
sulphite which form on cooling, the chloride may be recovered for future operations. 
In the apparatus employed by Dr. Squibb the ether is made in one operation; the vapors of 
ether and unchanged alcohol are first washed by a solution of caustic potash maintained at a 
temperature above the boiling point of alcohol, the alcoholic vapor is then condensed in a worm 
kept at a suitable temperature and runs back into the still, while the ether vapor, retaining 
about 4 per cent, of alcohol, is condensed in a well-cooled apparatus. 360 lbs. of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid are sufficient to etherify 120 barrels of clean spirit; the acid has then to 
be changed, chiefly because the impurities of the spirit render the mixture dark and tarry and 
liable to froth in the still. (Ephemeris, ii. p. 590.) Krafft proposes to manufacture ether by 
heating alcohol in contact with the alkyl esters of sulphonic acid. He states that benzene- 
sulphonic acid under favorable conditions is capable of converting several thousand times its 
weight of alcohol into ether. The advantage claimed for this method is greater purity of the 
resulting ether. ( Chem. Ztg., 1893, 1876.) Ekenberg purifies ether by mixing it with 5 or 10 
per cent, of liquid paraffin, which has a boiling point of about 300° C., and distilling at a 
temperature of from 40° to 50° C. The liquid paraffin holds the impurities and permits the 
pure ether to distil over. (Chem. Ztg., 1894, 1240.) 120 
jEther Purificatus. 
PART I. 
Properties of Kther. In considering the properties of ether it is necessary to draw a sharp 
distinction between the official ethers of the two Pharmacopoeias. The term Ether (Either) is 
used now (1899) for the second grade ether (sp. gr. 0-735) of the British Pharmacopoeia as 
well as for the only ether now recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia (sp. gr. 0 725 to 0 728) ; 
this latter corresponds with the Purified Ether (.ZEther Purificatus) of the British Pharma- 
copoeia, which has the sp. gr. 0-720. Ether of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia 1890 is described as 
follows. “ A transparent, colorless, mobile liquid, having a characteristic odor, and a burning 
and sweetish taste. Specific gravity, 0-725 to 0-728 at 15° C. (59° F.) ; or 0-714 to 0-717 at 
25° C. (77° F.). Soluble in about 10 times its volume of water at 15° C. (59° F.), with slight 
contraction of volume. Miscible, in all proportions, with alcohol, chloroform, benzin, benzol, 
fixed and volatile oils. Ether boils at about 37° C. (98-6° F.), and it should, therefore, boil 
when a test-tube, containing some broken glass and half filled with it, is held for some time in 
the hand. Ether is highly volatile and inflammable. Its vapor, when mixed with air and 
ignited, explodes violently. The color of light blue litmus paper moistened with water should 
not be changed when the paper is immersed in Ether for ten minutes. Upon evaporation, 
Ether should leave no residue. If 10 C.c. of it be poured, in portions, upon clean, odorless 
blotting paper, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, no foreign odor should become percep- 
tible when the last traces of Ether leave the paper. When 20 C.c. of Ether are shaken, in a 
graduated tube, with 20 C.c. of water, just previously saturated with Ether, the ethereal layer, 
upon separation, should not measure less than 19-8 C.c. (absence of an undue amount of alco- 
hol or water). If 10 C.c. of Ether be shaken occasionally, within one hour, with 1 C.c. of 
potassium hydrate test-solution, no color should be developed in either liquid (absence of 
aldehyde, etc.).” U, S. The British Pharmacopoeia gives the following tests for purified ether. 
“ Specific gravity not exceeding 0-722 and not below 0-720. 5 cubic centimetres on spon- 
taneous evaporation should not afford any abnormal odor and should not leave any residue. 
Its vapor is heavy and highly inflammable. It should dissolve in an equal volume of carbon 
bisulphide (absence of excess of water). Heated, it begins to distil at a temperature not under 
94-1° F. (34-5° C.) (absence of methylic ether). No effect should be produced by the addition 
of potassium hydroxide (absence of aldehyde). No alteration in color is produced on moistened 
blue litmus paper after twenty-four hours’ contact (absence of acid). On shaking with half its 
bulk of a dilute solution of potassium bichromate acidulated with sulphuric acid, and setting 
aside, the supernatant Ether should have no blue color (absence of hydrogen peroxide). Filter- 
paper moistened with Purified Ether should remain odorless when the liquid has evaporated.” 
Commercial ether, which is sometimes used as a solvent, varies in sp. gr. from 0-733 to 
0 765. The impurities found in it are excess of alcohol, water, sulphurous and other acids, 
heavy oil of wine, and various fixed substances. 
The ether of U. S. P. 1880 should have the sp. gr. 0-750 : if heavier than this, it must contain 
too much alcohol or water. The statement that water takes up only one-tenth of ether, when 
equal volumes of ether (sp. gr. 0-750) and water are shaken together in a graduated tube, has 
been shown by Dr. Squibb to be erroneous. If it take up more than one-fourth, the ether must 
contain an excess of alcohol or water, or of both. If the alcohol be in excess, it may be removed 
by agitating the liquid with twice its bulk of water, which unites with the alcohol, forming a 
heavier stratum, from which the ether may be poured off. The ether, however, takes up about 
one-tenth of water, which may be removed by agitation with freshly-burned lime, and subse- 
quent distillation. An easy method for detecting and measuring any alcohol present in ether 
was given by the Edinburgh College; namely, to agitate it, in a minim measure, with half its 
volume of a concentrated solution of calcium chloride. This will remove the alcohol; and the 
reduction of the volume of the ether, when it rises to the surface, will indicate the amount. 
Heavy oil of wine may be discovered by the ether becoming milky upon being mixed with water. 
If the ether be pure, it wholly evaporates in the air, leaving no solid residue. All non-volatile im- 
purities are thus detected. It should not redden litmus, showing the absence of acids. The 
point of ebullition is also an indication of the strength of the ether. When evaporating from 
bibulous paper, it should offer only a slight degree of foreign odor, aromatic and free from pun- 
gency, and should leave the paper, when dry, nearly or quite odorless. This test proves the 
absence of volatile impurities, except a slight and not inadmissible proportion of light oil of wine. 
The British ether should have the sp. gr. 0 735. “ 100 volumes agitated with an equal 
volume of water should not be reduced to less than 90 (absence of excess of ethylic alcohol). 
It should boil below 105° F. (40-5° C.). Specific gravity 0-735. It evaporates without residue. 
It should have no action on solution of litmus. It should dissolve without coloration when PART I. 
AEther Puriflcatas. 
121 
introduced drop by drop into sulphuric acid kept cool during the test (absence of organic 
impurities).” Br. This commercial ether may answer for external application, and may even 
be given by the mouth, yet for purposes of inhalation it is entirely unfitted without further 
purification. 
The extreme volatility of ether causes it to evaporate speedily in the open air, with the pro- 
duction of considerable cold. Its inflammability is very great, and the products of its combus- 
tion are water and carbonic acid. In consequence of this property the greatest care should be 
used not to bring it in the vicinity of flame, as, for example, a lighted candle. One of the 
great advantages of using steam as the source of heat is that it obviates, in a great measure, 
the danger of its accidental inflammation. When too long kept it undergoes decomposition, 
and is converted in part into acetic acid. It dissolves iodine and bromine freely, and sulphur 
and phosphorus sparingly. Its power to dissolve corrosive sublimate makes it a useful agent 
in the manipulations for detecting that poison. It is also a solvent of volatile and fixed oils, 
many resins and balsams, tannic acid, caoutchouc, and most of the organic vegetable alkaloids. 
It does not dissolve potassa and soda, in which respect it differs from alcohol. Ether unites in 
all proportions with alcohol. According to Prof. R. Boettger, water may be detected in ether 
by agitating the suspected liquid with carbon disulphide; if water be present the mixture 
becomes milky and turbid, otherwise it remains clear. Stefanelli (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 8, 439) 
proposes to shake ether with a small fragment of aniline-violet, which does not impart color to 
ether free from alcohol. One per cent, of alcohol may be thus detected. 
The most delicate test for the presence of alcohol in ether is that of Lieben, founded on the 
formation of iodoform by alcohol but not by ether. (See p. 126.) The mere keeping of ether 
in presence of moisture is said to generate traces of alcohol sufficient to produce the reaction. 
(Allen, Com. Org. Anal., 2d ed., i. p. 125.) 
On filtering an ethereal liquid with free access of air, a frost-like congelation is observed on 
the upper part of the filter, its appearance and quantity depending upon the temperature and 
the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. Tanret has collected some of this ether hydrate, 
and found that after it had been completely freed from ether by strongly blowing upon it, it 
had the temperature 3-5° C. (25-7° F.), and on fusion yielded 17 to 18 parts of water for 37 of 
ether; the formula (C„H6)20,2H20 requires 18 parts. (A. J. P., 1878.) 
Composition ana Theory of its Production. The empirical formula of ether is 
C4Hi00, and this is the result both of analysis and of a determination of its vapor density, 
whereby the molecular weight is established. This formula, however, is better understood 
when we examine the conditions of its formation. Ether is then found to be the oxide of 
ethyl (C2H6). This is the group which gives character to common alcohol and all its salts, 
whether with organic or inorganic acids. The group C2H6 acts as a monad radical, and com- 
mon alcohol is its hydrate, C2H6.0H. Its oxide then would be (C2H6)20, and all the reactions 
by which ether is produced show it to be this oxide. It is commonly formed from common 
alcohol (ethyl hydrate) by the action of sulphuric acid, according to the following reactions: 
C2H6,0II + SOa,OH,OH == S02,0H,0C2H6 + H,OH; 
that is, alcohol reacting with sulphuric acid yields ethyl-sulphuric acid (sulphovinic acid) and 
water. In the presence of an excess of alcohol and at the proper temperature the ethyl-sul- 
phuric acid then reacts with another molecule of alcohol, as follows: 
c2h6,oh + S02,0H,0C2H6=C2H6,0C2H6 + S02,0H,0H, 
whereby ethyl oxide (ether) is formed, and sulphuric acid is regenerated. These reactions take 
place best at a temperature of about 140° C. (284° F.), and if the mixture in the flask is kept 
at this temperature a steady stream of alcohol can be converted into ether, whence the process 
has been called “ the continuous etherification process.” 
Medical Properties and Uses. The chief use of ether in medicine is as an anaes- 
thetic ; although when taken into the stomach it is absorbed and exerts its narcotic powers. 
Locally applied it acts at first as a stimulant and afterwards as a narcotic. If it be on an 
exposed surface its evaporation occurs so rapidly as to mask by refrigeration the direct action 
of ether. It was at one time employed for freezing parts about to be operated upon, but has 
been superseded by the more volatile and cheaper petroleum products. It is frequently em- 
ployed in nausea dependent upon gastric depression, and also in flatulent or even biliary colic ; 
it is sometimes effective in gastrodynia, in neuralgia of the gums, earache, etc. When applied 
locally its evaporation should be prevented if possible. When ether is taken into the general 
system it produces an increase of the force and frequency of the pulse, which appears to be 
due to a stimulant action both upon the heart and vaso-motor system. The augmentation of 122 
JEther Purificatus. 
PART I. 
the force of the circulation is remarkably well maintained even during profound etherization, 
and after death from ether poisoning the heart is usually, if not always, found to be beating. 
When the drug causes a fatal result, it is almost always by paralyzing the centres of respira- 
tion. In sufficient amount ether acts powerfully as a narcotic, suspending consciousness and 
also lessening reflex activity. In some subjects there is a stage of etherization in which sensi- 
bility is destroyed, although consciousness is preserved. The influence of ether upon the ner- 
vous system is a direct one, and the usual order of the involvement of the nerve-centres as 
shown by Flourens is: first the cerebrum, next the sensory centres of the cord, next the motor 
centres of the cord, next the sensory centres of the medulla, and finally the motor centres (in- 
cluding that of respiration) of the medulla. 
For external use, the unrectified ether is sufficiently pure. The internal dose of ether is 
from fifty drops to a teaspoonful, to be repeated frequently when the full effect of the remedy 
is desired. It may be given in capsules, or simply floating upon the surface of ice-cold water, 
or incorporated in an aqueous mixture, to be made by first rubbing it up with spermaceti, em- 
ployed in the proportion of two grains for each fluidrachm of the ether. 
A syrup of ether is directed by the French Codex. MM. J. Regnault and Adrian, after a 
thorough investigation of the solubility of ether in solutions of sugar, offer the following 
formula. Take of sugar 440 parts, distilled water 490 parts, alcohol at 90° 50 parts, pure 
ether 20 parts. Put into a bottle, shake, and preserve. The whole of this might be given at 
a dose, if the parts taken are represented by grains. 
Capsules of ether, also called pearls of ether, are inodorous, will keep for a year at least with- 
out loss, and furnish the means of introducing ether into the stomach without irritating the 
mouth and throat. In a few seconds after they arrive in the stomach, they burst and diffuse 
their effects with singular rapidity. Analogous effects are produced when they are introduced 
into the rectum or vagina. Ether may be gelatinized by the process of M. Grimault. This 
consists in briskly shaking, in a stoppered bottle, four measures of ether, free from alcohol and 
acid, with one measure of white of egg. Gelatinized ether is an opaline trembling jelly, which 
may be spread with the greatest facility. It may be used as a local anaesthetic, applied to the 
seat of pain, spread on linen, and covered with a piece of cloth or of sheet caoutchouc. Gela- 
tinized ether will not keep, but must be prepared at the time it is wanted. 
Etherization. Ether may be exhibited by inhalation. Many years ago, its use in this 
way was proposed by Drs. Beddoes, Pearson, and Thornton, of England, in certain diseases of 
the lungs. As early as 1805, the late Dr. Warren, of Boston, employed ethereal inhalation to 
relieve the distress attending the last stage of pulmonary inflammation. About the year 1812, 
in Philadelphia, at the time when the nitrous oxide was the subject of popular lectures, the 
vapor of ether was frequently breathed from a bladder for experiment or diversion ; and its 
effects in producing transient intoxication, analogous to that caused by the nitrous oxide, were 
observed. It was not, however, until October, 1846, that attention was particularly drawn to 
ethereal inhalation as a remedy for pain. In that month, Dr. Warren, of Boston, was applied 
to by Dr. W. T. G. Morton, dentist, of that city, to ascertain by trial whether an agent which 
he had successfully employed to render painless the extracting of teeth would be equally suc- 
cessful in preventing the pain of surgical operations. This agent was the vapor of ether. 
Dr. Warren acceded to this request, and shortly afterwards, at the Massachusetts General Hos- 
pital, performed a severe operation, without pain to the patient, under the influence of ether, 
administered by Dr. Morton. A few days subsequently, Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, in con- 
versation with Dr. Warren, claimed to have first made known to Dr. Morton the use of ethereal 
vapor for the prevention of pain in dental operations. 
From this beginning, the employment of ether by inhalation for the prevention and removal 
of pain has spread throughout the civilized world. The effect produced, called etherization, is 
usefully resorted to in all severe operations, not merely for the prevention of pain, but also of 
the shock which the system would otherwise suffer as a consequence of the pain, and also as a 
means of producing muscular relaxation in dislocation, strangulated hernias, etc. It has been 
employed for the detection of feigned diseases, by suspending the operation of the will; in 
neuralgia, biliary or renal colic, dysmenorrhcea, etc., as a palliative; in tetanus, and in the 
spasms produced by an overdose of strychnine, as an antispasmodic ; and in asthma and chronic 
bronchitis, as an antispasmodic expectorant. In midwifery it is extensively employed. In 
vivisections, humanity calls for the use of it as an anaesthetic. 
When ether is inhaled, at first a short faucial irritation is generally produced, but this soon 
disappears; and, after the lapse of from two to five minutes, and the expenditure of about PART 1. 
JEther Purificatus.—Alcohol Dilutum. 
123 
two fluidounees of ether, the quantity being very variable in different cases, the patient becomes 
insensible, and appears as if in a deep, almost apoplectic sleep. The usual signs of the full 
effect of the ether are the closure of the eyelids, muscular relaxation, and inability to answer 
questions. During the whole process of etherization, the fingers should be kept on the pulse; 
and if it become feeble, or very slow, or very rapid, the sponge should be removed until the 
circulation improves. At first there is redness, afterwards paleness, of the face and neck, suc- 
ceeded by cold perspirations. The danger in etherization is rarely through failure of the cir- 
culation, but by arrest of the respiration, and the state of the latter function should be closely 
watched; should it become very slow, or shallow, or irregular, the anaesthetic should be with- 
drawn, and, if necessary, appropriate measures of relief adopted. This is the mode of pro- 
ceeding in surgical operations ; in midwifery cases, partial etherization is often sufficient. One 
of the drawbacks to the use of ether is that vomiting is very apt to occur and be severe during 
the recovery from the narcosis. To lessen the gastric disturbance as much as possible, no food 
should be allowed for some hours before etherization, and a moderate dose of brandy or whiskey 
should be administered at the beginning of the latter process. In a few instances etherization 
has produced alarming remote effects. Dr. F. D. Lente has reported three cases of this kind. 
{New York Journ. of Med., Nov. 1856.) It. cannot be gainsaid that ether used for surgical 
purposes has caused death in a considerable number of cases. It appears to be distinctly 
proved by an enormous mass of statistics that the ratio of deaths from chloroform is about 
four times greater than from ether; so that under ordinary circumstances the surgeon should 
always select ether rather than chloroform, especially as most of the so-called “ disadvantages” 
of ether can be overcome by a little care. When in any case of disease of the heart anaesthesia is 
necessary, ether is a much safer anaesthetic than is chloroform. On the other hand, in phthisis, 
chronic bronchitis, in emphysema, pneumonia, and even pleurisy, and especially in laryngitis or 
obstructive diseases of the larynx, chloroform is distinctly preferable to ether. The question 
which of the anaesthetics is the safer when there is disease of the kidneys cannot be positively 
answered at this time, but what statistics there are indicate that ether is less dangerous than is 
chloroform, although the contrary statement has been made by various surgeons. 
ALCOHOL. U. S. (Br.) Alcohol. 
(Xl'co-hol.) 
“ A liquid composed of about 91 per cent., by weight, or 94 per cent., by volume, of Ethyl 
Alcohol [C„H60H = 45*9], and about 9 per cent., by weight, of Water. Alcohol should be 
kept in well-closed vessels, in a cool place, remote from lights or fire.” U. S. “A liquid con- 
taining 90 parts by volume of ethyl hydroxide, C2H6OH, and 10 parts by volume of water; 
obtained by the distillation of fermented saccharine liquids.” Br. 
Spiritus Rectificatus, Br., Rectified Spirit; Spiritus, P. G.; Spiritus Vini Rectificatissimus, Alcohol Vini; 
Spirit of Wine; Alcool, Esprit de Vin, Fr.j Rectificirter Weingeist, G.; Alcoole, Acquavite rectificata, It.; Alcohol, 
Espiritu rectificado de Vino, Sp. 
ALCOHOL ABSOLUTUM. U. S., Br. Absolute Alcohol. 
C2H5OH; 45*9. (Xl'co-hol Ab-so-lu'tum.) 
“ Ethyl Alcohol, containing not more than 1 per cent., by weight, of Water. Absolute Al- 
cohol should be kept in well-stoppered bottles or tin cans, in a cool place, remote from lights 
or fire.” U. S. “ Ethyl hydroxide, C2Hg0H, with not more than 1 per cent., by weight, of 
water; obtained by the removal of water from less strong ethylic alcohol, and subsequent dis- 
tillation.” Br. 
ALCOHOL DEODORATUM. U. S. Deodorized Alcohol. 
(AL'CO-HOL DE-O-DO-RA'TUM.) 
“ A liquid composed of about 92-5 per cent., by weight, or 95-1 per cent., by volume, of 
Ethyl Alcohol [C2H60H = 45-9], and about 7-5 per cent., by weight, of Water. Deodorized 
Alcohol should be kept in well-closed vessels, in a cool place, remote from lights or fire.” U. S. 
ALCOHOL DILUTUM. U. S. Diluted Alcohol. 
(Al'co-hol DI-LU'TUM.) 
“ A liquid composed of about 41 per cent., by weight, or about 48-6 per cent., by volume, 
of absolute.Ethyl Alcohol [C2H60H = 45\9J, and about 59 per cent., by weight, of Water. It 124 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
PART I. 
should be kept in well-closed vessels, in a cool place, remote from lights or fire.” U. S. “ The 
four official liquids obtained by diluting Alcohol (90 per cent.) with Distilled Water contain re- 
spectively 70, 60, 45, and 20 per cent, of ethyl hydroxide by volume.” Br. 
Spiritus Tenuior, Br., 1885, Proof Spirit; Spiritus Dilutus, P. G.; Spiritus Vini Rectificatus; Alcool dilue, Fr.; 
Verdiinnter Spiritus, G. 
From the titles and definitions above given, which include all the forms of alcohol recognized 
by the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias, it will be perceived that there are four official Alcohols, 
those being considered the same which approach nearly in specific gravity and are employed 
for similar purposes. 
The very extended use of alcohol in pharmacy renders it desirable not only to group the 
official kinds together here, but to consider each in detail in the subsequent pages. In the 
U. S. P. (1890) two new kinds of alcohol were made official, “Alcohol Absolutum” and “ Alcohol 
Beodoratum.” The former, which had been made official in the British Pharmacopoeia (1885) 
under the title “Alcohol Ethylicum,” is in the Br. P. (1898) termed “Alcohol Absolutum,” so 
that the two Pharmacopoeias are now in accord. 
Alcohol, in the chemical sense, is a peculiar liquid, generated for the most part in vegetable 
juices and infusions by a fermentation, called th£ vinous or alcoholic. The liquids which have 
undergone it are called vinous liquors, and are of various kinds. Thus, the fermented juice 
of the grape is called wine; of the apple, cider; and the fermented infusion of malt, beer. 
With regard to the nature of the liquids susceptible of the vinous fermentation, however 
various they may be in other respects, one general character prevails; that, namely, of con- 
taining sugar in some form or other. It is found, further, that after they have undergone the 
vinous fermentation the sugar they contain has either wholly or in part disappeared; and it 
was long believed that the only new products are alcohol which remains in the liquid, and car- 
bonic acid which escapes during the process, and that these, when taken together, are equal in 
weight to the sugar lost. It was hence inferred that sugar is the subject-matter of the changes 
that occur during the vinous fermentation, and that it is resolved into alcohol and carbonic 
acid. More recently, however, it has been shown by M. Pasteur that, along with alcohol and 
carbonic acid, glycerin and succinic acid are generated in small amount, and that the process 
is not so simple as at first supposed. 
Sugar will not undergo the vinous fermentation by itself, but requires to be dissolved in 
water, subjected to the influence of a ferment, and kept at a certain temperature. Accordingly, 
sugar, water, the presence of a ferment, and the maintenance of an adequate temperature may 
be deemed the prerequisites of the vinous fermentation. The water acts by giving fluidity, 
and the ferment and temperature by commencing and maintaining the chemical changes. 
The precise manner in which the ferment operates has not been positively determined; but 
the fermentative change seems to be intimately connected with the multiplication of a micro- 
scopic vegetable, torula cerevisire. Pasteur has shown that the yeast plant lives and grows at 
the expense of the sugar, which is converted partly into the tissue of the plant, partly into 
alcohol and other products. The proper temperature for conducting the vinous fermentation 
ranges from 15-5° C. to 32-2° C. (60° to 90° F.). 
Certain vegetable infusions, as those of potatoes and rice, readily undergo vinous fermenta- 
tion, on account of the ease with which their starch is changed into sugar under the influence 
of certain ferments. Taking the formula of starch as (C6H1006)3 for illustration, it is first 
changed under the influence of dilute acids or ferments according to the two reactions 
(CeH1006)3 + H20 = (C6H O,), + CeH1206 
Dextrin. Dextrose. 
(C,H10O„)s + 2Ha0 = C..H!!20ll + C6H130e. 
Maltose. Dextrose. 
The two compounds, dextrin and maltose, then go over gradually into dextrose, according to the 
reactions 
(CeH 0 ), + 2H 0 - 2CeH Oe 
C12H2aO„ + HQ0 = 2CaH1A- 
-Neither dextrin nor maltose is directly fermentable. M. Arnoult has succeeded in obtaining 
alcohol by fermenting sugar (glucose), formed by the action of sulphuric acid on poplar wood 
sawdust, which yielded from 70 to 80 per cent, of this kind of sugar. 
Alcohol, being the product of the vinous fermentation, necessarily exists in all vinous 
liquors, and may be obtained from them by distillation. Formerly it was supposed that these 
liquors did not contain alcohol, but were merely capable of furnishing it, in consequence of a 
new arrangement of their ultimate constituents, the result of the heat applied. Brande, how- PART I. 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
125 
ever, disproved this idea, by showing that alcohol may be obtained from all vinous liquors 
without the application of neat, and therefore must pre-exist in them. His method of sep- 
arating it consists in precipitating the acid and coloring matter from each vinous liquor by 
lead subacetate, and removing the water by potassium carbonate. According to Gay-Lussac, 
litharge, in fine powder, is the best agent for precipitating the coloring matter. 
In vinous liquors, the alcohol is largely diluted with water, and associated with coloring 
matter, volatile oil, extractive, ethereal substances, and various acids and salts. In purifying 
it, we take advantage of its volatility, which enables us to separate it by distillation, combined 
with some of the principles of the vinous liquor employed, and more or less water. The dis- 
tilled product of vinous liquors forms the different ardent spirits of commerce. When obtained 
from wine, it is called brandy; from fermented molasses, rum ; from cider, malted barley, or 
rye, whiskey; from malted barley and rye-meal with hops, and rectified from juniper berries, 
Holland gin ; from malted barley, rye, or potatoes, and rectified from turpentine, common gin ; 
and from fermented rice, arrack* These spirits are of different strengths, that is, contain 
different proportions of alcohol, and have various peculiarities by which they are distinguished 
by the taste. Their strength is accurately judged of by the specific gravity, which is always 
less in proportion as their concentration is greater.j* When they have the sp. gr. 0-920 
(0-91984, Drinkwater), they are designated in commerce by the term proof spirit. If lighter 
than this, they are said to be above proof; if heavier, below proof; and the percentage of 
water, or of spirit of 0-825, necessary to be added to any sample of spirit to bring it to the 
standard of proof spirit, indicates the number of degrees the given sample is above or below 
proof. Thus, if 100 volumes of a spirit require 10 volumes of water to reduce it to proof spirit, 
it is said to be <l 10 over proof.” On the other hand, if 100 volumes of a spirit require 10 vol- 
umes of spirit of 0-825 to raise it to proof, it is said to be “ 10 under proof.” 
Proof spirit is still very far from being pure; being a dilute alcohol, containing about half 
its weight of water, together with a peculiar oil and other foreign matters. It may be further 
purified and strengthened by redistillation, or rectification as it is called. Whiskey is the spirit 
usually employed for this purpose; and from every hundred gallons, between fifty-seven and 
fifty-eight may be obtained, of the average strength of rectified spirit (sp. gr. 0-835), corre- 
sponding very nearly with the Spiritus Rectificatus of the British. When this is once more 
cautiously distilled, it will be further purified from water, and the sp. gr. attained will be about 
0-820, which is the lightest spirit that can be obtained by ordinary distillation, and is practi- 
cally the pure spirit of the British system of excise. It still, however, contains 11 per cent, 
of water. In the mean while, the spirit, by these repeated distillations, becomes more and 
more freed from the contaminating oil, called grain oil or fusel oil. (See Alcohol Amylicum.) 
The synthesis of alcohol from ethylene through the intervention of ethyl-sulphuric acid has 
long been known as a scientific possibility. Recently, with the production of acetylene in- 
dustrially from calcium carbide, this synthesis has been taken up as a commercial possibility. 
Acetylene, made as stated from calcium carbide and water, is generated in the same flask in 
which nascent hydrogen is being formed, the result being the formation of ethylene gas. This 
is brought in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid at 80° C., when the two unite to form 
ethyl-sulphuric acid, which is then condensed and redistilled, when it breaks up into alcohol 
and sulphuric acid, which later can be used over again. The reactions for this synthesis are: 
C2H2 (acetylene) -j- H2 (hydrogen) — C2H4 (ethylene), 
C2H (ethylene) -j- H2S0. = (C2H )HS04 (ethyl-sulphuric acid), 
C2H6HS04 + HOH = C2H6.0H (alcohol) + H2S0.. 
We shall first consider the general properties of alcohol, and afterwards the different official 
forms. 
* It is stated that in Eastern commerce, under the name of toddy, arrack, saki, and tain, is sold a liquid which 
has only once been distilled; whilst sam-shn is a thrice distilled rice spirit, and contains from 33 to 52 per cent, of 
absolute alcohol. (Journ. Am. Chem. Soc., 1885.) 
| H. Grouven ( Vortr. iiber AgriSulturchemie, i. 425; N. R., May, 1879) gives the following average percentages 
of alcohol, as contained in the ordinary liquors: 
Vol. 
Weight 
per cent. 
per cent. 
Scotch Whiskey 
Irish “ 
42'8 
.... 49-9 
42-3 
American “ (old) 
. . . (WO 
52-2 
English “ 
. . . .49-4 
41-9 
French Cognac (Brandy) . . . 
47-3 
Vol. 
Weight 
per cent. 
per cent 
Rum 
.... 49-7 
42"2 
Gin 
40-3 
German “Schnapps” 
Russian “ Dobry Wutky” . . 
. . . .45-0 
. . . .62-0 
37-9 
54-2 
The percentage of alcohol in American whiskey is usually lower than that given above. 126 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
TART I. 
Properties. Alcohol, using this term in a generic sense, is a colorless, transparent, vola- 
tile liquid, of a penetrating, agreeable odor, and burning taste. It should be free from foreign 
odor, which, when present, is owing to fusel oil. When free from water, it is called anhydrous 
or absolute alcohol. It is inflammable, and burns without smoke or residue, forming water and 
carbonic acid. Its flame is bluish when strong, but yellowish when weak. It combines in all 
proportions with water and ether; and, when diluted with distilled water, preserves its trans- 
parency. Its density varies with the proportion of water it contains. (See table on p. 127.) 
Its value depends upon the quantity of absolute alcohol contained in it; and, as this is greater 
in proportion as the sp. gr. is less, it is found convenient to take the density of a sample in 
estimating its strength. This is done by instruments called hydrometers, which, when allowed 
to float in the spirit, sink deeper into it in proportion as it is lighter. Each hydrometer 
strength has a corresponding specific gravity; and, by referring to tables constructed for the 
purpose, the percentage of absolute alcohol is at once shown. Dr. W. H. Pile & Son, makers 
of hydrometers in Philadelphia, graduate instruments showing specific gravity and Baume’s 
degrees upon the same scale in parallel columns, with a thermometer taking the place of the 
bulb ; these are exceedingly convenient. 
Alcohol is used enormously in the arts as a solvent and for other purposes, and govern- 
ments have long sought for suitable regulations which would permit the proper use of alcohol 
in manufacturing and control its use as a beverage. The substitution of methylated spirit 
(alcohol with 10 per cent, of methyl alcohol) has not proved effective. (See Methylic Alcohol, 
Part II.) The French excise directs that alcohol should be denatured or deprived of its 
natural properties by the addition of 500 C.c. of benzin and 1 6m. of malachite green to each 
hectolitre ; it has been found, however, that the color can be destroyed by calcium hypochlorite. 
Alcohol is capable of dissolving a great number of substances ; as, for example, sulphur and 
phosphorus in small quantity, iodine and ammonia freely, and the hydrates of potassium, 
sodium, and lithium, but not the carbonates of these metals. Among organic substances, it is 
a solvent of the organic vegetable alkalies, urea, tannic, citric, and tartaric acids, sugar, man- 
nite, camphor, resins, balsams, volatile oils, and soap. It dissolves the fixed oils sparingly, 
except castor oil, which is abundantly soluble in it. It reacts chemically with some acids, 
forming the ethyl ethers, but with others acts only as a solvent. All deliquescent salts are 
soluble in alcohol, except potassium carbonate; while the efflorescent salts, and those either 
insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, are mostly insoluble in it. It dissolves ammonium 
chloride, and most of the chlorides readily soluble in water; also some nitrates, but none of the 
metallic sulphates. 
A method of detecting alcohol in small proportions has been proposed by M. Carstanjin. 
The liquid supposed to contain it, having been mixed with platinum black in a small flask, is 
heated to 51*1° C. (124° F.), well shaken, and filtered. To the filtrate a few drops of solution 
of potassa are added, and the liquor evaporated to dryness on a water-bath. The residue is 
then heated with a little arsenous acid; when, if alcohol be present, a garlicky odor will be 
perceived, owing to the production of cacodyl. According to M. Nickles, however, propylic 
alcohol will produce the same result. (A. J. A*., 1865, p. 334.) A very delicate test for small 
quantities of alcohol is that of Lieben as modified by Hager. (Zeitsch. Anal. Chem., ix. 492.) 
It depends on the fact that alcohol under the influence of iodine and an alkali yields iodoform, 
CHI3, the properties of which are very characteristic. To 10 C.c. of the clear suspected 
liquid five or six drops of a 10-per-cent, solution of caustic potash or soda are added, and the 
liquid is warmed to about 50° C. (122° F.). A solution of potassium iodide fully saturated 
with free iodine is next added drop by drop, with agitation, until the liquid becomes perma- 
nently yellowish brown, when it is carefully decolorized by a further cautious addition of the 
caustic alkali solution. If alcohol be present, iodoform is gradually deposited at the bottom 
of the tube in yellow crystals, which, after standing, may be examined with a lens. Spirit 
diluted with 2000 parts of water, when treated as above and allowed to stand twelve hours, 
gives a distinct dust-like deposit of iodoform. Unfortunately, the above delicate reaction is 
not peculiar to alcohol, being produced by acetone, aldehyde, propylic and butyric alcohols, 
various ethers, etc. On the other hand, it is not given by pure methyl or amyl alcohol, chloro- 
form, chloral, glycerin, or ether, nor by acetic, formic, or oxalic acid. (Allen, Commercial Org. 
Anal., 2d cd., i. p. 59; see, also, A. J. P.t Feb. 1877, Feb. 1879, Nov. 1879; N. R., Aug. 
1876.) Prof. Barfoed, of Copenhagen, recommends for an approximate simple test, to moisten 
small slips of filtering paper thoroughly with the alcohol, and set fire to them. If, when the 
alcohol has burned out, the paper slip catches fire readily, the latter must be stronger than 80 PART I. 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
127 
per cent.; if the paper barely catches fire, the strength may be presumed to be between 75 and 
80 per cent.; if it does not catch fire at all, the alcohol cannot be stronger than 73 to 75 per 
cent. (A. J. P., Jan. 1875.) 
The following table, compiled from that of Dr. A. B. Lyons, will be found useful, because it 
gives the specific gravities and proportions of official alcohol and water required to make 100 
measures at the temperature of 15-5° C. (60° F.). Condensation is taken into account in these 
figures. Corresponding specific gravities and percentages of mixtures of absolute alcohol and 
water may be found by referring to the alcoholmetrical tables in the Appendix. 
For 100 Measures 
use 
Sp. Gr. 
of Mix- 
ture. 
For 100 Measures 
use 
Sp. Gr. 
of Mix- 
ture. 
For 100 Measures 
use 
Sp. Gr. 
of Mix- 
ture. 
For 100 Measures 
use 
Sp. Gr. 
of Mix- 
ture. 
Ale. 
U. S. P. 
0-820. 
Water. 
Ale. 
U. S. P. 
0-820. 
Water. 
Ale. 
U. S. P. 
0'820. 
Water. 
Ale. 
IT. S. P. 
0-820. 
Water. 
1 
99-04 
•9986 
26 
75-83 
•9717 
51 
52-02 
•9387 
76 
26-34 
•8871 
2 
98-08 
•9972 
27 
74-91 
•9707 
52 
51-02 
•9369 
77 
25-28 
•8847 
3 
97-12 
•9958 
28 
73-99 
•9697 
53 
50*02 
•9351 
78 
24-21 
•8822 
4 
96-17 
•9945 
29 
73-07 
•9687 
54 
49-02 
•9333 
79 
23-18 
•8799 
5 
95-23 
•9933 
30 
72-15 
•9677 
55 
48-02 
•9315 
80 
22-09 
•8774 
6 
94-28 
•9920 
31 
71-22 
•9666 
56 
47-01 
•9296 
81 
21-02 
•8749 
r 
93-34 
•9908 
32 
70-30 
•9656 
57 
46-00 
•9277 
82 
19-95 
•8724 
8 
92-41 
•9897 
33 
69-37 
•9645 
58 
44-99 
•9258 
83 
1S-88 
•8699 
9 
91-46 
•9884 
34 
68-44 
•9634 
59 
43-97 
•9239 
84 
17-79 
•8673 
10 
90-54 
•9874 
35 
67-51 
•9623 
60 
42-95 
•9219 
85 
16-73 
•8648 
11 
89-61 
•9863 
36 
66-56 
•9610 
61 
41-93 
•9199 
86 
15-65 
•8622 
12 
88-67 
•9852 
37 
65-61 
•9597 
62 
40-91 
•9179 
87 
14-58 
•8597 
13 
87-75 
•9842 
38 
64-67 
•9585 
63 
39-88 
•9158 
88 
13-49 
•8570 
14 
86-82 
•9832 
39 
63-72 
•9572 
64 
38-86 
•9138 
89 
12-39 
•8542 
15 
85-90 
•9821 
40 
62-77 
•9559 
65 
37-83 
•9117 
90 
11-28 
•8513 
16 
84-98 
•9811 
41 
61-81 
•9545 
66 
36-79 
•9095 
91 
10-19 
•8486 
17 
84-05 
•9802 
42 
60-84 
•9531 
67 
35-75 
•9073 
92 
9-05 
•8455 
18 
83-16 
•9793 
43 
59-87 
•9516 
68 
34-72 
•9052 
93 
7-97 
•8429 
19 
82-25 
•9784 
44 
58-90 
•9501 
69 
33-68 
•9030 
94 
6-86 
•8400 
20 
81-34 
•9775 
45 
57-93 
•9486 
70 
32-65 
•9009 
95 
5-72 
•8368 
21 
80-43 
•9766 
46 
56-95 
•9470 
71 
31-60 
•8986 
96 
4-60 
•8338 
22 
79-51 
•9756 
47 
55-97 
•9454 
72 
30-55 
•8963 
97 
3-46 
•8306 
23 
78-59 
•9746 
48 
54-99 
•9438 
73 
29-51 
•8941 
98 
2-32 
•8274 
24 
77-67 
•9736 
49 
54-00 
•9421 
74 
28-46 
•8818 
99 
1-16 
•8240 
25 
76-74 
•9726 
50 
53-01 
•9404 
75 
27-40 
•8895 
100 
o-oo 
•8206 
1. Alcohol Absolutum. Absolute Alcohol, Anhydrous Alcohol, Ethylic Alcohol. No process 
is given in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia for the preparation of absolute alcohol; the definition given, 
however, is “ Ethyl Alcohol, containing not more than 1 per cent., by weight, of water the fol- 
lowing is the process of the Br. Pharmacopoeia (1885) : “ Rectified Spirit, 1 pint [Imp. meas.] ; 
Carbonate of Potassium, anhydrous, 2 ounces [av.] ; Chloride of Calcium, fused, a sufficiency. 
Add the carbonate of potassium to the spirit in a stoppered bottle, and macerate for twenty- 
four hours with frequent agitation. Put the chloride of calcium into a covered crucible, and 
subject it to a red heat for half an hour; then pour the fused salt on to a clean stone slab, 
cover it quickly with an inverted porcelain dish, and when it has congealed, break it up into 
small fragments and enclose in a dry stoppered bottle. Put one pound [av.] of this fused 
chloride of calcium into a flask, pour over it the spirit decanted from the carbonate of potas- 
sium, and, closing the mouth of the flask with a cork, shake them together and allow them to 
stand for twenty-four hours with repeated agitation. Then attaching a dry condenser closely 
connected with a receiver from which free access of air is excluded, and applying the flame of 
a lamp to the flask, distil about two fluidounces [Imp. meas.], which should be returned to the 
flask, after which the distillation is to be continued until fifteen fluidounces [Imp. meas.] have 
been recovered.” Br. By the term absolute alcohol is meant pure alcohol, entirely free from 
water. In this state it cannot be obtained by ordinary distillation alone; the purest alcohol 
thus procured still containing 11 per cent, of water. To separate this it is customary to have 
recourse to substances having a very strong affinity for water, sufficient not only to abstract it 
from the alcohol, but to retain it at a temperature at wThich alcohol will distil over. Soubeiran 
recommends the following method for obtaining it, and the British process is largely based 128 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
PART I. 
upon this plan. 1st. Rectify alcohol marking 86° of the centesimal alcoholmeter of Gay- 
Lussac (rectified spirit), by distilling it from potassium carbonate. This operation should raise 
its strength to 94° or 95°. 2d. Raise this alcohol to 97° by distilling it with fused calcium 
chloride, or by digesting it with quicklime (from which it must be afterwards poured off), in 
the proportion of a pint of the alcohol to 1£ ounces of the chloride, or 2\ ounces of the lime. 
3d. Distil the product of this operation slowly with quicklime, in the proportion of 3£ ounces 
to the pint. The product will be absolute alcohol. The operation may be shortened to two 
steps by distilling the alcohol of 94° or 95° with an excess of quicklime (71 ounces to the 
pint). In all cases, before decanting or distilling, the alcohol must be digested for two or three 
days with the lime, at a temperature between 95° and 100° F. Lime will not answer as a 
substance to be distilled from, unless it be in sufficient excess; for otherwise, towards the end 
of the distillation, the calcium hydrate formed will yield up its water to the alcohol, and 
weaken the distilled product. Prof. J. Lawrence Smith (Amer. Chemist, Oct. 1874) procures 
an alcohol of 98 to 100 per cent, by macerating 3 pints of alcohol, 94 per cent., in a four-pint 
bottle with about six troyounces of well-burned lime; well corked and agitated at intervals for 
ten days, the strengthened alcohol, at the end of this time, is drawn off by a siphon, and may 
be freed, if desired, of the small trace of lime by redistillation. 
Properties. Absolute alcohol is a colorless, volatile liquid, of an agreeable odor and 
burning taste. It boils at 78-4° C. (173-1° F.), and is congealed at—130-5° C. Its sp. gr. is 
0-7978 at 68°, according to Regnault; 0-79381 at 60°, according to Drinkwater ; 0-794 (equiva- 
lent to 99-95 per cent, of eth}Tl hydroxide by volume and by weight) to 0-7969 (equivalent to 
99-4 per cent, of ethyl hydroxide by volume or 99 per cent, by weight), by the British Phar- 
macopoeia ; while Dr. Squibb has shown that pure alcohol is obtainable of as low a density as 
0-7935, and possibly lower. (Ephemeris, ii. p. 522.) The sp. gr. of its vapor is 1-59. Absolute 
alcohol is officially described as “ a transparent, colorless, mobile, and volatile liquid, of a char- 
acteristic, rather agreeable, odor, and a burning taste. Very hygroscopic. Specific gravity, 
not higher than 0-797 at 15-6° C. (60° F.) ; or 0-789 at 25° C. (77° F.). In other respects, 
Absolute Alcohol has the properties, and should respond to the reactions and tests, of Deodor- 
ized Alcohol (see Alcohol Deodoratum').” U. S. “ Mixed with 1 to 2 per cent, of anhydrous 
copper sulphate in a well-closed bottle, and the mixture set aside for two or three hours and 
occasionally well shaken, the salt does not become of a decidedly blue color (absence of excess of 
water). Absolute Alcohol should be free from the impurities mentioned under ‘ Alcohol (90 
per cent.),’ and in other general characters should resemble it.” Br. The tests usually given 
to prove the absence of water by dropping into the absolute alcohol anhydrous baryta or an- 
hydrous copper sulphate are not reliable, as Dr. Squibb has demonstrated that when half of 
one per cent, of water was added to absolute alcohol no change in either the baryta or the 
anhydrous copper sulphate took place. Gbrgeu’s test of forming a clear solution when mixed 
with an equal bulk of pure benzol is more delicate, but a test for determining the presence of 
at least one per cent, of water is badly needed. Absolute alcohol should be free from fusel oil. 
Absolute alcohol burns with a pale flame without residue, the products being carbonic acid 
and water. Its vapor, passed through a porcelain tube filled with pumice-stone and heated to red- 
ness, yields carbon, gaseous hydrocarbons, aldehyde, naphthalene, benzene, phenol, and various 
other substances. (Berthelot.) It unites in all proportions with ether and water. Its union 
with water is attended by condensation and a rise of temperature. When 52-6 volumes of 
alcohol are mixed with 47*4 of water, corresponding with one molecule of the former to three 
of the latter, the decrease of volume is at the maximum, amounting to 3-4 per cent. Berthelot 
has announced the formation of alcohol synthetically, by the union of olefiant gas with water. 
In this discovery he was anticipated by the late Mr. Hennel, who published it in 1828. 
Composition. Absolute alcohol consists of two atoms of carbon, six of hydrogen, and 
one of oxygen. Its empirical formula is, therefore, C2H0O. It is, however, recognized, as the 
hydrate of the radical ethyl (C2H6), so that its rational formula wrould be C2H6,OH. 
During the vinous fermentation sugar disappears, and the sole products were supposed to be 
alcohol and carbonic acid, which, taken together, were believed to equal in weight the lost 
sugar. Now, the comparative composition of the substances concerned supports the opinion 
that these are the sole derivatives of a portion of the sugar lost. Preparatory to the fer- 
mentation, the cane sugar is changed into grape sugar, or into a mixture of equal molecules 
of dextrose and levulose, called invert sugar, according to the reaction given on page 123. 
These two sugars, dried at 100° C. (212° F.), consist of C6H120e. Supposing one mol. of 
this fermentable sugar to be the subject of the change, it will be found to have a composition PART I. 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
129 
which admits of its being broken up into two mols. of alcohol and two of carbonic acid; for 
CeHi206 = 2(C„HeO) + 2(COa). But it does not follow that all the sugar has been converted 
into alcohol and carbonic acid; and Pasteur, as before stated, has shown that a portion lost 
has not been thus converted, but has been partly appropriated to the growth of the yeast plant 
of the ferment, and partly changed into glycerin and succinic acid. 
2. Alcohol. U. S. Alcohol, sp. gr. 0-820. This is the so-called “ 95 per cent, alcohol” of 
commerce (or 94 per cent, by volume) ; it was an official preparation of the Dublin College, 
which gave a formula for its preparation, and stated its sp. gr. at 0-818. The Stronger Alcohol 
introduced into the U. S. P. (1860), though of the sp. gr. 0 817, and therefore a little stronger 
than the old Dublin preparation, may for all practical purposes be considered as identical with 
it. The British Pharmacopoeia (1898), under the title “ Spiritus Rectificatus,” recognizes 
alcohol of 90 per cent. This is slightly stronger (1 -35 per cent, by volume) than the alcohol 
of the same name in the Br. Pharm. (1885). To prepare it on a small scale, potassium car- 
bonate, previously ignited in a heated mortar, may be mixed with ordinary alcohol in a bottle, 
and shaken occasionally for about four hours; the mixture being, in the mean time, main- 
tained at the temperature of about 100° F. tjpon resting, the liquid divides into two strata, 
the lower consisting of an aqueous solution of potassium carbonate, the upper of the stronger 
alcohol, which is to be separated, and distilled so as to obtain the measure of about nine- 
tenths of the original alcohol employed. 
It is described as “ a transparent, colorless, mobile, and volatile liquid, of a characteristic, 
rather agreeable odor, and a burning taste. Specific gravity, about 0-820 at 15-6° C. (60° F.) \ 
or 0-812 at 25° C. (77° F.). Miscible with water in all proportions, and without any trace of 
cloudiness; also miscible with ether or chloroform. It is readily volatilized even at low tem- 
peratures, and boils at 78° C. (172-4° F.). It is inflammable, and burns with a blue flame. It 
should not affect the color of blue or red litmus paper previously moistened with water. If 
50 C.c. of Alcohol be evaporated in a clean glass vessel, no color or weighable residue should 
remain. On allowing Alcohol, mixed with one-third of its volume of water, to evaporate spon- 
taneously from clean, odorless blotting-paper saturated with it, no odor of fusel oil, nor other 
foreign odor, should become perceptible. If 10 C.c. of Alcohol be mixed in a test-tube with 
5 C.c. of potassium hydrate test-solution, the liquid should not at once become dark-colored 
(absence of aldehyde, methyl alcohol, or oak tannin). If 20 C.c. of Alcohol be shaken in a 
clean, glass-stoppered vial with 1 C.c. of silver nitrate test-solution, the mixture should not be- 
come more than faintly opalescent, or acquire more than a faint brownish tint, when standing 
during six hours in diffused daylight (limit of organic impurities, amylic alcohol, etc.).” TJ. S. 
“ Specific gravity 0-8340. It contains 85-65 per cent, by weight of ethyl hydroxide, C2H6OII, 
and 14-35 per cent, by weight of water. It burns with a blue smokeless flame. It leaves no 
residue when evaporated (absence of fixed matter). It remains clear when mixed with water 
(absence of oily or resinous substances). A little exposed on clean white filter-paper leaves no 
unpleasant smell after the alcohol has evaporated (absence of fusel oil and allied impurities). 
100 cubic centimetres, with 2 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solutioii of silver nitrate, ex- 
posed for 24 hours to bright light and then decanted from the black powder which has formed, 
undergo no further change when again exposed to light with more of the volumetric solution 
(absence of more than traces of amylic alcohol and of other organic impurities). When mixed 
with half its volume of solution of potassium hydroxide, the liquid should not immediately 
darken in color (absence of more than traces of aldehyde). The addition of solution of ammonia 
should not cause an immediate darkening in color (absence of tannic acid, excess of aldehyde, 
and other organic impurities).” Br. 
On a Targe scale, we are informed that alcohol of this strength is now prepared in the 
United States, very abundantly, by simple distillation by means of a modified distillatory ap- 
paratus. The modification consists in substituting for a single refrigerated receiver a series 
of receivers, kept at such temperatures that, in tbe first of them, the watery vapor shall con- 
dense with comparatively little of the alcoholic, which, as it passes through the successive re- 
cipients, is more and more deprived of water, until, when condensed in the last, it yields a 
spirit at least as strong as the official Alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-820. At the same time that the 
spirit is thus strengthened, it becomes, on the same principle, more and more freed from fusel 
oil, until at length almost wholly deprived of it. 
The British preparation contains 14-35, the U. S. only 9 per cent, of water. Official alcohol, 
though of standard strength, may still be impregnated with a volatile principle, called fusel oil. 
This is usually separated by digesting the alcohol with charcoal. It, as well as other impuri- 130 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
PART I. 
ties, may also be removed by passing the impure spirit through a filtering bed, composed of sand, 
wood-charcoal, boiled wheat, and broken oyster-shells, arranged in layers. If 5 C.c. of alcohol 
he mixed with 6 times its volume of water and then agitated with about 20 drops of chloroform, 
the latter will, if separated and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, leave the fusel oil, which 
will be perceptible by its odor; and by treating with a little sulphuric acid and potassium acetate, 
its peculiar ether may he recognized by its odor. (Ber. Chem. Ges., viii.; A. J. P., 1875, p. 304.) 
If a little of the solution of silver nitrate be added to alcohol, and the mixture exposed to a 
bright light, a black powder will be precipitated, if fusel oil be present. Official alcohol will 
not withstand this test, as the best contains a little of the foreign oil. According to Mr. E. 
N. Kent, of New York, silver nitrate will not detect fusel oil, but affords its indications by 
reacting with other organic substances. For detecting fusel oil, Mr. Kent finds pure sulphuric 
acid the best test. To apply it he half fills a test-tube with the spirit to be tested, and 
then fills it up very slowly with pure concentrated sulphuric acid. If the spirit be pure, 
it will remain colorless, otherwise it will become colored, the tint being deeper in propor- 
tion to the amount of the impurity. This test admits the presence of a small proportion of 
fusel oil. 
Alcohol Deodoratum. Deodorized Alcohol. “ A liquid composed of about 92-5 per cent., 
by weight, or 95-1 per cent., by volume, of Ethyl Alcohol [C2H6OH =45-9], and about 7-5 per 
cent., by weight, of water.” U. S. This is a new official liquid of the U. S. P. 1890. Deodor- 
ized alcohol is, as its name implies, alcohol deprived of foreign odor ; there are certain uses in 
pharmacy for which any other alcohol would be unsuited, such as the solution of volatile oils 
and essences having delicate odors, the manufacture of compound spirits, etc. 
The properties of deodorized alcohol are those of purified alcohol, its specific gravity, 0816 
at 15-6° C. (60° F.), being slightly less than that of alcohol. It is officially tested as follows. 
“ If 25 C.c. of Deodorized Alcohol be mixed with an equal volume of water and 5 C.c. of 
glycerin, and the mixture allowed to evaporate spontaneously from a piece of clean, odorless 
blotting-paper, no foreign odor should become perceptible when the last traces of the Alcohol 
leave the paper (absence of fusel oil constituents). If 25 C.c. be allowed to evaporate spon- 
taneously in a porcelain capsule carefully protected from dust, until only a moisture is left, no 
red or brown color should be produced upon tbe addition of a few drops of colorless, concen- 
trated sulphuric acid (absence of amylic alcohol, or non-volatile, carhonizable, organic impurities, 
etc.). In other respects, Deodorized Alcohol has the properties, and should respond to the re- 
actions and tests, of Alcohol." U. S. 
The best alcohol is that manufactured under Atwood’s patent process, in which manganic 
acid or potassium or sodium permanganate is used to destroy the fusel oil and other foreign 
substances. This alcohol withstands the tests of silver nitrate and sulphuric acid remarkably 
well. Pure fused sodium acetate has been proposed as a substance particularly adapted to 
retain fusel oil, and has been used by adding it to the alcohol to be rectified in the proportion 
of about 10 pounds to the barrel of forty-five gallons, and redistilling. The purification of 
alcohol is best accomplished, according to Schmitt, by taking crude alcohol containing 30 per 
cent, by volume, adding potassium carbonate (not enough to cause two layers to form), and 
agitating with pure benzin; this solvent removes completely the fusel oil from the alcohol. 
After separating the light layer, potassium carbonate is added to the alcohol in sufficient quan- 
tity to form two layers, the lower one consisting of a saturated solution of potassium carbon- 
ate, the upper one of 94-per-cent, alcohol containing a small quantity of potassium carbonate. 
The alcohol layer is siphoned off and mixed with just sufficient strong sulphuric acid to pre- 
cipitate the potassium salt as sulphate, which is insoluble in alcohol of 94 per cent., and 
which can then be removed. Alcohol purified in this manner, without distillation, it is stated, 
cannot be distinguished from that purified by the usual method. (See Pharm. Centralb., 1889, 
p. 722.) F. Gr. Earl recommends the following method, which has the advantage of requiring 
no especial apparatus. “ Hub four drachms of powdered unslaked lime with two drachms of 
powdered alum intimately ; add one gallon (95 per cent.) alcohol and shake well, then add one 
fluidrachm of spirit of nitrous ether, set aside for seven days, and filter through animal char- 
coal.” (Chem. and. Drug., 1895, 35.) Perfumers' alcohol can now be bad, which is very much 
cleaner than cologne spirit, as the purest alcohol attainable was formerly called. It is termed 
perfumers’ alcohol because it was found necessary to prepare a very high grade of alcohol for 
those who need a solvent for fine odors, on the score of economy and to insure greater excel- 
lence of product. 
3. Alcohol Dilutum. U. S. “A liquid composed of about 41 per cent., by weight, or PART I. 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
131 
about 48-6 per cent., by volume, of absolute Ethyl Alcohol, and about 59 per cent., by 
weight, of Water.” Specific gravity about 0-938 at 15° C. (59° F.) and about 0-930 at 25° C. 
(77° F.). The strength of diluted alcohol has been somewhat altered by the U. S. Pharma- 
copoeia of 1890. 
Diluted alcohol is now officially made hy mixing equal measures of alcohol and water together.* 
11 Alcohol,Jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 7 fluidrachms, 15 minims] ; Distilled 
Water, five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 7 fluidrachms, 15 minims]. Mix them. 
If the two liquids be measured at the temperature of 15-6° C. (60° F.), the mixture, when 
cooled to the same temperature, will measure about 971 C.c. [or 32 fluidounces, 6 fluidrachms, 
40 minims]. Diluted Alcohol may also be prepared in the following manner: Alcohol, four 
hundred and ten grammes [or 14 ounces av., 202 grains] ; Distilled Water, five hundred grammes 
[or 17 ounces av., 279 grains]. Mix them.” U S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) no longer uses the titles “ Spiritus Tenuior” or “ Proof 
Spirit” for diluted alcohol, but admits four official liquids under the name of diluted alcohol, 
as follows : 
1. Alcohol (70 per cent.).—With one hundred, fluid ounces of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 
thirty-one (more accurately 31-05) fluid ounces of Distilled Water. Or, with one thousand cubic 
centimetres of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix three hundred and ten and a half (310-5) cubic centi- 
metres of Distilled Water. Specific gravity 0-8900. 
2. Alcohol (60 per cent.).—With one hundred fluid ounces of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 
fifty-three and two-thirds (more accurately 53-65) fluid ounces of Distilled Water. Or, with 
one thousand cubic centimetres of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix five hundred and thirty-six and a 
half (536 5) cubic centimetres of Distilled Water. Specific gravity 0-9135. 
3. Alcohol (45 per cent.).—With one hundred fluid ounces of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix one 
hundred and five and one-third (more accurately 105-34) fluid ounces of Distilled Water. Or, 
with one thousand cubic centimetres of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix one thousand and fifty-three 
and a half (more accurately 1053-4) cubic centimetres of Distilled Water. Specific gravity 
0-9436. 
4. Alcohol (20 per cent.).—With one hundred fluid, ounces of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix 
three hundred and fifty-five and three-quarters (more accurately 355-8) fluid ounces of Distilled 
Water. Or, with one thousand cubic centimetres of Alcohol (90 per cent.) mix three thousand 
five hundred and fifty-eight (3558 0) cubic centimetres of Distilled Water. Specific gravity 
0-9760. 
This is a convenient pharmaceutical method of providing suitable menstrua for making 
tinctures, fluid extracts, and other galenical preparations. 
The U. S. preparation consists of equal measures of official alcohol and water. “ Diluted 
Alcohol has a specific gravity of about 0-938 at 15° C. (59° F.), about 0-937 at 15-6° C. (60° F.), 
and about 0-930 at 25° C. (77° F.). It should respond to the reactions and tests given under 
alcohol.” 
Medical Properties and Uses. Probably all the soft tissues of the body are capable 
of being impressed by alcohol, if it be in sufficient amount and concentration. Locally ap- 
plied it is irritant even to the skin, and much more so to the more delicate organs: hence the 
various abdominal inflammations which are so frequent in habitual drunkards. When it is 
taken internally in proper quantity, it causes a feeling of exhilaration, with distinct increase 
in the force and frequency of the pulse. When larger amounts are ingested, the well-known 
phenomena of drunkenness follow. A single dose of it, if large enough, may produce death, 
preceded by loss of consciousness, profound muscular relaxation, and diminished respiration. 
The temperature of the body may be elevated slightly by small doses of the drug, the rise 
* Official Rules for making an Aicohol of any required lower Percentage, from an Alcohol of any given higher 
Percentage. “ I. By Volume.—Designate the volume-percentage of the stronger alcohol by V, and that of the 
weaker alcohol by v. 
“ Rule.—Mix v volumes of the stronger alcohol with pure water to make V volumes of product. Allow the mix- 
ture to stand until full contraction has taken place, and until it has cooled, then make up any deficiency in the V 
volumes by adding more water. 
“ Example.—An alcohol of 30 per cent, by volume is to be made from an alcohol of 94 per cent, by volume.—Take 
30 volumes of the 94 per cent, alcohol, and add enough pure water to produce 94 volumes. 
“ II. By Weight.—Designate the weight-percentage of the stronger alcohol by W, and that of the weaker by to. 
“ Rule.—Mix w parts by weight of the stronger alcohol with pure water to make W parts by weight of product. 
“Example.—An alcohol of 50 per cent, by weight is to be made from an alcohol of 91 per cent, by weight.— 
Take 50 parts by weight of the 91 per cent, alcohol, and add enough pure water to produce 91 parts by weight.” 
U. S. 132 
Alcohol Dilutum. 
PART I. 
being due to the excitement of the circulation and not to any direct action. After toxic 
amounts the temperature is usually lowered, and the fall may be very marked. The action of 
the drug upon the bodily temperature of those who use it habitually is very slight. 
Alcohol in small doses acts as a stimulant to the ganglionic cells of the cerebrum, and per- 
haps also to the motor tract of the spinal cord. In large amount it certainly is a depressant 
to the cerebral and spinal ganglionic cells, as well as the nerve-trunks. The action of small 
doses upon the respiratory centres is not thoroughly established, but large doses depress the 
respiratory centres, and finally may cause death by centric paralytic asphyxia. Upon the 
heart the small dose of alcohol acts as a direct stimulant, the large dose as a depressant or 
paralyzant. The influence of minute doses upon the vaso-motor system is not thoroughly 
worked out, but there appears to be a widening of the blood-paths at a time when the heart is 
still stimulated, so that there is a marked quickening of the blood-movement. The toxic dose 
of alcohol paralyzes the blood-vessels, probably both centrally and peripherally. The peripheral 
temperature is often increased by small amounts of alcohol, and there may be even a slight 
increase in the central temperature, probably caused by quickening of the circulation ; the 
large dose of alcohol depresses the animal temperature, probably by causing vaso-motor paralysis, 
and thereby increasing heat-dissipation. 
In regard to the effect of alcohol upon the nutrition there is much contradictory evidence, 
but the present probabilities are that the drug has no specific influence upon the production 
of heat or of carbonic acid, or upon nitrogenous elimination, and that therefore it has little 
or no direct effect upon the nutrition, unless it be in poisonous doses, when it certainly dis- 
turbs all nutritive processes. After absorption into the blood, alcohol is in part eliminated 
through the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys unchanged, but is largely burnt up in the 
system, probably yielding force for the working needs of the organism. Whether as a food 
it is in health of as much or more value than other hydrocarbons is not at present positively 
known. 
In acute diseases associated with debility, alcohol is often an invaluable remedy. Of all 
medicines it is the one most frequently employed as a stimulant. Taken along with food in 
small quantity, it favors digestion by its local effect upon the stomach, and possibly also by stimu- 
lating the nerve and arterial centres. It does not directly elevate temperature, and hence is 
not contra-indicated by fever ; in typhoid and other low fevers it is of great value. In all con- 
ditions of depression the system tolerates much more of it than in health: hence in snake-bite, 
typhoid and typhus fever, diphtheria, etc., enormous quantities are often exhibited with great 
benefit. So long as it is not perceptible in the breath, and does not cause nervous or circula- 
tory excitement, alcohol in these cases is probably not in excess. In chronic diseases great 
care is necessary in the exhibition of the remedy, for fear of begetting intemperate habits. 
This is especially the case in neuralgia and other painful affections in which the narcotic in- 
fluence of alcohol may be very soothing; under these circumstances there is a constant ten- 
dency to an increase of the frequency and size of the dose. Taken habitually in excess, alco- 
hol produces the most deplorable results, and is a very common cause of fatal maladies. In 
acute poisoning, the stomach should be at once emptied, the respiration be maintained by the 
use of atropine and other methods (see Opium Poisoning), and the bodily heat sustained by ex- 
ternal warmth. In some cases it may be well to employ ammonia or digitalis to act upon the 
nearly paralyzed heart. Locally, alcohol is sometimes used for the purpose of hardening the 
skin and as an antiseptic dressing for wounds, the wound being washed out with it until all 
bleeding has ceased, the edges then united, and the whole surrounded by an alcoholic 
ing. As an internal remedy alcohol is very rarely employed in the pure state, but only in the 
form of spirits, wines, or fermented liquors, which are described elsewhere. 
The purer forms of alcohol, whether strong or diluted, are employed almost exclusively in 
pharmacy; as in the preparation of medicines, such as ether, into the composition of which 
they enter; for the preservation of organic substances; in the extraction of the active prin- 
ciples of vegetables, as in the tinctures; for dissolving bodies soluble in alcohol much more 
readily than in water, or insoluble in the latter fluid; and for other pharmaceutical purposes. 
Diluted alcohol is employed as an addition to some infusions and decoctions, and to some of 
the distilled waters and preparations of vinegar, in order to preserve them from decomposition ; 
as a menstruum for extracting the virtues of plants, preparatory to the formation of extracts 
and syrups; and in preparing many of the spirits, and a few of the medicated wines. But it 
is in forming the tinctures that diluted alcohol is chiefly used. Some of these are made with 
official alcohol (rectified spirit), but the majority with mixtures of alcohol and water of differ- PART I. 
Allium. 
133 
ent percentages. As diluted alcohol contains more than half its weight of water, it is well fitted 
for acting on organic substances the virtues of which are partly soluble in water and partly in 
alcohol. The apothecary, however, should never substitute the commercial proof spirit for 
diluted alcohol, on account of the impurities in the former, even though it may be of the same 
strength ; but when it is recollected how variable the so-called proof spirits are in strength, the 
objection to their use in pharmacy becomes still stronger. 
ALLIUM. U.S. Garlic. 
(Al'LI-UM.) 
“ The bulb of Allium sativum, Linn6 (nat. ord. Liliaceae).” U. S. 
Bulbus Allii; Ail, Fr.; Knoblauch, G.; Aglio, It.; Ajo, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted, spreading. Spathe many-flowered. Umbel crowded. Capsule 
superior. Willd. 
This is a very extensive genus, including more than sixty species, most of which are Euro- 
pean. Of the nine or ten indigenous in this country, none are official. Dr. Griffith states 
that the bulb of A. canadense has been substituted for the cultivated garlic, and found equally 
efficient. (Med. Bot., p. 653.) Of the European species several have been used from a very 
early period, both as food and as medicine. A. sativum, or garlic, is the only one now official; 
and to this we shall here confine our observation, simply stating that there are few genera of 
which the several species resemble one another more closely in sensible and medical properties 
than the present. For an account of A. cepa, or onion, and A. porrum, or leek, see Part II. 
Allium sativum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 68 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 749, t. 256. This is a 
perennial plant, and, like all its congeners, bulbous. The bulbs are numerous, and enclosed in 
a common membranous covering, from the base of which the fibres that constitute the proper 
root descend. The stem is simple, and rises about two feet. The leaves are long, flat, and 
grass-like, and sheathe the lower half of the stem. At the termination of the stem is a clus- 
ter of flowers and bulbs mingled together, and enclosed in a pointed spathe, which opens on 
one side and withers. The flowers are small and white, and make their appearance in July. 
This species of garlic grows wild in Sicily, Italy, and the south of France. 
The part employed, as well for culinary purposes as in medicine, is the bulb, which is de- 
scribed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia as follows. “ Bulb subglobular, compound, consisting of 
about eight compressed, wedge-shaped bulblets, which are arranged in a circle around the base 
of the stem, and covered by several dry, membranous scales. Odor pungent and disagreeable ; 
taste warm and acrid. Garlic should be used without having been dried.” U. S. The bulbs 
are dug up with a portion of the stem attached, and, having been dried in the sun, are tied to- 
gether in bunches, and thus brought to market. They are said to lose, by drying, nine parts 
of their weight out of fifteen, with little diminution of their sensible properties. This species 
of Allium is commonly called English garlic, to distinguish it from those which grow wild in 
our fields and meadows. Garlic bulbs are apt to germinate and thus to undergo serious injury. 
Mr. A. P. Sharp preserves them by placing them in a bottle, pouring on them a little alcohol, 
about two fluidounces to a quart, and securely closing the bottle by a stopper of glass or cork. 
All tendency to germinate is thus destroyed, and the bulbs will retain their peculiar smell and 
taste unchanged for years. (Proc. A. P. A., 1864.) 
Properties. Garlic, as found in the shops, is somewhat spherical, flattened at the bottom, 
and drawn towards a point at the summit, where a portion of the stem several inches in length 
projects. It is covered with a white, dry, membranous envelope, consisting of several delicate 
laminae, within which the small bulbs are arranged around the stem, having each a distinct 
coat. These small bulbs, commonly called cloves of garlic, are usually five or six in number, 
of an oblong shape, somewhat curved, and in their interior are whitish, moist, and fleshy.* 
They have a disagreeable pufigent odor, so peculiar as to have received the name of alliaceous. 
Their taste is bitter and acrid. The peculiar smell and taste, though strongest in the bulb, 
are found to a greater or less extent in all parts of the plant. They depend on an essential oil, 
which is very volatile, and may be obtained by distillation, passing over with the first portions 
of water. As first obtained, the oil is of a dark brownish-yellow color, heavier than water, 
and decomposed at its boiling temperature. It may be purified by repeated distillation in a 
* A variety of garlic, sometimes seen in the market, having larger and fewer cloves or small bulbs than the offi- 
cial, has been shown by Prof. Robert P. Thomas to be the product of a hybrid, probably between A. sativum and 
A. porrum. (Proc. A. P. A., 1860.) 134 
Allium.—A loes. 
PART I. 
salt-water bath, and is then lighter than water, of a pale yellow color, and not decomposed by 
boiling. According to Wertheim, it consists of a peculiar organic radical, called allyl, (C3H6), 
combined with sulphur, and is therefore allyl sulphide, (C3H6)2S. From one hundred-weight 
of garlic Wertheim obtained from three to four ounces of the impure oil, and about two-thirds 
as much of the rectified. (Chem. Gaz., iii. 177.) Semmler obtained from garlic bulbs 0-09 
per cent, of the volatile oil, sp. gr. (at 14-5° C.) 1*0525 ; it was yellow, having an intense odor 
and optically inactive. By fractional distillation he obtained four products, C6H12S2, CeH10S2, 
CeH10S3, and CeII10S4, which decomposed during distillation. The oil, according to Semmler, 
is free from allyl sulphide, the latter having the sp. gr. 0-8991. (Arch. d. Pharm., 1892, p. 434.) 
The impure oil has an exceedingly pungent odor, and a strong acrid taste, and, when applied 
to the skin, produces much irritation and sometimes even blisters. The pure oil combines with 
silver nitrate, forming a precipitate soluble in heated alcohol and afterwards separating in 
crystals. Besides this oil, fresh garlic, according to Cadet de Gassicourt, contains, in 1406 
parts, 520 of mucilage, 37 of albumen, 48 of fibrous matter, and 801 of water. Bouillon- 
Lagrange mentions among its constituents sulphur, a saccharine matter, and a small quantity 
of fecula. The fresh bulbs yield upon pressure nearly a fourth part of juice, which is highly 
viscid, and so tenacious as to require dilution with water before it can be easily filtered. When 
dried, it serves as a lute for porcelain. It has the medical properties of the bulbs. Water, 
alcohol, and vinegar extract the virtues of garlic. Protracted boiling renders it inert. Accord- 
ing to F. W. Semmler (Arch. d. Pharm., 1887, p. 9271, Allium ursinum contains a volatile oil 
which consists mainly of vinyl-sulphide, or (C„II3)oS. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The use of garlic as a medicine and as a condiment 
ascends to the highest antiquity. When taken internally, and even when applied externally, 
the oil is absorbed, and imparts its odor to the breath, urine, perspiration, etc. The oil of 
garlic has some influence upon the human system as a general mild stimulant. Its chief value 
in medicine is for its local action upon the stomach and as a stimulant expectorant. The garlic 
itself is sometimes employed as a rubefacient, which by yielding its volatile oil in absorption 
stimulates the nervous system, especially in the case of young children. The oil may often be 
given with great advantage in chronic bronchitis and in the advanced stages of obstinate acute 
bronchitis. It is especially valuable in the treatment of children when there is a distinct ner- 
vous element. In catarrhal pneumonia of young children the bruised garlic cloves are often 
applied as a poultice to the lungs; and similar applications were formerly used to the feet for 
the nervous restlessness or even the convulsions of young children. Garlic clove may be swallowed 
either whole or cut into pieces of a convenient size, but the official syrup has replaced most 
other methods of administration. The dose in substance is from half a drachm to two drachms 
(1-95-7-8 Gm.) of the fresh bulb. That of the juice is half a fluidrachm (1-9 C.c.). 
ALOE BARBADENSIS. U. S., Br. Barbadoes Aloes. [Curasao Aloes.] 
(XL'O-E BAlt-BA-DEN'SIS.) 
“ The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe vera (Linne), Webb (nat. ord. Liliaceae).” U. S. 
“ The juice that flows from the transversely cut leaves of Aloe vera, Linn., Aloe chinensis, 
Bak., and probably other species, evaporated to dryness. Imported from the West Indian 
Islands, and known in commerce as Barbados and Curayao aloes.” Br. 
Aloes hcpatique des Barbades, Fr.; Barbadoes Aloe, G. 
ALOE SOCOTRINA. U. S., Br. Socotrine Aloes. 
(XL'O-E SOC-O-TRI'NA.) 
“ The inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe Perryi, Baker (nat. ord. Liliaceae).” U. S. 
“ The juice that flows from the transversely cut leaves of Aloe Perryi, Baker, and probably 
other species of Aloe, evaporated to dryness. Imported principally by wTay of Bombay, and 
known in commerce as Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes.” Br. 
Aloes socotrin, ou sucotrin, Fr.; Soeotora. oder Socotrinischc Aloe, G.; Mnsebber, Ar. 
Most of the species belonging to the genus Aloe are said to yield a bitter juice which has 
all the properties of the official aloes. It is impossible, from the various and sometimes con- 
flicting accounts of writers, to determine exactly from which of the species the drug is in all 
instances actually derived. Mr. J. Medley Wood states, as the result of personal research in PART I. 
Aloes. 
135 
Natal, that the Natal aloes is yielded chiefly by the aloe described in the Gardener's Chroni- 
cle, vol. 5, p. 113, as A. ferox. (P. J. Tr., Dec. 1890.) Doubts are, however, thrown upon the 
conclusions of Mr. Wood by Mr. E. M. Holmes, who thinks that the plant seen was probably 
A. platylepis. (See P. J. Tr., April, 1891.) In Lindley’s Flora Medica, A. purpurascens, A. 
arhorescens, A. commelyni, and A. multiformis, of the Cape of Good Hope, are enumerated as 
yielding aloes; A. leptocaulon and A. sahnudra, found in Madagascar (P. J. Tr., July, 1881), 
and other species, are, without doubt, occasionally resorted to. We shall confine ourselves to a 
description of the three species which probably yield most of the aloes of commerce. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla erect, mouth spreading, bottom nectariferous. Filaments inserted into the 
receptacle. Willd. 
Aloe spicata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 185. This species of Aloe was first described by Thun- 
berg. The stem is round, three or four feet high, about four inches in diameter, and leafy at 
the summit. The leaves are spreading, subverticillate, about two feet long, broad at the base, 
gradually narrowing to the point, channelled upon their upper surface, and with remote teeth 
upon their edges. The flowers are bell-shaped, and spread horizontally in very close spikes. 
Beneath each flower is a broad, ovate, acute bract, white, with three green streaks, and nearly 
as long as the corolla. Of the six petals, the three inner are ovate, obtuse, white, with three 
green lines, and broader than the outer, which otherwise resemble them. The stamens are 
much longer than the corolla. The spiked aloe is a native of Southern Africa, growing near the 
Cape of Good Hope, and, like all the other species, preferring a sandy soil. In some districts 
of the colony it is found in great abundance, particularly at Zwellendam, near Mossel Bay, 
where it almost covers the surface of the country. Much of the Cape aloes is said to be de- 
rived from this species. 
A. socotrina. Lamarck, Encycl. i. 85 ; De Cand. Plantes Grasses, Jig. 85 ; Curtis’s Pot. Mag. 
pi. 472 ; Carson’s Illust. of Med. Pot. ii. 48, pi. 92.—A. vera. Miller, Diet., ed. 8, No. 55. The 
stem of this species is erect, eighteen inches or more in height, woody, and leafless below, 
where it is very rough from the remains of former leaves. At top it is embraced by green, 
sword-shaped, ascending leaves, somewhat concave on their upper surface, convex beneath, 
curved inward at the point, with numerous small white serratures at their edges. The flowers, 
which are in a cylindrical, simple raceme, are scarlet near the base, pale in the centre, and 
greenish at the summit, and have unequal stamens, of which three are longer than the corolla. 
This plant was supposed to be a native of Socotra and the source of the Socotrine aloes, but 
was shown by Mr. Bolus to be indigenous to the Cape of Good Hope. 
A. vidgaris. Lamarck, Encycl. i. 86 ; Carson’s Illust. of Med. Pot. ii. 46, pi. 90.—A. vera. 
Linn.—A. barbadensis, Miller. This species has a very short, woody stem, and lanceolate em- 
bracing leaves, which are first spreading, then ascending, of a glaucous green color, somewhat 
mottled with darker spots, flat on the upper surface, convex beneath, and armed with hard 
reddish spines, distant from each other, and perpendicular to the margin. The flower-stem is 
axillary, of a glaucous reddish color, and branched, with a cylindrical-ovate spike of yellow 
flowers, which are at first erect, then spreading, and finally pendulous, and do not exceed the 
stamens in length. A. vulgaris is a native of southeastern Europe, the north of Africa, and 
Madagascar. It is cultivated in Italy, Sicily, Malta, and especially in the West Indies, where 
it contributes largely to furnish the Barbadoes aloes. 
A. perryi. J. G. Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc., xxviii. The true Socotrine aloes plant was first 
described from specimens sent to Kew Gardens by Mr. Wykeham Perry, and was subsequently 
found by Prof. Balfour, of Edinburgh, growing abundantly upon the island of Socotra, 
especially in the limestone tracts, from the sea-level to an altitude of 3000 feet; along with it, 
but much less abundant, was a dwarf species with spotted leaves. A. perryi resembles in its 
general habit the Barbadoes aloe, but differs in its shorter leaves, and especially in its flowers, 
which are arranged in loose* racemes on longer pedicels and have the tube much longer than 
the segments. 
The proper aloetic juice was formerly thought to exist in longitudinal vessels beneath the epi- 
dermis of the leaves, and readily flows out when these are cut transversely; but, according to M. 
Edmond Robiquet, who has made elaborate researches in relation to this drug, these vessels 
are air-ducts, and the juice flows in the intercellular passages between them. The liquid 
obtained by expression from the parenchyma is mucilaginous, and possessed of little medicinal 
virtue. The quality of the drug depends much upon the mode of preparing it. The finest 
kind is that obtained by exudation, and subsequent inspissation in the sun. Most of the 
better sorts, however, are prepared by artificially heating the juice which has spontaneously 136 
Aloes. 
PART I. 
exuded from the cut leaves. The chief disadvantage of this process is the conversion of a 
portion of the soluble active principle into an insoluble and comparatively inert substance, 
through the influence of an elevated temperature. The plan of bruising and expressing the 
leaves, and boiling down the resulting liquor, yields a much inferior product, as a large por- 
tion of it must be derived from the mucilaginous juice of the parenchyma. The worst plan 
of all is to boil the leaves themselves in water, and evaporate the decoction. The quality of 
the drug is also affected by the careless or fraudulent mixture of foreign matters with the 
juice, and the unskilful management of the inspissation. 
Commercial History and Varieties. Three chief varieties of aloes are known in 
commerce: Barbadoes or Curagao, Socotrine, and Cape. 
1. Barbadoes Aloes. CURA9A0 Aloes. The aloe plants are largely cultivated in the 
poorer soils of Jamaica and Barbadoes, especially of the latter island. The species from which 
most of the drug is procured is A. vulgaris; but A. socotrina, A. purpurascens, and A. arbo- 
rescens are also said to be cultivated. The process employed appears to be somewhat different 
in different places, or at least as described by different authors. A fine kind was formerly 
prepared by the spontaneous inspissation of the juice placed in bladders or shallow vessels 
and exposed to the sun. The common Barbadoes aloes, however, is now made either by 
boiling the juice to a proper consistence, or by first forming a decoction of the leaves, chopped 
and suspended in water in nets or baskets, and then evaporating the decoction. In either 
case, when the liquor has attained such a consistence that it will harden on cooling, it is poured 
into calabashes and allowed to concrete. A gentleman from Barbadoes, who had seen the 
aloes prepared, informed Mr. Squire that the leaves are cut transversely, and so placed that 
the juice flows from the incised surfaces into a trough which inclines to the boiler. (Med. T. 
and Gaz., Jan. 1868, p. 75.) It is imported into England in gourds weighing from 60 to 70 
pounds, or even more, or sometimes in boxes. A variety known as “Capey Barbadoes,” having 
a smooth glassy fracture, occurs in the London markets. In consequence of the great demand 
for it in veterinary practice, it commands a high price in Great Britain. Curasao aloes, 
resembling Barbadoes aloes but having a different odor, comes into European commerce 
through Holland from the Dutch West Indies. It is apparently produced by the three species 
A. vulgaris, A. spicata, and A. socotrina, all of which have been introduced into the islands 
(see P. J. Tr., Jan., Sept., 1890), although Prof. E. R. Holmes believes it to be at least in 
part the product of A. chinensis. This aloe was formerly largely used in making the dye 
known as Bismarck brown, but at present is chiefly employed in medicine. 
The color of Barbadoes aloes is not uniform. Sometimes it is dark brown or almost black, 
sometimes of a reddish brown or liver color, often orange-brown, and again of some intermedi- 
ate shade. “ Fracture either dull and waxy, in which case small splinters are opaque; or 
smooth and glassy, in which case the splinters are transparent; the opaque variety examined 
under the microscope exhibits numerous minute crystals embedded in a transparent mass.” Br. 
It is also distinguishable by its odor, which is disagreeable and even nauseous. The powder 
is of a dull olive-yellow. According to Mr. Giles, it yields 80 per cent, of aqueous ex- 
tract, and is even more active than is the Socotrine. (P. J. Tr., Dec. 1860, p. 301.) Ac- 
cording to M. Marais, Barbadoes aloes, from whatever part of the West Indies derived, and 
however differing in color, when dissolved in distilled water in the proportion of 1 part to 
100,000 parts, has in a high degree the property of giving rise to a fine rose color on the addi- 
tion of gold chloride or tincture of iodine ; while all other varieties, whether African or Indian, 
writh the exception of the hepatic, produce with these reagents either a feeble color, slow in 
developing, or no change of color whatever. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., v. 336.) “ Mixed with 
nitric acid, it acquires a red color. Barbadoes Aloes is not colored, or acquires only a light 
bluish-green tint, on being mixed with sulphuric acid and blowing the vapor of nitric acid 
over the mixture (difference from Natal aloes).” U. S. “ Barbados Aloes is almost entirely 
soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.) diluted with half its volume of water. Not more than 30 
per cent, should be insoluble in cold water'' Br. Kremel gives a method to distinguish Curasao 
aloes from other kinds by adding to it a little cupric sulphate solution, then some saturated 
solution of common salt, which makes the color an intense carmine. The reaction is due to 
cupro-alvin. (Chem and Drug., 1895, 759.) 
2. Socotrine Aloes. This aloes, which has been very long known and highly esteemed 
under its present name, is nominally produced in the island of Socotra, which lies in the Strait 
of Babelmandeb, about forty leagues to the east of Cape Guardafui; but we are told by Ainslie 
that the greater part of what is sold under that name is prepared in the kingdom of Melinda, PAKT I. 
Aloes. 
137 
upon the eastern coast of Africa; and Wellsted' states that the aloes of the neighboring parts 
of Arabia is the same as that of Socotra. The commerce in this variety of aloes is carried on 
chiefly by the maritime Arabs, who convey it either to India, or up the Red Sea by the same 
channel through which it reached Europe before the discovery of the southern passage into 
the Indian Ocean. Mr. Vaughan states that nearly the whole product of the island is carried 
to Maculla, on the southern coast of Arabia, and thence transshipped to Bombay. (P. J. Tr., 
xii. 268.) The whole produce was formerly monopolized by the Arabian Sultan of Kisseen; 
but at present the business of collecting the drug is entirely free to the inhabitants. The 
leaves are plucked at any period of the year, and are placed in skins, into which the juice is 
allowed to exude. In what way the inspissation is effected we are not informed by Wellsted; 
but, according to Hermann, it is by exposure to the heat of the sun. The aloes is exported in 
skins, or in kegs or tin-lined boxes. Its quality differs much according to the care taken in 
its preparation. 
Socotrine aloes is in pieces of a yellowish or reddish-brown or even a dark ruby-red color, 
wholly different from that of the former variety. Sometimes the color is very light, especially 
in the fresh and not fully hardened parcels; sometimes it is a deep brownish red like that of 
garnets. It is rendered much darker by exposure to the air; and the interior of the masses is 
consequently much lighter-colored than the exterior. Its surface is somewhat glossy, and its 
fracture smooth or ragged, but not conchoidal. The color of its powder is a bright golden 
yellow. It has a peculiar, almost fragrant, saffron-like odor, which is especially developed by 
breathing upon it, and a taste which, though bitter and disagreeable, is accompanied by an 
aromatic flavor. Though hard and pulverulent in cold weather, it is somewhat tenacious in 
summer, and softens by the heat of the hand. The variety known as Zanzibar aloes is usually 
imported in liver-brown masses. It has a dull and waxy, but nearly smooth and even, frac- 
ture, a characteristic odor, and a nauseous, bitter taste. “ Almost entirely soluble in alcohol 
and in 4 parts of boiling water. The aqueous solution becomes turbid on cooling and yields 
a deposit. The powder, on being thoroughly dried on a water-bath and then heated to 100° C., 
should not cake. Mixed with nitric acid, it acquires a reddish-brown color. Socotrine Aloes 
is not colored blue on being mixed with sulphuric acid and blowing the vapor of nitric acid 
over the mixture (difference from Natal aloes')." U. S. Both Zanzibar and true Socotrine 
Aloes “ are opaque even in small splinters, exhibit when examined under the microscope 
numerous minute crystals embedded in a transparent mass, and impart to nitric acid a reddish 
or yellowish-brown color.” Br. 
Under the name of Socotrine aloes are occasionally to be met with in the market small par- 
cels beautifully semi-transparent, shining, and of a yellowish, reddish, or brownish-red color. 
These, however, are very rare, and do not deserve to be considered as a distinct variety. They 
are probably portions of the juice carefully inspissated in the sun, and may accompany the 
packages brought from any of the commercial sources of aloes. When in mass, as imported 
from the East, Socotrine aloes is usually soft and plastic, and of a very light yellowish-brown 
color in the interior. At present it reaches the United States in casks, tubs, or boxes, and not 
rarely in a semi-liquid state, forming, when dried, hard dark-brown, or nearly black masses 
which break with a dull and waxy, uneven fracture. Very liquid specimens are sometimes of 
the consistence of molasses, of an orange or yellowish color, and of a strong fragrant odor. 
It separates, upon standing, into a transparent liquid, and an opaque, lighter-colored, granular 
portion which subsides. Pereira found the latter portion to consist of innumerable minute 
prismatic crystals, which he believed to be identical with or closely analogous to aloin. When 
the juice is heated, the deposit dissolves, and the whole being evaporated yields a solid, trans- 
parent product having the properties of fine Socotrine aloes. (P. J. Tr., xi. 439.) 
Much of the aloes sold as Socotrine consists simply of superior specimens of other varieties 
falsely labelled to enhance their value. 
Much confusion and uncertainty have prevailed in relation to the term Hepatic Aloes. 
The name was originally applied to a product from the East Indies of a reddish-brown or liver 
color, and has been extended to similar aloes from the West Indies. The hepatic aloes of the 
present London markets is simply a dark, opaque, liver-colored Socotrine aloes. 
The Barbadoes aloes reaches the United States in gourds, the Curasao aloes in old boxes 
and various forms of packages, whilst the Socotrine aloes comes chiefly in monkey-skins. 
3. Cape Aloes (Shining Aloes) was dropped from the U. S. Pharmacopoeia at the revision 
of 1880. It is imported from the Cape of Good Hope, either directly or through the medium 
of English commerce. It is collected by the Hottentots and Dutch boers indiscriminately 138 
Aloes. 
PART I. 
from A. spicata and other species, which grow wild in great abundance. Mr. Backhouse (1838), 
Dr. L. Pappe, of Cape Town, and Mr. P. MacOwan (1871), all state that the best aloes is 
derived from Aloe ferox (Lam.), and, according to Dr. L. Pappe, a weaker product is obtained 
from A. africana and A. plicatilis of Miller. (Flor. Capens. 28.) The process is very simple. 
As stated by Hallbeck, a Moravian missionary who resided at the Cape, a hole is made in the 
ground, in which a sheep-skin is spread with the smooth side upward. The leaves are then cut 
off near the stem, and arranged around the hole, so that the juice which runs out may be 
received into the skin. The juice flows most freely in hot weather. (United Breth. Mission. 
Intelligencer, N. U.,vi. 436.) When a sufficient quantity of the liquor has been collected, it is 
inspissated in iron caldrons, and, when sufficiently concentrated, is poured into boxes or skins, 
where it concretes upon cooling. The finest kind is collected at the Missionary Institution at 
Bethelsdorp, and is hence called Bethclsdorp aloes. Its superiority is owing exclusively to the 
greater care observed in its preparation. 
According to Pliarmacographia, the process just described is still followed in its essential 
details throughout the Cape. Cape aloes differs from Socotrine aloes especially in its brilliant 
conchoidal fracture and peculiar odor, which is strong, but neither nauseous nor aromatic. 
When freshly broken, it has a very dark olive or greenish color approaching to black, presents 
a smooth bright almost glassy surface, and, if held up to the light, appears translucent at its 
edges. The small fragments also are semi-transparent, and have a tinge of yellow or red 
mixed with the deep olive of the opaque mass. The same tinge is sometimes observable in 
the larger pieces. The powder is of a fine greenish-yellow color, and, being generally more or 
less sprinkled over the surface of the pieces as they are kept in the shops, gives them a some- 
what yellowish appearance. Cape aloes, when quite hard, is very brittle, and readily powdered ; 
but in very hot weather it is apt to become somewhat soft and tenacious, and the interior of 
the pieces is occasionally more or less so even in winter. It is usually imported in casks or 
boxes. Dr. Pereira says that a variety is sometimes imported into England from the Cape of a 
reddish-brown color like hepatic aloes. The use of Cape aloes has greatly lessened ; the variety 
has, in fact, almost disappeared from the American market, the Curasao aloe having largely 
taken its place as a cheap aloe. Natal aloes is a variety coming from Natal, on the southeast 
coast of Africa, which occurs in irregular pieces, with a fracture much less shining than that 
of Cape aloes and a totally different color, having a greenish slate hue. It yields a greenish- 
brown powder, which has the odor of Cape aloes. It is less soluble than Cape aloes, and has a 
peculiar composition, which will be adverted to under the chemistry of the drug. 
Besides these varieties of aloes, others are mentioned by authors. A very inferior kind, 
supposed to consist of the dregs of the juice which furnished the better sorts, almost black, 
quite opaque, hard, of a rough fracture and very fetid odor, and full of various impurities, 
was formerly sold under the name of fetid, caballine, or horse aloes. It was used exclusively 
for horses; but, in consequence of the cheapness of better kinds, it has been banished from 
veterinary practice, and is not now found in the market. Aloes has been imported from Mus- 
cat, and a considerable quantity came over in a vessel sent by the Sultan to the United States. 
Some of a similar origin has been called Mocha aloes in London. Jafferabad aloes, supposed 
to be the same as Mocha aloes (A. J. P., 1881, p. 175), has been shown to be the product of 
A. abyssinica, and is said by Shenstone to contain /9-barbaloin. (A. J. P., 1883, p. 92.) Aloes 
made in India from the A. vulgaris is known as Musambra aloes. It appears to be a very 
inferior variety, and rarely, if ever, reaches Europe. (P. J. Tr., Aug. 1889.) 
General Properties. The odor of aloes is different in the different varieties. The taste 
is in all of them intensely bitter and very tenacious. The color and other sensible proper- 
ties have been sufficiently described.* Several distinguished chemists have investigated the 
* Hugo Borntrager asserts that one part of aloes in 5000 can be detected in the following manner. A little of the 
suspected liquid is shaken with about twice its bulk of benziu, which is allowed to separate, decanted, and shaken 
with a few drops of strongest water of ammonia. On separation the ammonia will be of a clear red color. With 
solids a tincture should first be made. According to Mr. R. H. Groves (P. J. Tr., 3d ser., xi. 1045), this test will 
never succeed with a less concentration than 1 part in 250, and with some aloes 1 in 100, and is due to the tannin- 
like substance of aloes; he also states that extreme care i* necessary to have the benzin solution perfectly clear. 
(P. J. Tr., 1885, p. 633. For Hager’s quantitative method for determining the percentage of aloin in aloes, see 
A. J. P.t 1885, p. 237.) 
R. A. Cripps and f. h. Hyrnond have given the testing of aloes a lengthy investigation, and they recommend the 
following method. Place 1 grain of the substance in a glass mortar standing on white paper, now add 16 drops of 
strong sulphuric acid and triturate until dissolved, then add 4 drops of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*42, and then 1 ounce of 
distilled water. If aloes be present, a color varying from deep orange to crimson will be produced, according to the 
kind of aloes that has been used; the color is deepened by the addition of ammonia. The following table is taken PART I. 
Aloes. 
139 
nature and composition of* aloes. Braconnot found a bitter principle, which he named resino- 
amer (resinous bitter'), and another substance in smaller proportion, which he designated by 
the name of flea-colored principle. These results were essentially confirmed by Trommsdorff, 
Bouillon-Lagrange, and Vogel. Berzelius considers aloes to be made up of a bitter extractive 
and products from this by the alterations in the air. Kobiquet obtained a product which he 
called aloetin. (For details, see 14th ed. U. S. D.) 
Aloins. The bitter substances noticed above, viz., the resino-amer of Braconnot, the bitter 
extractive of Berzelius and others, and the aloetin of Bobiquet, probably contain the active 
principle of aloes, but combined with impurities which render it insusceptible of crystalliza- 
tion. It is probable that there exists not one compound, but a set of three closely-related 
compounds, to which the general name of aloins is now given. The first of these, found ex- 
clusively in Barbadoes aloes, and discovered by T. and H. Smith, is called barbaloin; the 
second, discovered by Fliickiger in Natal aloes, is called nataldin; the third, found by Ilisted 
and Fliickiger in Socotrine aloes, is called socaloin. 
Barbaldin. This is a neutral substance crystallizing in tufts of small yellow prisms. These 
crystals represent hydrated aloin, and part with one mol. of water (= 2-69 per cent.) by desic- 
cation in vacuo, or by the prolonged heat of a water-bath. Barbaloin, C17tI1B07 -(- £HaO, 
dissolves sparingly in water or alcohol, but very freely if either liquid be even slightly warmed ; 
it is insoluble in ether. 
By oxidation with nitric acid, barbaloin yields, as Tilden has shown, about one-third of its 
weight of chrysammic acid, besides aloetic, oxalic, and picric acids. It combines easily with 
bromine to form yellow needles of tnbromaldin, C17H15Br307; trichloraloin, C17H15C1307, has 
also been obtained. (Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. (587.) According to Tilden, from 20 to 25 
per cent, of barbaloin can be extracted from good qualities of the drug by agitating with 
seven or eight parts of boiling water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, allowing to 
stand for twenty-four hours, filtering, setting aside for a day or two, putting the resulting mass 
in a calico bag, and squeezing out the liquid. The barbaloin thus obtained is purified by 
solution in alcohol and crystallization. Tilden gives it the formula C16H1807. 
Nataldin. This exists naturally in Natal aloes, from which it can be easily prepared in the 
from the paper of Bainbridge & Morrow (P. J. Tr., Jan. 1890). Under the heading of Kew Specimens are given 
the results obtained with juice of aloe plants grown in Kew Gardens. 
Commercial 
Specimens. 
HN03. 
H2SO4 and vapor 
of HNO3. 
Cripps and 
Dymond. 
C. and D. with 
NH4HO. 
Bromine 
Test. 
FesCl*. 
Hepatic aloes . . 
Reddish-brown. 
Nil. 
Orange-red. 
Intense brown- 
Nil. 
ish-red. 
True Socotrine . 
Reddish-brown. 
Nil. 
Orange-red. 
Intense brown- 
Nil. 
ish-red. 
Commercial 
xi 
Socotrine . . . 
Faint crimson. 
Nil. 
Crimson. 
Deep claret. 
Nil. 
Cape 
Permanent green af- 
Nil. 
Orange-red. 
Pale claret. 
Nil. 
ter standing a few 
O 
minutes. 
Curagao .... 
Evanescent crimson. 
Nil. 
Crimson. 
Intense claret. 
Nil. 
0 
Natal 
Permanent crimson. 
Deep blue. 
Deep crim- 
Intense brown- 
Nil. 
0 
son. 
ish-red. 
a 
Barbadoes . . . 
Crimson soon fading. 
Slight bluish-green 
Crimson. 
Deep claret. 
Nil. 
© 
occasionally. 
Kew Specimens. 
0 © 
> to 
Aloe ferox . . . 
Evanescent crimson. 
Green. 
Pale yellow. 
Red. 
Violet. 
*3 ® 
—socotrina. . . 
Permanent crimson. 
Deep blue. 
Crimson. 
Intense brown- 
Deep pur- 
ish-red. 
plish-red. 
ci > 
—vera 
Nil. 
Slight green. 
Nil. 
bO 
—perryi .... 
Nil. ' 
Nii. 
Nil. 
© 
—purpurascem . 
Crimson fading to 
Nil. 
Violet. 
light red. 
—platylepis . . 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
© 
—arboreacens, 
© 
var. fruteacena 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
© 
—a/ricana . . . 
Evanescent red, 
Nil. 
Orange-red. 
Pale claret. 
Nil. 
u 
c8 
changing after a 
> 
few minutes to 
<5 
green. 
—chinenais. . . 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 140 
Aloes. 
PART I. 
crude state if the drug be triturated with an equal weight of alcohol at a temperature not ex- 
ceeding 48° C. This will dissolve the amorphous portion, from which the crystals should be 
separated by a filter and washed with a small quantity of cold spirit. From 16 to 25 per 
cent, of crude nataloin in pale yellow crystals may be thus extracted. Its formula is C26H28Oir 
It is scarcely more soluble in warm than in cold spirit of wine, so that to obtain crystals it is 
best to allow the solution to evaporate spontaneously. Water, hot or cold, dissolves it very 
sparingly. Nataloin gives off no water when exposed over oil of vitriol or to a temperature 
of 100° C. By the action of nitric acid it affords both oxalic and picric acids, but no chry- 
sammic acid. 
Socalo'in. In the Socotrine or Zanzibar aloes the crystals are of comparatively large size, 
such as are not seen in Natal aloes. They cannot, however, be so easily separated as the nata- 
loin, since they are nearly as soluble as the amorphous matter surrounding them. Histed 
recommends treating the powdered crude drug with a little alcohol, sp. gr. 0960, and strongly 
pressing the pasty mass between several thicknesses of calico, then dissolving the yellow crys- 
talline cake in warm weak alcohol, and collecting the crystals which are formed by cooling 
and repose. Socalo'in forms tufted acicular prisms, which by solution in methylic alcohol may 
be obtained 2 to 3 millimetres in length. It is much more soluble than nataloin. Socaloin is 
a hydrate, losing, when dried over oil of vitriol, 11 to 12 per cent, of water, but slowly regaining 
it if afterwards exposed to the air. Sommaruga gives its composition as C16H10Or 
The three aloins, Barbaloin, Nataloin, and Socalo'in, are easily distinguished by the follow- 
ing beautiful reaction, first noticed by Histed. A drop of nitric acid on a porcelain slab gives, 
with a few particles of barbaloin or nataloin, a vivid crimson (rapidly fading in the case of 
barbaloin, but permanent with nataloin unless heat be applied), but produces little effect with 
socaloin. To distinguish barbaloin from nataloin, test each by adding a minute quantity to a 
drop or two of oil of vitriol, then allowing the vapor from a rod touched with nitric acid to 
pass over the surface. Barbaloin (and socaloin) will undergo no change, but nataloin will 
assume a fine blue. (Pliarmacograpliia, 2d ed., p. 688.) E. von Sommaruga and Egger con- 
sider that the three aloins form a homologous series possessing the formulas: barbaloin, 
C17Hso07 ; nataloin, C16H1807 ; socaloin, C15H10O7, and that they are all derived from anthra- 
cene, C14H10. Tilden subsequently assigned a different composition to the aloins: barbaloin 
and socaloin, each C10H18O7; for nataloin, the formula C25H280ir He further states that 
barbaloin and socaloin differ in physical and chemical properties on account of the variation 
in the molecules of water which are associated with them. The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) 
assigns to barbaloin the formula C10H10O7,3H2O. Professor Tschirch, of Berne, Switzerland, 
published in the Journal of the German Pharmaceutical Society (viii., 1898, Heft 6) an im- 
portant communication, in which he showed that emodin, C16H1006, or trioxymethylanthraqui- 
none, is the purgative principle of the aloins. He succeeded in obtaining emodin in orange red 
crystals which melt at 216° C. Emodin was found in the aloins obtained from Cape, Barba- 
does, and Socotrine Aloes ; it is extracted by treating barbaloin with ether, which dissolves out 
the emodin. Tschirch found that if a liquid extract of aloes be deprived of its resin and 
aloin, an additional quantity of emodin could be obtained by boiling the liquid extract with 
diluted sulphuric acid; thus pointing to the fact that emodin may be produced through hy- 
drolysis. He also showed that emodin could be obtained from purgative drugs of the same 
class as aloes: rhubarb, rumex, frangula, cascara, senna, rhamnus catharticus, morinda bark, 
and parmelia. (See Emodin, Part II.) 
Aloes yields its active matter to cold water, and when good is almost wholly dissolved by 
boiling water; but the inert portion, or apotheme of Berzelius, is deposited as the solution 
cools. It is also soluble in alcohol, rectified or diluted. Long boiling impairs its purgative 
properties by oxidizing the aloin and rendering it insoluble. The alkalies, their carbonates, 
and soap alter in some measure its chemical nature, and render it of easier solution. It is in- 
flammable, swelling up and decrepitating when it burns, and giving out a thick smoke which 
has the odor of the drug. 
Those substances only are incompatible with aloes which alter or precipitate the soluble 
matter; as the insoluble portion is without action upon the system. Among these is the in- 
fusion of galls, which we have found, probably through its tannic acid, to afford a copious 
precipitate with an aqueous solution of aloes. It is said that such a solution will keep a long 
time, even for several months, without mouldiness or putrescence, though it becomes ropy. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Aloes was known to the ancients. It is mentioned 
in the works of Dioscorides and Celsus, the former of whom speaks of two kinds. The PART I. 
Aloes. 
141 
varieties are similar in their mode of action. They are all cathartic, operating very slowly but 
certainly, and having a peculiar affinity for the large intestine, and especially its pelvic portion. 
Their action, moreover, appears to be directed rather to the muscular coat than to the exhalant 
vessels; and the discharges which they produce are, therefore, seldom very thin or watery. 
In a full dose they quicken the circulation, and produce general warmth. When frequently 
repeated, they are apt to irritate the rectum. Aloes has a decided tendency to the uterine 
system. Its emmenagogue effect, which is often very considerable, is generally attributed to a 
sympathetic extension of irritation from the rectum to the uterus; but we can see no reason 
why the medicine should not act specifically upon this organ; and its influence in promoting 
menstruation is by no means confined to cases in which its action upon the neighboring intes- 
tines is most conspicuous. A peculiarity in the action of this cathartic is, that an increase of 
the quantity administered, beyond the medium dose, is not attended by a corresponding in- 
crease of effect. Its tendency to irritate the rectum may be obviated, in some measure, by 
combining with it soap or an alkaline carbonate; but it does not follow, as supposed by some, 
that this modification of its operation is the result of increased solubility; for aloes given in a 
liquid state produces the same effect as when taken in pill or powder, except that it acts some- 
what more speedily. Besides, when externally applied to a blistered surface, it operates ex- 
actly in the same manner as when internally administered, thus proving that its peculiarities 
are not dependent upon the particular form in which it may be given, but on specific ten- 
dencies to particular parts. (Gerhard, N~. Am. Med. and Surg. Journ., x. 155.) With its other 
powers, aloes combines the property of slightly stimulating the stomach. It is, therefore, in 
minute doses, an excellent remedy in habitual costiveness attended with torpor of the digestive 
organs. It has been supposed to stimulate the hepatic secretion, and certainly acts sometimes 
very happily in jaundice, producing bilious stools even after calomel has failed. From its 
special direction to the rectum, it has been found peculiarly useful in the treatment of 
ascarides, and is useful in hemorrhoids without inflammation. In amenorrhcea it is perhaps 
more frequently employed than any other remedy, entering into almost all the numerous em- 
pirical preparations habitually resorted to by females in that complaint. It is much used in 
regular practice, and is frequently combined with more irritating cathartics, in order to regu- 
late their liability to excessive action. In amenorrhcea it is said to be peculiarly efficacious, 
when given, in the form of enema, about the period when the menses should appear. Aloes 
is unsuitable, unless modified by combination, to the treatment of inflammatory diseases. 
The medium dose is 10 grains (0-65 Gm.) ; but as a laxative it will often operate in the 
quantity of 2 or 3 grains (0-13-0-20 Gm.) ; and when a decided impression is required, the 
dose may be augmented to 20 grains (1-3 Gm.). In consequence of its excessively bitter and 
somewhat nauseous taste, it is most conveniently administered in pills. 
ALOE PURIFICATA. U. S. Purified Aloes. 
Aloes depurl, Fr.; Gereinigte Aloe, G. 
“ Socotrine Aloes, one thousand grammes [35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, two hundred 
cubic centimeters [about 6£ fluidounces]. Heat the Aloes, by means of a water-bath, until it is 
completely melted. Then add the Alcohol, and, having stirred the mixture thoroughly, strain it 
through a No. 60 sieve, which has just been dipped into boiling water. Evaporate the strained 
mixture by means of a water-bath, constantly stirring, until a thread of the mass becomes 
brittle on cooling. Lastly, break the product, when cold, into pieces of a convenient size, and 
keep it in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. Purified aloes occurs in irregular, brittle pieces of a 
dull-brown or reddish-brown color, and having the peculiar, aromatic odor of Socotrine Aloes. 
It is almost entirely soluble in alcohol. 
Aloes, even of good qualify, is so often mixed as found in the market with various acci- 
dental impurities, such as fragments of wood, vegetable remains, pieces of leather, and earthy 
matter, that it has been thought advisable to have an official process by which it may be 
freed from these, should its purification be found necessary in any particular instance. The 
use of alcohol in the formula is simply to render the melted aloes more liquid, and thus facili- 
tate the straining; and it is subsequently got rid of by evaporation; but care should be taken 
not to use too great a heat, or to continue it too long, for fear of impairing the virtues of the 
drug. Thus prepared, purified aloes is in irregular, brittle pieces of a dull brown or reddish- 
brown color, and having the peculiar aromatic odor of Socotrine aloes. It is almost entirely 
soluble in alcohol. 
(AL'O-E PU-RI-FI-CA-TA.) 142 
Aloinum. 
PART I. 
Ci« His Ot. (XL-O-i'NOM.) 
“ A neutral principle obtained from several varieties of Aloes, chiefly Barbadoes Aloes 
(yielding Barbaloin) ; and Socotra or Zanzibar Aloes (yielding Socaloin), differing more or 
less in chemical composition and physical properties according to the source from which it is 
derived.” U. S. “ Aloin is extracted from Barbados or Socotrine Aloes by solvents and puri- 
fied by recrystallization. The products from the different varieties of Aloes possess similar 
properties. The Aloin extracted from Barbados Aloes has the formula CieHieO,,3HjC).” Br. 
Although aloin has been used for many years, it was not recognized by the U. S. Pharma- 
copoeia until the revision of 1890. (See Alains, p. 139.) 
Preparation. Aloin may be prepared by W. A. Tilden’s process as follows. 1 part of 
aloes is dissolved in 10 parts of boiling water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and allowed 
to cool. The liquid is then decanted from resinous matter, evaporated to about 2 parts, and 
set aside two weeks for crystals to form; the liquid portion is poured off, the crystals pressed, 
and the adherent resinous matter separated by shaking with acetic ether, wdiich dissolves the 
resin. This process answers fairly well for obtaining aloin from Barbadoes, Curagoa, or 
Bonaire aloes. Aloin from Socotrine aloes is best obtained by digesting the aloes in 3 parts 
of alcohol for 24 hours, then transferring to a water-bath, and boiling for 2 hours. After 
cooling, the liquid is filtered and set aside to crystallize. The crystals are washed with a little 
alcohol and dried. The yield is about 10 per cent. (H. C. Plenge, A. J. P., 1884, p. 507.) 
Schafer obtains from 15 to 30 per cent, of crystallized aloin from commercial aloes by the fol- 
lowing process. 50 Gm. of aloes dissolved in 300 C.c. of hot water is slightly acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid. The solution, after standing (for the resins to separate), is decanted, mixed 
with 50 C.c. of 20 per cent, ammonia water, followed by a solution of 15 (Gm. of calcium chlo- 
ride in 30 C.c. of water. The liquid is agitated and the aloin-calcium compound which separates 
is collected, drained, and mixed in a mortar with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid ; the mix- 
ture of aloin and calcium chloride is dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of boiling water, 
filtered, and the filtrate cooled by means of ice; the aloin crystallizes. (P. J. Tr., 1897, p. 287.) 
Aloin is officially described as in “ minute, acicular crystals, or a microcrystalline powder, vary- 
ing in color from yellow to yellowish-brown, odorless or possessing a slight odor of aloes, of a 
characteristic, bitter taste, and permanent in the air. Barbaloin is soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), 
in about 60 parts of water, 20 parts of alcohol, or 470 parts of ether. Socaloin is soluble in 
about 60 parts of water, 30 parts of absolute alcohol, 380 parts of ether, or 9 parts of acetic 
ether. When heated, Aloin melts, and, on ignition, it is consumed without leaving a residue. 
An alcoholic solution of Aloin is neutral to litmus paper. An aqueous solution of Aloin is 
colored greenish-black by ferric chloride test-solution, and slowly precipitated by basic lead 
acetate test-solution. On adding a minute portion of Barbaloin to a drop of cold nitric acid 
of specific gravity T200, on a white porcelain surface, a crimson color will be developed. Soca- 
loin will produce scarcely any color when thus treated. In alkaline solutions, Aloin is rapidly 
decomposed ; in neutral or acid solutions, only slowly.” U. S. Aloin of commerce is frequently 
contaminated with resin from aloes, indicating want of care in manufacturing. According to 
Serre (Drug. Giro., 1895, 8), this may be detected by finely powdering 1 grain of the sample, 
shaking it in a test-tube with 20 C.c. of water, and allowing it to stand one minute. The solution 
should be perfectly clear. See also paper by C. H. Lawall (Proc. Penn. Pharm. Assoc., 1895, 92). 
Medical Properties and Uses. Socaloin and barbaloin are active purgatives in doses 
of 2 to 4 grains. Barbaloin is affirmed to be the more powerful, and, according to the re- 
searches of Hans Moyer (Arch. Exper. Path. u. Pharm., xxviii.), when given hypodermically in 
dose of four-fifths of a grain (0-05 Gm.), it produces repeated moderate purging in from seven 
to twenty-two hours. Moyer found that Natal aloin, though acting energetically upon dogs, 
usually fails to affect the alvine discharges in man, except when the person has for some days 
been fed exclusively upon animal food. In combination with belladonna and strychnine, aloin 
is one of the most serviceable and pleasantly active laxatives that we have. The ordinary lax- 
ative dose may be set down as one-fourth of a grain (0 016 Gm.); the full purgative dose, one 
grain (0 065 Gm.). Fronmiiller (Bond. Med. Rec., 1879, p. 70) affirms that aloin dissolved in 
25 times its weight of water acts as an efficient though slow purgative, wdien given hypoder- 
mically, without causing any local irritation; Moyer found that formamide is an apt vehicle 
for the hypodermic administration of barbaloin; in making it, the solution may be warmed, 
but not heated, for fear of producing ammonia. 
ALOINUM. U. S., Br. Aloin. PART I. 
Althaea. 
143 
ALTH/EA. U. S. Althaea. [Marshmallow.] 
(XL-TH^'A.) 
“ The root of Althaea officinalis, Linne (nat. ord. Malvaceae). U. S. 
Radix Althaese, P. G.; Racine de Guimauve, Guimauve, Fr.; Althiewurzel, Eibischwurzel, Eibisch, G.; Altea, It.f 
Altea, Malvavisco, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx double, the exterior six- or nine-cleft. Capsules numerous, one-seeded. 
Wllld. 
Althaea officinalis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 770 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 552,1.198. Marshmallow 
is an herbaceous perennial, with a perpendicular branching root, and erect woolly stems, from 
two to four feet or more in height, branched and leafy towards the summit. The leaves are 
alternate, petiolate, nearly cordate on the lower part of the stem, oblong-ovate and obscurely 
three-lobed above, somewhat angular, irregularly serrate, pointed, and covered on both sides 
with a soft down. The flowers are terminal and axillary, with short peduncles, each bearing 
one, two, or three flowers. The corolla has five spreading, obcordate petals, of a pale purplish 
color. The fruit consists of numerous capsules united in a compact circular form, each con- 
taining a single seed. The plant grows throughout Europe, inhabiting salt marshes, the banks 
of rivers, and other moist places. It is found also in this country on the borders of salt 
marshes. In some parts of the continent of Europe it is largely cultivated for medical use, par- 
ticularly in Germany, where, in the neighborhood of Nuremberg and Schweinfurt, about 15 
tons are harvested annually. The whole plant abounds in mucilage. The flowers, leaves, and 
root are mucilaginous, and were formerly official; but the last only if 
employed to any considerable extent in this country. 
The roots should be collected in autumn from plants at least two years 
old. They are usually prepared for the market by removing the epider- 
mis : commerce is supplied from Europe. 
Properties.—Althaea occurs “ in cylindrical or somewhat conica’ 
pieces, from 10 to 15 Cm. long, 10 to 15 Mm. in diameter, deeply 
wrinkled ; deprived of the brown, corky layer and small roots ; externally 
white, marked with a number of circular spots, and of a somewhat 
hairy appearance from the loosened bast-fibres; internally whitish and 
fleshy. It breaks with a short, granular, and mealy fracture, has a 
faint, aromatic odor, and a sweetish mucilaginous taste.” IT. S. Sections 
of the root assume a bright yellow tint when an alkali is added tc 
them. Those pieces are to be preferred which are plump and but slightly 
fibrous. The woody part, on examination with the microscope, is seen 
to consist of scalariform or pitted vessels, and a few ligneous cells em- 
bedded in a loose parenchymatous tissue. The bark is composed of 
numerous branched liber cells, in bundles of 3 to 30 fibres separated by 
parenchymatous tissue. The abundant mucilage is situated chiefly in 
the parenchymatous cells, and can be seen to be in layers when alcohol 
is added. It, with starch and saccharine matter, is taken out by boiling 
water. The mucilage, without the starch, is extracted by cold water, 
which thus becomes ropy. Marshmallow is said to become somewhat acid 
by decoction. Pieces should be rejected which are woody, discolored, 
mouldy, of a sour or musty smell, or of a sourish taste. A principle 
was discovered in the root by M. Bacon, which has been ascertained to 
be identical with asparagin, C4HsN203 -f- H20. MM. Boutron-Charland 
and Pelouze found it to belong to that class of organic principles which 
are convertible by strong acids, and other agencies, into ammonia and 
organic acids, and which are designated by the termination amide, being 
compounds of acid radicals with the group NH2 derived from ammonia 
by the withdrawal of an atom of hydrogen. When such an amide is 
acted upon by acids, it is decomposed, the acid radical taking OH to 
form the free acid and the amide group taking H to form ammonia. 
Thus asparagin, which in this view should be called asparamide, is con- 
verted into ammonia and aspartic acid, C4H7N04, and one mol. of the 
resulting ammonium aspartate corresponds with one mol. of asparamide and one of water. 
(Journ. de Pharm., xix. 208.) Asparagin, being now recognized as a derivative of succinic 
acid, is called aniido-succinamide. and the asnartie acid is called tvmid.rt smooinir. aci d It, 
A segment of althsea-root 
after removal of the starch 
(after Berg), w, cambium 
layer: x, wood ; r, medul- 
lary rays;_<7, bast tissues; 
o, middle bark. 144 
Althaea.—Alumen. 
PART I. 
found in various other plants besides the marshmallow, as in the shoots of asparagus, in 
vetches grown in the dark, in all the varieties of the potato, and in the roots of the comfrey 
and liquorice plant. According to Professor Pira, asparagin has acid properties. It has no 
therapeutic value. Betaine (trimethyl-glycocoll) has been obtained from althaea by Orlow. 
(Pharm. Zeit. fur Russland, 1898.) 
The roots of other Malvaceae are sometimes substituted for that of marshmallow, without 
disadvantage, as they possess similar properties. Such are those of Althaea rosea, or hollyhock, 
and Malva alcea. The dark purple flowers of a variety of A. rosea have been proposed as a 
test for acids and alkalies. A strong infusion of these flowers imparts to slips of white filtering 
paper a permanent purplish-blue color, which is reddened by acids, and rendered bluish green 
by alkalies. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The virtues of marshmallow are exclusively those of a 
demulcent. The decoction of the root is much used in Europe in irritation and inflammation 
of the mucous membranes. A syrup of* althaea is official in the German Pharmacopoeia, and 
was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880. The roots themselves, as well as the leaves 
and flowers, boiled and bruised, are sometimes employed as a poultice. In France the powdered 
root is much used in the preparation of pills and electuaries. 
ALUMEN. U. S., Br. Alum. [Potassium Alum, Aluminum and Potassium Sulphate.] 
AI2 K2 (S04)4 + 24H2 O ; 946-46. (A-LU'MEN.) Al2 K2 (SO*)* + 24II2 O; 948. 
“ Aluminium and potassium sulphate (Potassium Alum), A12(S04)3,K2S04,24H20, or alu- 
minium and ammonium sulphate (Ammonium Alum), Al2(S04)3,(Nil4)2S04,24H20, produced 
by the combination of aluminium sulphate with potassium sulphate or with ammonium sul- 
phate.” Br. 
Aluminii et Potassii Sulphas, U. S. 1870, Potassa Alum; Sulphas Aluininico-potassicus; Alun, Fr., Dan., Swed.; 
Sulfate d’Alumine et Potasse, Fr.; Alaun, G.; Allume, It.; Allumbre, Sp. 
Aluminii et Ammonii Sulphas, Sulphas Aluminioo-Ammonicus; Alumen, U. S. 1870; Ammonia Alum; Alum, 
U. S. 1870; Alun ammoniacal, Fr.; Ammoniak Alaun, G. 
The name alum has been applied indifferently to two salts, one consisting of aluminum ter- 
sulphate combined with ammonium sulphate, the other of the same salt of aluminum com- 
bined with potassium sulphate, and distinguished as ammonium-alum and potassium-alum. The 
former was official in the U. S. P. 1870, but has been replaced by potassium-alum. Ammonium- 
alum is still retained with potassium-alum under the title Alumen in the British Pharmacopoeia. 
Alum (Aluminum and Potassium Sulphate. U. S. 1890). Potassium-alum is manu- 
factured occasionally from earths which contain it ready formed, but most generally from min- 
erals which, from the fact of their containing most or all of its constituents, are called alum 
ores. The principal alum ores are the alum stone, which is a native mixture of aluminum sul- 
phate and potassium sulphate, found in large quantities at Tolfa and Piombino in Italy; cer- 
tain natural mixtures of iron disulphide with alumina, silica, and bituminous matter, called 
aluminous schist or alum-slate ; and cryolite. (See Sodii Carbonas.) 
At the Solfatara, and other places iu Southern Italy, alum was formerly extracted from 
earths containing it ready formed. The ground being of volcanic origin, and having a tem- 
perature of about 104°, an efflorescence of pure alum formed upon its surface. This was col- 
lected and lixiviated, and the solution crystallized by slow evaporation in leaden vessels sunk 
in the ground. The alum stone is manufactured into alum by calcination, and subsequent ex- 
posure to the air for three months ; the mineral being frequently sprinkled with water, in order 
that it may be brought to a soft mass. This is lixiviated, and the solution obtained crystal- 
lized by evaporation. The alum stone may be considered as consisting of alum united with a 
certain quantity of aluminum hydrate. The latter, by the calcination, loses its water, and be- 
comes incapable of remaining united with the alum of the mineral, which is consequently set 
free. Alum of the greatest purity is obtained from this ore. 
Alum-slate, when compact, is first exposed to the air for a month. It is then stratified with 
wood, which is set on fire. The combustion which ensues is slow and protracted. The sul- 
phur is in part converted into sulphuric acid, which unites with the alumina; and the alumi- 
num sulphate thus formed generates a portion of alum with the potassa derived from the 
ashes of the wood. The iron, in the mean time, is almost wholly converted into sesquioxide, 
and thus becomes insoluble. The matter is lixiviated, and the solution crystallized into alum 
by evaporation. The mother-waters, containing aluminum sulphate, are then drawn off, and Alumen. 
145 
PART I. 
made to yield a further portion of alum by the addition of potassium sulphate or potassium 
chloride, the latter being obtained from the soap-boilers, or from native potassium chloride of 
the Stassfurt deposits. When alum-slate is easily disintegrated, it is not calcined, but merely 
placed in heaps and occasionally sprinkled with water. The iron disulphide gradually absorbs 
oxygen, and passes into ferrous sulphate, which effloresces on the surface of the heap. Part 
of the sulphuric acid formed unites with the alumina; so that, after the chemical changes 
are completed, the heap contains both ferrous sulphate and aluminum sulphate. At the end 
of about a year, the matter is lixiviated, and the solution of the two sulphates produced is con- 
centrated to the proper degree in leaden boilers. The ferrous sulphate crystallizes, while the 
aluminum sulphate, being a deliquescent salt, remains in the mother-waters. These are 
drawn off, and treated with potassium sulphate in powder, heat being at the same time applied. 
The whole is then allowed to cool, that the alum may crystallize. The crystals are then sepa- 
rated from the solution, and purified by a second solution and crystallization. They are next 
treated with water just sufficient to dissolve them at the boiling temperature, and the satu- 
rated solution is run into casks or tubs so constructed as to be easily taken to pieces and set 
up again. In the course of ten or fifteen days the alum concretes into a crystalline mass, 
from which the mother-liquor is let off. The vessel is then taken to pieces, and the salt, having 
been broken up, is packed in barrels for sale. This process for forming the alum in large 
masses is called rocking. 
Alum is now largely manufactured by the direct combination of its constituents. With this 
view, clays are selected as free from iron and calcium carbonate as possible, and calcined to 
sesquioxidize the iron and render them more easily pulverizable; after which they are dis- 
solved, by the assistance of heat, in weak sulphuric acid. Advantage has been found from 
mixing the clay, previous to calcination, with powdered charcoal, coke, or other carbonaceous 
matter, in the proportion of about one to six of the clay, and then applying heat by a re- 
verberatory furnace till all the carbon is consumed. It is asserted that the alumina is thus 
rendered more soluble in the acid. (jP. J. Tv., Dec. 1857, p. 328.) The aluminum sulphate, 
thus generated, is next crystallized into alum by the addition of potassium sulphate in the 
usual manner. Alum is made in this way from the ashes of the Boghead cannel-coal, which 
occurs near Edinburgh. These ashes, which form the residue of the combustion of the coke 
derived from the coal used for making gas, contain a considerable quantity of alumina in 
a state readily soluble in acids. For an account of the manufacture of alum in India, see 
Cliem. and Drug., 1892, 636. Bauxite, a hydrated oxide of aluminum, containing from 56 
to 60 per cent, of aluminum oxide, has within recent years become one of the most important 
raw materials for the alum manufacture. It is found in very rich deposits in Georgia and 
Alabama. 
The elements rubidium and csesium are found in lepidolite, and, as much of the alum in con- 
tinental Europe is made from this mineral, Salzer found samples of commercial potassium-alum 
which contained a considerable quantity of rubidium-alum ; this contaminated potassium-alum 
is less soluble in water than ordinary alum. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 217.) 
The production of alum in the United States in 1896 amounted to 14,090 short tons, valued 
at $422,700 ; in 1897, to 15,456 tons, valued at $463,680. The greater part of this was made 
from American bauxite. 
Alumen, Br. Aluminii et Ammonii Sulphas. Sulphate of Aluminium and Ammonium. 
Ammonia-alum. Besides the potassium-alum, which is now the only U. S. official variety of 
this salt, there are several others, in which the potassium is replaced by some other base, as, for 
example, ammonium or sodium. Of these, ammonium-alum, or aluminum and ammonium sul- 
phate, was introduced in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia at the revision of 1860 ; and in the Phar- 
macopoeia of 1870 and Br. Pharmacopoeia it was adopted under the name of alumen. It is 
made by adding ammonium sulphate to the solution of aluminum sulphate. This kind of 
alum came into very general use, owing to the comparative cheapness of ammonia, obtained 
in the process for potassium ferrocyanide, or derived from the liquor of gas-works. Ammo- 
nium-alum was extensively manufactured by Powers & Weightman, of Philadelphia. Scotch 
alum, made near Paisley, generally contains both potassium and ammonium. Ammonium-alum 
resembles potassium-alum so exactly that it cannot be distinguished by simple inspection ; and 
in composition it is perfectly analogous to the potassium salt. It may be distinguished by sub- 
jecting it to a strong calcining heat, after which alumina will be the sole residue ; or by rubbing 
it with potassa or lime and a little water, when the smell of ammonia will be perceived. 146 
Alumen. 
PART I. 
Properties. Alum, as usually seen, is iu “ large, colorless, octohedral crystals, sometimes 
modified by cubes, or in crystalline fragments, without odor, but having a sweetish and strongly 
astringent taste. On exposure to the air, the crystals are liable to absorb ammonia, and acquire 
a whitish coating. Soluble in 9 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 0-3 part of boiling 
water; it is also freely soluble in warm glycerin, but is insoluble in alcohol. When gradually 
heated, it loses water; at 92° C. (lfiT’G0 F.) it melts, and if the heat be gradually increased 
to 200° C. (392° F.), it loses all its water of crystallization (45'52 per cent, of its weight), 
leaving a voluminous, white residue. The salt has an acid reaction upon litmus paper. The 
aqueous solution of the salt affords, with ammonia water, a white, gelatinous precipitate, 
which is nearly insoluble in an excess of ammonia. Another portion of the aqueous solution 
yields, with barium chloride test-solution, a white precipitate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid. 
When a saturated solution of the salt is actively shaken with tartaric acid test-solution, it 
affords, within half an hour, a white, crystalline precipitate. The aqueous solution of Alum 
affords, with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, a white, gelatinous precipitate, which 
is completely soluble in an excess of the alkali, and this alkaline solution should not evolve 
the odor of ammonia, even when heated (distinction from, and absence of, ammonium alum). 
A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test- 
solution (absence of copper, lead, or zinc), and 20 C.c. of this solution should not at once 
assume a blue color on the addition of 5 drops of potassium ferrocyanide test-solution (limit 
of iron)." U. S. “ It is soluble in ten times its weight of cold and in one-third' of its weight 
of boiling water, the solution having an acid reaction. It is freely soluble in glycerin, insoluble 
in alcohol (90 per cent.). It affords the reactions characteristic of aluminium, of potassium or 
ammonium, and of sulphates. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for 
copper, lead, zinc, calcium, or sodium, and only the slightest reactions with the tests for iron.” 
Br. Its sp. gr. is 171. It reddens litmus, but changes the blue tinctures of the petals 
of plants to green. When heated a little above 100° C. (212° F.), it undergoes the aqueous 
fusion; and, if the heat be continued, it loses its water, swells up, becomes a white, opaque, 
porous mass, and is converted into the official dried alum. (See Alumen Exsiccatum.) Ex- 
posed to a red heat, it gives off oxygen, together with sulphurous and sulphuric oxides, and 
the residue consists of alumina and potassium sulphate. When calcined with finely divided 
charcoal, it forms a spontaneously inflammable substance, called Homherg's pyrophorus, which 
consists of a mixture of potassium sulphide, alumina, and charcoal. 
The characters of ammonium-alum, as stated in the Br. Pharm. (1885), are that its solution 
gives with caustic potassa or soda a white precipitate, soluble in an excess of the reagent and 
an immediate precipitate with barium chloride; and does not acquire a blue color from the 
addition of potassium ferrocyanide or ferricyanide, proving the absence of iron. 
Several varieties of alum are known in commerce. Roche alum, so called from its having 
come originally from Roeca, in Syria, is a sort which occurs in fragments about the size of an 
almond, and of a pale rose color, which is given to it, according to Pereira, by bole or rose- 
pink. Roman alum, which is the purest variety found in commerce, also occurs in small frag- 
ments, covered with a reddish-brown powder, resembling ochre, which is put on by the manu- 
facturers. It has been supposed that the powder contains iron ; but this is probably a mistake. 
Roman alum crystallizes in cubes, from the fact that the crystals are deposited from a solution 
always containing an excess of alumina, which decomposes any iron salt that may be present. 
This crystalline form of alum is, therefore, an index of its freedom from iron. 
All the alums of commerce contain more or less ferrous sulphate, varying from five to seven 
parts in the thousand. The iron is readily detected by adding to a solution of the suspected 
alum a few drops of potassium ferrocyanide, which will cause a greenish-blue tint, if iron 
be present. It may be detected also by precipitating the alumina as a subsulphate with a 
solution of potassa, and afterwards adding the alkali in excess. This will redissolve the pre- 
cipitate, with the exception of any iron, which will be left in the state of sesquioxide. The 
proportion of iron usually present, though small, is injurious when the salt is used in dyeing. 
Alum may, however, be purified, either by dissolving it in the smallest quantity of boiling 
water, and stirring the solution as it cools, or by repeated solutions and crystallizations. 
Incompatibles. Alum is incompatible with the alkalies and their carbonates, lime and 
lime water, magnesia and its carbonate, potassium tartrate, and lead acetate. 
Composition. Alum was regarded as an aluminum sulphate, until it was proved by Des- 
croizilles, Vauquelin, and Chaptal to contain also potassium sulphate, ammonium sulphate, or 
both these salts. When its second base is potassium, it consists of one mol. of aluminum sul- PART I. 
Alumen. 
147 
phate 343, one of potassium sulphate 174-2, and twenty-four of water 432 = 949-2. In the 
ammonium-alum, the molecule of potassium sulphate is replaced by one of ammonium sul- 
phate. Alumina is classed as an earth, and may be obtained by subjecting ammonium-alum 
to a strong calcining heat. It consists of two atoms of a metal called aluminum 55, and three 
of oxygen 48 = 103. It is, therefore, a sesquioxide. The existence of this metal was ren- 
dered probable by Sir H. Davy in 1808; but it was not fairly obtained until 1828, when 
Wohler procured it in an impure state, in globules of the size of a pin’s head, by the action 
of potassium on aluminum chloride. In 1854, Deville succeeded in obtaining the pure metal 
in ingots by decomposing the same chloride with sodium. The process of Deville remained the 
only practical process for its manufacture until 1886, when the Messrs. Cowles, of Cleveland, 
Ohio, succeeded in effecting the reduction of corundum, the native oxide, by charcoal with the 
aid of a powerful electric current from a Brush dynamo-electric machine, using large carbon 
electrodes. They manufactured the pure aluminum and the alloys of copper known as alumi- 
num bronzes. This process in turn has been practically displaced by the Hall process, as 
operated by the Pittsburg Reduction Company at Niagara Falls and elsewhere. This is to 
electrolyze pure alumina dissolved in a bath of melted cryolite. The cryolite (a double fluo- 
ride of sodium and aluminum) is continuously regenerated, so that by feeding in the pure 
alumina the process can be made continuous A German process, that of Graetzel, for electro- 
lizing the fused chloride, is also in successful use. Aluminum is silver-white, sonorous, un- 
alterable in the air, and lighter than glass, having only the sp. gr. 2-56. Its fusing point is 
somewhat lower than that of silver. It is not attacked by sulphuric or nitric acid, nor tarnished 
by hydrogen sulphide. Its proper solvent is hydrochloric acid. After silver, gold, and plati- 
num, it is the least alterable of the metals. 
The production of aluminum in the United States in 1895 was 900,000 lbs., valued at 
$495,000 ; in 1896, 1,300,000 lbs., valued at $540,000 ; and in 1897, 4,000,000 lbs., valued at 
$1,400,000. 
Medical Properties, etc. Alum is a powerful astringent, with very decided irritant 
qualities, owing to which, when taken internally in sufficient quantity, it is emetic and purga- 
tive, and may even cause fatal gastro-intestinal inflammation. It may be employed in passive 
relaxations of the mucous membranes or skin, hemorrhages, serous diarrhoea, colliquative sweats, 
etc., but is not much used internally, except in colica pictonum. The latter employment of it 
was introduced by Grashuis, a Dutch physician, in 1752, was imitated by Dr. Percival with 
great success, and has been revived in recent times with the happiest results. It allays nausea 
and vomiting, relieves flatulence, mitigates the pain, and opens the bowels with more certainty 
than any other medicine. Sometimes it is advantageously conjoined with opium and camphor. 
It is also efficacious in nervous colic. Sir James Murray found it a useful remedy in gastror- 
rhoea. He gave it in doses of ten or twelve grains (0-65-0-775 Gm.) three or four times a 
day, mixed with an equal quantity of cream of tartar to prevent constipation, and a little 
ginger to obviate flatulence. By Dr. C. D. Meigs alum has been strongly recommended, in 
doses of a teaspoonful (3-9 Gm.), in pseudo-membranous croup as a mechanical emetic, but it is 
not as certain or powerful as is zinc sulphate. 
Alum is a powerful astringent when topically applied, and has been largely used as such. 
In various anginas it has been a favorite remedy, but on account of its destructive influence 
upon the teeth it should never be used in gargles, but be applied in powder or concentrated 
solution with the brush. Bretonneau, Yulpian, etc., strongly recommended it in pseudo-mem- 
branous angina, applied by insufflation in the case of children. When used in the latter way, 
a drachm of finely powdered alum may be placed in one end of a tube, and then blown by 
means of the breath into the throat of the child. Alum coagulates blood very rapidly and 
firmly, and is frequently used as a local styptic in external hemorrhages and in epistaxis and 
other bleedings from mucous membranes to which it can be applied directly. In haemoptysis 
its saturated solution may be used by atomization. It is sometimes applied locally in the form 
of cataplasm, made by coagulating the whites of two eggs with a drachm of alum. In colica 
pictonum from 20 to 30 grains of alum in molasses (or thick syrup) may be given three or 
four times a day. The emetic dose is one to two teaspoonfuls, repeated, if necessary, in fifteen 
minutes. An elegant mode of giving alum in solution is in the form of alum-whey, made by 
boiling two drachms of alum with a pint of milk, and then straining to separate the curd. 
The dose is a wineglassful (60 C.c.), containing about 15 grains (1 Gm.) of alum. As a colly- 
rium, the solution is made of various strengths; as 4, 6, or 8 grains to the fluidounce of water. 
A solution containing from half an ounce to an ounce in a pint of water, and sweetened with PART I. 
148 
Alumen.—Alumen Exsiccatum. 
honey, is a convenient gargle. Solutions for gleet, leucorrhoea, ulcers, etc., must vary in strength 
according to the state of the parts to which they are applied* 
In a case recorded by Dr. Ricquet, of Liege, death resulted from about an ounce of alum 
taken in solution by mistake for Epsom salt. A sensation of burning in the mouth, throat, 
and stomach occurred immediately upon the swallowing of the poison, followed by bloody 
vomiting, and death in the midst of inexpressible suffering. Upon post-mortem examination 
there was found a grayish-yellow coating covering the mucous membrane of the mouth, 
pharynx, and oesophagus; the tongue and uvula were swollen ; and the stomach, bowels, and 
kidneys were injected. (Journ. de Pharm., Oct. 1873, p. 333.) 
Alum is sometimes used to adulterate bread, with the view to increase its whiteness and to 
conceal the defects of the flour. If the quantity used be sufficient, the alum acts as an irri- 
tant to the gastro-intestinal tract, and, according to the experiments of Bigelow and Hamilton, 
it actively checks peptic digestion. 
ALUMEN EXSICCATUM. U. S., Br. Dried Alum. 
K.2 Al2 (SOth; 515*42. (A-LU'MEN EX-SIC-CA'TUM.) K2 Al2 (SO*)*; 516. 
Alumen Ustum, Burnt Alum; Alun calcine, dess6ch<j, br&le, Fr.; Gebrannter Alaun, G. 
“ Alum, in small pieces, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. To make fifty- 
jive grammes [or 2 ounces av., 10 grains]. Place the Alum in a shallow porcelain capsule so as 
to form a thin layer, and heat it on a sand-bath until it liquefies. Then continue the appli- 
cation of a moderate heat, with constant stirring, until aqueous vapor ceases to be disengaged, 
and a dry, white, porous mass is obtained, weighing fifty-five grammes [or 2 ounces av., 10 
grains]. When cold, reduce the product to a fine powder, and preserve it in well-stoppered 
bottles.” U. S. 
“ Potassium Alum, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes. Heat the Potassium Alum in a 
porcelain dish or other suitable vessel till it liquefies, then increase and continue the applica- 
tion of heat until aqueous vapor ceases to be disengaged, and the salt has lost between 45 and 
46 per cent, of its weight.” Br. 
The object of these processes is to obtain the alum free from its water of crystallization, with- 
out otherwise in the least decomposing it. For this purpose a certain degree of heat is neces- 
sary ; and yet if the heat be too great the salt itself is decomposed, and the desired end is 
not attained. If the alum employed be the potassium-alum, the old indefinite directions will 
generally be sufficient to secure the requisite result, as this salt will resist a heat short of red- 
ness ; but this is not the case with the ammonium salt, which is official in the Br. P. To guard 
against failure from this cause, the Pharmacopoeias prescribe about 205° C. (400° F.) as the 
highest heat to be employed, and check the operation when nearly all the water has been 
driven off, as indicated by the weight of the residue. Prof. John M. Maisch has satisfactorily 
determined by experiment that, whichever alum may be used, this temperature is quite high 
enough ; and the direction of the Pharmacopoeias, as to the weight of the residue, insures that 
a sufficient heat will be employed. By the official process there is left behind about 4 per cent, 
of the water of crystallization, when potassium-alum is used. 
Properties. Dried alum is officially described as “ a white, granular powder, without odor, 
possessing a sweetish, astringent taste, and attracting moisture on exposure to the air. It is 
very slowly but completely soluble in 20 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and quickly solu- 
ble in 0-7 part of boiling water. Its aqueous solution should respond to the reactions and 
tests of Alum (see Alumen).” U. S. Before pulverization, it is a light, white, opaque, porous 
mass. During the exsiccation, alum loses from 41 to 46 per cent, of its weight in dissipated 
water. Dried alum resists the action of cold water for a long time, showing its altered aggre- 
gation. In composition it differs from crystallized alum merely in the absence of water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Dried alum has the same medical properties as ordi- 
nary alum, excepting that it is more powerful and irritant. It is used as a mild escharotic to 
destroy exuberant granulations, on which it should be freely dusted. 
* Alum enters as an ingredient into the famous Wickersheimer Preserving Liquid. The formula, as purchased by 
the German government from the originator, is as follows. Alum 100 grammes, sodium chloride 25 grammes, potas- 
sium nitrate 12 grammes, potassium carbonate 60 grammes, arsenous acid 10 grammes; these are to be dissolved in 
3000 grammes (3 liters) of boiling water, the solution allowed to cool, filtered, and to every 10 liters of the liquid 4 
liters of glycerin and 1 liter of wood naphtha added. Owing to the precipitation of the alumina in this preparation, 
it is frequently the practice to substitute for the alum the same quantity of potassium sulphate. PART I. 
Alumini Hydras.—Alumini Sulphas. 
149 
ALUMINI HYDRAS. U. S. Aluminum Hydrate. [Aluminum Hydroxide. Hy- 
drated Alumina.] 
Hydrate de l’Alumine, Fr.; Thonerdehydrat, G.; Argilla Para, s. Hydrata, P. G. 
“ Alum, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Sodium Carbonate, one hundred 
grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve each salt 
separately in one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fluidrachms] of Distilled 
Water, filter each solution, and heat it to boiling. Then having poured the hot solution of 
Sodium Carbonate into a capacious vessel, gradually pour in the hot solution of Alum with 
constant stirring, and add an equal volume of boiling Distilled Water. Let the precipitate sub- 
side, decant the clear liquid, and pour upon the precipitate two thousand cubic centimeters [or 
67 fluidounces, fluidrachms] of hot Distilled Water. Again decant, transfer the precipitate 
to a strainer, and wash it with hot Distilled Water, until the washings produce not more than 
a faint cloudiness with barium chloride test-solution. Then allow it to drain, dry it at a tem- 
perature not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.), and reduce it to a uniformly fine powder.” U. S. 
This preparation is identical with the “ Alumina Hydrata” of the German Pharmacopoeia, 
and has been introduced probably out of respect to the large number of German practitioners 
in this country who may use it. 
Properties. It is “ a white, light, amorphous powder, odorless and tasteless, and permanent 
in dry air. Insoluble in water or alcohol, but completely soluble in hydrochloric or sulphuric 
acid, and also in potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution. When heated to redness, it loses 
about 34-6 per cent, of its weight (water of hydration).” U. S. 
Tests. “A solution of 1 Gm. of Aluminum Hydrate in 20 C.c. of diluted hydrochloric 
acid should not at once assume a blue color on the addition of 1 drop of potassium ferrocyanide 
test-solution (limit of iron), and should not give more than a faint cloudiness with barium 
chloride test-solution (limit of sulphate). When dissolved in potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution, it should yield no precipitate with hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of 
zinc or lead) ; and when boiled with 20 parts of water, and filtered, the filtrate should not 
leave more than a slight residue on evaporation (limit of alkali salts)." U. S. 
Medical Properties. This is a very feebly astringent and desiccant powder, sometimes 
used externally as an application in inflammatory affections of the skin. So far as our 
experience goes, it is very rarely employed in this country. 
Al2(HO)6; 155*184. (A-LU'MI-NI HY'DRXs.) Al2 (HO)6; 166. 
ALUMINI SULPHAS. U. S. Aluminum Sulphate. 
Al2 (S04)s. 16H2 O ; 628*9. (A-LU'MI-Nl SUL'PHAS.) Al2 (S04)3.16H20; 630. 
Sulfate d’Alumine, Fr.; Schwefelsaure Thonerde, G. 
A process was given in the U. S. P. 1870 for the preparation of this salt* hut the 1880 
Committee of Revision very properly omitted the process, merely giving a description and 
tests for the salt. In the process of 1870, the sodium of the carbonate unites with the sul- 
phuric acid of the aluminum sulphate, with the escape of the carbonic acid, and the precipita- 
tion of the aluminum in the form of a hydrate; while the undecomposed ammonium sulphate 
of the alum, and the newly-formed sodium sulphate, remain in solution. The aluminum hy- 
drate is then washed in order to separate any portion of the sulphates adhering to it, the 
absence of which is shown by the non-action of barium chloride on the washings. It now 
remains to unite the aluminum hydrate and sulphuric acid, which is effected by heating 
them with water; and the salt, which is formed in solution, is obtained by evaporating the 
solution to dryness. It may also be obtained from the solution by the addition of alcohol, 
which precipitates it. In the process the several substances are used in very nearly saturating 
proportions. (See paper on Aluminum Sulphate by Prof. J. U. Lloyd, N. R., Aug. 1879, 
p. 237.) Aluminum sulphate may be prepared also by the process of MM. Huria and 
Brunei, which consists in exposing, in an iron cylinder, aluminum and ammonium sulphate 
(ammonium-alum), first dried to separate its water of crystallization, to a cherry-red heat. 
* “Take of Alum, Carbonate of Sodium, each, four troyouncea ; Sulphuric Acid a troyounce and one hundred and 
fifty grains ; Water a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the salts separately, each in six fluidounces of boiling water, 
and pour the solution of the Alum gradually into that of the Carbonate of Sodium ; then digest with a gentle heat 
until the evolution of carbonic acid ceases. Collect upon a filter the precipitate formed, and wash it with water, 
until the washings are no longer affected by chloride of barium. Next, with the aid of heat, dissolve the precipi- 
tate in the Sulphuric Acid, previously diluted with half a pint of Water, and, having filtered the solution, evaporate 
it until a pellicle begins to form. Then remove it to a water-bath, and continue the evaporation, with constant 
stirring, until a dry salt remains. Lastly, preserve this in a well-stopped bottle.” U. S. 1870. Alumini Sulphas. 
PART I. 
150 
Aluminum sulphate remains in the cylinder, and the volatilized products are collected in 
water. The chief of these is ammonium sulphite, which serves for the preparation of a fresh 
portion of alum, after having been changed into the sulphate by oxidation in the air. (Client. 
Gaz., Sept. 15, 1852, p. 359.) It is now also obtained in enormous quantities, for use in the 
place of alum as a mordant in dyeing, as one of the by-products in the manufacture of soda 
from cryolite. 
The American production, chiefly from bauxite, in 1896 amounted to 42,240 short tons, 
valued at $1,056,000; in 1897 it was 46,355 tons, valued at $1,158,875. 
Sometimes free sulphuric acid exists in aluminum sulphate. It may be recognized by the 
salt imparting a strongly acid reaction to alcohol, also by the fact that the dark violet color im- 
parted to decoction of logwood by aluminum sulphate changes to brown in the presence of 
free acid. (A. J. P., Nov. 1873.) Prof. Wittstein treats the finely powdered salt with abso- 
lute alcohol; if the latter does not become acid, no free acid is present. (See also Proc. A. P. A., 
1887, p. 216.) Egger recommends Pettenkofer’s bile reaction for the detection of free sul- 
phuric acid in aluminum sulphate and alum. (Cliem. News, 1889, p. 169.) 
Properties. As procured by the process of 1870, aluminum sulphate is in the form of a 
white powder. It may, however, be obtained in lamellar crystals. As seen in commerce, it is 
usually in flattened crystalline cakes, which appear as though formed by the cooling of soft 
masses of minute crystals. It has a sour as well as sweet and very astringent taste, is soluble 
in twice its weight of water, and has an acid reaction. 
The salt is “ soluble in 1-2 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and much more freely in boil- 
ing water, but insoluble in alcohol. When gradually heated to about 200° C. (392° F.), it 
loses its water of crystallization (45-7 per cent, of its weight). The salt has an acid reaction 
upon litmus paper. The aqueous solution of the salt yields, with barium chloride test-solution, 
a white precipitate insoluble in hydrochloric acid; and with potassium or sodium hydrate test- 
solution, a white, gelatinous precipitate which is soluble in an excess of the alkali, hut is again 
separated on the addition of a sufficient amount of ammonium chloride test-solution.” U. S. 
It is formed by the union of one mol. of alumina, which is an aluminum sesquioxide, and 
three mols. of sulphuric acid, A12(S04)3, and, when crystallized, contains sixteen mols. of 
water. The salt is, therefore, an aluminum tersulphate. It is known to be a sulphate by 
giving a precipitate with barium chloride insoluble in nitric acid, and a salt of aluminum by 
forming octohedral crystals of alum when its solution is evaporated with potassium or ammo- 
nium sulphate. In consequence of its strong affinity for potassa, it is coming into use in the 
arts as a means of separating that alkali. 
Tests. “A filtered, 10-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt should not be affected by 
hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of copper, lead, or zinc), and should not become more 
than faintly opalescent within five minutes after the addition of an equal volume of sodium hy- 
posulphite decinormal volumetric solution (limit of free acid). 20 C.c. of a 5-per-cent, aqueous 
solution of the salt should not at once assume a blue color on the addition of 5 drops of potassium 
ferrocyanide test-solution (limit of iron). If 1 Gm. of the salt be gently heated with 5 C.c. of 
potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, the liquid should not evolve the odor of ammonia." 
U.S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The soluble simple salts of aluminum have the prop- 
erty of opposing animal putrefaction, but the sulphate is probably the most powerful and cer- 
tainly is the most used. It is often employed in solution (3iiss— up to saturation pro re nata) 
as an antiseptic, detergent application to foul ulcers, and as an injection in fetid discharges 
from the vagina. M. Homolle employs a saturated solution with much advantage as a mild 
caustic in enlarged tonsils, nasal polypi, nsevi, scrofulous and cancerous ulcers, diseases of the os 
uteri, and various chronic enlargements. He applies it daily by means of a hair pencil, lie 
has sometimes found the solution to answer still better after the addition of zinc oxide. Solu- 
tion of aluminum sulphate is capable of dissolving a considerable quantity of recently pre- 
cipitated gelatinous alumina. Such a solution, impregnated with benzoin, has been proposed 
by M. Mentel as a haemostatic, under the name of henzoinated solution of alumina. It resem- 
bles the styptic liquid of Pagliari. It is prepared by saturating with gelatinous alumina a 
solution made of eight ounces of aluminum sulphate dissolved in a pint of water. To the 
saturated solution six drachms of bruised amygdaloid benzoin are added, and the whole is kept 
at a temperature of about 150° F. for six hours, with occasional agitation ; so that the liquid, 
after filtration, may have about the density 1-26. This liquid, put in a cool place for sev- 
eral days, so as to deposit some crystals of alum, forms the benzoinated solution, remarkable PART I. 
Ammoniacum. 
151 
for its very sweet odor and astringent balsamic taste. Benzoinated solution of alumina, diluted 
in the proportion of from two to five fluidrachms to the pint of water, has been found useful as 
an injection in leucorrhcea, and in ulcerations of the neck of the uterus, accompanied by fetid dis- 
charges. (See A. J. P., 1857, p. 128.) Aluminum sulphate has been used to preserve cadavers 
for dissection, but is much inferior to zinc chloride. The solution for injection should be a 
pound to the quart. 
AMMONIACUM. U. S., Br. Ammoniac. 
“A gum resin obtained from Dorema Ammoniacum, Don (nat. ord. Umbelliferae).” U. S. 
“ A gum-resin exuded from the flowering and fruiting stem of Dorema Ammoniacum, D. Don ; 
and probably other species.” Br. 
Gummi-resina Ammoniacum; Ammoniacum; Ammoniaque, Gomme-r6sine ammoniaque, Gomme ammoniaque, 
Fr.; Ammoniak, Ammoniakgummi, G.; Gomma ammoniaco, It.; Goma amoniaco, Sp.; Ushek, Ar.; Semugh 
belsheren, Pers. 
Much uncertainty long existed as to the ammoniac plant. It was generally believed to be a 
Ferula, till Willdenow raised, from some seeds mixed with the gum-resin found in the shops, a 
plant which he ascertained to be a Heracleum, and named H. gummiferum, under the impres- 
sion that it must be the source of the medicine. On this authority the plant was adopted by 
the British Colleges, and recognized in former editions of our national Pharmacopoeia. Willde- 
now expressly acknowledged that he could not procure from it any gum-resin, but ascribed the 
result to the influence of climate. The Heracleum, however, did not correspond exactly with 
the representations given of the ammoniac plant by travellers; and Sprengel ascertained that 
it was a native of the Pyrenees and never produced gum. Mr. Jackson, in his account of 
Morocco, imperfectly described a plant of that country, supposed to be a Ferula, from which 
gum-ammoniac is procured by the natives. This plant was ascertained by Dr. Falconer to be 
Ferula tingitana (Royle’s Mat. Med.), and its product is thought to be the ammoniacum of the 
ancients, which was obtained from Africa; but this is not the drug now used under that name, 
which comes exclusively from Persia.* M. Fontanier, who resided many years in Persia, saw 
the ammoniac plant growing in the province of Fars, and sent a drawing of it with specimens 
to Paris. From these it was inferred to be a species of Ferula; and Merat and De Lens pro- 
posed for it the name, originally given to it by Lemery, of F. ammonifera. It was subsequently, 
however, ascertained, from specimens obtained in Persia by Col. Wright, and examined by Dr. 
David Don, that it belonged to a genus allied to Ferula, but essentially different, which was 
named by Dr. Don dorema. It is described in the 16th vol. of the Linn. Transactions, under 
the name of Dorema ammoniacum. This is now acknowledged by the official authorities. 
The same plant was described and figured by Jaubert and Spack, in their “Illustrations of 
Oriental Plants” (Paris, 1842, t. 40, p. 78), by the name of Diserneston gummiferum, under 
the erroneous impression that it belonged to a previously undescribed genus. 
The ammoniac plant grows spontaneously in Farsistan, Irak, Khorassan, and other Persian 
provinces. Dr. Grant found it abundantly in Syghan near Bamian, on the northwest slope 
of the Hindoo-Koosh Mountains. It attains the height of six or seven feet, and in the spring 
and early part of summer abounds in a milky juice, which flows out upon the slightest punc- 
ture. From the accounts of travellers, it appears that in the month of May the plant is 
pierced in innumerable places by an insect of the beetle kind. The juice, exuding through the 
punctures, concretes upon the stem, and when quite dry is collected by the natives. M. Fontanier 
states that the juice exudes spontaneously, and that the harvest is about the middle of June. 
According to Dr. Grant, the drug is collected in Syghan, like asafetida, from the root of the 
plant. The gum-resin is sent to Bushire, whence it is transmitted to India, chiefly to Bombay. 
A small portion is said to be taken to the ports of the Levant, and thence distributed. The 
name of the drug is thought Jo have been derived from the temple of Jupiter Ammon in the 
Libyan desert, where the ammoniac of the ancients is said to have been collected; but Dr. 
(am-mo-nI'a-cum.) 
* The African Ammoniac, which is said to have appeared in the London market only in the years 1857 and 1871, 
has been described by Mr. Daniel Hanbury as follows. It is “ in large, compact, dark, heavy masses, formed of ag- 
glutinated tears of a gum-resin of hard, waxy consistence. The tears are opaque, white or of a pale greenish yellow, 
mixed with others of a blackish brown, which, with vegetable and earthy impurities, constitute a large portion of 
the mass.” The odor of the drug is feeble, and quite different from that of the Persian gum-resin; its taste slightly 
acrid and very persistent. (P. J. Tr., March, 1873, p. 741.) Examined by Mr. John Moss, it was found to consist 
of 67‘76 per cent, of resin, 9'014 of gum, 4-29 of water and volatile oil, and 18‘85 of bassorin and insoluble matters. 
{Ibid., p. 742.) It is used chiefly for incense in Mohammedan countries, and sent eastward by the caravans, or in 
vessels from the ports of Morocco to Alexandria. 152 
Ammoniacum. 
PART I. 
Don considers it a corruption of Armeniacum, originating in the circumstance that the gum- 
resin was formerly imported into Europe through Armenia. 
Properties. Ammoniac comes either in the state of tears, or in aggregate masses, and in 
both forms is frequently mixed with impurities. That of the tears, however, is preferable, as 
the purest may be conveniently picked out and kept for use. These are of an irregular shape, 
usually more or less globular, from two to eight lines in diameter, opaque, yellowish on the 
outside, whitish within, compact, homogeneous, brittle when cold, and breaking with a con- 
choidal, shining, waxy fracture. The masses are often of a darker color and less uniform 
structure, appearing, when broken, as if composed of numerous white or whitish tears, em- 
bedded in a dirty-gray or brownish substance, and frequently mingled with foreign matters, 
such as seeds, fragments of vegetables, and sand or other earth. According to the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia, only such masses should be considered up to the standard as are composed 
entirely of tears “ without any intervening dark-colored substance.” 
The smell of ammoniac is peculiar, and stronger in the mass than in the tears. The taste 
is slightly sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid. The sp. gr. is l-207. When heated, the 
gum-resin softens and becomes adhesive, but does not melt. It burns with a white flame, 
swelling up, and emitting a smoke of a strong, resinous, slightly alliaceous odor. It is partly 
soluble in water, alcohol, ether, vinegar, and alkaline solutions. Triturated with water it forms 
an opaque milky emulsion, which becomes clear upon standing. The alcoholic solution is 
transparent, but is rendered milky by the addition of water. “ The freshly fractured surface 
is colored yellow by solution of potassium hydroxide, and dark red or orange by solution of 
chlorinated soda. If a small fragment be strongly heated in a dry test-tube, the contents of 
the tube, after cooling, yield with boiling water a solution which when largely diluted with 
xoater, and made alkaline with solution of ammonia, does not exhibit a blue fluorescence (dis- 
tinction from asafetida and galbanum).” Br. Martius found 0-4 per cent, of ethereal oil, 
Fliickiger 033 per cent. (Pflanzenstojfe, 2d ed., p. 962.) Plugge’s analysis gives 1-27 per cent, 
of volatile oil, 540 per cent, of water, 2 per cent, of ash, 65 53 per cent, of resin, and 2640 
per cent, of gum. Hager succeeded in procuring the volatile oil in a separate state by repeated 
distillation with water. It has a penetrating disagreeable odor, and a taste at first mild, but 
afterwards bitter and nauseous. Fliickiger says that the oil contains no sulphur. The resin in 
ammoniacum usually amounts to about 70 per cent. Unlike the gum-resin of allied plants, 
ammoniacum yields no umbelliferone. When melted with caustic potash it affords protocate- 
chuic acid and resorcin. The resin of ammoniac is dissolved by alcohol, and by the fixed and 
volatile oils ; but it is divided by ether into two resins, of which one is soluble and the other 
insoluble in ether. P. C. Plugge states that sodium hypobromite, made by dissolving 30 
grammes of pure caustic soda in water, adding 20 grammes of bromine, cooling the mixture, 
and adding distilled water until the whole measures 1 litre, is a sensitive reagent for ammoniac 
resin. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1883.) 
Tschirch and Luz have made an elaborate research of the chemistry of ammoniac, and 
state the following conclusions. Ammoniac contains resin, gum, and ethereal oil, together with 
about 3.5 per cent, of a residue insoluble in water and alcohol. The portion soluble in alcohol 
and ether is a mixture of a so-called acid resin and a neutral resin, and amounts to G9 percent. 
Both resins are free from sulphur, despite the statement of Prciszewski, who considered the latter 
of them to contain sulphur. The saponification of the so-called acid resin yielded salicylic 
acid of the formulas C6H40HC00I1 and CeH40HC00TI -f- £H„0. Along with this were 
volatile acids, consisting of valeric and butyric acids, and an alcohol which belongs to the class 
of resinotannols, and has the same formula as galbaresinotannol, CeH100, or C18H3003. The 
resin is, therefore, a salicylic ester of resinotannol. From this resinotannol both the acetyl and 
the benzoyl derivatives were made, and the formula C181I3003 thus established. On oxidizing 
the resinotannol with nitric acid, styphnic add was obtained, and on fusing it with caustic 
potash, resorcin. Ethereal oil was found in small amount only. It contains no umbelliferone, 
and is free from sulphur. The crude ammoniac showed traces of a free acid which was recog- 
nized as salicylic both by its fusing point and the ferric chloride reaction. The gum contained 
3-5 per cent, of ash, of which 1-2 per cent, was calcium oxide, so that the gum is probably 
related to gum arabic, and is an acid calcium arabinate. (Archiv d Pharm., 1895, p. 571.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. This gum-resin is stimulant and expectorant, in large 
doses cathartic, and, like many other stimulants, may be so given as occasionally to prove 
diaphoretic, diuretic, or cmmenagogue. It has been employed in medicine from the highest 
antiquity, being mentioned in the writings of Hippocrates, but is now seldom administered. PART I. 
Ammonii Benzoas. 
153 
The complaints in which it was most frequently used were chronic catarrh, asthma, and other 
pectoral affections attended with deficient expectoration without acute inflammation, or with a 
too copious secretion from the bronchial mucous membrane, dependent upon debility of the 
vessels. It is usually administered in combination with other expectorants, with tonics, or 
with emmenagogues. Externally applied, in the shape of a plaster, it is thought to be useful 
as a discutient or resolvent in white swellings of the joints, and other indolent tumors. (See 
Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro.) It is given in substance, in pill or emulsion. The 
latter form is preferable. (See Emulsum Ammoniaci.) Dose, ten to thirty grains (0-65—1*95 Gm.). 
NH4, C7H5O2; 138*72. (AM-MO'NI-I BEN'ZO-IS.) NH4, C7 H5 02; 139. 
AMMONII BENZOAS. U. S., Br. Ammonium Benzoate. 
Ammonia} Benzoas, Ammonium Benzoicum, Benzoas Ammonicus; Benzoate of Ammonia; Benzoate d’Ammo- 
niaque, Fr.j Benzoesaures Ammonium, G. 
The process for the preparation of this salt was omitted in the 1880 U. S. revision. The 
process of U. S. 1870 is appended. “ Take of Benzoic Acid two troyounces ; Water of Ammonia 
three fluidounces and a half, or a sufficient quantity ; Distilled Water four fluidounces. Dissolve 
the Acid in three fluidounces and a half of the Water of Ammonia, previously mixed with 
Distilled Water; evaporate with a gentle heat, occasionally adding Water of Ammonia, if 
necessary, to maintain a slight excess of the alkali; then set aside to crystallize, and dry the 
crystals without heat.” £‘ This salt, C0II6.COONH4, is produced by neutralizing benzoic acid 
with solution of ammonia.” Br. 
Although the quantity of ammonia ordered in the formula is in excess, yet, from the feeble 
affinity between the constituents, and the consequent escape of ammonia during the evapora- 
tion, a portion of the acid benzoate would be formed, if it were not that a little solution of 
ammonia is from time to time added during or near the close of the evaporation, so as to 
maintain the alkali in slight excess. The crystals, for the same reason, should be dried with- 
out heat. If slightly evaporated, and then allowed to cool, the solution becomes a mass of 
crystals, retaining so much water as to render it necessary to dry them by bibulous paper. 
“ Ammonium Benzoate should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Properties. “ Thin, white, four-sided, laminar crystals, odorless or having a slight odor 
of benzoic acid, a saline, bitter, afterwards slightly acrid taste, and gradually losing ammonia 
on exposure to the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 5 parts of water, and in 28 parts of 
alcohol; in 1-2 parts of boiling water, and in 7'6 parts of boiling alcohol. When strongly 
heated, the salt melts, emits vapors having the odor of ammonia and benzoic acid, and is finally 
completely dissipated. The salt is neutral, or has a very slightly acid reaction upon litmus 
paper. A saturated aqueous solution of the salt affords, with ferric chloride test-solution, a 
flesh-colored precipitate, and, when it is gently heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test- 
solution, the odor of ammonia is evolved. If diluted nitric acid be added to a 10-per-cent, 
aqueous solution of the salt, a precipitate of benzoic acid is produced, which, when thoroughly 
washed, should respond to the tests of purity mentioned under Acidum Benzoicum, and the 
filtrate from this precipitate should not be affected by barium chloride test-solution (absence 
of sulphate), or by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of chloride)." U. S. “ Soluble in 6 parts 
of cold water, in 30 of alcohol (90 per cent.), and in 8 of glycerin. It affords the reactions 
characteristic of ammonium salts. An aqueous solution yields a yellowish or flesh-colored 
precipitate when mixed with test-solution of ferric chloride. A strong aqueous solution to which 
a little sulphuric acid is added affords a crystalline precipitate of benzoic acid. It should yield 
ho residue on heating to redness, and no characteristic reaction with the tests for chlorides or 
sulphates. Its cold aqueous solution does not at once redden solution of litmus (absence of 
acid) ; on boiling the solution it slowly dissociates into benzoic acid and ammonia, and affords 
an acid reaction.” Br. Gmelfn states that by boiling its solution the salt is converted into 
the acid benzoate, which crystallizes in feathery tufts of needles. (Handbook, xii. 38.) Accord- 
ing to Lichtenstein, it deliquesces in the air. It gives a copious yellow precipitate with ferric 
salts, and is known to contain benzoic acid and ammonia, by depositing the former when the 
solution is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and giving off the latter when it is heated with 
potassa. According to Mr. Squire, the acid salt which is commonly met with in commerce is 
less soluble than the official salt, requiring 60 parts of water and 12 of alcohol for solution. 
This is a decided objection to it. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Ammonium benzoate is a slightly stimulant diuretic, 
which acts chiefly through its benzoic acid ; it being decomposed by the gastric acids, which 154 
Ammonii Bromidum. 
PART I. 
combine with the ammonia, while the benzoic acid is absorbed, and passes out through the 
kidneys in the form of hippuric acid. (See Benzoic Acid.) The salt has been found useful as 
a diuretic in defective action of the kidneys, as an alterative to the mucous membrane of the urinary 
passages in chronic inflammation of that tissue, and as a solvent of the phosphatic deposits, 
through the hippuric acid into which it is converted. It has been employed in gouty affections 
with a view to the removal of the deposits of sodium urate about the joints; but it has been 
shown to have no effect on the elimination of uric acid. The salt does not appear to produce 
injurious effects even in considerable quantities. (Garrod, Med. Times and Gaz., Feb. 1864.) 
The dose is from ten to thirty grains (065-1-95 Gm.), which may be taken dissolved in water. 
NHtBr; 97*77. (AM-MO'NI-I BRO'MI-DUM.) NH4 Br; 97’8. 
AMMONII BROMIDUM. U. S., Br. Ammonium Bromide. 
“ This salt, NH4Br, is formed by neutralizing hydrobromic acid with a solution of am- 
monia.” Br. 
Ammonium Bromatum ; Bromure d’Ammonium, Fr.; Brom-Ammonium, G. 
Ammonium bromide may be made by dissolving bromine in ammonia water; but the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870* preferred the method of first forming ferrous bromide, precipi- 
tating with water of ammonia, separating by filtration the ferric oxide, and obtaining by 
evaporation the ammonium bromide from the solution. This process, it will be seen, is com- 
pletely parallel with that by which potassium bromide is prepared. According to Prof. Proc- 
ter, a still better method consists in adding to bromine and water sufficient solution of am- 
monium sulphide to discharge the color, filtering to separate the sulphur, and then evaporating 
to dryness. Charles Rice (A. J. P., 1873, p. 249) recommends making ammonium bromide 
by double decomposition between hot solutions of potassium bromide and ammonium sulphate, 
assisting the precipitation of potassium sulphate by alcohol. Dr. W. H. Pile (Proc. A. P. A., 
1874, p. 434) published a simple process for this salt. Pour the bromine (one pound) carefully 
into four times its weight of distilled water in a stone jar, add very gradually about one quart 
of solution of ammonia, cover the top of the jar with a glass plate when vapors arise, and 
when all the ammonia has been added, and the solution is free from the smell of bromine, it 
is evaporated and the salt granulated; the yield is about twenty ounces. 
Properties. Ammonium bromide may be obtained in colorless crystals, but the official 
salt is a white, crystalline powder. Whether in crystal or in powder, on exposure to the air it 
gradually becomes yellowish, in consequence of a partial decomposition, by which hydrobromic 
acid appears to be liberated, as it now changes litmus red. The salt has a saline, pungent 
taste. Exposed to heat, it sublimes unchanged. It is “soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 1-5 
parts of water, and in 30 parts of alcohol; in 0-7 part of boiling water, and in 15 parts of 
boiling alcohol. When heated, the salt volatilizes completely without melting. The aqueous 
solution of the salt has a slightly acid reaction upon litmus paper.” IT. S. It is sparingly 
soluble in ether, and is incompatible with acids, acid salts, and spirit of nitrous ether. 
“ When the aqueous solution is gently heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, 
the odor of ammonia is evolved. If to another portion of the solution a little chloroform be 
added, and subsequently a few drops of chlorine water, and the whole agitated, the chloroform 
will acquire a yellowish or yellowisli-brown color without a violet tint. If a few drops of 
diluted sulphuric acid be brought into contact with a little of the powdered salt on a porcelain 
plate, the salt should not at once assume a yellowish color (absence of br ornate). A 10-per- 
cent. aqueous solution should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of 
metals), nor by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate). 20 C.c. of a 5-per-cent, 
aqueous solution of the salt should not at once assume a blue color on the addition of 5 drops 
of potassium ferrocyanide test-solution (limit of iron). If 3 Gm. of the salt, dried at 100° C. 
(212° F.), be dissolved in water to the measure of 100 C.c., 10 C.c. of this solution, after the 
addition of a few drops of potassium chromate test-solution, should require not more than 
30-9 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solution to produce a permanent red coloration 
“Take of Bromine two troyounces ; Iron, in the form of wire and cut in pieces, a troyounce ; Water of Am- 
monia four Jluidounces and a half; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Add the Iron and then the Bromine to 
half a pint of Distilled Water, contained in a glass flask having the capacity of two pints; loosely cork the flask, 
and agitate the mixture until the odor of Bromine can no longer be perceived, and the liquid assumes a greenish 
color. Mix the Water of Ammonia with half a pint of Distilled Water, and add it to the mixture in the flask; 
agitate the mixture, and heat it by means of a water-bath for half an hour; then filter, and, when the liquor ceases 
to pass, wash the precipitate on the filter with boiling distilled water. Evaporate the solution, in a porcelain cap- 
sule, until a pellicle begins to form, then stir it constantly with a glass rod, at a moderate heat, until it granulates.” 
U. S. 1870. PART I. 
Ammonii Bromidum.—Ammonii Carbonas. 
155 
(absence of more than 1 per cent, of ammonium chloride).” U. S. 11 0-5 gramme of the dry 
salt dissolved in water should require not more than 51-8 and not less than 51-1 cubic centi- 
metres of the volumetric solution of silver nitrate for complete precipitation (limit of impurities). 
It should yield no residue on being heated to redness, no characteristic reaction with the tests 
for lead, iron, bromates, iodides, or nitrates, and not more than the slightest reactions with the 
tests for sulphates or chlorides.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This bromide resembles potassium bromide in its 
physiological powers, but has a less depressing effect upon the arterial and muscular systems. 
It is certainly superior to potassium bromide in most cases of epilepsy and even of minor neu- 
roses. The dose is from one to two drachms a day (3-9-7'8 Gin.) in dilute solution. 
NH4HCO3.NH4NH2CO2 5 156*77. (AM-MO'NI-I CAR'BO-NXs.) NII4HCO3.NH4NH2CO2; 157. 
AMMONII CARBONAS. U. S., Br. Ammonium Carbonate. 
“ A variable mixture of ammonium hydrogen carbonate, NH4HC03, with ammonium car- 
bamate, NH4NH2C02, produced on heating ammonium sulphate or chloride with calcium car- 
bonate.” Br. “ Ammonium Carbonate should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool 
place.” U. S. 
Ammonias Carbonas, Br., 1867; Ammoniae Sesquicarbonas, Lond.; Dub.; Ammonium Carbonicum, P.G.; Carbonas 
Ammonicus, Sal Volatile Siccum; Volatile Salt, Sal Volatile; Carbonate d’Ammoniaque, Alkali volatil coneret, Sal 
volatil d’Angleterre, Fr.; Kohlensaures Ammonium, Fliiehtiges Langensalz, Reines Hirschhornsalz, G. 
There have been many methods of obtaining ammonium carbonate, in all of which the 
ammonia originated in organic decomposition. It was probably originally prepared from putrid 
urine, and it is sometimes made in Scotland now from this source. A patent was taken out in 
England for manufacturing it from guano, and another for making it by the direct combina- 
tion of its constituents; the carbonic acid and ammoniacal gases being introduced simultane- 
ously into leaden chambers. (67iem. News, Dec. 29,1865.) But at present the salt is manufac- 
tured by subliming a mixture of either the chloride or the sulphate with chalk. Ammonium 
chloride and chalk (calcium carbonate) are heated together in iron pots or retorts, and sublimed 
into large earthen or leaden receivers. By the reciprocal action of the salts employed, the 
carbonic acid of the chalk unites with the ammonia of the chloride, generating ammonium 
carbonate, and the hydrochloric acid with the lime, forming water and calcium chloride. The 
carbonate and water sublime together as hydrated ammonium carbonate, and the residue is 
calcium chloride. The relative quantities of chalk and ammonium chloride, for mutual de- 
composition, are 50 of the former and 53-5 of the latter, or one mol. of each. But a great 
excess of chalk is usually taken, in order to insure the perfect decomposition of the ammonium 
chloride, any redundancy of which would sublime with the carbonate and render it impure. 
Ammonium sulphate may be substituted for the chloride with much economy, as was shown 
by Payen. This double decomposition between ammonium sulphate and calcium carbonate 
takes place in the dry way only,—that is, by sublimation. In the wet way, the double decom- 
position is reversed; ammonium carbonate and calcium sulphate reacting so as to form ammo- 
nium sulphate and calcium carbonate. Large quantities of this carbonate are manufactured 
indirectly from coal-gas liquor and bone-spirit; the ammoniacal products in these liquors being 
converted successively into ammonium sulphate, chloride, and carbonate. (See Ammonii Clilori- 
dum.') The salt as first obtained has a slight odor of tar, and leaves a blackish carbonaceous 
matter when dissolved in acids. Hence it requires to be purified, which is effected in iron pots 
surmounted with leaden heads. The American carbonate has almost supplanted the English 
article, formerly exclusively used. 
Properties. Commercial ammonium carbonate, recently prepared, is in white, trans- 
lucent masses, consisting of Ammonium Bicarbonate (Acid Carbonate) and Carbamate, losing 
both ammonia and carbonic acid gas on exposure to air, becoming opaque and finally converted 
into friable porous lumps, or a white powder (Acid Ammonium Carbonate). The salt has a 
pungent ammoniacal odor, free from empyreuma, a sharp, saline taste, and an alkaline reaction. 
“ Slowly but completely soluble in about 5 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.) ; decomposed by 
hot water with the elimination of carbonic acid and ammonia. By prolonged boiling with 
water the salt is completely dissipated. Alcohol dissolves the Carbamate [NH4NHaC02], and 
leaves the acid carbonate (ammonium bicarbonate). When heated, the salt is completely vol- 
atilized, without charring. The aqueous solution possesses a strongly alkaline reaction, and 
effervesces with acids. A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt, slightly supersaturated with 
acetic acid, should not be affected by the hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of metals), 156 
Ammonii Carbonas. 
PART I. 
nor by barium chloride test-solution (sulphate), or ammonium oxalate test-solution (calcium). 
A 5 per cent, aqueous solution, on the addition of a slight excess of silver nitrate test-solution, 
and subsequent supersaturation with nitric acid, should neither assume a brown color (absence 
of hyposulphite), nor become more than slightly opalescent within two minutes (limit of 
chloride). If 1 Gm. of the salt be slightly supersaturated with nitric acid, and the solu- 
tion evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, it should afford a colorless and odorless residue, 
w'hich, upon gentle ignition, should be completely volatilized (absence of empyreumatic or 
non-volatile matters). If 7’84 Gm. of unaltered Ammonium Carbonate be dissolved in water 
to the volume of 90 C.c., 30 C.c. of this solution (containing 2-613 Gm. of the salt) should 
require, for exact neutralization, fifty (50) cubic centimeters of normal sulphuric acid (each 
C.c. corresponding to 2 per cent, of the pure salt), rosolic acid being used as indicator.” U. S. 
“ Exposed to the air it becomes covered with a white efflorescence which should be only 
superficial; this should be scraped off before the salt is used for dispensing purposes. It 
affords the reactions characteristic of ammonium salts and of carbonates. Each gramme 
dissolved in 40 cubic centimetres of water should require for neutralization at least 18-7 
cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sulphuric acid. It should yield no residue 
on being heated to redness, and not more than the slightest reactions with the tests for 
chlorides or sulphates. When its aqueous solution is neutralized with an acid and evapo- 
rated to dryness, the residue should be colorless and odorless (absence of tarry matters).” Br. 
If' commercial ammonium carbonate be treated with 90 or 91 per cent, alcohol, it is decom- 
posed into the two salts of which it is composed, ammonium carbamate going into solution 
while the acid ammonium carbonate remains undissolved. This latter compound also remains 
undissolved when the commercial carbonate is treated with an amount of water insufficient 
for complete solution. The result of the complete solution of the commercial salt in water is 
a mixture of acid and neutral carbonates, the carbamate having been decomposed according to 
the reaction (NH4)HC03 + CO j + HaO = (NH4)HC03 + (NH4)2C03. When long 
or insecurely kept, it gradually passes into the state of bicarbonate, becoming opaque and 
friable, and falling into powder. When heated on a piece of glass, the commercial carbonate 
should evaporate without residue, and, if turmeric paper held over it undergoes no change, it 
has passed into bicarbonate. As prepared from coal-gas liquor, it sometimes contains traces 
of tarry matter, which give a dark color to its solution in acids, but a refined carbonate, made 
by resubliming the commercial article, is now in the market, and this alone should be dispensed 
in preparations for internal use. When it is saturated with nitric acid, neither barium chloride 
nor silver nitrate causes a precipitate. The non-action of these tests shows the absence of 
ammonium sulphate and chloride. It is decomposed by acids, the fixed alkalies and their 
carbonates, lime water and magnesia, solution of calcium chloride, alum, acid salts such as 
potassium bitartrate and bisulphate, solutions of iron (except the iron and potassium tartrate 
and analogous preparations), corrosive sublimate, lead acetate and subacetate, and ferrous and 
zinc sulphates. Traces of chlorine have been noticed in some samples of commercial car- 
bonate, and a sublimed salt which had been sold as carbonate, was devoid of odor, hard, crys- 
talline, yet having the external appearance of carbonate, and was proved by Prof. Bridges to 
be anhydrous ammonium bicarbonate. (A. J. P., Nov. 1874). Although much inferior to the 
official compound, this salt is frequently found in the market. For a paper by G. INI. Beringer 
on testing commercial ammonium carbonate, see A. J. P., 1890, p. 500 ; see one also by Charles 
C. Abbey, Pharm. Era, 1889, p. 417. 
Composition. This salt, which used to be considered an ammonium sesquicarbonate of 
the formula 2(C03(NH4)II) -j- C03(NH4)2 -j- H20, is now generally recognized as a mixture 
of either one or two mols. of acid ammonium carbonate, (NII4)HC03, with one mol. of am- 
monium carbamate, CO | j^4- When the salt is dissolved in water, the reaction given above 
converts it into a mixture of acid and neutral carbonates, and when water of ammonia is 
added in sufficient amount it converts the acid carbonate into neutral carbonate, which is used 
frequently as a laboratory reagent, or by passing carbonic acid gas into a solution of the 
commercial salt the whole may be converted into acid carbonate or bicarbonate. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Locally applied ammonium carbonate is an irritant, 
and when taken internally in sufficient amount it acts as an irritant poison. When adminis- 
tered in therapeutic doses it is a powerful cardiac stimulant, acting not so rapidly and fuga- 
ciously as the solutions of ammonia, but still in a very prompt and temporary manner. It is PART I. 
Ammonii Carbonas.—Ammonii Chloridum. 
157 
employed in low conditions of the system as a stimulant, but it should always be remembered 
that its influence lasts for only a short time, and that there is reason for believing that when 
continuously given it is apt to impair the crasis of the blood. It is probably eliminated in 
part by the lungs, and certainly is a stimulant to the respiratory centres. It seems also to 
exert some influence upon the pulmonary mucous membrane, and is largely employed in 
adynamic pneumonias and bronchitis, in the last stages of phthisis, etc. In some of these cases 
it does good by increasing muscular power and aiding in the expulsion of the sputa. 
Coarsely bruised with the addition of half its bulk of strongest water of ammonia, and 
scented with oil of lavender, it constitutes the common smelling-salts, so much used as a nasal 
stimulant in syncope and hysteria* The ordinary dose is five grains (0-33 Grn.), given in mix- 
ture, and repeated at not longer intervals than two hours. It should never be given in powder 
or in pill, on account of its volatile nature and its irritant action on mucous membranes. 
Ammonium carbonate is sometimes employed to make effervescing draughts, 20 grains of the 
salt requiring for this purpose 6 fluidrachms of lemon-juice, 24 grains of citric acid, or 251 
grains of tartaric acid. 
AMMONII CHLORIDUM. U. S., Br. Ammonium Chloride. 
“ This salt, NH4C1, may be formed by neutralizing crude solution of ammonia or ammo- 
nium carbonate with hydrochloric acid, and purifying the product.” Br. 
Muriate of Ammonia, Ammonia Muriaticum s. Hydrochloratum, Chloruretum Ammonicum, Sal Ammoniacum, 
Ammonia; Hydrochloras s. Murias; Sal Ammoniac, Hydrochlorate of Ammonia; Hydrochlorate d’Ammoniaque, 
Muriate d’Ammoniaque, Sel Ammoniac, Chlorure d’Ammonium, Chlorure d’Ammonium pur; Ammonium Muriati- 
cum Depuratum, Sal Ammoniacum Depuratum, Fr.; Ammonium Chloratum, P. G.; Salmiak Chlorammonium; 
Reiner (gereinigter) Salmiak, G.; Sale Ammoniaco, It.; Sal Amoniaco, Sp. 
In the Pharmacopoeia of 1870 both the crude and the purified ammonium chloride were 
official, under the names Ammonii Chloridum and Ammonii Chloridum Purificatum. The 
Pharm. 1890 recognizes but one, Ammonii Chloridum, but it transfers this title, which for- 
merly was given to the crude sal ammoniac, to the purified salt, without giving a process for 
preparing it.f It originally came from Egypt, where it was obtained by sublimation from the 
soot resulting from the burning of camels’ dung, which is used in that country for fuel, and it 
is still to be found in the Indian bazaars in an impure state as it has been obtained from the 
unburnt extremity in the interior of brick-kilns in which camels’ manure is used for fuel. It 
has long been known in China, where it is obtained from the water of certain volcanic springs, 
and exists in commerce in various states of purity. It is found in the fumeroles of Vesuvius, 
Etna, Hecla, and other volcanoes, as well as in the cracks and fissures in recent lava-streams. 
Preparation. At present ammonium chloride is derived from two principal sources, the 
ammoniacal liquor, called gas liquor, found in the condensing vessels of coal-gas works, and the 
brown, fetid ammoniacal liquor, known under the name of hone-spirit, which is a secondary 
product, obtained from the destructive distillation of bones, in the manufacture of bone-black. 
These two liquors are the chief sources of ammoniacal compounds; for they are both used to 
procure ammonium chloride, and this salt is employed directly or indirectly for obtaining all 
the other salts of ammonia. Other sources are stale urine, coal soot, guano, peat, and bitu- 
minous schist. 
Gas liquor contains ammonium carbonate, cyanide, sulphide, and sulphate, but principally 
the carbonate. It is saturated with sulphuric acid, and the solution obtained, after due evap- 
oration, furnishes brown crystals of ammonium sulphate. These are then sublimed with 
sodium chloride in iron pots lined with clay and furnished with a leaden dome or head. By 
the mutual action of the sulphate, water, and chloride, there are formed ammonium chloride 
which sublimes, and sodium sulphate which remains behind. Thus (NH4)2S04 and (NaCl)^ 
NH4CI; 53*38. (AM-MO'NI-i 0HLO'ItI-DUM.) NH4C1; 53‘4. 
* In Mounsey’s recipe for the English Preston salts, the essence to be added to- the carbonate is made as follows. 
Take oil of cloves gss; oil of lavender 3j 5 oil of bergamot giiss; stronger water of ammonia (sp. gr. 0-880) 
Mix. The bottles are to be filled with ammonium carbonate, half with the salt coarsely bruised, and the re- 
mainder with it in fine powder; and then as much of the above essence as the salt will absorb is to be added. 
(P. J. Tr., xiii. 628.) 
f The process (Pharm. 1870) for purifying sal ammoniac is here given as found in 14th ed. U. S. D. 
“ Take of Chloride of Ammonium, in small pieces, twenty troyounces ; Water of Ammonia jive jluidrachms ; Water 
two pints. Dissolve the Chloride of Ammonium in the water, in a porcelain dish, with the aid of heat; add the Water 
of Ammonia, and continue the heat for a short time; filter the solution while hot, and evaporate to dryness, with 
constant stirring at a moderate heat, until it granulates.” U. S. 1870. 
The object of this process is to free the drug from ferric chloride, which is a frequent impurity of the crude salt, 
derived from the subliming vessels. 158 
Ammonii Chloridum. 
PART I. 
become (NH4C1)2 and Na2S04. Gas liquor is at present usually distilled with lime with the 
aid of column stills, whereby a relatively pure and strong ammonia is obtained. This may he 
further purified, however, from empyreumatic matter by treatment with potassium permanga- 
nate and then driven over by heat and absorbed in hydrochloric acid. In this way, as the solu- 
tion becomes concentrated, the sal ammoniac crystallizes out in the bottom of the leaden 
tanks in which the absorption takes place. Impure sal ammoniac may be purified either by 
crystallization or by sublimation. In the latter case the sal ammoniac is placed in an iron 
subliming pot coated with a composition of clay, sand, and charcoal and covered with a dome 
of lead. These pots are sometimes sufficiently large to hold five hundred pounds. “ A gentle 
fire is kept up under the subliming pot for seven or eight days, when, the dome having 
cooled down, and the sal ammoniac somewhat contracted, so as to loosen from the sides, the 
dome is thrown off from the iron pot, and about two or three hundred-weight of white, semi- 
transparent sal ammoniac are knocked off in cakes.” (Pereira, Mat. Med., 3d ed., p. 446.) 
In the destructive distillation of bones for making bone-black, the distilled products are the 
bone-spirit already mentioned, being chiefly an aqueous solution of ammonium carbonate, 
and an empyreumatic oil, called animal oil. Ammonium chloride may be obtained from the 
bone-spirit in the manner just described for procuring it from gas liquor. Sometimes, however, 
the ammonium sulphate is not made by direct combination, but by digesting the bone-spirit 
with ground plaster of Paris. By double decomposition, ammonium sulphate and calcium 
carbonate are formed. The ammonium sulphate is then converted into the chloride by subli- 
mation with common salt. The chloride “ may be formed by neutralizing hydrochloric acid 
with ammonia or carbonate of ammonium, and evaporating to dryness.” Br. 
Other processes have been proposed or practised for obtaining ammonium chloride. For 
an account of the manufacture of ammoniacal salts, and for a list of the patents issued in 
Great Britain, since 1827, for their preparation, the reader is referred to the P. J. Tr., xii. 
20, 63, 113. 
Commercial History. Nearly all the ammonium chloride used in the United States is 
obtained from abroad. Its commercial varieties are known under the names of the crude and 
the refined. The crude is imported from Calcutta in chests containing from 350 to 400 pounds, 
and is consumed almost exclusively by coppersmiths and other artisans in brass and copper, 
for the purpose of keeping metallic surfaces bright, preparatory to brazing. The refined comes 
to us exclusively from England, packed in casks containing from 5 to 10 cwt. 
Properties. Commercial ammonium chloride is a white, translucent, tough, fibrous salt, 
occurring in large cakes about two inches thick, convex on one side and concave on the other, 
due to the shape of the dome of the subliming apparatus: the pieces frequently are tinged on 
the surface with iron stains, owing to the contact with the iron dome. It has a pungent, 
saline taste, but no smell. Its sp. gr. is 1-45. This salt is very difficult to powder in the ordi- 
nary way. Its pulverization, however, may be readily effected by making a boiling saturated 
solution of the salt and stirring it as it cools. The salt is thus made to granulate, and in this 
state, after having been drained from the remaining solution and dried, may be easily pow- 
dered. At a red heat it sublimes without decomposition, and without residue. Exposed to a 
damp atmosphere it becomes slightly moist. It has the property of increasing the solubility 
of corrosive sublimate in water. It is decomposed by the strong mineral acids, and by the 
alkalies and alkaline earths,—the former disengaging hydrochloric acid, the latter ammonia, 
both sensible to the smell. Ammonium chloride is usually employed for obtaining gaseous 
ammonia, which is conveniently disengaged by lime. It is incompatible with lead acetate and 
silver nitrate, producing precipitates respectively of lead and silver chlorides. 
Ammonium chloride is little subject to adulteration. If not entirely volatilized by heat, and if 
insoluble in water, it contains impurity. Still, as ordinarily prepared, it contains ferrous chloride. 
This metal may be detected by boiling a small portion of a saturated solution of the salt with 
a drop or two of nitric acid, and then adding potassium ferrocyanide, when the characteristic 
blue color occasioned by iron will be produced. If the salt is entirely volatilized by heat, and 
yet produces a precipitate with barium chloride, the presence of ammonium sulphate is 
indicated. The description and tests of the official salt are as follows: 
“ A white, crystalline powder, without odor, having a cooling, saline taste, and permanent in 
air. Soluble in three parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 1 part of boiling water, but 
almost insoluble in alcohol. On ignition, the salt is completely volatilized, without charring. 
The aqueous solution of the salt is neutral to litmus paper, and affords, with silver nitrate test- 
solution, a white, curdy precipitate, which is soluble in ammonia water. Another portion of PART I. 
Ammonii Chloridum.—Ammonii Iodidum. 
159 
the aqueous solution, when gently heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, 
evolves the odor of ammonia. A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt should not be affected 
by hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of metals), barium chloride test-solution (sulphate'), 
diluted sulphuric acid (barium), or ammonium oxalate test-solution (calcium). When acidu- 
lated with hydrochloric acid, the solution should not assume a red color on the addition of a 
few drops of ferric chloride test-solution (absence of sidphocyanate). 20 C.c. of a 5-per-cent, 
aqueous solution of the salt should not at once assume a blue color on the addition of 5 drops 
of potassium ferrocyanide test-solution (limit of iron). If to 1 Gm. of the salt a little nitric 
acid he added, and the mixture evaporated to dryness in a porcelain capsule on a water-bath, 
a white residue should be obtained which, when more strongly heated, should be completely 
volatilized (absence of empyreumatic or non-volatile matters)." U. 8. “It should yield no 
residue on being heated to redness, and no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, 
copper, arsenium, calcium, carbonates, or nitrates, and only the slightest reactions with the 
tests for iron, or for sulphates. Its aqueous solution should not give a blood-red coloration 
with test-solution of ferric chloride (absence of thiocyanates).” Br. 
Composition. Ammonium chloride consists of one atom of chlorine and one of ammo- 
nium, (NH4) = NH4C1. Viewed as hydrochlorate of ammonia or muriate of ammonium, it is 
composed of one mol. of hydrochloric acid and one of ammonia. 
Medical Properties. Ammonium chloride has the stimulant properties of ammonia, 
and probably differs little in its physiological powers from the carbonate, but it is believed by 
many to be less fugacious in its action and to be less stimulant to the circulation than is the 
latter salt. Clinical experience has also led to a somewhat particular use of it in diseases. It 
is one of the most employed of the stimulant expectorants in the advanced stages of acute 
bronchitis and in chronic bronchitis, also in catarrhal pneumonia. It has been very highly 
recommended of late years in chronic hepatic torpor and engorgement, and even in acute hepa- 
titis, by Dr. W. Stewart, who gives 20 grains of it three times a day and continues its use for 
weeks. We have seen catarrhal jaundice apparently very much benefited by it. Many years 
ago it was a favorite remedy as a resolvent in chronic glandxdar enlargements, but at present it 
is rarely so employed. There is much testimony as to the value of ammonium chloride in cer- 
tain obscure nervous affections, especially hemicrania, ovaralgia, dysmenorrhcea, sciatica, and 
various other neuralgic disorders. The usual expectorant dose of the chloride is 5 to 10 grains 
(0-33-0-65 Gm.) every two hours, administered in sweetened mucilage; but formerly in pros- 
tatic and other glandular enlargements it was recommended to increase the dose until half an 
ounce a day was ingested. When such amounts are given, the remedy is prone to produce 
disordered digestion, a miliary eruption, profuse sweats, and scorbutic symptoms. 
Externally, ammonium chloride is used in solution, as a stimulant and resolvent, in con- 
tusions, indolent tumors, etc. An ounce of the salt dissolved in nine fluidounces of water and 
one of alcohol forms a solution of convenient strength. When the solution is to be used as 
a wash for ulcers, or as an injection in leucorrhcea, it should not contain more than from one to 
four drachms of the salt to a pint of water. A pediluvium consisting of half a pound of am- 
monium chloride dissolved in water, followed by fomentations with the same solution, is said 
to have cured senile gangrene. (Annuaire de Therap., 1868.) 
The vapor of ammonium chloride has been administered by inhalation, employed several 
times a day, in chronic catarrh, with marked advantage, by Dr. Gieseler, of Germany. Dr. 
Hermann Beigel, of London, strongly recommends its inhalation in the nascent state, resulting 
from a mixture of the two gases composing it. Three bottles are used, one containing ammo- 
nia water, the second an equivalent quantity of liquid hydrochloric acid, and the third half 
filled with water, connected with the first two by tubes, and supplied itself with a tube for 
inhalation. By inhalation the patient draws the two gases from their respective bottles into 
the third, where they combine'to form ammonium chloride, which is freed from any excess of 
either gas by the water. Another mode of inhaling ammonium chloride is in spray, by means 
of the atomizer; from 10 to 20 grains are dissolved for the purpose in a fiuidounce of water. 
AMMONII IODIDUM. U. S. Ammonium Iodide. 
NH4I; 144*54. (AM-MO'NI-I !-5d'I-DUH.) NH4I; 144-6. 
Iodure d’Ammonium, Fr.; Ammonium jodatum, Ioduretum Ammonicum, Jodammonium, G. 
“ Ammonium Iodide should be kept in small, well-stoppered vials, protected from light. 
When deeply colored, the salt should not he dispensed, but it may be deprived of free iodine 160 
Ammonii Iodidum. 
PART I. 
by adding to its concentrated aqueous solution sufficient ammonium sulphide test-solution to 
render it colorless, then filtering, and evaporating on a water-bath to dryness.” U. S. 
No process is given in the Pharm. 1890 for this salt; that of the Pharrn. 1870 will be found 
below.* 
This salt was formerly prepared according to the method of Mr. John A. Spencer, of Lon- 
don, the formula for which is as follows. Add to a portion of iodine, placed in a flask with a 
little water, a solution of ammonium sulphydrate, until the mixture loses its red color, and is 
turbid from the separation of sulphur only. Shake the flask, which causes the sulphur, for 
the most part, to agglomerate; and, having poured off the liquid, boil it until all odor of 
hydrogen sulphide and of ammonia is lost. Then filter the liquid, and, constantly stirring, evapo- 
rate it, first with a naked flame until it becomes pasty, and then in a water-bath until it forms 
a dry salt. In 1864 (A. J. P.f May, 1864), Dr. Jacobson proposed a plan in which double 
decomposition between the ammonium sulphate and the potassium iodide was brought about. 
Mr. James F. Babcock (Proc. A. P. A., 1866) stated that on trial of the first of the above 
processes, and of all others in which hydrogen sulphide or an alkaline sulphide was employed, 
the resulting ammonium iodide retained a portion of sulphur, which caused its color to change 
with time to yellow and ultimately to brown, and rendered it unfit for the accurate prepara- 
tions required in photography. Having tried also other formulas, which he found objection- 
able, he at length satisfied himself that the process of Dr. Jacobson above described was the 
best in use, and with slight modifications would yield an absolutely pure product. 
In a former edition of the Dispensatory may be found the exact process finally adopted by 
Mr. Babcock. It is substantially that which was official in Pharm. 1870, and is in close accord 
with that of Dr. Jacobson. The object of the first step of the process is sufficiently evident. 
After the double decomposition has occurred, the alcohol is added to complete the precipita- 
tion of the potassium sulphate; the pouring of alcohol upon the cotton filter is to remove com- 
pletely from the sulphate all of the iodide. As made by this process, ammonium iodide 
always contains a minute proportion of potassium sulphate. Charles Rice (A. J. P., 1873, p. 
249) calls attention to the fact that the process official in U. S. Pharm. 1870 is deficient in the 
amount of ammonium sulphate required, and therefore wasteful of the more expensive iodide ; 
instead of one ounce of ammonium sulphate the quantity should be 867 grains. The view 
taken by Mr. Rice, however, is that the reaction takes place between single molecules of the 
respective salts, which is no doubt correct, whereas the view of the Pharmacopoeia committee 
was that two mols. of the iodide reacted with one of ammonium sulphate, 2KI -(- (NH4)„S04 
= K2S04-f-2NH4I. 
Properties. Ammonium iodide is in “ minute, colorless, cubical crystals, or a white granu- 
lar powder, without odor when colorless, but emitting a slight odor of iodine when colored, and 
having a sharp, saline taste. The salt is very hygroscopic, and soon becomes yellow or yellow- 
ish-brown on exposure to the air and light, owing to the loss of ammonia and the elimination 
of iodine. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 1 part of water, and in 9 parts of alcohol; in 0-5 
part of boiling water, and in 3j parts of boiling alcohol. When heated on platinum foil, it 
evolves vapor of iodine, and volatilizes completely without melting. The aqueous solution of 
the salt is neutral to litmus paper, and, when gently heated with potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution, evolves the odor of ammonia. If a little chloroform be added to 10 C.c. of the 
aqueous solution, then a few drops of chlorine water, and the whole agitated, the chloroform 
will acquire a violet color. A solution of 1 Gm. of the salt in 20 C.c. of water, acidulated 
with a few drops of diluted hydrochloric acid, should not afford an immediate cloudiness or 
precipitate with 5 drops of barium chloride test-solution (limit of sulphate). A 1-per-cent, 
aqueous solution of the salt should not at once assume a blue color with potassium ferrocya- 
nide test-solution (limit of iron), nor, after being mixed with a little starch test-solution, should 
it assume a deep blue color (limit of free iodine). If 0 25 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in 10 
C.c. of ammonia water, the solution then shaken with 19 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal 
volumetric solution, and the filtrate supersaturated with 5 C.c. of nitric acid, no cloudiness 
* “ Take of Iodide of Potassium, in coarse powder, four troyounces ; Sulphate of Ammonium, in coarse powder, 
a troyounce [this should be 867 grains] ; Boiling Distilled Water two fluid ounces ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity. Mix the salts, add them to the Boiling Water, stir well, and allow the mixture to cool; then add a fluid- 
ounce of Alcohol, mix well, and reduce the temperature, by a bath of iced water, to about 40° ; throw the mixture 
into a cool glass funnel, stopped with moistened cotton, and, when the clear solution has passed, pour upon the salt 
a fluidounce of a mixture containing two parts of Water and one part of Alcohol. Lastly, evaporate the solution 
rapidly to dryness, stirring constantly; and preserve the residue in a well-stopped bottle.” U. S. 1870. PART I. 
Ammonii Iodidum.—Ammonii Nitras. 
161 
should make its appearance within ten minutes (absence of more than about 0-5 per cent, of 
chloride or bromide).” U. S. 
Medical Properties. Ammonium iodide is employed, both externally and internally, as 
a resolvent, and resembles closely, in its action, iodine and potassium iodide. Dr. B. W. Rich- 
ardson, of London, has prescribed it, in the dose of from one to three grains, with considerable 
success, in secondary syphilis, chronic rheumatism, incipient phthisis, and in a variety of forms 
of scrofulous disorder, attended with glandular enlargements. Dr. Richardson found a liniment, 
made by dissolving half a drachm of the iodide in an ounce of glycerin, very efficacious in 
enlarged tonsils, applied every night with a large camel’s-hair brush, and his practice has been 
followed to some extent by other members of the profession* Externally, this salt has been 
used as a substitute for potassium iodide. By Dr. Pennock it is considered a good remedy 
in certain cases of lepra and psoriasis, in the form of ointment, applied by friction in the 
quantity of half an ounce, morning and evening. The proportions employed are from a 
scruple to a drachm of the salt to an ounce of lard; the weaker preparation being used when 
the disease is recent, the stronger when it is chronic. As the iodide is decomposed by the air, 
the ointment should be kept in well-stopped bottles. For internal use the dose of ammonium 
iodide is from three to five grains (0-20-0-33 6m,). 
NH4NO3; 79*9. (AM-MO'NI-I NI'TBXS.) NH4NO3; 80. 
AMMONII NITRAS. U. S. Ammonium Nitrate. 
Ammoniae Nitras, Br., 1867; Nitrate of Ammonia; Ammonium Nitricum, Nitrum Flammans; Azotate d’Am- 
moniaque, Nitre inflammable, Nitre ammoniacal, Sal ammoniacal nitreux, Fr.; Salpetersaures Ammon, Ammonium, 
Ammoniak, G. 
An extraordinary property possessed by this salt of absorbing ammoniacal gas, and giving 
it out again at a moderate heat unchanged, renders it capable of useful pharmaceutical appli- 
cation ; but the chief cause of its introduction into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia was its being the 
source whence nitrogen monoxide is produced. 
Ammonium nitrate may be prepared by treating commercial ammonium carbonate by nitric 
acid so long as effervescence takes place, or to saturation, filtering, and evaporating the solution. 
By careful evaporation and slow refrigeration the salt may be obtained in well-defined crystals. 
If crystallized after rapid concentration by boiling and sudden cooling, it forms long flexible 
and elastic threads. If the solution be heated till all the water is driven off and the fused 
mass kept at a temperature not exceeding 320° F. (160° C.), the commercial fused salt is pro- 
duced. It may also be made by double decomposition between solutions of ammonium sulphate 
and potassium nitrate. 
Properties. “ Colorless crystals, generally in the form of long, thin, rhombic prisms, or 
in fused masses, without odor, having a sharp, bitter taste, and somewhat deliquescent. Solu- 
ble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-5 part of water, and in 20 parts of alcohol; very soluble in boil- 
ing water, and in 3 parts of boiling alcohol. When gradually heated, it melts at 165°-166° 
C. (329°—330-8° F.) ; at a temperature between 230° and 250° C. (446°—482° F.) it is decom- 
posed into nitrogen monoxide gas and water, leaving no residue. The aqueous solution of the 
salt is neutral to litmus paper, and, when gently heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test- 
solution, it evolves the odor of ammonia. On heating the salt with sulphuric acid, it emits 
nitrous vapors.” U. S. 
At all temperatures between—15° C. (5° F.) and 25° C. (77° F.), if exposed to a current 
of dry ammoniacal gas, its crystals absorb the gas and melt, yielding a colorless liquid, which, 
if the absorption has taken place at—10° C. (14° F.), contains two mols. of the gas for each 
mol. of the salt, and would be represented by the formula NH4N03 -f- 2NH3. It is not frozen 
by a mixture of salt and snow. Its sp. gr. is 1-05. Heated moderately it boils, with loss of 
ammonia, and is changed intcf a crystalline mass, containing 21-25 parts of the gas in 100 of 
the salt by weight, and corresponds with the formula NH4N03 -j- NH3, thus retaining one- 
half the gas absorbed. By exposure to increased heat, this loses ammonia, and at 80° C. 
(176° F.) has been reconverted to pure ammonium nitrate. This preparation may be used for 
obtaining small quantities of pure ammonia, when wanted, by exposing it to a gentle heat in 
* Theodore G. Davis (A. J. P., 1877, p. 305) gives a formula for Liniment of Iodide of Ammonium which he says 
closely corresponds with a proprietary liniment largely sold at one time; but it cannot be regarded as correctly 
named, for it contains a small quantity of iodide in a pint of liniment. Water of Ammonia 10 per cent, Soap 
Liniment Tinet. Iodine Alcohol f3jiv. Mix the soap liniment with the tincture of iodine, and add the 
alcohol and ammonia; shake, and add alcohol to make 1 pint. Let it stand two or three days before using. 
11 162 
Ammonii Phosphas. 
PART I. 
a small retort. To be fit for this purpose, it must be kept at a low temperature. (P. J. Tr., 
June, 1872.) 
Tests. “ A 10-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt, when acidulated with nitric acid, 
should not be affected by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of chloride), nor by barium 
chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate)." U. S. 
For the mode of preparing nitrogen monoxide (hyponitrous oxide), or nitrous oxide gas, from 
ammonium nitrate, the reader is referred to the article on Nitrogen Monoxide in Part II. of 
this work. 
AMMONII PHOSPHAS. Br. Phosphate of Ammonium. 
(NHiJjHPOi; 132. (am-mo'ni-i ph5s'phXs.) 
“ A salt, (NII4)2HP04, which may be obtained by neutralizing phosphoric acid with solu- 
tion of ammonia.” Br. 
Ammoniaa Phosphas; Phosphate of Ammonia; Ammonium Phosphoricum, P.G.; Phosphas Ammonicus; Phos- 
phate d’Ammoniaque, Fr.; Phosphorsaures Ammoniak, fir. 
This salt was introduced into the 1880 U. S. Pliarm., but was dropped at the late revision. 
The variety of phosphoric acid employed in this formula is the tribasic, which forms three 
salts with ammonia, one containing three atoms of ammonium without basic hydrogen, which 
is called the neutral phosphate, the second, two mols. of ammonium and one of basic hydrogen, 
forming an acid phosphate, and the third, one mol. of ammonium and two of basic hydrogen, 
forming also an acid phosphate. The second of these is the one intended by the U. S. and 
British Pharmacopoeias, and is represented by the formula (NH4)2HP04. To prepare it, a 
constant excess of ammonia must be maintained, and this is done by compliance with the 
process, if the materials are of due strength. Without such a precaution, more or less of the 
more acid phosphate would be generated, in consequence of the escape of the alkali. 
Properties. Hydrogen di-ammonium phosphate, which is the official salt, occurs in “ col- 
orless, translucent, monoclinic prisms, losing ammonia on exposure to dry air, without odor, 
having a cooling, saline taste and a neutral or faintly alkaline reaction. Soluble in 4 parts of 
water at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-5 part of boiling water, but insoluble in alcohol. When strongly 
heated, the salt fuses, afterwards evolves ammonia, and at a bright red heat is wholly dissi- 
pated.” U. S. 1880. The salt commonly found in commerce is either this acid phosphate, or 
a mixture of the two acid salts. The official salt may be made by saturating the excess of 
acid in acid calcium phosphate by means of ammonium carbonate. Calcium phosphate is pre- 
cipitated and ammonium phosphate obtained in solution, which, being duly concentrated by a 
gentle heat, affords the salt in crystals upon cooling. The method of obtaining the acid cal- 
cium phosphate is given under the head of sodium phosphate. (See Sodii Phosphas.') Ammo- 
nium phosphate prepared in this way is a white salt, crystallizing in six-sided tables, derived 
from oblique quadrangular prisms, efflorescent, insoluble in alcohol, and soluble in 4 parts 
of cold water. The solution has an alkaline somewhat saline taste, and an alkaline reaction, 
and gives out ammonia when heated. 
The other acid phosphate, NH4II2P04, is obtained by boiling a solution of either of the 
other salts so long as ammonia escapes, and then crystallizing. Its crystals are four-sided 
prisms, permanent in the air, of an acid taste and reaction, and soluble in 5 parts of cold 
water. (Bridges.) In a specimen of the common ammonium phosphate of commerce which 
came under our notice, we recognized both the tabular crystals of the phosphate with two 
mols. of ammonium, having a saline slightly acrid taste, and neutral in reaction, and the 
prisms of the acid salt, with a sour and saline taste and a decidedly acid reaction. 
Tests. “The aqueous solution of the salt, when heated with potassa, evolves vapor of 
ammonia. Addition of test-solution of nitrate of silver to the aqueous solution produces a 
canary-yellow precipitate, soluble in nitric acid and in ammonia. The aqueous solution should 
remain unaffected by sulphide of ammonium, or, after being acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
by hydrosulphuric acid (abs. of metals), or by test-solution of chloride of barium (sulphate). 
When acidulated with nitric acid, it should not be rendered turbid by test-solution of nitrate 
of silver (chloride). 2 Grm. of the salt dissolved in water and precipitated with test-mixture 
of magnesium, yields a crystalline precipitate, which, when washed with diluted water of am- 
monia, dried, and ignited, should weigh 1-68 Gm.” U. S. 1880. This quantitative test is in- 
tended as a means of identifying the hydrogen di-ammonium salts. The British Pharmacopoeia 
gives the following quantitative test. “ When 2 grammes are dissolved in water, and solution 
of 'magnesium ammonio-sulphate is added in excess, a crystalline precipitate should be formed, 
which, after being well washed upon a filter with solution of ammonia diluted with an equal PART I. 
Ammonii Valenanas. 
163 
volume of water, and then dried and heated to redness, weighs 1-68 grammes. Its aqueous 
solution should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, or arsenium, 
and only the slightest reactions with the tests for iron, chlorides, or sulphates.” The amount 
of the residue, which is magnesium pyrophosphate, indicates the quantity of phosphoric acid 
contained in the salt. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This salt was first brought to the notice of the pro- 
fession, as a remedy for gout and rheumatism, by Dr. T. II. Buckler (Am. Journ. Med. Sci., 
1846), and has since been so employed with apparently useful results. The dose is from ten to 
forty grains (0-65-2-6 6m.), three or four times a day, dissolved in a tablespoonful of water. 
NH4C5H9O2; 118.78. (AM-MO'NI-I VA-LE-RI-A'NAS.) NH4C5H9O2; 119. 
AMMONII VALE RIAN AS. U. S. Ammonium Valerianate. 
Valerianate d’Ammoniaque, Fr.; Baldriansaures (Valeriansaures) Ammonium, G. 
A process for preparing this salt is no longer official; that of the Pharm. 1870 is found 
below * 
Ammonium valerianate was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1860; much diffi- 
culty was experienced by manufacturing chemists in procuring a crystallized ammonium 
valerianate, until, after a series of experiments, Mr. B. J. Crew, of Philadelphia, ascertained 
that it was necessary to employ the monohydrated valerianic acid, as the ordinary acid with 
three mols. of water could not be successfully used for the purpose. The official formula of 
1870 was based upon that of Mr. Crew, published in the A. J. P. (1860, p. 109). In this for- 
mula the monohydrated valerianic acid, procured by a special process (see Acidum Valeriani- 
cum), is saturated with gaseous ammonia obtained in the usual manner from a mixture of 
ammonium chloride and lime. The saturation is known to have been effected when litmus 
paper is no longer acted on. During the operation heat is developed sufficient to prevent pre- 
mature crystallization, and, when the saturation is completed, nothing more is necessary than 
to allow the solution to cool. Crystallization soon begins, and in a few hours the contents of 
the vessel become a nearly solid mass of crystals; these should be thoroughly drained, and, 
without unnecessary exposure, at once transferred to well-stoppered bottles. 
Properties. Thus prepared, ammonium valerianate is in snow-white, pearly, four-sided, 
tabular crystals, perfectly dry, of an offensive odor like that of valerianic acid, and a sharp 
sweetish taste. Instead of liquefying whenever exposed to the air, as happened to the salt 
formerly procured, it undergoes this change only in a moist atmosphere, and effloresces when 
the air is dry. It is very soluble in water, ether, and alcohol. Exposed to heat it is in great 
measure volatilized unchanged; but a small portion, by giving off a part of its ammonia, is 
converted into the acid valerianate. Hager (Pharm. Centralb., 1879, p. 465) states that com- 
mercial ammonium valerianate is always the acid salt, as is proved by the acid reaction and 
the strong rotation of the crystals when placed upon cold water; the neutral salt is obtained 
only with difficulty, is in prismatic crystals, and is easily liquefied by moderate temperatures. 
Its formula is NH4C5H0O2. “ The aqueous solution has an acid reaction, and, when gently 
heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, it evolves the odor of ammonia. If a 
concentrated aqueous solution of the salt be slightly supersaturated with sulphuric acid, an 
oily layer of valerianic acid will separate on the surface. A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution, 
when acidulated with nitric acid, should not be affected by barium nitrate test-solution (absence 
of sulphate), nor by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of chloride). If a neutral solution of 
the salt be completely precipitated with ferric chloride test-solution, the filtrate should not 
possess a deep red color (absence of acetate)." TJ. S. 
Medical Properties. Ammonium valerianate is not poisonous. Given to dogs in the 
dose of 150 grains, it produced'no inconvenience. As a therapeutic agent it was first brought 
to the notice of the profession, in 1856, by M. Declat, of Paris. The preparation which he 
used was a solution of ammonium valerianate of uniform strength, made according to the recipe 
of M. Pierlot, an apothecary of Paris. Since then it has been used in various diseases, princi- 
* “Take of Valerianic Acid four fluid ounce* ; Chloride of Ammonium, Lime, each, a sufficient quantity. From a 
mixture of Chloride of Ammonium, in coarse powder, and an equal weight of Lime, previously slaked and in powder, 
contained in a suitable vessel, obtain gaseous ammonia, and cause it to pass, first through a bottle filled with pieces 
of Lime, and afterwards into the Valerianic Acid, in a tall, narrow, glass vessel, until the Acid is neutralized. 
Then discontinue the process, and set the vessel aside that the Valerianate of Ammonium may crystallize. Lastly, 
break the salt into pieces, drain it in a glass funnel, dry it on bibulous paper, and keep it in a well-stopped bottle.” 
U.S. 164 
Ammonii Valerianas.—Amygdala Amara. 
PART I. 
pally of the nervous system, such as hysteria, epilepsy, chorea, neuralgia, and is certainly useful in 
various mild functional nervous affections, but in such grave maladies as epilepsy it is powerless. 
The dose of the salt is from two to eight grains (0-13-0-52 Gm.), dissolved in water. As now 
prepared, it may be made into pills without inconvenience; and, properly coated so as to con- 
ceal their disagreeable odor, they are probably the best form for the administration of the salt. 
Pierlot's solution, mentioned above, should be made by dissolving a drachm of valerianic acid 
in thirty-two drachms of distilled water, saturating the solution with ammonium carbonate, 
and adding to the salt formed two scruples of the alcoholic extract of valerian. According to 
M. Pierlot, the latter addition is necessary in order to preserve the preparation from change ; 
for a simple solution of the ammoniacal salt is rapidly decomposed. It will keep still better if 
the extract, when added to the solution, be mixed with a fluidounce of diluted alcohol, while 
but 24 drachms of distilled water are used, so as to preserve the measure. The solution of M. 
Pierlot is neutral, of a brown color, and a strong odor of valerian. It contains l-25th of its 
weight of the pure salt. The dose is from six to thirty drops (0-36-1-9 C.c.), given in water 
or on a lump of sugar. (Ann. de BMrap., 1857, p. 55.) 
AMYGDALA AMARA. U. SM Br. Bitter Almond. 
(A-MYG'DA-LA A-MA'RA.) 
“ The seed of Prunus Amygdalus, var. amara, De Candolle (nat. ord. Rosacea}).” U. S. 
“ The ripe seed of Prunus Stokes, var. amara, Baillon.” Br. 
Amygdalae Amarae, P. G.; Semen Amygdali Amarum; Amande amere, Fr.; Bittere Mandeln, G.; Mandorle 
amare, It.; Almendra amarga, Sp. 
Bitter Almonds. These are smaller than the sweet almonds, and are thus described in 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. “ About 25 Mm. long, oblong-lanceolate, flattish, covered with a 
cinnamon-brown, scurfy testa, marked by about sixteen lines emanating from a broad scar at 
the blunt end. The embryo has the shape of the seed, is white, oily, consists of two plano- 
convex cotyledons, and a short radicle at the pointed end, and has a bitter taste. When trit- 
urated with water, Bitter Almond yields a milk-white emulsion, which emits an odor of 
hydrocyanic acid.” U. S. They have the bitter taste of the peach kernel, and, though when 
dry inodorous or nearly so, have, when triturated with water, the fragrance of the peach 
blossom. They contain the same ingredients as sweet almonds, and like them form a milky 
emulsion with water. It was formerly supposed that they also contained hydrocyanic acid and 
volatile oil, to which their peculiar taste and smell and their peculiar operation upon the 
system were ascribed. It was, however, ascertained by MM. Robiquet and Boutron that these 
principles do not pre-exist in the almond, but result from the reaction of water; and Wohler 
and Liebig proved, what was suspected by Robiquet, that they are formed out of a peculiar 
substance denominated amygdalin, which is the characteristic constituent of bitter almonds. 
This substance, which was discovered by Robiquet and Boutron in 1830, is white, crystallizable, 
inodorous, of a sweetish bitter taste, unalterable in the air, freely soluble in water and hot 
alcohol, very slightly soluble in cold alcohol, and insoluble in ether. It is decomposed by the 
action of dilute acids or in the presence of water by the nitrogenous ferments, like emulsin, 
which accompany it in the bitter almond. The reaction is as follows: 
Crystallized 
amygdalin. 
C»H,,NOn + 3H20 = 2(CeH1206) +HCN + C.HeO + HaO. 
Dextro- 
glucose. 
Hydrocyanic 
acid. 
Oil of bitter 
almonds. 
It is recognized as belonging to the glucoside class, compounds which, when decomposed by 
dilute acids, alkalies, or ferments, yield glucose and some other characteristic decomposition 
product. They may be considered as compound ethers of glucose analogous to the compound 
ethers of glycerin which exist in the fats under the name of glycerides. Liebig and Wohler 
give the following process for obtaining amygdalin, in which the object of the fermentation is 
to destroy the sugar with which it is associated. Bitter almonds, previously deprived of their 
fixed oil by pressure, are to be boiled in successive portions of alcohol till exhausted. From 
the liquors thus obtained all the alcohol is to be drawn off by distillation; care being taken, 
near the end of the process, not to expose the syrupy residue to too great a heat. This residue 
is then to be diluted with water, mixed with good yeast, and placed in a warm situation. 
After the fermentation which ensues has ceased, the liquor is to be filtered, evaporated to the 
consistence of syrup, and mixed with alcohol. The amygdalin is thus precipitated in connec- 
tion with a portion of gum, from which it may be separated by solution in boiling alcohol,, 
which will deposit it upon cooling. If pure, it will form a perfectly transparent solution with. PART I. 
Amygdala Amara.—Amygdala Dulcis. 
165 
water. Any oil which it may contain may be separated by washing with ether. One pound 
of almonds yields at least 120 grains of amygdalin. (Anna!. der Pharm., xxii. 329.)* 
Amygdalin, mixed with emulsion of sweet almonds, gives rise, among other products, to the 
volatile oil of bitter almonds and hydrocyanic acid,—the emulsion of the sweet almonds acting 
the part of a ferment, by causing a reaction between the amygdaliD and water; and the same 
result is obtained when pure emulsin is added to a solution of amygdalin. It appears, then, 
that the volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid developed in bitter almonds when moistened result 
from the mutual reaction of amygdalin, water, and emulsin. Certain substances have the 
effect of preventing this reaction, as, for example, alcohol and acetic acid. It is asserted that 
emulsin procured from other seeds, as those of the poppy, hemp, and mustard, is capable of 
producing the same reaction between water and amygdalin, though in a less degree. (Anna!. der 
Pharm., xxviii. 290.) Amygdalin appears not to be poisonous when taken pure in the stomach, 
unless there he emulsin in the food in the stomach. 
Bitter almonds yield their fixed oil by pressure, and at the present time this oil is an article 
of commerce, and is frequently sold as oil of sweet almonds, being produced in England from 
North African bitter almonds ; the volatile oil, impregnated with hydrocyanic acid, may be 
obtained from the residue by distillation with water. (See Oleum Amygdalse Amarse.) 
Confectioners employ bitter almonds for communicating flavor to orgeat syrup. (See Syrupus 
Amygdalse.) The kernel of the peach possesses similar properties, and is frequently used as a 
substitute. It has been ascertained that bitter almond paste, and other substances which yield 
the same volatile oil, such as bruised cherry-laurel leaves, peach leaves, etc., have the property 
of destroying the odor of musk, camphor, most of the volatile oils, creosote, cod-liver oil, the 
balsams, etc.; and M. Mahier, a French pharmacist, has employed them successfully to free 
mortars and bottles from the odor of asafetida and other substances of disagreeable smell. All 
that is necessary is first to remove any oily substance by means of an alkali, and then to apply 
the paste or bruised leaves. 
Medical Properties and Uses. (See Amygdala Dulcis.) 
AMYGDALA DULCIS. U.S., Br. Sweet Almond. 
(A-MYG'DA-LA DUL'CIS.) 
11 The seed of Prunus Amygdalus, var. dulcis, De Candolle (nat. ord. Rosacese).” U. S. 
“ The ripe seed of Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes, var. dulcis, Baillon. It is known in commerce 
as the Jordan almond.” Br. 
Amygdala Dulces, P. G.; Semen Amygdali Dulce ; Amande douce, Ft.; Siisse Mandeln, G.; Mandorle dolci, It.; 
Almendra dulce, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Drupe with a nut perforated with pores. 
wind. 
Amygdalus communis. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 982 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 507, t. 183. The 
almond tree rises usually from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and divides into numerous 
spreading branches. The leaves stand upon short footstalks, are about three inches long 
and three-quarters of an inch broad, elliptical, pointed at both ends, veined, minutely serrated, 
with the lower serratures and petioles glandular, and are of a bright green color. The flowers 
are large, of a pale red color varying to white, with very short peduncles, and petals longer 
than the calyx, and usually stand in pairs upon the branches. The fruit is of the peach kind, 
with the outer covering thin, tough, dry, and marked with a longitudinal furrow, where it 
opens when fully ripe. Within this covering is a rough shell, containing the kernel or almond. 
There are several varieties of this species of Amygdalus, differing chiefly in the size and 
shape of the fruit, the thickness of the shell, and the taste of the kernel. The two most im- 
portant are Amygdalus (communis) dulcis and Amygdalus (communis) amara, the former bear- 
ing sweet, the latter bitter alnjonds. Another variety is the fragilis of De Candolle, which 
yields the paper-shelled almonds. The almond-tree is a native of Persia, Syria, and Barbary, 
and is extensively cultivated in the south of Europe. It has been introduced into the United 
States; but in the northern and middle sections the fruit does not come to perfection. We are 
* Amygdalin appears to be extensively diffused in plants, having been noticed not only in the different genera of 
the Amygdaleae, as Amygdala*, Cerasus, and Prunim, but also by Wicke in various Pomacese, as Pyrus mains, Sor- 
bus aucuparia, Sorbus hybrida, Sorbus torminalis, Amelanchier vulgaris, Cotoneaster vulgaris, and Cratcegus oxy- 
acantha. (Ann. d. Chem. und Pharm., Ixxix. 79.) It may be advantageously procured from peach kernels, which 
have been found to yield 80 grains for each avoirdupois pound, or more than 1 per cent. (A. J. P., xxvii. 227.) Ac- 
cording to the researches of Johannen, the emulsin is contained in the radicle and plumule, and in the vascular 
bundles of the cotyledons, while the parenchyma of the cotyledons contains the amygdalin. (P. J. Tr., March, 1888.) 166 
Amygdala Dulds. 
PART I. 
supplied with sweet almonds chiefly from Spain and the south of France. They are separated 
into the soft-shelled and hard-shelled, the former of which come from Marseilles and Bordeaux, 
the latter from Malaga. From the latter port they are sometimes brought to us without the 
shell. In British commerce, the two chief varieties are the Jordan and Valencia almonds, the 
former imported from Malaga, the latter from Valencia.* The former are longer, narrower, 
more pointed, and more highly esteemed than the latter. The bitter almonds are obtained 
chiefly from Morocco, and are exported from Mogador. 
Properties. The shape and appearance of almonds are too well known to require descrip- 
tion. Each kernel consists of two white cotyledons, enclosed in a thin, yellowish-brown, bitter 
skin, which is easily separable after immersion in boiling water. Deprived of this covering, 
they are called blanched almonds. On exposure to the air they are apt to become rancid; 
but, if thoroughly dried and kept in well-closed glass vessels, they may be preserved unaltered 
for many years. Each of the two varieties requires a separate notice. 
Sweet almonds are without smell when blanched, and have a sweet, very pleasant taste, 
which has rendered them a favorite article of diet in all countries where they are readily 
attainable. They are, however, generally considered difficult of digestion. The Pharmacopoeia 
thus describes them. “ Closely resembling the bitter almond (see Amygdala Amara), but 
having a bland, sweetish taste, free from rancidity. When triturated with water, it yields a 
milk-white emulsion, free from the odor of hydrocyanic acid.” U. S. By the analysis of M. 
Boullay, it appears that they contain, in 100 parts, 5 parts of pellicle, 54 of fixed oil, 24 of 
albumen, 6 of uncrystallizable sugar, 3 of gum, 4 of fibrous matter, 3-5 of water, and 0-5 of 
acetic acid, comprising loss. The albumen is somewhat peculiar, and is called emulsin. It 
may be obtained separate by treating the emulsion of almonds with ether, allowing the mix- 
ture, after frequent agitation, to stand until a clear fluid separates at the bottom of the vessel, 
drawing this off by a siphon, adding alcohol to it so as to precipitate the emulsin, then washing 
the precipitate with fresh alcohol, and drying it under the receiver of an air-pump. In this 
state it is a white powder, inodorous and tasteless, soluble in water, and insoluble in ether and 
alcohol. Its solution has an acid reaction, and, if heated to 100° C. (212° F.), becomes 
opaque and milky, and gradually deposits a snow-white precipitate, amounting to about 10 per 
cent of the emulsin employed. (JL J. P., xxi. 354.) Its distinguishing characteristic is that 
of producing certain changes, noticed previously, in amygdalin, which property it loses when 
its solution is boiled, though not by exposure in the solid state to a heat of 100° C. (212° F.). 
(.Ibid., 357.) It consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a minute proportion 
of sulphur, and is probably identical with the synaptase of Robiquet. Mr. L. Fortes an- 
nounced the discovery of asparagin in sweet almonds. (TV. R., January, 1877.) The fixed oil 
is described under the head of Oleum Amygdalae, to which the reader is referred. Sweet- 
almonds, when rubbed with water, form a milky emulsion, free from the odor of hydrocyanic 
acid, the insoluble matters being suspended by the agency of the albuminous, mucilaginous, 
and saccharine principles. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Sweet almonds have no other influence on the system 
than that of a nutrient and demulcent. The emulsion formed by triturating them with water 
is a pleasant vehicle. From their nutritive properties, and the absence of starch in their com- 
position, they are much used in the diet of diabetics, as originally recommended by Dr. Pavy. 
(Guy's Hosp. Pep., 1862, p. 213.) Bitter almonds are more active, and might be employed 
with advantage in pectoral and other complaints to which hydrocyanic acid is applicable. In 
some persons almonds produce urticaria, in the smallest quantities. Largely taken, they have 
sometimes proved deleterious. Landerer mentions the case of a lady who was alarmingly 
affected by a bath made from the residue of bitter almonds after expression of the fixed oil 
(M. J. P., xxviii.) Wohler and Liebig propose as a substitute for cherry-laurel water, which 
owes its effects to the hydrocyanic acid it contains, but is objectionable from its unequal 
strength, an extemporaneous mixture, of seventeen grains of amygdalin, and one fluidounce 
of an emulsion made with two drachms of sweet almonds and a sufficient quantity of water. 
This mixture contains, according to the above-named chemists, one grain of anhydrous hydro- 
cyanic acid, and is equivalent to two fluidounces of fresh cherry-laurel water. If found to 
answer in practice, it will have the advantage of certainty in relation to the dose ; as amygdalin 
* In 1861, Dr. Geo. B. Wood was informed, when at Valencia, that the thin, paper-shelled almonds were produced, 
not in the immediate neighborhood, but chiefly in the Balearic Islands, and the province of Alicante, whence they 
are sent to Valencia; and in a journey through the interior from Valencia to Alicante he noticed that the almond- 
tree was very abundant in the region back of the latter city, while there were comparatively few near the former. PART I. 
Amyl Nitris. 
167 
may be kept any length of time unaltered. If the calculation of Wohler and Liebig be correct 
as to the quantity of acid it contains, not more than a fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.) should be given 
as a commencing dose. 
AMYL NITRIS. U.S., Br. Amyl Nitrite. 
C5Hii,N02; 116*78. (A'MYL NI'TRIS.) C5Hn,N02; 117. 
“ A liquid containing about 80 per cent, of Amyl (principally Iso-amyl) Nitrite [C6HuN02 
— 116.78], together with variable quantities of undetermined compounds. It should be kept 
in small, dark amber-colored and glass-stoppered vials, in a cool and dark place, remote from 
lights or fire.” U S. “A liquid produced by the interaction of amylic alcohol which has 
been distilled between 262° and 270° F. (127-7° to 132-2° C.) and nitrous acid. It con- 
sists chiefly of iso-amyl nitrite, C6H1:1N02, but contains also other nitrites of the homologous 
series.” Br. 
Amylium Nitrosum, Amylsether Nitrosus; Azotite d’Amyl, Fr.; Amyl Nitrite, G.; Amylo-nitrous Ether. 
This substance, which was discovered by M. Balard in 1844, should not be confounded with 
amyl nitrate, C6HnN03, which is not used as a medicine. 
Preparation. Amyl nitrite may be prepared by passing a stream of nitrous acid (hypo' 
nitric acid) gas through purified amylic alcohol at a temperature of 132° C. (269-6° F.), or by 
acting upon amylic alcohol with nitric acid, as originally suggested by Balard. The alcohol 
should always first be purified according to the method of Hirsch (A. J. P., 1862, pp. 139, 
328), by agitating with an equal bulk of strong solution of common salt, then distilling in a 
retort with a thermometer, collecting what comes over between 125° C. (257° F.) and 140° C. 
(284° F.), and redistilling this until it has a boiling point near 132° C. (269-6° F.). The 
purified alcohol should be mixed with about an equal bulk of nitric acid in a capacious glass 
retort, being gradually heated until it approaches boiling, when the fire is to be removed. As 
soon as a thermometer inserted into the tubulures rises above 100° C. (212° F.) the receiver 
is changed, because both ethyl-amylic ether and amyl nitrate at such temperatures come over 
freely and would contaminate the product. The distillate obtained below 100° C. (212° F.) is 
agitated with a solution of potassium carbonate, and the oily liquid which separates is very 
slowly heated in a clean retort to 96° C. (204-8° F.), then the receiver is changed and the dis- 
tillate collected as before, until the thermometer reaches 100° C. (212° F.). That which comes 
over between the two temperatures is pure amyl nitrite. It is essential to this process that in 
every case the heating be very gradual. (A. J. P'., 1871, p. 148.) Allen states (Commerc. 
Org. Anal., 2d ed., i. 159) that the use of nitric acid is certain to result in the formation of 
much valeric aldehyde and more or less amyl nitrate, and the boiling point of the former of 
these bodies precludes the possibility of subsequently separating it by fractioning the crude 
product. He therefore prefers the passing of nitrous acid gas into purified amyl alcohol. 
Prof. Maisch attempted to produce amyl nitrite by Redwood’s process (A. J. P., 1867, p. 330) 
for the production of nitrous ether, substituting amylic for ethylic alcohol. He found that the 
reactions occurred with such excessive violence as to render the preparation of the nitrite in 
this way impracticable. Subsequently, however, Mr. Alfred Tanner pointed out (P. J. Tr., Nov. 
1871, also A. J. P., 1872, p. 21) that Prof. Maisch used a nearly anhydrous amylic alcohol, and 
that the reactions are equally violent with ethylic alcohol of similar strength. He finds no 
difficulty when the fused oil is diluted with water, and prefers the process, especially for the 
production of the drug upon a small scale. Having introduced the purified amylic alcohol 
into a tubulated retort containing copper wire, he adds one-tenth of its bulk of strong sul- 
phuric acid, and then the same quantity of nitric acid, previously diluted with an equal bulk 
of water, and heats gently to 63° C. (145-4° F.). At this temperature the reaction commences, 
and goes on very manageably, until a bulk about equal to double the quantity of nitric acid 
collects in the receiver. The chemical movement now ceases, and the temperature, which has 
risen to near 100° C. (212° F.), begins to fall. More dilute nitric acid is added, and the pro- 
cess carried out as before. These additions are repeated until the amylic alcohol is exhausted, 
which is known by the appearance of red fumes in the retort. The whole product is washed 
with caustic soda, to remove hydrocyanic and other acids, and rectified over potassium 
carbonate, to get rid of moisture. The portion which distils over between 95° C. (203° F.) 
and 100° C. (212° F.) is medicinally pure amyl nitrite. John Williams ( Year-Book of Phar- 
macy, 1885) recommends the method of passing nitrous acid, obtained by acting upon lump 
arsenous acid with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-350, into purified amylic alcohol until the latter has 168 
Amyl Nitris. 
PART I. 
assumed a brownish-green color ; the product is then washed and distilled fractionally; the dis- 
tillate under 100° C. and 105° C. amounted to nearly 95 per cent. Mr. D. B. Dott (P.J'. Tr., 
Aug. 31, 1878) called attention to the difficulties in the way of fixing a standard boiling point 
for amyl nitrite, and Dr. W. H. Greene (A. J. P., 1879, p. 65) shows that nitropentane (an 
isomer of amyl nitrite) is almost invariably a constituent of amyl nitrite, and he believes 
that commercial amyl nitrite is frequently put upon the market unrectified, specimens exam- 
ined having boiling points varying from 70° C. (158° F.) to 180° C. (356° F.). 
Prof. Dunstan and W. Lloyd Williams (Pharm. Journ. and Trans., Dec. 22, 1888, p. 487) 
have shown that the supposed pure amyl nitrite is a mixture of a-amyl nitrite and /?-amyl nitrite, 
arising from the fact that the amyl alcohol used is always a mixture of a-amyl alcohol and 
/3-amyi alcohol in varying proportions. They find the a-amyl nitrite to be optically inactive and 
to boil at 97° C., while the /3-amyl nitrite has dextro-rotatory power and boils at about 94° C. 
Much of the commercial amyl nitrite contains also iso-butyl nitrite, boiling at 67° C.* 
Properties. “A clear, yellow or pale yellow liquid, of a peculiar, ethereal, fruity odor, 
and a pungent, aromatic taste. Specific gravity, 0-870-0-880 at 15° C. (59° F.). Almost in- 
soluble in water; miscible, in all proportions, with alcohol or ether. In alcoholic solution it 
gradually decomposes with formation of ethyl nitrite and amylic alcohol. It is very volatile, 
even at a low temperature, and is inflammable, burning with a fawn-colored flame. At about 
96°-99° C. (204-8°-210-2° F.), it boils, yielding an orange-colored vapor. If 1 C.c. of potassium 
hydrate normal volumetric solution and 10 C.c. of water be mixed with a drop of phenolplita- 
lein test-solution, then 5 C.c. of Amyl Nitrite added, and the tube inverted a few times, the 
red tint of the alkaline layer should still be perceptible (limit of free acid'). On shaking to- 
gether equal volumes of Amyl Nitrite and potassium hydrate test-solution, the aqueous layer 
should not acquire a deeper tint than pale yellow (limit of aldehyde). Amyl Nitrite should 
remain transparent, or nearly so, when exposed to the temperature of melting ice (absence of 
water). If 0-26 Gm. of Amyl Nitrite, diluted with about 5 C.c. of alcohol, be introduced into 
a nitrometer, followed by 10 C.c. of potassium iodide test-solution, and afterwards by 10 C.c. 
of sulphuric acid normal volumetric solution, the volume of nitric oxide generated, measured 
at the ordinary in-door temperature (assumed to be at or near 25° C., or 77° F.), should be 
about 40 C.c. (each C.c. indicating about 2 per cent, of pure Amyl Nitrite).” U. S. “ Almost 
insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.) in all proportions. If it be added drop 
by drop to fused potassium hydroxide, potassium iso-valerianate will be formed. Specific gravity 
0-870 to 0-880. Submitted to distillation, about 70 per cent, passes over between 194° and 
212° F. (90° and 100° C.), the bulb of the thermometer not dipping below the surface of the 
residual fluid. A mixture of 5 volumes with sufficient alcohol (90 per cent.) to form 100 
volumes affords a liquid of which a portion tested in a nitrometer as described under ‘ Spiritus 
AEtheris Nitrosi’ should yield not less than 6 times its bulk of nitric oxide gas. On shaking 
with an equal volume of solution of potassium hydroxide the aqueous portion should have only 
a pale yellow color (limit of aldehyde). A small quantity in a test-tube placed in melting ice 
remains transparent (absence of water). It deteriorates unless kept in well-stoppered bottles.” 
Br. According to Carl E. Smith (A. J. P., 1898, p. 273), the official method of assay (Allen’s) 
is not accurate, owing to the nitric oxide instantly changing to nitrogen tetroxide on contact 
with air, and this continuing to set free the iodine in the solution of hydriodic acid, thus regis- 
tering too high a result. He proposes the use of a solution of potassium chlorate, nitric acid, 
silver nitrate, ferric ammonium sulphate, and potassium sulpliocyanate. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Owing to its excessive volatility and the ease with 
which it is absorbed, amyl nitrite acts with great quickness upon the organism. As early as 
1859, Guthrie investigated, to some extent, its physiological action ; but the attention of the 
profession was really first directed to the drug by the researches of Dr. Richardson, of London, 
in 1865. Since that time elaborate studies of its physiological action have been made by 
various investigators. Want of space forbids more than a summarizing of them in this book: 
for a full account the reader is referred to Dr. H. C. Wood’s Treatise on Therapeutics. When 
inhaled in doses of from 5 to 10 drops, amyl nitrite produces in man violent flushing of the 
face, accompanied with a feeling as though the head wTould burst, and a very excessive action 
* It is a question whether the physiological action of commercial amyl nitrite is really due to the amyl nitrite 
or to impurities, especially to the iso-butyl-nitrite, but the experiments of Brunton and Bokenham (P. J. Tr., xix. 
490) indicate that the commercial, impure nitrite is stronger than either pure a- or /3-amyl nitrite. According to 
Bals and Broglio, the tertian amyl nitrite (CjHnNOa) differs from amyl nitrite in not giving rise to toxic symptoms, 
and in being slightly hypnotic. PA El' I. 
Amyl Nitris. 
169 
of the heart. Along with these symptoms, after a larger quantity, there is a sense of suffoca- 
tion, and more or less marked muscular weakness. As no case of serious poisoning from amyl’ 
nitrite has occurred in man, for a further knowledge of its action we are dependent upon 
studies made on the lower animals. In dogs, rabbits, cats, etc., it induces effects similar to those 
occurring in man, followed, after toxic doses, by violently hurried, panting respiration, progres- 
sive loss of muscular power and of reflex activity, and finally death from failure of respiration, 
sensation and consciousness being preserved to the last. Although the frequency of the pulse 
may be increased, the force of the circulation is always diminished. This decrease of the 
arterial pressure is in a great measure due to a dilatation of the capillaries. The vaso-motor 
palsy appears to be chiefly produced by a direct action upon the coats of the capillaries, but 
may in part be caused by an influence exerted upon the vaso-motor centres. The cause of the 
acceleration of the pulse has not been positively made out, but there is evidence for the belief 
that the rise is due to a depressing action upon the inhibitory cardiac nerves, and it is also 
probable that small quantities of the drug are primarily stimulant to the cardiac muscle. 
The diminution of voluntary movements and of reflex action is chiefly owing to a powerful 
■depressing influence exerted upon the spinal centres, although the drug does act to some extent 
upon both motor nerve and muscle, lowering their functional activity. Upon the perceptive 
and conscious portions of the nervous system amyl nitrite has almost no influence, so that, as 
already stated, both consciousness and sensation are preserved in poisoning by it almost to the 
■close. After toxic doses the animal temperature falls in a remarkable degree. Very small 
doses produce in man a slight ($° F.) temporary increase of the bodily heat, probably caused 
by the vascular dilatation. The vapors of amyl nitrite outside of the body have a very ex- 
traordinary power of checking oxidation, and the results of numerous experiments seem to 
show that in the body the drug lessens decidedly the chemical interchanges. With the pos- 
sible exception of the decrease of temperature, the general symptoms produced by the poison 
do not seem to be due to this lowered oxidation, but to a direct influence exerted upon the vari- 
ous tissues. Locally applied, amyl nitrite causes a progressive loss of power in every highly 
organized tissue; this may end in a total cessation of function, but, even after this, recovery is 
possible, provided the poison be withdrawn sufficiently early. 
The chief indication for the employment of amyl nitrite is to relax spasm, either of the 
vaso-motor muscular fibres or of the voluntary or involuntary muscles. A disease, probably 
associated with vaso-motor spasm, but whose pathology is not established, in which experience 
has demonstrated the extreme value of amyl nitrite, is angina pectoris. Immediate and great 
relief is nearly always afforded, whether the heart-pain be or be not connected with organic car- 
diac disease. So far as experience goes, the cautious use of the remedy is safe, even when 
there is severe organic cardiac disease. In these cases it should always be administered by 
inhalation. Experience has also justified the use of the drug in many spasmodic diseases. 
In asthma the relief is often immediate; in convulsions occurring after labor the nitrite affords 
■quiet, but its employment is dangerous on account of its tendency to produce uterine relax- 
ation and consequent flooding. In spasmodic dysmenorrhcea good may be expected from its 
use; in tetanus it will frequently temporarily arrest the spasm and aid other remedies in ob- 
taining recovery; in strychnine poisoning, in hysterical convulsions, indeed, in almost any con- 
vulsive disorder, much is to be expected from its employment. The convulsive stage of the 
ordinary epileptic paroxysm is so short that the nitrite is usually not available; when, how- 
ever, there is a marked epileptic stasis and the patient passes from one convulsion to another, 
the drug may be used with benefit. In those cases in which there is an aura of sufficient 
length, the epileptic attacks may be arrested by the patient carrying in the pocket pearls of 
the nitrite or a tightly-corked homoeopathic vial containing five or ten drops of the remedy, 
and, as soon as the aura commences, inhaling deeply. 
Amyl nitrite is generally by inhalation, usually in doses of from three to five 
drops, although much larger quantities have been given without bad results. The rule is to 
commence with three drops on a handkerchief held close to the nose, and then gradually to 
increase pro re nata. The handkerchief should always be withdrawn so soon as the face 
flushes or the heart begins to become excited, as the effects always increase for some time, 
even if no more be inhaled. The best method, however, of administering the very volatile 
liquid is by the use of the glass pearls,—small flask-shaped vessels containing 2, 5, or 10 
minims of the nitrite; these are crushed in a handkerchief or towel when wanted for inhala- 
tion, the very thin and friable glass causing no inconvenience. The drug may also be given 
by the mouth, in doses of three to five drops (0T8-0-3 C.c.) on sugar or dissolved in alcohol. 170 
Amylum. 
PART I. 
AMYLUM. U. S., Br. Starch. 
u The fecula of the seed of Zea Mays, Linne (nat. ord. Gramineae).” U. S. “ The starch 
procured from the grains of common wheat, Triticum sativum, Lam.; maize, Zea Mays, Linn.; 
and rice, Oryza sativa, Linn.” Br. 
Amylum Tritici; Corn Starch, Wheat Starch, E.; Fecule (Amidon) de Froment, de Ble, Amidon, Fr.; Stark- 
mehl, Starke, Kraftmehl, Weizenstarke, G.; Amido, It.; Almidon, Sp. 
Starch is a proximate vegetable principle contained in most plants, and especially abundant 
in the various grains, such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, maize, etc.; in other seeds, as peas, 
beans, chestnuts, acorns, etc.; and in numerous rhizomes and tuberous roots, as those of 
the potato (Solarium tuberosum), the sweet potato (Convolvulus batatas), the arrow-root, etc. 
The starch is always in the form of grains, which are contained within the parenchymatous 
cells, and is procured by reducing the substances in which it exists to a state of minute 
division, agitating or washing them with cold water, straining or pouring off the liquid, and 
allowing it to stand till the fine fecula which it holds in suspension has subsided. This, when 
dried, is starch, more or less pure, according to the care taken in conducting the process. 
Electricity has been used to bleach starch and thus raise its commercial value. (Drug. Circ. 
1893, 203.) In the U. S. P. of 1880 the official starch was that derived from wheat, but in 
the revision of 1890 corn starch was substituted. The starch of commerce is sometimes 
obtained from the potato. For a description of the differences, see page 172. 
Starch is white, inodorous and tasteless, pulverulent, opaque, and, as found in commerce, 
is usually in columnar or irregular angular masses which are easily reduced to powder, and 
produces a peculiar sound when pressed between the fingers. Its specific gravity is 1.505 at 
67° F. (Payen.) It is composed of minute microscopic granules, in starch from the same 
plant nearly uniform in size, more or less plainly striate, and having a distinct liilum. In 
the different species of plants the starch granules differ in their characteristic forms. When 
exposed to a moist air, it absorbs a considerable quantity of water, which may be driven off 
by a gentle heat. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and cold water, but unites with boiling 
water, which, on cooling, forms with it a soft semi-transparent paste, or a gelatinous opaline 
solution, according to the proportion of starch employed. The paste placed on folds of blot- 
ting-paper, renewed as they become wet, abandons its water, contracts, and assumes the appear- 
ance of horn. If the proportion of starch be very small, the solution, after slowly depositing 
a very minute quantity of insoluble matter, continues permanent, and upon being evaporated 
yields a semi-transparent mass, which is partially soluble in cold water. The starch has, there- 
fore, been modified by the combined agency of water and heat; nor can it be restored to its 
original condition. Heating with glacial acetic acid to 100° C., or with glycerin to 190° C., will 
also make starch soluble. “ Triturated with cold water it gives neither an acid nor an alkaline 
reaction with litmus-paper. When boiled with water, it yields a white jelly having a bluish 
tinge, which, when cool, acquires a deep blue color on the addition of iodine test-solution. 
When completely incinerated, starch should leave not more than 1 per cent, of ash.” U. S. 
At a temperature of 160° C. (320° F.) for air-dried starch, and 200° C. (392° F.) for starch 
previously dried at 100° C., it is changed into dextrin (British gum), and at 200° C. (392° F.) 
to 215° C. (419° F.) forms a transparent fused mass, which consists exclusively of dextrin 
{Payen) ; at 220° C. (428° F.) to 230° C. (446° F.) it undergoes further change and yields 
yields chiefly pyrodextrin, a brown, tasteless, and odorless compound, readily soluble in water, 
insoluble in alcohol and ether. (Gelis, Ann. Chim. Phys., (3) lii. 388.) 
Composition and Nature. The formula of starch is generally taken as CeH1006, or a 
multiple of this. Musculus, in 1861, showed that by the action of dilute acids or of diastase 
starch is resolved into dextrin, C12H20010, and dextrose, CeH1206, so that its formula, in simplest 
terms, would be (C6H1006)3. Recent determinations of its molecular weight by Brown and 
Morris make it as high as 5(C12H20010)20. Iodine forms with starch, whether in its original 
state or in solution, a blue compound; and the tincture of iodine is the most delicate test of 
its presence. The color varies somewhat according to the proportions employed. When the 
two substances are about equal, the compound is of a beautiful indigo blue; if the iodine be 
in excess, it is blackish blue; if the starch, violet blue. A singular property of starch iodide 
is that its solution becomes colorless if heated to about 93-5° C. (200° F.), and afterwards 
recovers its blue color upon cooling. By boiling, the color is permanently lost, whilst Puchot 
states that certain nitrogenized organic bodies, as albumen, prevent the reaction of iodine on 
(Xm'y-lum.) PART I. 
Amylum. 
171 
starch or destroy it. (iV. R., Nov. 1876.) Alkalies unite with starch, forming soluble com- 
pounds, which are decomposed by acids, the starch being precipitated. It is thrown down 
from its solution by lime water and baryta water, forming insoluble compounds with these 
earths. The solution of lead subacetate precipitates it in combination with the oxide of the 
metal. Starch may be made to unite with tannin by boiling their solutions together; and a 
compound results, which, though retained by the water while hot, is deposited when it cools. 
By long boiling with diluted sulphuric, hydrochloric, or oxalic acid, it is converted into dextrin* 
and glucose or grape sugar. A similar conversion into dextrin and glucose is effected by 
means of a principle called diastase, discovered by MM. Payen and Persoz in the seeds ox 
barley, oats, and wheat, after germination. (See Hordeum.') Strong hydrochloric and nitric 
acids dissolve starch; and the latter, by the aid of heat, converts it into oxalic and malic acids. 
By the action of strong nitric, sulphuric, or crystallizable acetic acid, used with certain pre- 
cautions, the starch is rendered soluble, and may be obtained in this state by separating the 
acid by means of alcohol. (Chem. Gaz., Dec. 1, 1854, p. 450.) By the continued action of 
concentrated sulphuric acid it is decomposed. When it is dissolved in strong nitric acid, and 
precipitated by water, a white powder is thrown down, called xyloidin, C6H9(N02)06 (Bracon- 
not), in which one atom of the hydrogen of the starch is replaced by one group, NOa, fur- 
nished by the nitric acid. Mixed with hot water and exposed to a temperature of 27° C. (80° 
F.), it undergoes chemical changes, which result in the formation of several distinct principles, 
among which are sugar, a gummy substance (perhaps dextrin), and a soluble modification of 
starch. With yeast, starch undergoes the vinous fermentation, being, however, first converted 
into sugar. Mixed with cheese and chalk it is said to yield alcohol without the previous 
saccharine conversion. (Berthelot, Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., xxxii. 260.) All plants which 
contain chlorophyll have the power of using the chemical rays of sunlight in producing from 
inorganic compounds and elements a substance which is organic. There is first formed in the 
centre of the chlorophyll granule a minute speck, which is believed to be starch; this new 
starch granule is incapable of solution, but by conversion into sugar or dextrin is rendered 
soluble, and in this form is carried in the juices of the plant. One of two destinies there 
awaits it. It may be converted into the permanent compound cellulose which constitutes the 
woody tissue, or it may be reconverted to its original form and be deposited in some part of 
the plant. These stores of starch are usually accumulated for future growth, and are especially 
seen in plants which flower in the spring before the leaves are put forth, or which reproduce 
the species without seeding. When the potato is planted by the farmer, the starch is converted 
into a soluble form, passes into the growing “ eye” or bud, and, as cellulose, forms the new 
shoot. Different opinions have been held as to the precise structure of the starch granules. 
The one first adopted is that they consist of a thin exterior coating, and of an interior sub- 
stance ; the former wholly insoluble, the latter soluble in water. The former constitutes, ac- 
cording to M. Payen, only 4 or 5 thousandths of the weight of starch. In relation to the 
interior portion there is not an exact coincidence of opinion. M. Guerin supposed that it 
consisted of two distinct substances, one soluble in cold water, the other soluble at first in boil- 
ing water, but becoming insoluble by evaporation. Thus, when. one part of starch is boiled 
* Dextrin is a substance resembling gum in appearance and properties, but differing from it in not affording 
mucic acid by the action of nitric acid. It is largely dissolved by water, hot or cold, and forms a mucilaginous 
solution, from which it is precipitated by alcohol. Large quantities of dextrin are now made both here and abroad, 
and employed for various purposes in the arts, under the name of artificial gum. It is found in the market usually 
in the form of a yellowish or brilliant white powder, and in small masses or fragments resembling natural gum. 
According to M. Emil Thomas, it may be distinguished from gum arabic by the taste and smell of potato oil which 
it always possesses. It is made by the action either of acids or of diastase on starch, or by heating starch slightly 
moistened with nitric acid to a temperature of from 100° to 140° C. For particulars as to the manufacture, the reader 
is referred to a paper by M. Thomas, republished in A. J. P. (vol. xix. p. 284). Researches of Nagili and Musculus 
seem to show that the change of starch into dextrin takes place in several phases, and they name the several products 
amylodextrin, erythrodextrin, achrofiextrin a and /3. For a fuller account of these products, see Husemann, Pfian- 
zenstoffe, 2d ed., 1882. 
Dextrin, according to Payen, is converted into glucose, through the action of diastase; but the glucose impedes 
the action unless removed; as, however, during the alcoholic fermentation the glucose is consumed, no obstacle pre- 
vents the influence of diastase. Hence dextrin by conversion into sugar may contribute to the alcoholic product. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., i. 363.) 
Adulteration and purification of dextrin.—Commercial dextrin is said to be occasionally very impure. Several 
parcels analyzed by Dr. II. Hayes were found to contain an average of about 45 per cent, of impurities, consisting 
mainly of insoluble matter with sugar and water. He recommends, as the best method of purifying it, to dissolve1 
10 parts of the impure dextrin, with agitation, in 18 parts of distilled water, in a cylindrical vessel; to decant the 
solution when it has become clear on standing, and mix it with 1*5 or 2 per cent, of alcohol of 95 per cent. The 
liquid is then decanted from the doughy precipitate formed, which is dissolved in a little distilled water, and the 
solution spread on glass or porcelain plates to dry, in a warm place. (A. J. P., 1870, p. 327.) 172 
Amylum. 
PART I. 
for fifteen minutes in one hundred parts of water, and the liquid is allowed to stand, a small 
portion, consisting of the broken teguments, is gradually deposited. If the solution be now 
filtered and evaporated, another portion is deposited which cannot afterwards be dissolved. 
When wholly deprived of this portion, and evaporated to dryness, the solution yields the part 
soluble in cold water. According to MM. Payen and Persoz, the interior portion of the glob- 
ules consists only of a single substance, which is converted into the two just mentioned by the 
agency of water; and Thenard is inclined to the same opinion. An appropriate name for the 
interior soluble portion of starch is amidin, which has been adopted by some chemists. Starch, 
in its perfect state, is not affected by cold water, because the exterior insoluble teguments 
prevent the access of the liquid to the interior portion ; but when the pellicle is broken by 
heat, or by mechanical means, the fluid is admitted, and the starch partially dissolved. 
Another view of the structure of the starch granule, founded on microscopic observation, 
was advanced by Schleiden. According to this observer, it consists of concentric layers, all 
of which have the same chemical composition; but the outer layers, having been first formed, 
have more cohesion than the inner, and are consequently of more difficult solubility. The 
rings observed upon the surface of the granules, in some varieties, are merely the edges of 
these layers; and the point or hilum about which the rings are concentrically placed is a 
minute hole, through which probably the substance of the interior layers was introduced. 
{Pharm. Centralb., 1844, p. 401.) 
Mr. J. J. Field thinks he has demonstrated that the granule consists, as at first supposed, 
of an interior matter surrounded by a distinct membranous envelope. Having saturated some 
canna starch with glycerin, and then added a little water, an endosmose of the thinner outer 
liquid took place into the granules, distending them so as to rupture their investing membrane, 
which was distinctly visible, under the microscope, in longitudinal wrinkles. The concentric 
rings he thinks nothing more than folds of the membrane, produced probably by the contrac- 
tion of the granules. (A*. J. Tr., xiv. 253.) 
The tegumentary portion of starch, for which the name of amylin has been proposed, is, 
when entirely freed from the interior soluble matter, wholly insoluble in water even by pro- 
longed boiling, insoluble in alcohol, and said to suffer no change by the action of diastase. 
The acids, however, act upon it as they do upon starch. It is thought to approach nearer in 
properties to lignin than to any other principle. Musculus ( Comptes-Rendus ; Journal Franklin 
Institute, June, 1879) believes that starch may exist in either an amorphous or a crystallizable 
form. In its amorphous state it is soluble in water, capable of being acted on by diastase, 
soluble in diluted mineral acids, but easily rendered insoluble by undergoing modifications. 
In its crystalline condition it can be obtained in isolated crystals, which can be readily dissolved 
in cold water, but when these crystals are united they become less soluble, and then it largely 
has the properties of the amorphous variety. Sulkowsky (.Ber. d. Chem. Ges., xiii. 1395) 
states that starch may be rendered soluble by heating with glycerin to 190° C. (374° F.), and 
pouring whilst hot into water, filtering and adding alcohol to the filtrate, which causes precipi- 
tation of the soluble starch. 
The view that is held in most esteem at the present time is that the granules of starch con- 
sist of two substances, granulose and amylo-cellulose. The latter occurs in largest proportion 
in the outer layers of the granule, and probably so envelops and protects the granule as to 
prevent the action of cold water upon it, the granulose or inner portion being slightly soluble. 
When the granules are ruptured by being triturated with sand, water acts upon them, and the 
liquid will yield a blue color with iodine. The insoluble amylo-cellulose may be obtained pure 
by treating starch paste with extract of malt; it gives then a brownish-yellow color (not a 
blue) with iodine. Granulose is acted on by ptyalin (the ferment from saliva), pepsin, organic 
acids, diluted hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, whilst amylo-cellulose is unaffected. The solid 
starch granules become blue when touched by tincture of iodine, because the liquid penetrates 
through the fissures of the amylo-cellulose to the granulose. 
Varieties. Starch, as obtained from different substances, is somewhat different in its 
characters. Wheat starch, when examined with a microscope, is found to consist of granules 
varying from about of an inch in diameter to a mere point, the smaller being spheroidal, 
the larger rounded and flattened, with the hilum in the centre of the flattened surface, and 
surrounded by concentric rings, which often extend to the edge. The granules are mixed with 
loose integuments, resulting from the process of grinding. This variety of starch has a certain 
degree of hardness and adhesiveness, owing, according to Guibourt, to the escape of a portion of 
the interior substance of the broken granules, which attracts some moisture from the air, and, 173 
PART I. 
Amylum.—Anethi Fructus. 
thus becoming glutinous, acts as a bond between those which remain unbroken. Another 
opinion attributes this peculiar consistence to the retention of a portion of the gluten of the 
wheat flour, which causes the granules to cohere. Under the name of corn starch, a variety 
of fecula obtained from the meal of maize or Indian corn is much used for nutritive purposes 
in the United States. It is now the official starch. The granules of maize starch are very 
small, with a diameter not exceeding, according to Payen, one-sixth of that of the potato, and 
little more than one-half of that of the wheat granules. They have a very distinct hilum 
but no evident concentric striae. Rice starch has extremely minute granules, nearly uniform 
in size, polygonal, without evident hilum or striae. Potato starch is employed in various 
forms, being prepared so as to imitate more costly amylaceous substances, such as arrow-root 
and sago. In its ordinary state it is more pulverulent than is wheat starch, has a somewhat 
glistening appearance, and may be distinguished, with the aid of the microscope, by the size 
of its granules, which are larger than those of any other known fecula except canna, or tous 
les mois* They are exceedingly diversified in size and shape, though their regular form is 
thought to be ovate. The characters of other kinds of fecula will be given under the heads 
of the several official substances of which they constitute the whole or a part. According to 
Chevallier, starch is sometimes adulterated with calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate; and 
the fraud is also practised of saturating it with moisture, of which it will absorb 12 per cent, 
without any obvious change. 
Medical Properties, etc. Starch is nutritive and demulcent, but in its ordinary form 
is seldom administered internally. Powdered and dusted upon the skin, it is sometimes used 
to absorb irritating secretions and prevent excoriation. Dissolved in hot water and allowed to 
cool, it is often employed in enemata, either as a vehicle, or as a demulcent application in irri- 
tated states of the rectum. It may be used as an antidote to iodine. 
ANETHI FRUCTUS. Br. Dill Fruit. 
(A-NE'THI FRUC'TUS.) 
11 The dried fruit of Peucedanum graveolens, Benth. and Hook.” Br. 
Aneth, Fenouil puant, Fr.; Dill, G. 
Gen. Ch. Fruit nearly ovate, compressed, striated. Petals involuted, entire. Willd. 
Anethum graveolens. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1469 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 125, t. 48. Dill is an 
annual plant, three or four feet high, with a long spindle-shaped root; an erect, striated, 
jointed branching stem; and bipinnate or tripinnate, glaucous leaves, which stand on sheath- 
ing footstalks and have linear and pointed leaflets. The flowers are yellow, and in large, flat, 
terminal umbels, destitute of involucre. The plant is a native of Spain, Portugal, and the 
south of France, and is found growing wild in various parts of Africa and Asia. It is culti- 
vated in all the countries of Europe, and has been introduced into our gardens. The seeds, as 
the fruit is commonly called, are the only part used. They are usually rather more than a 
line in length, and less than a line in breadth, of an oval shape, thin, concave on one side, 
convex and striated on the other, of a brown color, and surrounded by a yellowish membra- 
nous expansion. The dorsally compressed mericarps are usually separate and freed from the 
pedicel; each of them is broadly oval, about one-sixth of an inch long, flat, and furnished with 
three sharply keeled dorsal ridges, besides two marginal thin membranous projections or wings. 
* Cann'A (Amylum Cannes ; Tons leg Mois, Amidon de Canne, Fecule dc Tolomane, Fr.; Cannastarke, G.). It is 
somewhat uncertain from what species of Canna the fecula is derived, though it is generally believed to be C. edulis. 
The tubers of Canna achiraa (Gillies), growing in Central and South America, are said to be used as food in Peru and 
Chili (Lindley, Med. and Econom. Bot., p. 50); and a root or rhizome closely resembling turmeric, and used by the 
native Africans at Sierra Leone for dyeing yellow, was found by Dr. Wm, F. Daniell to be the product of a species 
of Canna, believed to be the C. specioea of Roscoe. (P. J. T>\, Nov. 1859, p. 258.) 
Canna edulis is a tuberous plant, with erect, smooth, purplish stems, from four to six feet high, and invested with 
sheathing leaves, which are ovate-oblong, tapering towards each end, smooth, and of a deep glaucous green, with 
purplish edges. The flowers are few, and in compact racemes, of a red and yellow color. The plant is a native of 
the West Indies, and is cultivated in the islands of St. Kitts and Trinidad, and perhaps others. The tubers are first 
rasped, by means of a machine, into a pulp, from which the starch is extracted in the usual manner, by washing 
and straining, and, after the washings have been allowed to stand, so as to deposit the fecula, decanting the clear 
liquid. (Pereira.) Canna starch is in the form of a light, beautifully white powder, of a shining appearance, very 
unlike the ordinary forms of fecula. Its granules are said to be larger than those of any other variety of starch in 
use, being from the 300th to the 200th of an inch in length. Under the microscope they appear ovate or oblong, 
with numerous regular unequally distant rings; and the circular hilum, which is sometimes double, is usually situ- 
ated at the smaller extremity. (Pereira.) This fecula has the ordinary chemical properties of starch, and forms, 
when prepared with boiling water, a nutritious and wholesome food for infants and invalids. It may be prepared 
in the same manner as arroio-root, and is said to form even a stiffer jelly with boiling water. (See Maranta.) PART I. 
174 
Anisum. 
The vittae, or oil-tubes, are six in number, two upon the face and one in each furrow between 
the ridges. The odor is strong and aromatic, but less agreeable than that of fennel seed ; the 
taste, moderately warm and pungent. These properties depend on a volatile oil. (See Oleum 
Anethi.) The bruised seeds impart their virtues to alcohol and to boiling water. 
Medical Properties. Dill seeds have the properties common to the aromatics, but are 
very seldom used in this country. They may be given in powder or infusion. The dose of 
the fruit is from fifteen grains to a drachm (1-3-9 Gm.), of the oil three or four drops 
(0-18-0-24 C.c.). 
ANISUM. U. S. (Br.) Anise. 
(A-NI'SUM.) 
“ The fruit of Pimpinella Anisum, Linne (nat. ord. Umbelliferae).” U. S. “ The dried 
ripe fruit of Pimpinella Anisum. Linn.” Br. 
Anisi Fructus, Br.; Fructus (Semen) Anisi, s. Anisi vulgaris; Aniseed, E.; Anis, Anis vert, Graines d’Anis, Fr.s 
Anissame, Anis, G.; Semi d’Aniso, It.; Simiente de Anis, Sp.; Anison, Ar. 
Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate-oblong. Petals inferior. Stigma nearly globular. Willd. 
Pimpinella anisum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1473; B. and T. 122. This is an annual plant, 
about a foot in height, with an erect, smooth, and branching stem. The leaves are petiolate, 
the lower roundish-cordate, lobed, incised-serrate, the middle pinnate-lobed with cuneate or 
lanceolate lobes, the upper trifid, undivided, linear. The flowers are white, and in terminal 
compound umbels, destitute of involucres. 
The anise plant is a native of Egypt and the Levant, but has been introduced into the south 
of Europe and is cultivated in various parts of that continent. It is also cultivated occasionally 
in the gardens of this country. The fruit is abundantly produced in Malta and Spain; in 
Romagna, in Italy, whence it is largely exported through Leghorn ; and in Central and 
Southern Russia. The Spanish is smaller than the German or French, and is usually preferred ; 
the Russian fruit is very short. It is said also to be extensively cultivated in India and South 
America, although we are not aware that the product ever conies into American commerce. 
It is one of the oldest aromatics, having been spoken of by Theophrastus and cultivated in 
the imperial German farms of Charlemagne. In 1305 Edward I. granted a patent giving the 
right to levy tolls upon it at the Bridge of London for the purpose of repairing the bridge. 
Anise seeds (botanically, fruit) are about a line in length, oval, striated, somewhat downy, 
attached to their footstalks, and of a light greenish-brown color, with a shade of yellow. 
“ About 4 or 5 Mm. long, ovate, compressed at the sides, grayish, finely hairy, and consisting 
of two mericarps, each with a flat face, and five light brownish, filiform ridges, and about 
fifteen thin oil-tubes, which can be seen in a transverse section by the microscope.” U. S. Their 
odor is fragrant, and increased by friction; their taste, warm, sweet, and aromatic. These 
properties, which depend upon a peculiar volatile oil, are imparted sparingly to boiling water, 
freely to alcohol. The volatile oil exists in the envelope of the seeds, and is obtained separate 
by distillation. (See Oleum Anisi.) Their internal substance contains a bland fixed oil. By 
expression, a greenish oil is obtained, which is a mixture of the two. The seeds are sometimes 
adulterated with small fragments of argillaceous earth, which resembles them in color; and 
their aromatic qualities are occasionally impaired by a slight fermentation, which they are apt 
to undergo in the mass, when collected before maturity. When examined by the microscope, 
anise is seen to contain a very great but variable number of small oil-tubes, which are well 
represented in the accompanying figure,—from fifteen to thirty to each 
mericarp. The epidermis is supplied with short, simple hairs, easily 
detached in making a section, and not represented in the cut. 
A case of poisoning is on record from the accidental admixture of 
the fruits of Conium maculatum, which bear some resemblance to those 
of anise, but may be distinguished by their crenate or notched ridges 
and the absence of oil-tubes ; by their mericarps being smooth, grooved 
upon the face, and having crenate or notched ridges with wrinkles be- 
tween them ; and especially by the absence of oil-tubes. The conium 
fruits are, moreover, broader in proportion to their length, and are 
generally separated into half fruits (or single mericarps), while those 
of anise are whole (double mericarps). 
Star aniseed, the Cardamomum Siberiense or Annis de Sibcrie of the seventeenth century 
and the badiane of the French writers, is the product of the Illicium anisatum, and is fully 
described under the heading Illicium. They contain about 4 per cent, of a volatile oil very Anisum.—Anthemis. 
175 
PART i. 
closely resembling that of anise. There are no known chemical differences between these oils, 
although dealers distinguish them by their smell and taste. 
Dr. Ruschenberger, U.S.N., has shown that oil of anise has a remarkable power of deodor- 
izing potassium sulphide ; a drop of the oil having entirely deprived of offensive odor a drachm 
of lard with which five grains of the sulphide had been incorporated. (Am. Jom-n. of Med. 
Sci., N. S., xlviii. 419.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Anise is a grateful aromatic carminative, and is 
supposed to have the property of increasing the secretion of milk. It has been in use from 
the earliest times. In Europe it is much employed in flatulent colic, and as a corrigent of 
griping or unpleasant medicines ; but in this country fennel seed is preferred. Anise may be 
given bruised, or in powder, in the dose of twenty or thirty grains (1-3—1-95 Gm.) or more. 
The infusion is less efficient. The volatile oil may be substituted for the seeds in substance. 
Much use is made of this aromatic for imparting flavors to liquors. 
ANTHEMIS. U. S. (Br.) Anthemis. [Chamomile.] 
(An'tii e-mis.) 
The flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis, Linne (nat. ord. Compositae), collected from cultivated 
plants.” XJ. S. “ The dried expanded flower-heads of Anthemis nobilis, Linn., collected from 
cultivated plants.” Br. 
Anthemidis Flores, Br.; Flores Chamomillae Romanae, P. G.; Roman or English Chamomile, E.; Camomille 
Romaine, Fr.; Romische Kamille, G.; Camomilla Romana, It.; Manzanilla Romana, Sp.; Chamomile Flowers. 
Gen. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down none or a membranaceous margin. Calyx hemi- 
spherical, nearly equal. Florets of the ray more than five. Willd. 
Several species of Anthemis have been employed in medicine. A. nobilis, which is the sub- 
ject of the present article, is by far the most important. A. cotula, or mayweed, was formerly 
recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. A. pyrethrum, which affords the pellitory root, is 
among the official plants. (See Pyrethrum.) A. arvensis, a native of this country and of 
Europe, bears flowers which have an acrid bitter taste and possess medical properties analo- 
gous though much inferior to those of common chamomile. They may be distinguished by 
their want of smell. A. tinctoria is occasionally employed as a tonic and vermifuge in Europe. 
Matricaria suaveolens is said to yield the chamomile of the Indian bazaars. 
Anthemis nobilis. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2180 ; B. and T. 154. This is an herbaceous plant 
with a perennial root. The stems are from six inches to a foot long, round, slender, downy, 
trailing, and divided into branches, which turn upward at their extremities. The leaves are 
bipinnate, the leaflets small, threadlike, somewhat pubescent, acute, and generally divided into 
three segments. The flowers are solitary, with a yellow convex disk, and white rays. The 
calyx is common to all the florets, of a hemispherical form, and composed of several small 
imbricated hairy scales. The receptacle is convex, prominent, and furnished with rigid bristle- 
like paleae. The florets of the ray are numerous, narrow, and terminated with three small 
teeth. The whole herb has a peculiar fragrant odor, and a bitter aromatic taste. 
This plant is a native of Europe, and grows wild in all the temperate parts of that continent. 
It is also largely cultivated for medicinal purposes* In France, Germany, and Italy, it is 
generally known by the name of Roman chamomile. By cultivation the yellow disk florets are 
often converted into the white ray florets. Thus altered, the flowers are said to be double, 
while those which remain unchanged are called single ; but, as the conversion may be more or 
less complete, it generally happens that with each of the varieties there are intermingled some 
flowers of the other kind, or in different stages of the change. The double flowers are gener- 
ally preferred; though, as the sensible properties are found in the greatest degree in the disk, 
the single are the most powerful. It is rather, however, in aromatic flavor than in bitterness 
that the radical florets are surpassed by those of the disk. If not well and quickly dried, the 
flowers lose their beautiful white color, and are less efficient. The flowers which are largest, 
* Mr. Jacob Bell, of Mitcham, in Surrey, England, stated that the plant is usually propagated by dividing the 
root, though the seeds are employed when it is desired to introduce new varieties. Each root will serve as the 
source of thirty or forty plants. They are set in rows a yard apart, at intervals of about eighteen inches. The 
proper period for planting is in March; and the flowers are in perfection in July, but continue to appear through- 
out the season. Extremely wet or extremely dry weather is injurious to the crop. It is more productive in a rather 
heavy loam than either in light sandy soil or in stiff clay. It requires little manure, but attention to weeding is 
necessary. Over-manuring increases the leaves at the expense of the flowers. When gathered, the flowers are 
dried upon canvas trays in a drying-room, artificially warmed, where they remain about a day. The crop varies 
from three to ten hundred-weight per acre. The single flowers are more productive than the double by weight; but, 
as they command a less price, the value of the crop is about the same. (P. J. T., x. 118.) 176 
Anthemis. 
PART I, 
most double, and whitest should be preferred. They are thus described officially. “ Heads 
subglobular, about 2 Cm. broad, consisting of an imbricated involucre, and numerous white, 
strap-shaped, three-toothed florets, and few or no yellow tubular disk florets, inserted upon a 
chaffy, conical, solid receptacle. It has a strong, agreeable odor, and an aromatic, bitter taste.” 
U. S. The seeds yield by expression a fixed oil, which is said to be applied in Europe to various 
economical uses. 
Though not a native of America, chamomile growrs wild in some parts of this country, and 
is occasionally cultivated in our gardens for family use, the whole herb being employed. The 
medicine, as found in commerce, consists chiefly of the double flowers, and is imported from 
Germany and England. From the former country the flowers of Matricaria chamomiUa are 
also occasionally imported, under the name of chamomile. (See Matricaria.') In France, the 
flowers of two other plants are sold in commerce indiscriminately with those of Anthemis no- 
hilis,—viz., those of Pyrethrum parthenium (the Chrysanthemum parthenium of Persoon), or 
feverfew, and those of Anthemis parthenoides, De Cand., or the Matricaria parthenoides, Desf. 
(Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1859, p. 347.) For the peculiar character by which these two flowers 
may be distinguished from the chamomile, see Pyrethrum parthenium in Part II. 
Properties. Chamomile flowers, as usually found in commerce, are large, almost spherical, 
of a dull white color, a fragrant odor, and a warmish, bitter, aromatic taste. When fresh, 
their smell is much stronger, and was fancied by the ancients to resemble that of the apple. 
Hence the name chamsemelum (jrayai, on the ground, and yrjhov, an apple) ; and it is somewhat 
singular that the Spanish name manzanilla (a little apple) has a similar derivation. The 
flowers impart their odor and taste to water and alcohol, the former of which, at the boiling 
temperature, extracts only one-fourth of their weight. The investigations of several chemists 
performed in 1878-1879, in Fittig’s laboratory at Strassburg, have shown the oil of chamo- 
mile to contain the following constituents:—a fraction distilling at 147°-148° C. (296°—298° 
F.) consisting of isobutylic ethers and hydrocarbons; isobutyl angelicate at 177° C. (350-5° F.) ; 
isoamyl angelicate at 200°—201° C. (392°—394° F.) ; isoamyl tiglinate at 204°—205° C. (399°— 
401° F.) (both of these compound ethers answering to the formula C6II11,C6H702). In the 
residual portion, hexylic alcohol, CeH13,OH, and an alcohol of the formula C10I1160 are met 
with, both probably occurring in the form of compound ethers. By decomposing the angeli- 
cates and the tiglinate above mentioned with potash, angelic acid, C5H802, and tiglmic acid (or 
methyl-crotonic) isomeric with the former are obtained to the extent of about 30 or more per 
cent, of the crude oil. In the oil examined by Fittig, angelic acid prevailed; from another 
specimen E. Schmitt (1879) obtained but very little of it, tiglinic acid prevailing. Umney 
states that pure oil of chamomile has the sp. gr. 0-905 to 0-912 at 15° C. (P. J. Tr., 1895, p. 949). 
For an examination of the oil from Anthemis cotula, which closely resembles that from A. nobilis, 
see A. J. P., 1885, pp. 376, 381. E. Amerman (A. J. P., 1889, p. 69) obtained a wax which was 
nearly white, bitter, and crystalline, melting at about 130° C., and a crystalline substance dis- 
tinctly acid and of a glucosidal nature. There was no evidence of the presence of an alkaloid. 
Fliickiger performed some experiments in order to isolate the bitter principle, but did not 
succeed in obtaining it in a satisfactory state of purity; it formed a brown extract, apparently 
a glucoside. He also confirms the absence of alkaloid. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Chamomile is a mild tonic, in small doses acceptable 
and corroborant to the stomach, in large doses capable of acting as an emetic. In cold infusion 
it is often advantageously used in cases of enfeebled digestion, whether occurring as an original 
affection or consequent upon some acute disease. It is especially applicable to that condition 
of general debility, with languid appetite, which often attends convalescence from idiopathic 
fevers. As a febrifuge it formerly enjoyed much reputation, and was employed in intermittents 
and remittents ; but we have remedies so much more efficient that it is now seldom used in this 
capacity. The tepid infusion is very often given to promote the operation of emetics, or to 
assist the stomach in relieving itself when oppressed by its contents. The flowers are some- 
times applied externally in the form of fomentation, in cases of irritation or inflammation of 
the abdominal viscera, and as a gentle incitant in flabby, ill-conditioned ulcers. The dose of 
the powder as a tonic is from half a drachm to a drachm (1-95-3-9 6m.) three or four times 
a day, or more frequently. The infusion is usually preferred. The decoction and extract 
cannot exert the full influence of the medicine, as the volatile oil is driven off. PART I. 
Antimonium. 
177 
Sb; 120. (IN-TI-MO'NI-UM.) Sb; 120. 
ANTIMONIUM. Antimony. 
Stibium, Lat.; Antimoine, Fr.; Antimon, Spiessglanz Metall, G.; Antimonia, Sp., It. 
Metallic antimony, sometimes called regulus of antimony, is not official in the British or 
United States Pharmacopoeias; but, as it enters into the composition of a number of impor- 
tant pharmaceutical preparations, we have thought it proper to notice it under a distinct head. 
Antimony exists in nature—1, uncombined; 2, as an oxide; 3, as antimonous sulphide 
(tersulphide), and 4, as an oxysulphide. It is found principally in France and Germany, but 
has been discovered also in the provinces of New Brunswick and Ontario, Canada, the latter 
locality yielding a large portion of that consumed in the United States. 
Extraction. All the antimony of commerce is extracted from the native sulphide. The 
ore is first separated from its gangue by fusion. It is then reduced to powder, and placed on 
the floor of a reverberatory furnace, where it is subjected to a gentle heat, being constantly 
stirred with an iron rake. This process of roasting is known to be completed when the matter 
is brought to the state of a dull grayish-white powder, called antimony ash. By this treat- 
ment the antimony is partly teroxidized, and partly converted into antimonious acid; while 
nearly all the sulphur is dissipated in the form of sulphurous acid gas; a portion of tersul- 
phide, however, remains undecomposed. The matter is then mixed with charcoal impregnated 
with a concentrated solution of sodium carbonate, and the mixture heated in crucibles, in a 
melting-furnace. The charcoal reduces the antimony teroxide, while the alkali unites with the 
undecomposed tersulphide, and forms melted scoriae, which cover the reduced metal and 
diminish its loss from volatilization. Antimony is more generally obtained by the reduction 
of the native iron sulphide. The reduction of the antimony sulphide by iron takes place at a 
red heat, but as iron sulphide needs a higher temperature for its fusion, and its specific gravity 
is not much less than that of the metallic antimony, the mass must be heated to a white heat 
to effect a perfect separation, and this occasions a loss of the antimony. In order to avoid 
this, sodium sulphide is added in practice, which unites with the iron sulphide to form a more 
fusifde and lighter slag of double sodium and iron sulphide. To 100 parts of antimony sul- 
phide are taken 42 parts of iron, 10 parts of anhydrous sodium sulphate, and 2£ to 3£ parts 
of carbon. 
The purest commercial antimony is not entirely free from foreign metals, chiefly iron, lead, 
and arsenic. M. Lefort purifies it for the purposes of pharmacy by gradually adding twenty- 
five parts of the metal, in fine powder, to fifty parts of nitric acid, by the action of which 
the antimony is precipitated as antimonious acid, while the foreign metals remain in solution. 
The precipitate is then thoroughly washed with water containing a hundredth part of nitric 
acid, drained completely, mixed with three or four parts of powdered sugar, and reduced to 
the metallic state by being heated to redness in a Hessian crucible, \journ. de Pharm., 
Aout, 1855.) Antimony is imported into the United States from France, packed in casks. It 
is also shipped from Trieste, from Holland, and occasionally from Cadiz. The Spanish anti- 
mony is generally in the form of pigs; the French, in circular cakes about ten inches in 
diameter, flat on one side and convex on the other; the English, in cones. Both native anti- 
mony and stibnite, or antimonous sulphide, are also brought from Southham, Canada. The 
production of metallic antimony in the United States in 1896 was 1,226,000 lbs., valued at 
$84,717, and in 1897, 1,500,000 lbs., valued at $107,250. In this latter year the ore used 
was about two-thirds American ore and the remainder Canadian ore. The importations of 
ore and regulus (or metal) during the same years were 4,087,425 lbs. and 4,464,608 lbs. 
respectively. 
Properties, etc. The time of the discovery of antimony is not known; but Basil Valen- 
tine was the first to describe the method of obtaining it, in his work entitled Currus Triumpha- 
lis Antimonii, published the end of the fifteenth century. It is a brittle, brilliant 
metal, ordinarily of a lamellated texture, of a silver-white color when pure, but bluish white 
as it occurs in commerce. Its atomic weight is 120 (or, according to some authorities, 122), 
symbol Sb, sp. gr. 6-7, and fusing point 425° C. (797° F.), or about a red heat. On cooling, 
after fusion, antimony assumes an appearance on the surface bearing some resemblance to a 
fern leaf. When strongly heated, it burns with the emission of white vapors, consisting of 
teroxide, formerly called argentine flowers of antimony. A small portion being fused and 
then thrown upon a flat surface divides into numerous globules, which burn rapidly as they 
move along. It forms three combinations with oxygen, antimony trioxide (antimonous oxide), 
3baOg, antimony tetroxide, Sba04 (by some considered to be an antimonate of the tetroxide of 178 
Antimonium.—Antimonii et Potassii Tartras. 
PART I. 
antimony, Sb408), and antimony pentoxide (antimonic oxide), Sb206. The first of these unites 
with water to form antimonous acid, the salts of which are called antimonites, the third unites 
with water to form antimonic acid, the salts of which are called antimonates. The trioxide 
will be noticed under the head of Antimonii Oxidum. The tetroxide is a white powder, 
yellowish when hot, and difficultly soluble in acids. It forms when either of the other two 
oxides is strongly heated in air. Antimony ash, described above, is also an impure tetroxide. 
Antimonic acid is a lemon-colored powder, which may be prepared by oxidizing the metal by 
digestion in nitric acid, and then driving off the excess of the acid by a heat not exceeding 
315-5° C. (600° F.). When exposed to a red heat, it parts with oxygen, and is converted into 
the antimony tetroxide just described. This, though medicinally inert, frequently forms a 
large proportion of the preparation called antimonial powder. (See Pulvis Antimonialis.') 
The antimonial preparations are active in proportion to their solubility in the gastric juice. 
According to Mialhe, those antimonials which contain the hydrated teroxide, or are easily con- 
verted into it, are most active. Hence metallic antimony in fine powder, and tartar emetic, 
act with energy. The teroxide is much more active when prepared in the moist than in the 
dry way. According to S6rullas, all the antimonial preparations except tartar emetic and 
butter of antimony (or terchloride) contain a minute proportion of arsenic. Tartar emetic is an 
exception, because it separates entirely, in the act of crystallizing, from any minute portion of 
arsenic in the materials from which it is prepared, the poisonous metal being left behind in 
the mother-water of the process. 
ANTIMONII ET POTASSII TARTRAS. U. S. (Br.) Antimony and Potas- 
sium Tartrate. [Tartar Emetic ; Tartarated Antimony.] 
2KSbO C4 Hi Oe. H2 O ; 662*42. 2KSbO C4 H4 06. H2 0; 664. 
“ Tartarated Antimony, [K(Sb0)C4H406]2H20, is prepared by setting aside a mixture of 
antimonious oxide and acid potassium tartrate, made into a paste with a little water, until 
combination has taken place, and then purifying by crystallization from water.” Br. 
Antimonium Tartaratum, Br.; Antimonium Tartarizatum, Tartarized Antimony, Tartrated Antimony; 
Potassio-Tartrate of Antimony, Antimonii Potassio-Tartras, Tartarus Stibiatus, P. G.; Tartarus Emeticus, Stibio- 
Kali Tartaricum ; Tartrate d’Antimoine et de Potasse, Emdtique, Tartre stibi6, Fr.; Brechweinstein, G. 
A process for Tartar Emetic not being given in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, that of 1870 is 
inserted below.* This compound is a normal tartrate. Tartaric acid is dibasic. In acid 
potassium tartrate (cream of tartar) one of the two hydrogen atoms is replaced by potassium, 
while the other is unreplaced; in neutral potassium tartrate (soluble tartar) both are replaced 
by potassium; in tartar emetic one is replaced by potassium, while the other is replaced by 
the group (SbO) antimonyl, which is a univalent group, exactly replacing one hydrogen atom. 
In the preparation of tartar emetic the cream of tartar should not be in excess; as in that 
case it is apt to crystallize, upon cooling, with the tartar emetic. To avoid such a result it is 
better to have a slight excess of antimonial oxide. No rule is applicable to the determination 
of the proper proportion of water, except that it should be sufficient to dissolve the tartar 
emetic formed. The hot filtration, directed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870, may be con- 
veniently performed by a jacketed funnel filled with hot water. In all cases the salt should 
be obtained in well-defined crystals, unmixed with those of cream of tartar, as the best index 
of its purity. The practice of some manufacturing chemists of boiling the filtered liquor to 
dryness, whereby an impure mass is obtained, consisting in part only of the antimonial salt, is 
very reprehensible.f 
It is not easy to decide as to the relative eligibility of the different forms of antimonial 
oxide used for preparing tartar emetic. The preference, however, was given to the oxychloride 
(powder of Algarotli) by Berzelius; and M. Henry, an eminent pharmaceutist of Paris, after 
a careful comparison of the different processes, declared also in its favor; his process will be 
found in detail in the U. S. D., 17th ed., p. 175. 
(Xn-ti-mo'ni-i £t po-tXs'si-i tab'tbXs.) 
* “ Take of Oxide of Antimony, in very fine powder, two troyounces; Bitartrate of Potassium, in very fine 
powder, two troyounces and a half; Distilled Water eighteen fluidounces. To the Water, heated to the boiling point 
in a glass vessel, add the powders, previously mixed, and boil for an hour ; then filter the liquid while hot, and set 
it aside that crystals may form. Lastly, dry the crystals, and keep them in a well-stopped bottle. By further 
evaporation the mother-water may be made to yield more crystals, which should be purified by a second crystallisa- 
tion.” U. S. 1870. 
f For still another method of preparing tartar emetic, which we omit from want of space, see Jonrn. de Pharm., 
4e s6r., xi. 404. TART I. 
Antimonii et Potassii Tartrcis. 
179 
Tartar emetic is not usually prepared by the apothecary, but made on a large scale by the 
manufacturing chemist. Different processes are pursued in different manufactories ; and it is 
not material what plan is adopted, provided the crystals of the antimonial salt be carefully 
purified. In an extensive manufactory in London, antimony ash is employed for boiling with 
the cream of tartar, and it is stated to form the cheapest material for making tartar emetic. 
(Pereira's Mat. Med.) Mohr prefers the use of a moist oxide, prepared by adding gradually an 
intimate mixture of one part, each, of antimony tersulphide and potassium nitrate to a boiling 
mixture of one part of sulphuric acid and two of water. The liquid is boiled down nearly to 
dryness and allowed to cool. The grayish-white mass thus formed is then washed thoroughly 
with water. The details of this process are given by Soubeiran, by whom it is praised, in the 
Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iii. 327.* 
Properties, etc. It is in the form of “ colorless, transparent crystals of the rhombic 
system, becoming opaque and white on exposure to air; or a white, granular powder, without 
odor, and having a sweet, afterwards disagreeable, metallic taste. Soluble in 17 parts of water, 
at 15° C. (59° F.), and in three parts of boiling water, but insoluble in alcohol, which pre- 
cipitates it from its aqueous solution in the form of a crystalline powder. When heated to 
110° C. (230° F.), the salt loses its water of crystallization (2’71 per cent.). When heated to 
redness, it chars, emits an odor resembling that of burning sugar, and leaves a blackened resi- 
due having an alkaline reaction. The aqueous solution of the salt possesses a slightly acid 
reaction, and yields, with hydrochloric acid, a white precipitate soluble in an excess of the acid ; 
but no precipitate occurs if tartaric acid had previously been added.” U. S. Antimony and 
potassium tartrate was discovered in 1631 by Adrian de Mynsicht. When prepared from the 
oxychloride it crystallizes in tetrahedrons. As it occurs in commerce, it is often in the form 
of a white powder, resulting from the pulverization of the crystals. They are insoluble in 
alcohol, but dissolve in proof spirit or wine.t (See Vinum Antimonii.') Its aqueous solution 
slightly reddens litmus, and undergoes decomposition by keeping. If one-fifth of its bulk of 
alcohol be added to the water, the decomposition is prevented. It is incompatible with acids, 
alkalies and their carbonates, some of the earths and metals, calcium chloride, and lead acetate 
and subacetate. It is incompatible also with astringent infusions and decoctions, as of rhu- 
barb, cinchona, catechu, galls, etc.; but these substances, unless galls be an exception, do not 
render it inert, though they lessen its activity to a greater or less extent. 
Characteristics and Tests of Purity. “ In a solution of the salt, acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen sulphide test-solution produces an orange-red precipitate. The 
aqueous solution, even when largely diluted, at once becomes permanently turbid on the addi- 
tion of a small quantity of potassium carbonate or calcium hydrate test-solution. A 1-per 
cent, aqueous solution of the salt, acidulated with acetic acid, should not be affected by the 
addition of a few drops of barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate), silver nitrate 
test-solution (chloride), ammonium oxalate test-solution (calcium), or potassium ferrocyanide 
test-solution (iron and other metals). On adding sodium carbonate test-solution to crushed 
crystals of the salt, effervescence should not ensue (absence of potassium bitartrate). If 1 
G-m. of the salt be dissolved, with the aid of heat, in hydrochloric acid, and to this solution 
1 C.c. of stannous chloride test-solution be added (see List of Reagents, Bettendorff’s Test for 
Arsenic), no turbidity or coloration should ensue within one hour (limit of arsenic). If 0.331 
Gm. of the crystallized salt, or 0-322 Gm. of the salt dried at 110° C. (230° F.), be dissolved 
in 10 C.c. of water, and about 20 C.c. of a cold, saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate and 
a little starch test-solution added, it should require not less than 20 C.c. of iodine decinormal 
volumetric solution to produce a permanent blue color (corresponding to 100 per cent, of the 
pure salt).” U. S. “ Each gramme dissolved in water with 2 or 3 grammes of sodium bicar- 
bonate should discharge the color of not less than 60-2 nor more than 60*7 cubic centimetres of 
the volumetric solution of iodine Quickly introduced from a burette. It should yield no charac- 
teristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, iron, calcium, sodium, ammonium, 
chlorides, or sulphates. It should not effervesce with solution of sodium bicarbonate (absence 
of acid potassium tartrate). 1-66 grammes should dissolve slowly but without residue in 25 
* Antimony Tartrate (Sb0)06,CiH5. Yuntz (Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 641) communicates the following process 
for this salt. An excess of antimony oxide is boiled with solution of tartaric acid, the clear solution evaporated to a 
syrupy consistence, allowed to cool, and the crystalline precipitate which forms washed with absolute alcohol to free 
t from any excess of tartaric acid. 
f Alcohol precipitates it from its aqueous solution, and Mr. T. S. Wiegand proposes as a method of obtaining it 
n fine powder, to boil an ounce in four times its weight of water, and to pour the solution into a pint and a half of 
15-per-eent. alcohol. (A. J. P., 1858, p. 407.) Antimonii et Potassii Tartras. 
PART I. 
180 
cubic centimetres of water at 60° F. (155° C.).” Br. Tartar emetic, when pure, exhibits its- 
appropriate crystalline form. A crystal or two, dropped into a solution of hydrogen sulphide,, 
will be covered with an orange-colored deposit of antimony tersulphide. Entire solubility iu 
water is not a character belonging exclusively to the pure salt, for, according to the late Mr. 
Hennell, tartar emetic may contain 10 per cent, of uncombined cream of tartar and yet be 
wholly soluble in the proper proportion of water. Hennell’s method of detecting uncombined 
bitartrate is to add a few drops of a solution of sodium carbonate to a boiling solution of the 
antimonial salt. If the precipitate formed be not redissolved, no bitartrate is present. 
The impurities found in tartar emetic are uncombined cream of tartar from faulty prepara- 
tion or fraudulent admixture, calcium tartrate, iron, sulphates, and chlorides. The mode of 
detecting cream of tartar has been indicated above. Calcium tartrate is derived from the 
cream of tartar, which always contains this impurity. It is apt to form on the surface of the 
crystals of tartar emetic in crystalline tufts, which are easily brushed off. Iron is sometimes 
present, especially when the antimonial salt has been prepared from glass of antimony. It is 
detected by a blue color being immediately produced by potassium ferrocyanide, added after a 
little acetic acid. If the blue color be slowly produced, it may arise from reactions on the iron 
of the ferrocyanide itself. If much iron be present, the solution of the tartar emetic will be 
yellow instead of colorless. According to Serullas, tartar emetic, except when well crystallized, 
and all the other antimonial preparations usually contain a minute proportion of arsenic, 
derived from the native antimony tersulphide, which almost always contains this dangerous 
metal. Subsequently, however, Mr. Thos. Williams (P. J. Tr., July, 1874, p. 63) examined a 
number of samples of various antimonial preparations and found them remarkably free from 
arsenic. Tartar emetic should always be bought by the apothecary in good crystals, in which 
state the salt is pure, or very nearly so, and entirely free from arsenic. Its powder is perfectly 
white; and, when it is yellowish white, iron is probably present. A. H. Jackson found some 
samples of commercial tartar emetic to contain from 40 to 70 per cent, of potassium sulphate. 
( Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1885, p. 459.) 
It has been already stated in general terms that tartar emetic in solution is incompatible 
with acids and alkalies, and with some of the earths; but this salt is so important that some 
details in regard to the effects of particular reagents, included under these titles, seem to be 
necessary. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, added to a solution of the antimonial salt, not too 
dilute, throw down a white precipitate of antimony terchloride or subsulphate, mixed with cream 
of tartar, which is redissolved by an excess of the precipitant. Nitric acid throws down a sub- 
nitrate, which is taken up by an excess of acid. When caustic potassa is added to a tolerably 
concentrated solution, it produces at first no effect, then a precipitate of teroxide, and after- 
wards the solution of this precipitate, if the addition of the alkali be continued. Lime water 
acts in a weaker solution, and throws down a white precipitate, consisting of the mixed calcium 
and antimony tartrates. Potassium carbonate affects still weaker solutions, throwing down a 
white precipitate of teroxide; but this test does not act in solutions containing less than a 
quarter of a grain to the fluidounce. Ammonia, both pure and carbonated, precipitates a 
solution of tartar emetic, throwing down the pure teroxide. To these reagents may be added 
infusion of galls, which, when fresh and strong, causes a dirty-yellowish-white precipitate of 
antimony tannate. 
Medical Properties and Uses. When tartar emetic is given in minute doses to the- 
healthy man (gr. y or 0-005 Gin.) it produces only a slight lessening of the force of the 
pulse and a tendency to increased secretion from the skin. After somewhat larger amounts 
these symptoms are more pronounced, and have nausea added to them. If a grain be ingested,, 
the nausea and vomiting will be severe and persistent, and accompanied by marked prostra- 
tion, both of the circulation and of the muscular strength. Symptoms of acute poisoning 
by the drug are an austere metallic taste; excessive nausea; copious vomiting; frequent hic- 
cough ; burning pain in the stomach; colic; frequent stools and tenesmus; fainting; small, 
contracted, and accelerated pulse; coldness of the skin, and even of the internal organs; diffi- 
cult and irregular respiration ; cutaneous anaesthesia ; loss of sense; convulsive movements; 
very painful cramps in the legs; prostration, and death. Ten grains is the smallest dose 
reported to have proved fatal. In the lower animals antimony causes symptoms similar to 
those which it produces in man. It has been experimentally proved that the fall of the 
arterial pressure is produced, at least iu part, by a direct action upon the heart. The loss of 
muscular power, of reflex activity, and of sensibility is believed to be due to depression of 
the spinal centres, and the disturbance of respiration to a direct influence upon the qerve- PART I. 
Antimonii et Potassii Tartras. 
181 
centres which preside over that function. The purging and vomiting are connected with an 
effort at elimination, the poison escaping through the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane, as 
well as through the kidneys. After death from antimony, fatty degeneration of the liver, 
kidneys, and other organs has been found, indicating that the poison has a powerful influence 
upon nutrition. It i$ evident that in small doses tartar emetic is powerfully depressant to the 
circulation and stimulant to the secretion of the skin. It has been very largely used as a 
sedative, antiphlogistic, diaphoretic, and expectorant. It is, however, at present much less 
frequently administered than formerly; in small doses (gr. y to 4, or 0-005 to 0-008 Gm.), 
mostly associated with saline, alkaline, or diaphoretic remedies, and assisted by copious dilu- 
tion, it is still resorted to in febrile complaints, for the purpose of producing perspiration, which 
is often freely induced, especially if the remedy gives rise to nausea. It also proves useful, 
on many occasions, in the first stages of bronchitis; and with a view to its action in this way, 
it is conjoined with expectorant remedies. In full doses it acts as an emetic, and is character- 
ized by certainty, strength, and permanency of operation. It remains longer in the stomach 
than ipecacuanha, produces more frequent and longer-continued efforts to vomit, and exerts a 
more powerful impression on the system. The nausea and attendant prostration are often very 
considerable. Its employment is contra-indicated by debility or gastro-intestinal irritability, 
and it is very badly borne by children. 
The so-called contra-stimulant use of large doses of antimony originated with Dr. Rasori, 
professor of clinical medicine at Milan, who published his views in 1800, but has gone entirely 
out of vogue. The principal diseases in which it was practised were pneumonia, pleurisy, 
bronchitis, and acute rheumatism. The medicine was directed in doses varying from a grain to 
two grains (0-064 to 0-129 Gm.) or more every two hours, dissolved in a small quantity of 
water ; the patient being restricted in the use of drinks whilst under its operation. It is stated 
that when the remedy is thus given in diseases of high action it seldom produces vomiting, 
an effect which the author of the practice wished to avoid. The power of the system to bear 
large doses of tartar emetic during the existence of acute diseases was considered by Ilasori 
to depend upon the coexisting morbid excitement, and the capability of bearing them was 
expressed by the term tolerance. 
Externally, tartar emetic is employed as a counter-irritant, mixed with lard, or cerate, or in 
the form of a plaster. It causes, after a longer or shorter interval, a burning sensation, accom- 
panied by a peculiar and painful pustular eruption. This mode of producing counter-irritation 
is serviceable when a very powerful and persistent effect is desirable. Care must be taken 
that the pustular inflammation does not proceed too far; deep and very painful ulcerations, 
difficult to heal, may be produced. 
Tartar emetic is generally given in solution, and in an amount which varies with the object 
in view in its administration. Its dose as an alterative is from the thirty-second to the six- 
teenth of a grain (0-002-0-004 Gm.) ; as a diaphoretic or expectorant, from the twelfth to the 
sixth of a grain (0-005—0-01 Gm.) ; and as a nauseating sudorific, from a sixth to a quarter 
of a grain (0-01-0-016 Gm.) ; repeated, according to circumstances, every hour, two, or four 
hours; as an emetic half a grain (0-03 Gm.), repeated every twenty minutes till it vomits; 
the operation being aided by warm water or chamomile tea. 
Poisoning. The general symptoms of acute tartar emetic poisoning have been sufficiently 
described. In rare cases vomiting and purging do not take place; and when they are absent, 
the other symptoms are aggravated. Sometimes a pustular eruption is produced, like that 
caused by the external application of the antimonial. 
- When given in repeated small doses, tartar emetic produces both in man and in the lower 
animals a chronic poisoning, in which the chief symptoms are nausea, vomiting, watery 
purging, often followed by constipation, failing circulation, and a general asthenia, deepening 
into death from exhaustion. After death from antimonial preparations, decided evidences of 
gastro-intestinal irritation are apt to be present, but they have been in some cases wanting. The 
blood is often markedly fluid. Intense venous congestion, especially of the lungs, is usually 
present, and in some cases pulmonary apoplexy, atelectasis, or other structural lesion of the 
lungs has been found. A wide-spread fatty degeneration has been noted as constant in 
chronic poisoning in animals, and probably occurs also in man. 
The treatment of tartar emetic poisoning consists, first, in washing out the stomach with a 
solution of tannic acid ; second, in meeting the symptoms as they arise, especially by the use 
of opiates, which should be administered hypodermically and by rectal suppositories; external 
warmth, stimulants, etc., should be used pro re nata. In all cases of suspected poisoning, the 182 
Antimonii et Potassii Tartras.—Antimonii Oxidum. 
PART I. 
vomit, the passages from the bowels, and especially the urine, should be saved. The metal has 
been found in all the tissues of the body, but in the experiments of Dr. B. W. Richardson it 
was most abundant in the liver. 
In examining the contents of the stomach or intestines for tartar emetic, they should be 
digested in water acidulated with hydrochloric and tartaric acids. The former acid will serve 
to coagulate organic matter; the latter to give complete solubility to the antimony. The solu- 
tion obtained, after having been filtered, should be subjected to a stream of hydrogen sulphide, 
which, if tartar emetic be present, will throw down the orange-red antimony tersulphide, dis- 
tinguished from arsenic tersulphide and all other precipitates by forming with hot hydrochloric 
acid a solution, from which a white curdy precipitate of antimony oxychloride (powder of 
Algaroth) is thrown down upon the addition of water. Hydrogen sulphide is by far the most 
delicate test for tartar emetic. 
The mode of extracting the antimony from the solid tissues, recommended by Orfila, is to 
carbonize the dried viscera with pure concentrated nitric acid in a porcelain capsule, to boil the 
charred mass obtained for half an hour with hydrochloric acid, assisted with a little nitric 
acid, to filter the liquor, and introduce it into Marsh’s apparatus. Hydrogen antimonide will 
be formed, which, being inflamed, will deposit the antimony on a cold surface of porcelain 
as a black stain, distinguishable from the similar stain produced by arsenic by its slighter vola- 
tility, by its forming with hot hydrochloric acid a solution which affords a white precipitate of 
antimony oxychloride when added to water, by its insolubility in solution of bleaching powder or 
chlorinated soda, and by its solubility in solution of stannous chloride. (See Acidum Arsenosum.) 
Reinsch’s process is a good one for separating antimony from the tissues, and was first used 
for that purpose by Dr. Alfred Taylor, of London. The tissues are boiled in hydrochloric acid, 
and a bright slip of copper is immersed in the hot solution. The metallic film deposited on 
the copper must be proved to be antimony. This is done by Dr. Odling by first boiling the 
coated copper in a solution of potassium permanganate, with a little excess of potassa, for a 
few minutes, whereby the antimony becomes oxidized and dissolved, and then passing hydrogen 
sulphide through the filtered and acidulated solution. The characteristic orange-red precipi- 
tate of antimony tersulphide is produced, which may be tested for antimony as above men- 
tioned. Mr. H. H. Watson has simplified Dr. Odling’s process by dispensing with the use of 
the potassium permanganate. He subjects the coated copper slip, in a tube, to a boiling very 
dilute solution of caustic potassa, the metal being alternately drawn out of and immersed in 
the solution, by the aid of a copper wire, until the whole of the coating is oxidized and dis- 
solved. The solution is then treated as directed by Dr. Odling. (Med. Times and Gaz., July, 
1857, p. 613.) Hydrogen antimonide (evolved either by galvanic processes or from zinc and 
sulphuric acid), when passed over sulphur, is decomposed, slowly in diffused daylight, very 
rapidly in sunlight, antimony sulphide forming, with liberation of hydrogen sulphide. The 
orange-red sulphide can be freed from excess of sulphur by exhaustion with carbon disulphide. 
(Jones, Journ. Chem. Soc., i., 1876.) 
ANTIMONII OXIDUM. U. S., Br. Antimony Oxide. [Antimony Trioxide.] 
Sb203; 287*08. (XN-TI-MO'NI-i 5x'I-PUM.) Sb203; 288. 
“ Antimonious Oxide, Sb4Oe, may be prepared by pouring solution of antimonious chloride 
into water, and decomposing the precipitated antimony oxychloride with sodium carbonate." Br. 
Oxide of Antimony; Stibium Oxydatum, Oxydum Antimonicum s. Stibicum; Oxyde d’Antimoine, Fr.; Anti- 
monoxyd, G. 
A process for this salt is no longer official in the U. S. P. 1890. Below is that of the 
Pharm. 1870.* 
♦“Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, in very fine powder, four troyounces; Muriatic Acid eighteen troyounces ; 
Nitric Acid a troyounce and, one hundred and twenty grains ; Water of Ammonia a fluidounce and a half; Water, 
Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Introduce the Sulphuret into a flask, of the capacity of two pints, and, 
having added the Muriatic Acid, digest, by means of a sand-bath, until effervescence ceases. Then, having removed 
the flask from the sand-bath, add the Nitric Acid gradually; and, when nitrous acid vapors cease to be given off, 
and the liquid has grown cold, add to it half a pint of Water, and filter. Pour the filtered liquid gradually into 
twelve pints of Water, constantly stirring, and allow the precipitate to subside. Decant the supernatant liquid, and 
wash the precipitate twice by decantation, using, each time, eight pints of Water. Then transfer it to a muslin 
filter to drain, and, after the draining is completed, wash it with Water until the washings cease to have an acid 
reaction. Next introduce it into a suitable vessel, and subject it to the action of the Water of Ammonia for two 
hours; at the end of which time transfer it to a moistened muslin filter, and wash it with Distilled Water as long as 
the washings produce a precipitate with nitrate of silver. Lastly, dry the precipitate upon bibulous paper with the 
aid of a gentle heat.” U. S. 1870. PART I. 
Antimonii Oxidum. 
183 
When antimony tersulphide is digested with hydrochloric acid, a chemical reaction takes place 
as follows: SbaS3 -j- 6HC1 = (SbCl3)2 -|- (H2S)3; the hydrogen of the acid uniting with the 
sulphur of the antimonial, and escaping as hydrogen sulphide, while the chlorine and antimony 
combine to form antimony terchloride, which is held in solution. The effect of the nitric acid 
is supposed to be to render the oxide whiter, by decomposing any remaining hydrogen sulphide, 
and thus preventing it from contaminating the product. Though the result thus far is an 
aqueous solution of the terchloride, this cannot be diluted beyond a certain degree without de- 
composition. Hence, if largely diluted, as when poured into an excess of water, decomposition 
takes place, and a white powder is precipitated, formerly called powder of Algaroth, which is 
mainly an oxychloride. The decomposition of the powder, however, is not uniform, as it con- 
tains more teroxide the greater the proportion of water used in the decomposition. The pure 
oxychloride, SbOCl, is formed when the proportion of 4 mols. of water to 1 mol. of antimony 
chloride exists, but with a relatively larger proportion of water the average composition of the 
powder is Sb406Cl2, which may be considered as made up of (SbOCl)„ -f Sb203. The oxy- 
chloride is first washed with abundance of water to separate adhering hydrochloric acid, and 
then acted upon by a solution of alkali (Ammonia, U. S., Carbonate of Sodium, Br.) to 
decompose the oxychloride, with the effect of adding to the amount of teroxide; after which 
the teroxide requires only to be washed with water in order to render it pure. The last wash- 
ing separates the ammonium or sodium chloride resulting from the decomposition of the oxy- 
chloride ; and the water of this washing is tested, in both formulas, by silver nitrate, until the 
presence of chlorine ceases to be indicated. 
Properties. Antimony teroxide is a heavy, grayish-white powder, permanent in the air, 
almost insoluble in water, insoluble in alcohol and nitric acid, readily soluble in hydrochloric 
or tartaric acid, or in boiling solution of potassium bitartrate. Heated in close vessels it be- 
comes yellow, fuses at a full red heat, and finally sublimes in crystalline needles. When 
cooled from a state of fusion, it forms a fibrous crystalline mass, of pearl color. Heated in 
open vessels it suddenly becomes red hot, and, by the absorption of oxygen, changes into 
Sb204 (antimony antimonate), which differs from the teroxide in being insoluble in hydro- 
chloric acid, less fusible, and not volatile. This oxide is the active ingredient of all the 
medicinal preparations of antimony. “ On dropping its solution in hydrochloric acid into 
water, a white precipitate is produced, which is at once changed to orange by hydrogen sul- 
phide test-solution. If 1 Gm. of the Oxide be dissolved with the aid of 5 Gm. of tartaric 
acid in a little water, and the solution diluted with water to the measure of 100 C.c., portions 
of this solution should not be affected by test-solutions of silver nitrate (absence of chloride'), 
barium chloride (sulphate), or potassium ferrocyanide (iron and other metals). If a solution 
of the Oxide in hydrochloric acid be diluted with water, until it just begins to become perma- 
nently turbid, and then precipitated with hydrogen sulphide, this precipitate, when collected 
and thoroughly washed, should be completely soluble in ammonium sulphide test-solution (ab- 
sence of copper and lead). If 1 Gm. of the Oxide be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and to 
this solution 1 C.c. of stannous chloride test-solution (see List of Reagents, Bettendorff’s Test 
for Arsenic) be added, no turbidity or coloration should ensue within one hour (limit of 
arsenic)." U. S. “ If 0 5 gramme be dissolved in a hot solution of 1 gramme of Acid Potas- 
sium Tartrate and the solution then made alkaline with 3 grammes of sodium bicarbonate, the 
cooled liquid should discharge the color of 70 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of 
iodine. Antimonious Oxide should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, 
copper, arsenium, calcium, sodium, or potassium, only slight reactions with the tests for iron, 
-and only the slightest reactions with the tests for chlorides or sulphates. It should dissolve 
entirely when boiled with an excess of Acid Potassium Tartrate.” Br. It is frequently impure 
from the presence of the before-mentioned antimony antimonate, in which case it is not 
entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid. If it contain oxychloride, which it is apt to do from the 
imperfect action of the alkaline solutions employed in its purification, its solution in tartaric 
acid will be precipitated by silver nitrate. When antimony antimonate is substituted for it, 
the fraud may be detected by the spurious preparation being entirely insoluble in hydrochloric 
acid. 
Medical Properties. This oxide, which must not be confounded with the powder 
of Algaroth, has the general therapeutic properties of the antimonials. Like antimonial 
powder, it is unequal in its effects, and ought not to be used in practical medicine. The in- 
equality of action is plausibly explained by the state of the stomach as to acidity, the pres- 
ence of acids giving the medicine activity ; and this explanation is confirmed by the experi- Antimonii Sulphidum. 
PART I. 
184 
ments of Br. Osburn, of Dublin, with the Dublin oxide. As to the French Codex oxide, 
prepared by boiling the oxychloride with a solution of potassium bicarbonate, the inequality is 
attributed by M. Durand, of Caen, to the presence of more or less terchloride, which is sep- 
arated with difficulty. Objecting to the Codex oxide, M. Durand proposes to prepare the 
teroxide by precipitating tartar emetic with ammonia in excess. Thus obtained it contains no 
terchloride, and does not vomit. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e s6r., ii. 364.) The dose of antimony 
teroxide is set down as three grains (0'20 Gm.) every two or three hours, but the drug should 
not be employed as a medicine. It was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia to be used 
in the preparation of tartar emetic, and as an ingredient in Pulvis Antimonialis. 
ANTIMONII SULPHIDUM. U. S. Antimony Sulphide. [Antimony Trisulphide.] 
Sb2S3; 335*14. (AN-TI-MO'NI-i SUL'PHI-dOm.) Sb2S3; 336. 
“ Native antimony sulphide, purified by fusion and as nearly free from arsenic as possible.” 
P.S. 
Antimonium Nigrum, Br. 1864; Black Antimony. (Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony, Br.) Stibium Sulfuratum 
Crudum et Laevigatum, P. G.; Antimonium Crudum, Stibium Sulfuratum Nigrum, Sulfuretum Stibicum; Artificial 
Sulphuret of Antimony; Antimoine sulfure, Sulfure d’Antimoine, Antimoine cru, Fr.; Schwefelantimon, Schwefel- 
spiessglanz, G.; Solfuro d’Antimonio, It.; Antimonio crudo, Sp. 
Preparation, etc. The antimony sulphide of the Pharmacopoeias is obtained from the 
native sulphide, called antimony ore, by different processes of purification ; the following being 
an outline of that generally pursued. The ore is placed in melting-pots in a circular reverbera- 
tory furnace, and these are made to connect, by means of curved earthen tubes, with the 
receiving-pots, situated outside the furnace. This arrangement affords facilities for removing 
the residue of the operation, and allows of the collection of the melted sulphide without inter- 
rupting the fire, and, consequently, without loss of time or fuel. In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia 
it is directed to be melted in order to purify it from infusible substances; in the British, to be 
reduced to fine powder, to fit it for pharmaceutic use. In order to bring it to this state, it 
should be submitted to the process of levigation. (See Antimonii Sulphidum Purificatum.') 
Much of the “Black Antimony” of commerce has been shown by Prof. Warder to contain no 
antimony whatever, but to be simply powdered coal and marble, and such can be easily distin- 
guished by a rough test, as follows. Fill a dry, tared one-ounce bottle with the powder: after 
shaking it down it will be found that it will hold two and a quarter ounces of powdered black 
antimony, but only one and a quarter ounces of powdered coal. (Proc. A. P. A., 1885, p. 479 ; 
see, also, S. W. McKeown’s paper, Proc. Ohio State Pharm. Assoc., 1885.) 
Properties. Antimony sulphide is mostly prepared in France and Germany. It is called, 
in commerce, antimony, or crude antimony, and occurs in fused conical masses, denominated 
loaves. “ Steel-gray masses of a metallic lustre and a striated crystalline fracture, forming a 
black or grayish-black, lustreless powder, without odor or taste, and permanent in the air. In- 
soluble in water or alcohol, but soluble in hydrochloric acid with the evolution of hydrogen 
sulphide. At a temperature below a red heat, the Sulphide fuses to a dark brown liquid. If 
1 Gm. of the powdered Sulphide be digested and finally boiled with 10 C.c. of hydrochloric 
acid, it should dissolve without leaving more than 1 per cent, of residue. This acid solution, 
completely deprived of hydrogen sulphide by boiling, yields, when added to water, a white 
precipitate, which is soluble in a solution of tartaric acid. After the separation of the pre- 
cipitate by filtration, the filtrate yields an orange-red precipitate with hydrogen sulphide test- 
solution.” U. S. The quality of the sulphide cannot well be judged of, except in mass ; hence 
it ought never to be bought in powder. Arsenic, which is often present in considerable quan- 
tities, may be detected by the usual tests for that metal. (See Acidum Arsenosum, p. 19.) 
The official antimony sulphide is a tersulphide consisting of two atoms of antimony and 
three of sulphur. When prepared by pulverization and levigation, it is in the form of an 
insoluble powder, without taste or smell, usually of a dull blackish color, but reddish brown 
when perfectly pure. By exposure to the air, it absorbs, according to Buchner, a portion of 
oxygen, and becomes partially converted into teroxide. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation is very uncertain in its operation, 
and ought not to be used in practical medicine. It has, however, been employed as a dia- 
phoretic and alterative in scrofula, glandular obstructions, cutaneous diseases, and chronic rheu- 
matism. It is used in the United States solely in veterinary practice. The dose is from ten 
to thirty grains (0-65—1-95 Gm.), in powder or bolus. PART I. 
Antimonii Sulphidum Purijicatum.—Antimonium Sulphuratum. 
185 
ANTIMONII SULPHIDUM PURIFICATUM. U. S. (Br.) Purified Anti- 
mony Sulphide. [Purified Antimony Trisulphide.] 
Sb2S3; 335*14. (Xn-ti-mo'ni-! sul'pht-dum pu-ri-fi-ca'tum.) Sb2S3; 336. 
“ Native antimonious sulphide, Sb2S3, from which siliceous matter has been removed by 
fusion, reduced to fine powder, and, if any salt of arsenium be present, purified by digesting 
with half its weight of solution of ammonia for several days, washing and drying.’ Br. 
Antimonium Nigrum Purificatum, Br.; Antimonious Sulphide; Purified Black Antimony. 
“ Antimony Sulphide, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Ammonia Water, 
fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 5£ fluidrachms] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. Reduce 
the Antimony Sulphide to a very fine powder. Separate the coarser particles by elutriation, 
and, when the finely-divided sulphide has been deposited, pour off the water, add the Ammonia 
Water, and macerate for five days in a well-closed vessel, agitating the mixture frequently. 
Then let the powder settle, pour off the Ammonia Water, and wash the residue by repeated 
affusion and decantation of Water. Finally dry the product by the aid of a gentle heat.” U. S. 
The test for arsenum is as follows. “ If one grain be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and 
the solution, slightly diluted, be gently warmed with a piece of bright copper foil, the copper 
being washed, dried, and heated in a dry, narrow test-tube, no crystalline sublimate (of arse- 
nous anhydride) should form on the upper cool part of the tube.” Br. (1885). 
These are new official processes, which are intended to furnish a black antimony sulphide 
better fitted for the manufacture of the official preparations of antimony and for internal ad- 
ministration. Copper, a common impurity in the crude sulphide, is rendered soluble by the 
water of ammonia, whilst the subsequent washing and decantation effectually remove all 
soluble impurities. (See Antimonii Sutyhidum.) 
Properties. “ A heavy, grayish-black, lustreless powder, without odor or taste, and per- 
manent in the air. Insoluble in water or alcohol, but soluble in hydrochloric acid with the 
evolution of hydrogen sulphide. At a temperature below a red heat it fuses to a dark brown 
liquid.” US. 
Tests. “ If 1 Cm. of the Sulphide be digested, and finally boiled, with 10 C.c. of hydro- 
chloric acid, it should dissolve without leaving more than 1 per cent, of residue. This acid 
solution, completely deprived of hydrogen sulphide by boiling, yields, when added to water, a 
white precipitate, which is soluble in a solution of tartaric acid. After the separation of the 
precipitate by filtration, the filtrate yields an orange-red precipitate with hydrogen sulphide 
test-solution. If 2 Gm. of the Sulphide be mixed and cautiously ignited, in a porcelain cruci- 
ble, with 8 Gm. of pure sodium nitrate, and, after cooling, the fused mass be boiled with 25 
C.c. of water, there will remain a residue which should be white or nearly so, and not yellowish 
nor brownish (absence of other metallic sulphides'). On boiling the filtrate separated from the 
last-mentioned residue with a slight excess of nitric acid, until no more nitrous vapors are 
evolved, then dissolving in it 0-1 Gm. of silver nitrate, filtering again if necessary, and cau- 
tiously pouring a few drops of ammonia water on top, not more than a white cloud, but no red 
or reddish precipitate, should appear at the line of contact of the two liquids (absence of more 
than about 0-l per cent, of arsenic)." U. S. “A grayish-black crystalline powder decomposed 
on boiling with hydrochloric acid, an almost clear solution being formed and hydrogen sulphide 
escaping. The solution affords the reactions characteristic of antimony. It should not yield 
more than slight characteristic reactions with the tests for arsenium.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation, introduced into the Pharmacopoeias 
for pharmaceutical purposes, should not be used in medical practice. 
ANTIMONIUM SULPHURATUM. U. S., Br. Sulphurated Antimony. 
[Kermes Mineral.] 
4XN-TI-M0'NI-UH SUL-PHU-RA'TUM.) 
“ Chiefly Antimony Trisulphide [Sb2S3 = 335-14], with a very small amount of Antimony 
Trioxide.” U. S. “ A mixture containing antimony sulphides and oxides, Sb2S6,Sb206,Sb2S3,- 
Sb,06, and sulphur.” Br. 
Antimonii Oxysulphuretum, Lond.; Antimonii Sulphuretum Aureutn, Ed.; Precipitated Sulphide of Antimony; 
Stibium Sulfuratum Aurantiacum, P.G.; Sulphur Stibiatum Aurantiacum, Sulphur Auratum Antimonii; Golden 
Sulphuret of Antimony, Golden Sulphur; Soufre dor6 d’Antimoine, Fr.; Goldschwefel, G. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 added the synonyme “ Kermes Mineral” to this prepara- 
tion, intending that this should be used when that was ordered in prescriptions. 
“ Purified Antimony Sulphide, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Solution 
of Soda, twelve hundred cubic centimeters [or 40 fluidounces, 4 fluidrachms, 37 minims] ; Dis- Antimonium Sulphuratum. 
PART I. 
186 
tilled Water, Diluted Sulphuric Acid, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Purified Antimony 
Sulphide with the Solution of Soda and three thousand cubic centimeters [or about 61 pints] of 
Distilled Water, and boil the mixture over a gentle fire for two hours, with frequent stirring, 
and occasionally adding Distilled Water so as to preserve the same volume. Strain the liquid 
immediately through a double muslin strainer, and drop into it, while yet hot, Diluted Sul- 
phuric Acid so long as it produces a precipitate. Wash the precipitate with hot Distilled Water 
until the washings are at most but very slightly clouded by barium chloride test-solution ; then 
dry the precipitate at a temperature not exceeding 25° C. (77° F.), and rub it to a fine 
powder. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
“ Antimonious Sulphide, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 200 grammes; Sublimed Sulphur, 10 
ounces (Imp.) or 200 grammes; Caustic Soda, of commerce, 5 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; 
Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Distilled Water, of each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the caustic 
soda in Jive pints (Imp. meas.) or two thousand cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; with 
this solution mix the Antimonious Sulphide and the Sublimed Sulphur; boil for two hours 
with frequent stirring, adding Distilled Water occasionally to maintain the same volume ; then, 
while the whole is still hot, add nine pints (Imp. meas.) or three thousand six hundred cubic 
centimetres of boiling Distilled Water; strain the product through calico ; before the strained 
liquid cools add to it by degrees the Diluted Sulphuric Acid till the latter is in slight excess; 
collect the precipitate on a calico filter; wash with Distilled Water till the washings are free 
from sulphates; dry at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. 
There are three preparations containing antimony and sulphur,—viz., the amorphous precipi- 
tated antimony sulphide, Sb2S3, which while orange-red in color corresponds to the black 
native sulphide; a reddish-brown mixture known as “ kermes mineral,” which contains both 
antimony sulphide and oxide, and has an average composition (Sb2S3)2 -f- Sb203; * and the 
* Antimonii Oxysulphuretum:. U. tS'. 1870. Oxyvulphuret of Antimony. Kermes Mineral. Kermes mineral was 
official in 1870. The following is the process. “Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, in very fine powder, a tr oy ounce ; 
Carbonate of Sodium twenty-three troy ounces ; Water sixteen pints. Dissolve the Carbonate of Sodium in the Water 
previously heated to the boiling point, and, having added the Sulphuret of Antimony, boil for an hour. Then filter 
rapidly into a warm earthen vessel, cover this closely, and allow the liquid to cool slowly. At the end of twenty- 
four hours, decant the supernatant liquid, drain the precipitate on a filter, wash it with boiled water previously 
allowed to become cold, and dry it without heat. Lastly, preserve the powder in a well-stopped bottle, protected 
from the light.” U. S. A useless preparation, on account of its uncertainty of action. 
Kermes mineral, according to ThSnard, may be obtained by treating antimony tersulphide in three ways: 1st, 
with a boiling solution of the carbonated alkalies, 2d, with a boiling solution of the caustic alkalies, and, 3d, with the 
carbonated alkalies at a red heat. These several processes give brown powders, which vary in their shade of color, 
and which, though usually considered as identical, differ in composition. The kermes obtained by means of the 
carbonated alkalies in solution is an oxysulphide, that is, a compound of hydrated antimony tersulphide with the 
teroxide; while the product when either the caustic alkalies in solution or the carbonated alkalies at a red heat 
are used is essentially a hydrated tersulphide, though containing occasionally a little oxysulphide. It is the first 
of these methods that was adopted in the U. S. process of 1870. It is, in fact, the formula of Cluzel (see IT. S. D., 
11th ed., p. 926), and is substantially that of the French Codex of 1837. 
The rationale of the formation of kermes by this process is as follows. A portion of the sodium carbonate is 
converted, by a transfer of carbonic acid, into caustic soda and sesquicarbonate. By a double decomposition taking 
place between a part of the antimony tersulphide and the caustic soda, sodium sulphide and antimony teroxide are 
formed. The undecomposed portion of the tersulphide then dissolves in the solution of sodium sulphide, and the 
teroxide in that of the remaining sodium carbonate. The tersulphide and teroxide, being both more soluble in these 
menstrua hot than cold, precipitate together as the liquid cools, and constitute this variety of kermes. Thus ob- 
tained it is light, velvety, of a dark reddish-purple color, brilliant in the sun, and of a crystalline appearance. It 
consists, according to M. Henry, jun., of antimony tersulphide 62*5, teroxide 27*4, water 10, and soda a trace; pro- 
portions which correspond most nearly with two mols. of tersulphide, one of teroxide, and six of water. From the 
presence of so large a proportion of antimony teroxide in this variety of kermes, it must be far more active than 
the other kinds, and ought, therefore, to be preferred for medical use. 
Kermes, when obtained by means of the caustic alkalies, may be formed by the use of either potassa or soda. 
When the former alkali is selected, it may be prepared by boiling, for a quarter of an hour, two parts of antimony 
tersulphide with one part of caustic potassa dissolved in twenty-five or thirty parts of water, filtering the liquor, 
and allowing it to cool; whereupon the kermes precipitates. In this process one portion of the tersulphide, by 
reacting with a part of the potassa, gives rise to antimony teroxide and potassium sulphide. A second portion 
dissolves in the solution of potassium sulphide formed, and a third forms an insoluble compound with a part of the 
teroxide. The remainder of the teroxide unites with the undecomposed potassa, forming a compound which, being 
but sparingly soluble, is only in part dissolved. The hot filtered liquor, therefore, contains this compound dissolved 
in water, and antimony tersulphide dissolved in the solution of potassium sulphide. By refrigeration, the tersul- 
phide in a hydrated state falls down, free or nearly free from teroxide, this latter being still held in solution by 
means of the caustic alkali. 
Kermes may be obtained by the third method, that is, in the dry way, by the use of the carbonated alkalies at a 
red heat. If potassium carbonate’*' be selected, the process is as follows. Rub together two parts of antimony ter- 
sulphide and one of potassium carbonate, fuse the mixture in a crucible by a red heat, reduce the fused mass to 
* According to the researches of M. A. Terreil (Journ. de Pharm., 4e s6r., xix. 131), potassium carbonate if absolutely 
pure will not yield kermes by the moist way, but by the dry way will give a larger yield than will sodium carbonate. PART I. 
Antimonium Sulphuratum. 
187 
golden sulphide, which is antimonic sulphide, Sb2S6, and is obtained by decomposing sulph- 
antimonates like Schlippes salt (SbS4Na3) by the addition of a strong mineral acid. 
The first of these may be obtained by dissolving the powdered native sulphide in caustic 
potash solution with the aid of heat, and then adding to this solution, which contains the 
antimony combined as potassium antimonite and sulph-antimonite, sulphuric acid, when a 
reddish precipitate is formed which dries to a reddish-brown powder. 
The second may be obtained by boiling the native sulphide or the red amorphous sulphide 
just described with sodium carbonate, and then allowing the compound to settle out from the 
hot filtered liquid as it cools. 
The third may be obtained by first forming a sulph-antimonate by boiling finely-powdered 
antimony sulphide and caustic soda with sulphur (or sodium carbonate and chalk instead of 
the caustic soda), and then adding the solution of this to dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, 
when yellow Sb„S6 separates, according to the reaction 
2(SbS4Na + 9HaO) + 3HaS04 = 3Na2S04 + Sb2S6 + 3H2S + 18H20. 
Ten parts of Schlippe’s salt yield in theory 4-17 parts of antimony pentasulphide. The 
U. S. sulphurated antimony belongs to the first kind above mentioned, the British (1898) to 
the third variety. E. G-. Eberhardt recommends the more direct preparation of sulphurated 
antimony by treating the native sulphide with hydrochloric acid and precipitating the solution 
with hydrogen sulphide. The objection that arsenic might be found in the product was met 
by an examination which showed that traces of arsenic present were not more than when the 
official process had been employed. (J.. J. P., 1886, p. 229.) The color of sulphurated anti- 
mony or kermes mineral is influenced by porphyrization, with the admixture of a little sugar 
or gum ; if hastily porphyrized, the mixture has a violet tint; if carefully and slowly, it has 
a russet color. 
Properties of the Precipitated Antimony Sulphide. (Sulphurated Antimony, U.S., 
Br.) “ An amorphous, reddish-brown powder, becoming lighter in color on exposure to light, 
and having neither odor nor taste. Insoluble in water or alcohol, but soluble in hydrochloric 
acid with the evolution of hydrogen sulphide. When heated in a dry test-tube, it emits 
moisture and leaves a black residue. If 1 Gm. of Sulphurated Antimony be gently heated 
with 10 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, it should dissolve, with the exception of a slight residue, 
which, when washed and dried, should burn on the application of a flame with the character- 
istic odor of sulphur, leaving not more than a scanty ash. The acid solution, completely de- 
prived of hydrogen sulphide by boiling, yields, when added to water, a white precipitate, 
which, after being washed and dried, should weigh not less than 85 per cent, of the original 
weight of the sulphide. The liquid filtered from this precipitate yields an orange-red precipi- 
tate with hydrogen sulphide test-solution. If 1 Gm. of Sulphurated Antimony be shaken with 
20 C.c. of hot water, the filtrate should be neutral to test-paper, should not be rendered more 
than slightly opalescent by barium chloride test-solution (limit of sulphate), or silver nitrate 
test-solution (limit of chloride), and should not be affected by ammonium oxalate test-solution 
(absence of calcium). When tested for arsenic, as described under Purified Antimony Sul- 
phide, it should afford no reaction beyond the limit prescribed for the latter.” U. S. “A dufi- 
red powder, readily dissolved by solution of sodium hydroxide, also by hot hydrochloric acid with 
the evolution of hydrogen sulphide and the separation of sulphur. 3 grammes moistened and 
warmed with successive portions of nitric acid until red fumes cease to be evolved, and then 
dried and heated to redness, should leave a white residue weighing about 2 grammes. Sul- 
phurated Antimony should not yield more than the slightest characteristic reactions with the 
tests for arsenium.” Br. Water in which this preparation has been boiled should not yield a 
white precipitate with ammonium oxalate. The non-action of this test shows the absence of 
powder, boil it with water, and straip. As the strained liquor cools, the kermes is deposited. The rationale of its 
formation is nearly the same with that of the formation of the second variety of kermes. An inferior kermes, pre- 
pared in the dry way, and intended for use in veterinary medicine, is directed in the French Codex of 1837 to be 
prepared by fusing together, well mixed, 500 parts of antimony tersulphide, 1000 of potassium carbonate, and 30 of 
washed sulphur, reducing the fused mass to powder, and boiling it with 10,000 parts of water. The liquor, upon 
cooling, lets fall the kermes, which must be washed with care and dried. 
Kermes mineral, as usually found in commerce, is an insipid, inodorous powder, of a purplish-brown color, and 
soft and velvety to the touch. By the action of air and light it gradually becomes lighter colored, and at last yellow- 
ish white. It is readily and wholly dissolved by hydrochloric acid, with escape of hydrogen sulphide gas, and is 
partly soluble in a hot solution of potassa, leaving a residue soluble in tartaric acid. It is sometimes adulterated with 
ferric oxide. In Paris, in 1849, a number of the shops contained a spurious kermes of very handsome appearance 
which was little else than this oxide. Kermes mineral first came into use as a remedy in France about the beginning 
of the last century. Its mode of preparation was possessed as a secret by a French surgeon named La Ligerie. In 
1720 the recipe was purchased by the French government and made public. Antimonium Sulphuratum.—Apocynum. 
188 
PART I. 
lime. When pure, precipitated antimony sulphide is completely soluble in a hot solution of 
potassa ; but, as it is found in commerce, a white matter is usually left undissolved. When 
boiled with a solution of cream of tartar, about 12 per cent, of teroxide is dissolved; but, 
according to II. llose, this method of determining the proportion of the teroxide cannot be 
relied on. Exposed to heat it takes fire, and burns with a greenish-blue flame, giving off 
sulphurous acid, while the metal remains behind in the state of a grayish oxide. 
The London precipitated antimony sulphide, as analyzed by Mr. Phillips, consisted, in the 
100 parts, of tersulphide 76-5, teroxide 12, and water 11*5; proportions corresponding nearly 
with five mols. of tersulphide, one of teroxide, and fifteen of water. It usually contained a 
portion of pentasulphide, as shown by the action of hydrochloric acid, which, when heated 
with this antimonial, forms the terchloride with disengagement of sulphur. (Gmelins Hand- 
book, iv. 989.) Its active ingredient is the teroxide ; and in reference to its presence the 
London College called the preparation oxysulphuret of antimony. The Edinburgh College 
named it incorrectly golden sulplmret of antimony ; this name being properly applicable to the 
precipitate produced by the sole action of acids, and not to that obtained by the action of acids 
and refrigeration conjointly. 
Mr. John Moss asserted before the London Pharmaceutical Society that the British process 
always yields a dark reddish or reddish-brown powder, but that the kermes mineral in English 
commerce is golden yellow or yellowish red, and must be prepared by some other method. He 
was confirmed by Profs. Bedwood and Attfield ; the latter explaining that the official kermes 
contains antimony tersulphide, the commercial, antimony pentasulphide. 
Medical Properties. Precipitated antimony sulphide (sulphurated antimony) is alterative, 
diaphoretic, and emetic. It is, however, an uncertain medicine, and is very little used. In 
combination with calomel and guaiac (Plummer s pill), it was formerly employed in secondary 
syphilis and cutaneous eruptions. (See Pilulse Antimonii Compositse.) During its use the patient 
should abstain from acidulous drinks. Its dose as an alterative is from one to two grains 
(0-064 to 0-129 Gm.), given twice a day, in the form of pill; as an emetic, from five grains to 
a scruple (0-323 to 1-29 Gin.). 
Golden sulphide acts like kermes mineral, but is much weaker, and must be given in a larger 
dose. 
APOCYNUM. U.S. Apocynum. [Canadian Hemp.] 
(A-POQ'Y-NUM.) 
“ The root of Apocynum cannabinum, Linn6 (nat. ord. Apocynaceae).” U. S. 
Chanvre du Canada, Fr.; Canadische Ilanfwurzel, G. 
Gen. Gh. Calyx five-parted, the lobes acute. Corolla bell-shaped, five-cleft, bearing five tri- 
angular appendages in the throat opposite the lobes. Stamens five, inserted on the very base 
of the corolla. Filaments flat, shorter than the arrow-shaped anthers, which converge round 
the ovoid, obscurely two-lobed stigma, and are slightly adherent to it by their inner face. Style 
none. Stigma large, ovoid, slightly two-lobed. Fruit two long slender follicles. Gray's Manual. 
There are two indigenous species of this genus, A. cannabinum, L., and A. androssemifolium, 
L., of very similar general aspect. Both plants abound in a milky juice, and have a tough 
fibrous bark, which, by maceration, affords a substitute for hemp; hence the common name. 
In the official species the stems and branches are upright or ascending, terminated by erect 
and close, many-flowered cymes, which are usually shorter than the leaves, and the corolla 
has nearly erect lobes, with the tube not longer than the lanceolate divisions of the calyx. 
In A. androssemifolium the branches are divergently forked, the cymes loose and spreading, 
the open bell-shaped corolla with revolute lobes and a tube much longer than the ovate- 
pointed divisions of the calyx. The two plants grow together, although A. cannabinum seems 
to be proportionately more common in the West. A. androssemifolium was formerly included 
in the U. S. secondary list, but seems to have almost disappeared from the market. According 
to Mr. Edward A. Manheimer, its root can be distinguished from that of A. cannabinum on 
microscopic examination by the thick-walled bast-cells, which are arranged somewhat in a circle 
near the middle of the bark. (A. J. P., Nov. 1881. See also A. J. P., 1888.) Prof. C. B. 
Lowe (A. J. P., 1896) asserts that dogsbane (A. androssemifolium') is subject to frequent 
substitution by A. cannabinum, the latter being very abundant. 
The root of A. cannabinum is horizontal, five or six feet in length, about one-third of an 
inch thick, dividing near the end into branches which terminate abruptly, of a yellowish-brown 
color when young, but dark chestnut when old, of a strong odor, and a nauseous, somewhat 
acrid, permanently bitter taste. The internal or ligneous portion is yellowish white, and less PAET I. 
Apocynum.—Apomorphinse Hydrochloras. 
189 
bitter than the exterior or cortical part. “ Long, cylindrical, somewhat branched, 5 to 10 Mm. 
thick, gray or brownish-gray, longitudinally wrinkled and transversely fissured; brittle, frac- 
ture short, white; the bark rather thick; the wood porous, spongy, with delicate, medullary 
rays; inodorous; taste bitter, disagreeable.” U. S. The fresh root, when wounded, emits a 
milky juice, which concretes into a substance resembling caoutchouc. In the dried state, it is 
brittle and readily pulverized, affording a powder like that of ipecacuanha. Schmiedeberg 
and te Water (.Pjianzenstoffe, 2d ed., p. 1332) found two principles acting like digitalin: 
one, an amorphous resinous substance, not a glucoside, easily soluble in alcohol and ether, 
almost insoluble in water, which is called apocynin, and the other, a glucoside, easily 
soluble in water, which is known as apocynein. Neither of the principles gives any color 
reaction with sulphuric acid and bromine. The root yields its virtues to water and alcohol, 
but, according to Dr. G-riscom, more readily to the former. Prof. J. U. Lloyd noticed a white, 
tasteless, crystalline, waxy precipitate formed in a fluid extract of A. cannabinum. Von Oefele 
(Joum. Pharm. Elsass-Lothr., 1891, 325) describes apocynteine, an alkaloid obtained from A. 
venetum ; it is said to be a cardiac sedative. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Apocynum (or, as it is frequently improperly called, 
Indian Hemp) is powerfully emetic and cathartic, sometimes diuretic, and promotes diaphoresis 
and expectoration. It produces much nausea, diminishes the frequency of the pulse, and 
appears to induce drowsiness independently of the exhaustion consequent upon vomiting. 
According to D. A. Sokoloff (Medical Chronicle, Sept. 1888), apocynum, in sufficient dose, first 
stimulates the heart and the vaso-motor centres, causing a pronounced rise of the arterial 
pressure, and then acts as a paralyzant, producing a gradual fall of the pressure to zero. The 
disease in which apocynum has been found most beneficial is dropsy. From fifteen to thirty 
grains (1—1-95 dm.) of the powdered root will generally produce copious vomiting and purging. 
The decoction is a more convenient form for administration. It may be prepared by boiling 
half an ounce of the dried root in a pint and a half of water to a pint, of which from one to 
two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.) may be given twice or thrice daily, or more frequently. The 
watery extract, in doses of three or four grains (0-20-0-26 Gm.), three times a day, will 
generally act on the bowels. 
APOMORPHINE HYDROCHLORAS. U. S. (Br.) Apomorphine Hydro- 
chlorate. 
C17H17NO2, HC1; 302*79. (Xp-o-mor-phi'na: hy-dro-chloras.) Cn Hn N02, HC1; 303-4. 
“ The hydrochlorate of an artificial alkaloid prepared from morphine or codeine. It should 
be kept in small, dark amber-colored vials.” U. S. “ The hydrochloride, C17H17N02,HC1, of 
an alkaloid obtained by heating morphine hydrochloride or codeine hydrochloride in sealed 
tubes with hydrochloric acid.” Br. 
Apomorphinae Hydrochloridum, Br., Apomorphine Hydrochloride; Chlorhydrate d’Apomorphine, Fr.; Apo- 
morphinum llydrochloricuin, G.; Hydrochlorate of Apomorphine. 
Apomorphine was discovered by Dr. Matthiessen and Mr. C. A. Wright. It is prepared by 
heating morphine in a closed tube with a great excess of hydrochloric acid for two or three 
hours to the temperature of 140° to 150° C. The contents of the tube are then dissolved 
in water, an excess of sodium bicarbonate added, and the precipitate exhausted with ether or 
chloroform. On the addition to a solution of a very small quantity of hydrochloric acid, 
crystals of apomorphine chloride form. The process is one of dehydration; the morphine 
parting with one molecule of water, the formula of apomorphine being C17H17N02. Apomor- 
phine may also be made by the action of hydrochloric acid upon codeine, and it is affirmed 
that the best method in practice is that of E. Mayer, in which morphine is treated with a 
solution of zinc chloride, at 120° C. (Berichte d. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., Berlin, 1871, iv. 121.) 
Codeine, C18H21N03, when treated with hydrochloric acid, yields first C18H20C1N02, and then 
splits off methyl chloride, CH3C1, and leaves apomorphine, C17H17N02. 
Properties. Apomorphine Hydrochlorate is usually in “ minute, grayish-white, shining, 
acicular crystals, without odor, having a faintly bitter taste, and acquiring a greenish tint upon 
exposure to light and air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in about 45 parts of water, and about 
45 parts of alcohol; very little soluble in ether or chloroform. When heated to near 100° C. 
(212° F.), the salt is decomposed, rapidly if in solution, slowly when dry. At 270° C. (518° F.) 
it fuses to a black mass, and, when ignited, it is consumed without leaving a residue. The salt 
is neutral to litmus paper. The crystals are colored blood-red to orange by nitric acid, tran- 190 
Apoinorphinse Hydrochloras.—Aquse. 
PART I. 
siently violet to light brown by sulphuric acid, dark purple to orange by a mixture of these acids. 
On shaking a few C.c. of the saturated, aqueous solution of the salt with a few small particles of 
manganese dioxide, the liquid acquires a green color, which is turned reddish-brown by adding 
some crystals of oxalic acid. If the oxalic acid be added to the solution first, and then a few 
small particles of manganese dioxide, the liquid will, upon agitation, assume a deep brownish-red 
color. Silver nitrate test-solution added to the aqueous solution of the salt throws down a white 
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, soon turning black by reduction to metallic silver, or instantly 
reduced by addition of ammonia water. Addition of sodium bicarbonate solution to the aqueous 
solution throws down the white amorphous alkaloid, which soon turns green on exposure to air, 
and imparts a violet or blue color to chloroform, in which it is very soluble (difference from 
morphine). If the salt impart, at once, an emerald-green color to 100 parts of water on being 
shaken with it a few times in a test-tube, it should be rejected.” U. S. “ Small, grayish-white, 
shining, acicular crystals, turning green on exposure to light and air, inodorous. Soluble in 
50 parts of water and more soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.), the solutions being decomposed 
with production of a green color when they are boiled. Neutral or very feebly acid to solution 
of litmus. From solutions, solution of sodium bicarbonate throws down a precipitate which 
becomes green on standing and then forms a solution which is purple with ether, violet with 
chloroform, and bluish green with alcohol (90 per cent.). With dilute test-solution of ferric 
chloride it gives a deep red, and with nitric acid a blood-red coloration. If the salt impart an 
emerald-green color to 100 parts of water, after shaking the mixture, it should be rejected.” 
Br. The alkaloid is colored dark red by nitric acid and rose-red by ferric chloride, changing 
to violet, and finally black, on exposure. The aqueous and alcoholic solutions are at first color- 
less, but change rapidly to greenish, finally becoming deep emerald-green in color. This change 
in color has been attributed to oxidation, and it has been noticed that the solution on standing 
loses its power: for this reason it is best not to keep the solution, but to make it as wanted. 
Mr. C. Bernbeck affirms that the change in the solution to a green color may be prevented 
by the addition of a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, the green coloration being due to 
ammonia. {Pharm. Zeitung, 1885.) According to Max Quehl and II. Koehler, apomorphine 
is precipitated from its solutions greenish by tannic acid, lemon-yellow by picric acid, bluish 
white, and turning to sap-green on boiling, by copper sulphate, purplish hy gold chloride, 
white, turning to blackish violet on boiling, by potassium ferricyanide, blood-red by iodine in 
solution of potassium iodide, the precipitate disappearing on boiling, white and curdy by 
potassium sulphocyanate. (A. J. P., 1873, p. 166.) With potassium bichromate and concen- 
trated sulphuric acid it turns a dark red ; with the potassium salt alone, a deep yellow-orange; 
with neutral iron chloride, an amethyst color. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Apomorphine hydrochlorate was first brought forward 
as a prompt and safe emetic by Dr. Glee. It has the great advantages of smallness of dose and 
freedom from irritating properties, so that it can he used hypodermically. When from to 
y of a grain (0-004-0-006 6m.) of it is injected under the skin of a man, in from 5 to 20 
minutes free emesis usually occurs; the dose may be repeated at intervals if necessary. The 
effects upon the general system are usually not marked; but in some cases very alarming syn- 
copal symptoms have been produced, and death is said to have resulted from -Jy of a grain (0-004 
Gm.) in a feeble adult worn out with chronic bronchitis and emphysema. {Med. Rec., 1877, p. 
664.) According to Harnack, young children bear the remedy very badly. Apomorphine 
hydrochlorate is a valuable sedative expectorant, useful whenever it is desired to produce re- 
laxation and increase of secretion. As an emetic, it has been employed in narcotic poisoning, 
to dislodge foreign bodies from the oesophagus, in suffocative catarrh, etc. Very alarming symp- 
toms have followed the use of a solution which has undergone change, and fresh solutions only 
should be administered. Under no circumstances should more than 1 of a grain (0.016 Gm.) 
be given at a dose ; the expectorant dose is from -A- to of a grain (0-004 to 0-005 Gm.), 
administered every two or three hours, by the mouth. 
AQUiE. Medicated Waters. 
(A'QUjE—a'kwe.) 
Aquae Destillatae; Distilled Waters, E.; Eaux distillees, Hydrolats, Fr.; Destillirte Wasser, 0. 
Under this head are included, in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, all preparations consisting of 
water holding volatile or gaseous substances in solution, many of which were formerly obtained 
by distillation, and some of which still continue to he so. They include the preparations for- PART i. 
Aquse. 
191 
merly specially designated as “ Distilled Waters,” having been made by distilling water from 
plants or parts of plants containing volatile oil. 
The Distilled Waters, as thus defined, hold a much more prominent position in the pharmacy 
of Europe, particularly of continental Europe, than in that of the United States; and a great 
deal of thought and elaborate investigation has been bestowed there upon the various condi- 
tions calculated to furnish the best products in the most convenient method. It would be 
doing injustice to the subject not to give it a distinct consideration in a work like the present. 
Many vegetables impart to water distilled from them their peculiar flavor, and more or less 
of their medical properties. The Distilled Waters chiefly used are those prepared from aro- 
matic plants, the volatile oils of which rise with the aqueous vapor and are condensed with it 
in the receiver. But as water is capable of holding but a small proportion of the oil in 
•solution, these preparations are generally feeble, and are employed chiefly as pleasant vehicles 
or corrigents of other medicines. 
In the preparation of the Distilled Waters, dried plants are sometimes used, because the 
fresh are not to be had at all seasons; but the latter, at least in the instance of herbs and 
flowers, should be preferred if attainable. Flowers which lose their odor by desiccation may 
be preserved by incorporating them intimately with one-third of their weight of common salt, 
and in this state afford Distilled Waters of delicate flavor. Some pharmacists prefer to em- 
ploy the salted flowers in certain instances, believing that the waters distilled from them keep 
better than when prepared from the fresh flowers. Mr. C. R. Tichborne has discovered a 
method of preserving flowers which is said to answer even better than the use of salt. It 
consists simply in immersing the fresh flowers in glycerin, which preserves them with all their 
aromatic properties wholly unimpaired. The flowers, as of the elder, rose, and orange, should 
be gathered after full expansion, and packed firmly in wide-mouthed bottles or jars, but without 
crushing them. The glycerin is then to be poured on until it covers them, and the vessel 
closed. Mr. Tichborne has kept flowers in this way for two years, and at the end of that time 
procured from them distilled waters, of which the perfume has equalled that of the waters 
prepared from recent flowers. It is not necessary that the glycerin should be perfectly pure; 
but it should be without smell. (P. J. Tr., 2d ser., vii. 135.) 
The idea at one time prevailed, to a considerable extent, that Waters kept better distilled 
from dried herbs than from fresh; and the opinion was true in regard to those prepared with 
the defective alembics of former times and by a naked fire; but experiment has sufficiently 
established the fact that, with a suitable apparatus, and a regular heat, the fresh herbs yield 
products which, while they have a more agreeable odor of the plant, keep quite as well as 
those from dried herbs. 
It is necessary to observe certain practical rules in conducting the process of distillation. 
When the substance employed is dry, hard, and fibrous, it should be mechanically divided, and 
macerated in water for a short time previous to the operation. The quantity of materials 
should not bear too large a proportion to the capacity of the alembic, as the water might other- 
wise boil over into the receiver. The water should be brought quickly to the state of ebulli- 
tion, and continued in that state till the end of the process. Care should be taken to leave 
sufficient water undistilled to cover the whole of the vegetable matter; lest a portion of the 
latter, coming in contact with the sides of the vessel, might be decomposed by the heat, and 
yield empyreumatic products. Besides, when the operation is urged too vigorously, or carried 
too far, a slimy matter is apt to form, which adheres to the sides of the still above the water, 
and is thus exposed to igneous decomposition. To obviate these disadvantages, the heat may 
be applied by means of an oil-bath, regulated by a thermometer, or of a bath of solution of 
calcium chloride, by which any temperature may be obtained between 100° C. (212° F.) and 
132-2° C. (270° F.), according to the strength of the solution; or, when the process is con- 
ducted upon a large scale, by njeans of steam introduced under pressure into 
a space around the still. To prevent the disagreeable effects of charring, and 
the excessive empyreumatic odor frequently noticed in distilled waters, caused 
by the solid contents of the still coming into direct contact with the heated 
bottom, we have devised an expedient which prevents the herb from touching 
the bottom and yet permits the water and steam to have free access to all parts 
of it. (See Pharmaceutical Still, under Extracta.') A hemispherical No. 12 
sieve of copper with a handle and loosely-fitting lid is filled with the herb and 
placed in the water in the still. If the bottom of the still be flat or nearly so, the rounded 
bottom of the cage must have a very slight point of contact, and thus charring will be pre- 192 
Aquae. 
PART I. 
vented. A convenient mode of applying heat by steam is by means of a coil of leaden tube 
placed in the bottom of the still, having one end connected with a boiler, and the other passing 
out beneath or at the side, and furnished with a stop cock, by which the pressure may be 
increased or the condensed water drawn off at will. If any volatile oil float upon the surface 
of the Distilled Water, it may be separated.* 
From a series of experiments made in Paris in reference to the best mode of applying heat, 
it was concluded that as regards the great majority of aromatics the direct application of 
steam was preferable, because the Distilled Waters prepared by means of it have a freshness 
of aroma that is wanting in the others, are always free from the odor of the still, are much 
more limpid, are less apt to deposit mucilaginous matter, and keep better; but that exceptions 
to the general rule are afforded by bitter almonds, cherry-laurel leaves, mustard, and horse- 
radish, in all of which the oil does not pre-exist in the plant, but is formed upon contact with 
water; by woods, barks, and roots, the tissue of which cannot be sufficiently penetrated by 
steam; and by roses. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1861, p. 364.) Later experiments have led to 
the conclusion that even these substances are most advantageously treated by distillation with 
steam, and that, in fact, there is no exception to the rule. 
But, however carefully the process may be conducted, the Distilled Waters prepared from 
plants always have at first an unpleasant smoky odor. They may be freed from this by ex- 
posure for a short time to the air before being enclosed in well-stopped bottles, in which they 
should be preserved. When long kept, a viscid ropy matter is apt to form in them, and they 
become sour. This result has been ascribed to other principles, which rise with the oil in dis- 
tillation and promote its decomposition. To prevent this decomposition, rectified spirit is 
sometimes added to the water employed in its distillation. But this addition is inadequate, 
and is in fact injurious, as the alcohol by long exposure to the air undergoes the acetous fer- 
mentation. A better plan is to redistil the Waters. When thus purified, it is said that they 
may be kept for several years unchanged. 
Robiquet considered the mucosi'ty which forms in Distilled Waters to be the result of a 
vegetative process, for which the presence of air is essential. He has found that so long as 
the water is covered with a layer of essential oil it undergoes no change, but that the oil is 
gradually altered by exposure to the air, and, as soon as it disappears, the water begins to be 
decomposed. He states that camphor exercises the same preservative influence over the Dis- 
tilled Waters by resisting the vegetation, and that those in which the odor of camphor is 
developed keep better on that account. Finally, he has observed that the more Distilled 
Water is charged with volatile oil, the more abundant is the mucosity when it has begun to 
form. Robiquet unites with Henry and Guibourt, and with Virey, in recommending that all 
these waters, when intended to be kept for a considerable time, should be introduced, immedi- 
ately after distillation, into bottles of a size proportionate to the probable consumption of the 
water when brought into use; and that the bottles should be quite filled, and then sealed or 
otherwise well stopped, so as entirely to exclude the air. It is best that they should be small, 
and be closed with well-fitting glass stoppers. Thus treated, the Waters may be preserved 
without change for many years. (Journ. de Pharm., xxi. 402.) This view is opposed to the 
experience of large producers of Distilled Waters ; we have seen at Grasse hundreds of carboys 
stored away, containing distilled rose and orange flower waters, not only uncorked, but having 
only a thin piece of muslin laid over the lips to exclude dust. We were informed by the dis- 
tillers that the waters retained their qualities unimpaired for years far better when treated in 
this way than if stoppered tightly. We have frequently noticed microscopic plants belonging 
to the Confervoidese in the Distilled Waters contained in shop bottles standing on the shelves 
in the dispensing room, and if it be desired to keep Distilled Waters, the only sure way is to 
destroy the spores and prevent the admission of fresh ones by placing the bottles filled to the 
lip with the Distilled Water into a bath of boiling water, and, when thoroughly sterilized by 
heating, corking and sealing.f 
* This direction is generally given; but, in a communication to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 
Haselden recommends the excess of oil to be well shaken with the water, and the whole to be transferred to the 
stock vessel, where it may be allowed to rest, and the oil to separate. He thinks the water keeps better when thus 
treated; and the full strength is always insured. The stock vessel he prefers made of stoneware, and furnished 
with a tap placed two inches from the bottom, whereby the water may be drawn off clear when wanted for the 
ordinary shop bottles; the oil rising to the top, or sinking to the bottom, according to its sp. gr. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 
14, 15.) 
f It is of some importance to know the proportion which the aromatic submitted to distillation ought to bear to 
the amount of Distilled Water obtained. The following statement upon this point, based upon experiments, is con- 
tained in the Journ. de Pharm. (Mai, 1861, p. 367). Fresh aromatic plants requiring one part of the plant for one PART I. 
Aquae. 
193 
Another mode of preparing the Distilled Waters is to substitute the volatile oil, previously 
separated from the plant, for the plant itself in the process. This mode is directed in the 
British Pharmacopoeia in several instances. It is said to afford a more permanent product 
than the preceding, but does not always preserve the flavor of the plant. 
In relation to most of the aromatic waters, the U. S. Pharmacopoeia formerly directed that 
water should be impregnated with the volatile oil by trituration with magnesium carbonate, 
and subsequently filtered. This was by far the most simple and easy process. The resulting 
solution is nearly pure and permanent, and is perfectly transparent, the magnesium carbonate 
being separated by the filtration. Magnesium carbonate is preferable to the pure earth, as the 
latter sometimes gives a brownish color to the liquid, and requires to be used in larger propor- 
tion. But both these substances are dissolved in minute quantities, and are apt to occasion a 
slight flocculent precipitate. They may also possibly prove injurious by decomposing certain 
substances given in very small doses, as salts of the alkaloids, mercury bichloride, and silver 
nitrate. The object of the magnesia or its carbonate is simply to enable the oil to be brought 
to a state of minute division, and thus presented with a larger surface to the action of the 
solvent. Precipitated calcium phosphate has been used as a substitute for magnesium carbon- 
ate, but this has been shown to be slightly soluble in water; notwithstanding this objection, 
its use is sanctioned by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890. W. S. Thompson, of Washington, 
D.C., suggested the use of absorbent cotton as being free from all of these objections, and his 
views were substantially adopted by the Committee of Bevision of the Pharmacopoeia of 
1880. Mr. E. V. Zoeller proposes to use a hand cotton-card to aid in pulling the filaments of 
cotton apart when a large quantity of medicated water is needed. (New Rem., 1883, p. 56.) 
Experience has shown, however, that the use of an insoluble powder to effect the minute 
division of the particles of oil, so as to present a large surface to the solvent, is a more prac- 
tical and convenient method of making medicated waters. According to Mr. Bobert Waring- 
ton, this object maybe better accomplished by porcelain clay, finely-powdered glass or pumice- 
stone, which are wholly insoluble; and the London College employed finely-powdered silica for 
the purpose. Talcum or soapstone in powder, purified by washing with diluted hydrochloric 
acid, has been adopted by the Committee on National Formulary (1888). (See Talcum Puriji- 
catum, Part II.; also paper recommending it by Prof. Curtman, Proc. A. P. A., 1887.) A 
very good way to make medicated waters when a volatile oil is directed, is that proposed by 
Percival, which is to heat the water required, pour it in a bottle and add the oil, cork tightly, 
shake occasionally until cool, then pour off and filter; this secures a medicated water free from 
foreign substances, and a saturated solution ; most oils being more soluble in hot than in cold 
water. The Dublin College prepared its Waters by agitating an alcoholic solution of the oil 
with distilled water, and filtering. They consequently contained alcohol, and were liable to 
the objection, already mentioned, against the medicated waters thus impregnated. They were, 
besides, feeble in the properties of their respective oils. In the preparation of the aromatic 
waters by these processes, it is very important that the waters should be pure. The presence 
of a sulphate causes a decomposition of the oil, resulting in the production of hydrogen sul- 
phide and a carbonate; and the aromatic properties are quite lost. (See A. J. P., xix. 303.) 
Hence the propriety of the official direction to employ distilled water* 
The Distilled Waters are liable to contain various metallic impurities, derived from the 
vessels in which they are prepared or preserved. The metallic salts which have been found in 
them are those of iron, zinc, copper, and lead. With potassium ferrocyanide, iron will give a 
blue color, zinc and lead white precipitates, and copper a rose color followed by chestnut 
brown. Sodium sulphide causes with the salts of iron, copper, and lead, a brown discoloration 
more or less deep, followed by precipitates varying from brown to black ; with those of zinc a 
white precipitate. The Distilled Waters may be freed from these impurities by animal char- 
coal, previously well purified. The charcoal should be strongly shaken, eight or ten times in 
the course of a day, with the impure Water, which should then be allowed to rest, and the 
of product, wormwood, black cherry, scurvy-grass, hyssop, cherry-laurel, lavender, balm, mint, peach-leaves, roses, 
and sage;—fresh and dry aromatic plants requiring one part of the plant for two of product, bitter almonds, orange- 
flowers, melilot, horseradish, elder, and tansy ;—dry and very aromatic plants requiring one part of the plant for four 
of product, angelica, green anise, juniper berries, chamomile, canella, cascarilla, fennel, sassafras, linden flowers, and 
valerian. 
* Mr. Haselden prefers the process of distillation from the aromatic itself in the instances of dill, caraway, 
fennel, cinnamon, and pimento, which are not apt to afford to the distilled water such matter as may cause it to 
become sour; but he prefers trituration for peppermint, spearmint, and pennyroyal waters. He advises, however, 
that these waters should not be filtered, but prepared in quantity, allowed to settle, and drawn off as wanted. (P. J. 
Tr., xvi. 14, 15.) 194 
Aqua. 
PART I. 
next day be filtered. Five grains of the charcoal will be sufficient for a gallon of the Distilled 
Water. (Journ. de Pharm., Nov. 1862, p. 416.) The volatile oils may be recovered from the 
Waters containing them, or at least may be transferred to a spirituous menstruum, by mixing 
olive oil with the water, adding a little solution of potassa so as to form a soap, and a conse- 
quent emulsion with the liquid, and then neutralizing by an acid. The fixed oil will rise to the 
surface, bringing the volatile oil along with it. The latter may then be separated from the 
former by agitation with alcohol. (T. P. Groves, P. J. Tr., Feb. 1864.) 
AQUA. U.S. Water. 
“ Natural water in its purest attainable state.” U. S. 
Aqua communis, P. G.; *Y5<op, Gr.; Eau, Fr.; Wasser, G.; Acqua, It.; Agua, Sp. 
Water has always been included in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, on account of its great im- 
portance as a medical and pharmaceutical agent. It was not admitted into the official lists of 
the British Pharmacopoeias until 1839, when it was first recognized by the Edinburgh College, 
but it was dropped at the last revision of the British Pharmacopoeia. It is more or less con- 
cerned in almost all the changes which take place in inorganic matter, and is essential to the 
growth and existence of living beings, whether animal or vegetable. In treating of a sub- 
stance of such diversified agency, our limits will allow of a sketch only of its properties and 
modifications. We shall speak of it under the several heads of pure water, common water, and 
mineral waters. 
Pure Water. Water, in a pure state, is a transparent liquid, without color, taste, or 
smell. Its sp. gr. is assumed to be unity, and forms the term of comparison for that of solids 
and liquids. A cubic inch of it, at the temp, of 15-5° C. (60° F.), weighs very nearly 252-5 
grains. In the metric system the weight of 1 C.c. of distilled water taken at 4° C. (39-2° F.) 
is made equal to 1 gramme, the unit of weight in this system. It is compressible to a small 
extent, as was proved first by Canton, and afterwards, in an incontestable manner, by Perkins. 
Reduced in temp, to 0° C. (32° F.), it becomes a solid or ice, with the sp. gr. 0-9175 (Dufour, 
Comptes-Rendus, Juin, 1860) ; and raised to 100° C. (212° F.), an elastic fluid called steam. 
In the latter state its bulk is increased nearly 1700-fold, and its sp. gr. so far lessened as not 
to be much more than half that of atmospheric air. At the temp, of 4° C., or 39.2° F., its 
density is at the maximum; and consequently, setting out from that point, it is increased in 
bulk by being either heated or cooled. It has the power of dissolving more or less of all 
gases, including common air, the constituents of which are always present in natural water. 
It uniformly exists in the atmosphere, in the form of invisible vapor. 
Water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen ; or, in volumes, of two vol- 
umes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen condensed into two volumes of aqueous vapor or 
steam. On these data, it is easy to calculate the sp. gr. of steam; which will be 0-0693 (sp. 
gr. of hydrogen)-j-0-5528 (half the sp. gr. of oxygen) = 0-6221. 
Common Water. By reason of its extensive solvent powers, water, in its natural state, 
must be more or less contaminated with foreign matter. Thus, it becomes variously impreg- 
nated, according to the nature of the strata through which it percolates. When the foreign 
substances present are in so small an amount as not materially to alter its taste and other 
sensible qualities, it constitutes the different varieties of common water. 
There are almost innumerable shades of difference in common water, as obtained from dif- 
ferent localities and sources; but all its varieties may be conveniently arranged under the two 
heads of soft and hard. A soft water is one which contains but inconsiderable impurities, and 
which, when used in washing, forms a lather with soap. By a hard water is understood a 
variety of water which contains calcareous or magnesian salts, or other impurities, through 
which it curdles soap, and is unfit for domestic purposes. Tincture of soap is a convenient 
test for ascertaining the quality of water. In distilled water it produces no effect; in soft 
water, only a slight opalescence ; but in hard water, a milky appearance. The milkiness is 
due to the formation of an insoluble compound between the fatty acids of the soap and the 
lime or magnesia of the foreign salt. 
The most usual foreign substances in common water, besides oxygen and nitrogen, and mat- 
ters held in a state of mechanical suspension, are carbonic acid, calcium sulphate and car- 
bonate, and sodium chloride (common salt). Carbonic acid is detected by lime water, which 
produces a precipitate before the water is boiled, but not afterwards, as ebullition drives off 
Hi O ; 17*96. (A'QUA—a'kw».) HjO; 18. PART I. 
Aqua. 
195 
this acid. The presence of calcium sulphate is shown by precipitates being produced by barium 
nitrate, and, after ebullition, by ammonium oxalate. The former test snows the presence of 
sulphuric acid, and the latter, after boiling the water, indicates lime not held in solution by 
carbonic acid. Calcium carbonate, when held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid, may 
be detected by boiling the water, which causes it to precipitate; but even after ebullition and 
filtration the water will retain enough calcium carbonate to give a precipitate with lead acetate, 
calcium carbonate being itself to a minute extent soluble in water. Silver nitrate will produce 
a precipitate, if any soluble chloride be present; and, ordinarily, the one present may be 
assumed to be common salt. Arsenic in minute quantity has been found in water used as 
drink. At Whitbeck, in Cumberland, England, the inhabitants employ, both as drink and for 
culinary purposes, a water holding enough arsenic in solution to be quite sensible to tests, 
without any known injurious consequence. (C/tem. News, 1860, p. 128.) 
Dr. Clark has proposed to purify hard water, when the hardness arises from calcium bicar- 
bonate, by a process which he calls liming. This consists in adding to the water sufficient 
lime water to convert the bicarbonate into the very sparingly soluble carbonate. This proce- 
dure renders the water soft, and gets rid of all the lime, except that in the minute portion of 
carbonate dissolved. The merit of this process consists chiefly, not in the removal of lime, 
but in preventing the formation of organic matters, principally confervae, the decomposition 
of which renders the water offensive and unwholesome. Dr. Clark’s process has been for some 
time in successful operation on the water obtained by boring, at the Plumstead water-works, 
near Woolwich. (P. J. Tr., June, 1856.) River water containing the usual amount of calcareous 
matter, if allowed to stagnate in open reservoirs, in the summer, will become contaminated 
with myriads of microscopic plants and animals. This change is prevented, according to 
Dr. Clark, by his peculiar treatment, which deprives the living organisms of the nutriment 
derived from loosely combined carbonic acid. 
The oxygen and nitrogen present in natural waters are not usually in the same proportion 
as in atmospheric air; the oxygen in atmospheric air amounting to about 20 per cent, in vol- 
ume, while the usual gaseous mixture expelled from fresh water by boiling contains 32 per 
cent. (See table on page 196.) 
Common water is also divided into varieties according to its source. Thus, we have rain, 
snow, spring, river, well, lake, and marsh water. 
Rain and snow water are the purest kinds of natural water. Rain water, to be obtained as 
pure as possible, must be collected in large vessels in the open fields, at a distance from houses, 
and some time after the rain has commenced falling; otherwise it will be contaminated with 
the dust which floats in the atmosphere, and with other impurities derived from roofs. The 
rain water of large cities contains nitrogenized organic matter, as shown by the odor produced 
by burning the residue left after the water has been evaporated. 
Rain water ordinarily contains atmospheric air, and, according to Liebig, a little nitric acid, 
the amount of which is increased when the rain descends during a storm. M. Chabrier states 
as the result of his observations that rain water contains either nitrous or nitric acid, the one 
or the other predominating according to the condition of the weather; the nitrous acid being 
relatively in excess in mild weather, but the nitric when the rain is attended with tempestuous 
winds. (Journ. de Pharm., Janv. 1872, p. 42.) According to an analysis, made by M. Martin, 
of rain water which fell at Marseilles during a violent storm, 1000 parts by weight contained 
0-004 of chlorine and 0-003 of ammonia. Not a trace of iodine or of nitric acid was discov- 
ered. Boussingault has ascertained that the rain which falls in towns contains considerably 
more ammonia than that which falls in the country. Thus the rain of Paris was found by 
him to contain three or four parts of ammonia per million; while that collected in a moun- 
tainous region contained about four-fifths of one part only in a million. The average results 
of Mr. J. B. Lawes and Dr. J. H. Gilbert give one part of ammonia to the million of rain 
water. Snow water has a peculiar taste, which was supposed to depend on the presence of air 
more oxygenated than that of the atmosphere; but in point of fact it contains no air, and 
this accounts for its vapid taste. Rain and snow water are sufficiently pure for most chemical 
operations. 
Spring water (aqua fontana) depends entirely for its quality on the strata through which it 
flows; being purest when it passes through sand or gravel, or where the prevailing rock for- 
mation is granitic. On the contrary, where the formation is limestone, the water will, because 
of the carbonic acid gas dissolved in it, take up the lime carbonate and become what is called 196 
Aqua. 
PART I. 
a hard water. It almost always contains a trace of common salt, and generally other im- 
purities, which vary according to the locality of the spring. 
River water (aqua fluvialis) is, generally speaking, less impregnated with saline matter than 
spring water, because made up in considerable part of rains; while its volume hears a larger 
proportion to the surface of its bed. It is, however, much more apt to have mechanically 
suspended in it insoluble matters, of an earthy nature, like clay and silt, which impair its 
transparency. It is frequently rendered more sightly by being run through porous stone, 
carbon, or sand filter. The coarse particles are by this filtration removed; but any sewage or 
other very finely divided organic material is not removed, so that such clean filtered water may 
be a very deadly poison. Water may be purified for manufacturing purposes by what is 
termed the alum process,—i.e., by adding 2 grains of alum to a gallon of water, and permit- 
ting the impurities to subside for 48 hours. (Chem. News, July 23, 1886.) 
Well water, like that from springs, is liable to contain various impurities. As a rule, the 
purity of the water of a well will be in proportion to its depth and the constancy with which 
it is used. Well water in large cities always contains a large amount of impurity, both organic 
and inorganic, the result of sewage contamination. Dr. R. D. Thomson found 147-6 grs., per 
Imperial gallon, of impurity in a well in London. (P. J. Tr., 1856, p. 27.) The presence of 
nitrates in water prevents the formation of organic beings, even after it has been long kept. 
Artesian or overflowing wells, from their great depth, generally afford a pure water. 
Lake water cannot be characterized as having any invariable qualities. The water of most 
of the lakes in the United States is pure and wholesome. 
Marsh water is generally stagnant, and contains vegetable remains undergoing decomposition. 
It is unwholesome, and ought never to he used internally. 
All water which is exposed to the air dissolves a quantity of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon 
dioxide, in obedience to the laws of gaseous absorption. It is indeed upon this dissolved 
oxygen that the life of water-breathing animals depends. In every pure water the pro- 
portion between the dissolved nitrogen and oxygen is found to be constant, and it is repre- 
sented by the following numbers:—oxygen 34 91, and nitrogen 65-09 per cent.: 1000 C.c. of 
pure water, such as rain water, when saturated dissolves 17‘95 C.c. of air. If the water be 
rendered impure by the introduction of organic matter undergoing oxidation, the proportion 
between the dissolved oxygen and nitrogen becomes different, owing to the oxygen having 
been partly or wholly used for the oxidation of this material. This is clearly shown in the 
following analysis made by Miller of the dissolved gases contained in Thames water collected 
at various points above and below London. 
Thames water taken at 
Kingston. 
Hammer- 
smith. 
Somerset 
House. 
Greenwich. 
Woolwich. 
Erith. 
C.c. 
C.c. 
C.c. 
C.c. 
C.c. 
C.c. 
Total volume of gas per liter 
52-7 
62-9 
71-25 
63-05 
74-3 
Carbon dioxide 
30-3 
45-2 
55-6 
48-3 
57-0 
Oxygen 
7-4 
4-1 
1*5 
0-25 
0-25 
1-8 
Nitrogen 
15-0 
15-1 
16-2 
15-4 
14-5 
15-5 
Ratio of oxygen to nitrogen 
1:2 
1:3-7 
1:10-5 
1:60 
1:52 
1:8*1 
This table shows that whereas the pure water at Kingston contains the normal quantity of 
dissolved oxygen, the ratio of nitrogen to oxygen increases at a very rapid rate as the river 
water becomes contaminated with London sewage, but that this ratio again shows signs of a 
return to the normal at Erith. Moreover, carbon dioxide should not constitute more than 
from 8 to 10 per cent, of the dissolved gases in a pure water, but in these cases it has become 
60 per cent, or over of the gases as obtained from the water for analysis. 
Hence it is clear that an analysis of the gases dissolved in water may prove of much help 
in ascertaining whether the water is pure or whether it has been contaminated with putrescent 
organic matter. Indeed, Miller concludes that whenever the proportion between dissolved 
oxygen and nitrogen falls to less than 1 to 2 the water is unfit for drinking purposes. (Roscoe 
and Schorlemmer, Treatise on Cliem., i. 245.) 
The second class of dissolved impurities are inorganic salts, even rain water washing some PART I. 
Aqua. 
197 
of these out of the atmosphere. It invariably contains ammoniacal salts, sodium chloride, 
and various organic germs. In towns the rain water also contains a larger proportion of nitrates 
than that falling in the country. It is, however, the spring waters especially which contain 
the largest amount of mineral matter in solution. The salts which most commonly occur in 
solution in spring water are: (1) The calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese carbonates, 
dissolved in an excess of carbonic acid. (2) The calcium and magnesium sulphates. (3) 
Alkaline carbonates, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates, or silicates. 
Spring waters which issue from considerable depths, or which originate in volcanic districts, are 
always hotter than the mean annual temperature of the locality where they come to the surface. 
The term Aqua, in the United States Pharmacopoeia, may be considered as designating any 
natural water of good quality which answers well for cooking and does not curdle soap. “ A 
colorless, limpid liquid, without odor or taste at ordinary temperatures, and remaining odorless 
while being heated to boiling. Water should be perfectly neutral to litmus paper, and its 
transparency should not be affected, nor should any color be imparted to it, by hydrogen sul- 
phide test-solution, or ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of metallic impurities). It. 
should also remain unaffected by mercuric chloride test-solution (limit of ammonia). On 
evaporating 1000 C.c. of Water on a water-bath, it should not leave a residue weighing more 
than 0-5 Gm. (limit of soluble salts'), and this residue, when ignited, should not carbonize, nor 
evolve ammoniacal or acid vapors. If 200 C.c. of water be acidulated with hydrochloric acid 
and heated to boiling, and 0-5 C.c. of barium chloride test-solution added, the liquid, cooled and 
filtered, should give no further precipitate on the addition of a few drops of barium chloride 
test-solution, even on standing (limit of sidphates). If 200 C.c. of Water be acidulated with 
nitric acid, and 0-5 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solution be added, the filtered 
liquid should not be affected by the subsequent addition of a few drops of silver nitrate test- 
solution (limit of chlorides). If 5 C.c. of Water mixed with a few drops of diphenylamine 
test-solution be carefully poured upon about 2 C.c. of sulphuric acid, free from nitrose, con- 
tained in a test-tube, so as to form a separate layer, no blue color should be formed at the line 
of contact of the two liquids (limit of nitrates). If 100 C.c. of Water be acidulated with 
diluted sulphuric acid free from nitrose, and a few drops of zinc-iodide-starch test-solution, 
subsequently added, the liquid should not at once assume a blue or violet color (absence of 
nitrites). On heating 100 C.c. of Water, acidulated with 10 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid, to 
boiling, and subsequently adding 0-5 C.c. of potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric 
solution, the color of the liquid should not be completely destroyed by boiling it for ten minutes 
(limit of organic or other oxidizable matters)." U. S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia no longer includes “ Aquait recognizes “ Aqua Destillata,” 
and gives appropriate tests. (See page 212.) 
Water should never be kept in leaden cisterns, on account of the risk of its dissolving a 
small portion of lead. This risk is greater in proportion to the softness and purity of the 
water; for it is found that the presence of a minute proportion of saline matter, as for exam- 
ple of calcium sulphate, protects the water from the slightest metallic impregnation. The 
chlorides are not protective, as they give rise to lead chloride, which is slightly soluble. The 
protection has been ascribed to an insoluble film on the surface of the lead, formed by the 
decomposition of the saline matter. Upon this principle is based a plan of protection by Dr. 
Schwartz, of Breslau, who proposes to fill leaden pipes through which water is conducted with 
a strong solution of an alkaline sulphide, which forms a perfectly insoluble coating of lead 
sulphide (sulphuret), said to be quite impermeable by the water afterwards introduced. ( Chem. 
News, Sept. 26, 1863, p. 157.) A coating of zinc has been employed for protecting the sur- 
face of iron pipes and reservoirs against the action of water, but has failed. Experiment has 
shown that the water becomes impregnated with the salts of both metals. (Ibid., April 5, 
1862, p. 188.)* Mr. A. Wynter Blyth proposes a new and simple test for lead in drinking- 
water. A solution of cochineal is made by boiling cochineal in water, filtering, and adding a 
little alcohol to preserve it. A few drops of this solution are added to the water, which, if 
* Experiments by M. Roux, pharmaceutist of the marine at Rochefort, made by order of the naval authorities, 
have satisfactorily shown that reservoirs of iron coated with zinc are attacked with great facility by water contained 
in them, which becomes more or less impregnated with both metals in the state of oxides and salts, and especially 
with those of zinc to such a degree as to render such vessels improper as recipients of water for drinking. Of the 
different kinds of water tried, distilled water deprived as far as possible of atmospheric air produced least effect; 
next in degree of action was spring water; still more energetic was distilled water containing carbonic acid fur- 
nished by the earthy bicarbonates of the water submitted to distillation; and more powerful than all was river water 
containing common salt. (Journ. de Pharm. et Ghim., 4e ser., i. 99.) 198 
Aqua. 
PART I. 
acid, must be rendered neutral by a trace of alkali; if lead be present, even in the propor- 
tion of one-tenth of a grain in a gallon of water, a mauve-blue color will develop, its depth 
depending upon the quantity of lead in the water. (Amer. Drug., 1884, p. 93, from The 
Analyst.) 
A very important class of dissolved impurities is made up of organic compounds. This or- 
ganic matter may be derived from a vegetable source, such as leaf-mould and the decomposi- 
tion products of wood, in which case it is practically harmless, or it may be derived from 
animal sources, in which case it almost always proves a serious impurity. 
The careful observations of students of public health leave no doubt that a number of 
epidemic diseases, especially cholera and typhoid fever, are often contracted and spread by 
means of drinking-water contaminated with germs of disease from excreta and general sewage. 
This impure water may be clear and may have filtered through considerable distances of soil, 
and yet may contain these poisonous germs. Now, nitrogen is one of the characteristic con- 
stituents of animal matter as contrasted with vegetable matter, relatively few forms of which 
contain it, and those are of a character not likely to be found in natural waters. Hence, if 
water should be impregnated with animal matter, this would be indicated by the presence of 
nitrogen in solution, either in the form of albumen or albuminous matter, if the animal matter 
in the water is still unchanged, or, if the animal matter has undergone oxidation, in the form 
of ammonia or nitrous or nitric acid. 
There are, therefore, to be determined in the examination of a water with reference to this 
presence of organic nitrogenous matter, (1) the ammonia, (2) the unchanged albuminous 
matter, which, as it is changed into and determined as ammonia, is called “ albuminoid 
ammonia,” and (3) the nitrates and nitrites present. 
The ammonia is first determined by distilling the water made alkaline with sodium carbon- 
ate as long as the distillate carries enough ammonia to be recognized by Nessler s solution* 
For this purpose the distillate is collected successively in volumes of 50 C.c. and the amount 
of ammonia in each of these separate distillates determined. The smallest quantity of am- 
monia will produce a yellow color, the tint of which is to be compared with that obtained 
from the Nessler solution treated with a standard sal ammoniac solution. 
After the free ammonia has been distilled off, a solution of caustic soda and potassium per- 
manganate is added and the distillation is continued. Another portion of ammonia now comes 
off, owing to the action of the permanganate on the nitrogenous organic matter. The amount 
of ammonia thus obtained is determined, and is tabulated as “ albuminoid ammonia,” because 
albumen is one of the bodies which is decomposed in this way. L. de Konnick found that 
the Nessler test in ammoniacal liquids does not produce the usual yellowish-brown precipitate, 
nor even a coloration, in the presence of alcohol. (Amer. Drug., 1893, p. 386.) 
Instead of this method, proposed by Wanklyn and Chapman, another process, described by 
Frankland and Armstrong, is often used. In this case, the water having been evaporated, the 
dry residue is submitted to an organic combustion analysis, which gives the “ organic nitrogen” 
and the “ organic carbon,” and the ratio of these gives an indication as to the presence of 
albuminous matter rich in nitrogen. If the amount of albuminoid nitrogen indicated by either 
of these processes exceed 0-15 part for one million of water, the latter should be rejected as 
a drinking-water. In some large towns, however, the surface well waters have shown albu- 
minoid nitrogen to the amount of 0-3 to 0-8 part per million. Such waters are little better 
than sewage. The free ammonia, moreover, should not exceed 0-08 part per million, or the 
water must be considered as containing sewage contamination. 
The nitrates and nitrites present can be estimated in another portion of the water by reducing 
these acids to ammonia by means of the hydrogen evolved from aluminum or zinc-dust in 
presence of caustic alkalies. 
The determination of chlorine is also frequently of great importance, for although mineral 
waters may be rich in chlorides, ordinary well waters or river waters, which are the chief sources 
of supply, will not contain much chlorine unless they have been contaminated. Both urine and 
sewage may contribute this chlorine, as they are highly charged with common salt. As a rule, 
it may be said that water containing more than two grains of chlorine per gallon must be looked 
upon with suspicion, unless some good reason for the presence of common salt can be assigned. 
* This solution is prepared as follows. 35 6m. of potassium iodide and 13 6m. of mercuric chloride (corrosive 
sublimate) are dissolved in about 800 C.c. of hot water, and then a saturated solution of mercuric chloride is gradu- 
ally added until the precipitate formed ceases to redissolve. 100 6m. of caustic potash are then dissolved in the 
liquid, and the cold solution is diluted to one liter and is allowed to deposit any undissolved matter. PART I. 
Aqua. 
199 
The following table shows the relative purity of the water-supply of several American cities, 
as determined by Pro£ A. R. Leeds in 1881: 
Parts in 100,000. 
New 
York. 
Brook- 
lyn. 
Jersey 
City. 
Phila- 
delphia. 
Boston. 
Wash- 
ington. 
Roch- 
ester. 
Cincin- 
nati. 
Free ammonia 
0-0027 
0-00075 
0-00475 
o-ooi 
0-01325 
0-006 
0-0114 
0-0115 
Albuminoid ammonia 
0-027 
0-00825 
0-0427 
0-018 
0-0605 
0-027 
0-023 
0-024 
Oxygen required 
0-81 
0-413 
0-95 
0-46 
1-77 
0-600 
0-790 
0-860 
Nitrites 
None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
Nitrates 
0-8325 
1-2025 
0-9065 
0-6845 
1-2395 
0-8325 
0-629 
0-740 
Colorine 
0-350 
0-550 
0-235 
0-300 
0-315 
0-270 
0-195 
0-805 
Total hardness 
3-300 
2-270 
3-200 
4-400 
2-100 
4-800 
5-500 
6-400 
Total solids 
11-800 
6-000 
9300 
14-300 
8-500 
11-500 
10-000 
16-000 
Mineral matter 
5-000 
5-000 
3-400 
6-00 
2-000 
5-500 
4-000 
9-000 
Organic and volatile matter 
6-800 
1-000 
5-900 
8-300 
6-500 
6-000 
6-000 
7-200 
Mineral Waters. When natural spring waters are so far impregnated with foreign 
substances as to have a decided taste, and to operate in a peculiar manner upon the econ- 
omy, they are called mineral waters. These are conveniently arranged under the heads of 
carbonated, alkaline, sulphuretted, saline (including magnesian, chalybeate, and chlorinated), and 
silicious. 
1. Carbonated waters are cold, and are characterized by containing an excess of carbonic 
acid, which gives them a sparkling appearance, and the power of reddening litmus paper. 
These waters frequently contain calcium, magnesium, and iron carbonates, which are held in 
solution by the excess of carbonic acid. The waters of Selters, Spa, Apollinaris, and Pyrmont 
in Europe, and of the sweet springs in Virginia, belong to this class. For Artificial Carbonic 
Acid Water, see page 201. 
2. Alkaline waters contain a large quantity of sodium bicarbonate, as well as common salt 
and Glauber’s salt. These are sometimes warm, such as the springs at Ems and Vichy, but 
generally cold. Gettysburg spring water is of this class. 
3. Sulphuretted waters are such as contain hydrogen sulphide, and are distinguished by the 
peculiar fetid smell of that gas, and by yielding a brown precipitate with the salts of lead or 
silver. Examples of this kind are the waters of Aix-la-Chapelle and Harrogate in Europe, and 
those of the white, red, and salt sulphur springs in Virginia. 
4. Saline waters are those the predominant properties of which depend upon saline impreg- 
nation. The salts most usually present are sodium, calcium, and magnesium sulphates and 
carbonates, in which latter case the name magnesian is given to them; the presence of the 
chlorides of these alkalies giving the class chlorinated waters, which reach their maximum 
concentration in sea waters; whilst the presence of ferrous salts makes another class, the 
chalybeate. Among magnesian waters may be mentioned those of Friedrichshall, Hunyadi 
Janos, and Epsom ; among chalybeate waters, those of Tunbridge and Brighton in England, 
of Pyrmont, Wiesbaden, and Spa on the continent, and of Bedford, Pittsburg, and Brandy- 
wine in the United States. Potassa is occasionally present, and lithia has been detected by 
Berzelius in Carlsbad and other salt springs of Germany, and is also found in some American 
spring waters. Caesia and rubidia have also been detected in certain mineral waters, such as 
die Durkheim and Baden-Baden waters, in the former of which these elements were first dis- 
:overed by Bunsen. Bromine is found in the saline at Theodorshalle, in Germany, as also in 
he salt wells of Western Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. The mineral springs at 
laratoga contain a small proportion of iodine and bromine. The principal saline waters are 
hose of Seidlitz in Bohemia, Cheltenham and Bath in England, and Harrodsburg and Saratoga 
l the United States. 
5. Silicious waters are those in which the contents consist chiefly of alkaline silicates, such 
a the hot spring waters of Iceland and the geysers of Fire-hole Basin and Gardiner’s River, 
Yellowstone National Park, U.S. 
Sea Water. English Channel. In a thousand grains. Water 964-744 grs.; sodium chloride 
2-059; potassium chloride 0-765; magnesium chloride 3-667; magnesium bromide 0-029; 
iagnesium sulphate 2-296; calcium sulphate 1-407; calcium carbonate 0-033. Total 1000 
gs. (Schweitzer.) The proportion of sodium chloride is from 36 to 37 parts in 1000 in the 
oean, at a distance from land. Its amount is small in the interior of the Baltic. It is per- 
cived that bromine is present in very minute amount; 100 pounds of sea water yielding only 
3 grs. of this element. According to Balard, iodine exists in the water of the Mediterranean ; 200 
Aqua. 
PART I. 
but it has not been detected in the water of the ocean, the bromine being supposed to mask its 
presence. Besides these ingredients, others are alleged to exist in minute proportion in sea 
water; as fluorine by Dr. G. Wilson; lead, copper, and silver by MM. Malaguti, Durocher, 
and Sarzeau; and iron and manganese by M. Uziglio. Anterior to Wilson’s researches, Mr. 
Middleton and Prof. Silliman, jun., had inferred the existence of fluorine in sea water, from 
its presence in marine animals. The lead and copper above mentioned were found in certain 
fuci only; the silver in the sea water itself. The presence of silver in sea water has been 
rendered probable by Mr. F. Field, by a comparative analysis of the same copper sheathing, 
when new, and after having been on a vessel for many years. The old sheathing was always 
found to contain more silver than the new (6TAem. Gaz., March 2, 1857); and the observa- 
tions of Mr. Field have been subsequently confirmed by others. Schweitzer’s analysis gives a 
small proportion of calcium carbonate, but Bibra could not detect any. Dr. John Davy’s ex- 
aminations of sea water show that calcium carbonate does not exist at a great distance from 
land, except in very minute proportion, but becomes quite evident at a distance of from fifty 
to a hundred miles from coasts. Boric acid has been found by Mr. Veatch in the sea water 
on the coast of California. (See A. J. P, 1860, p. 330.)* 
Sea water, filtered, and charged with five times its volume of carbonic acid, forms, according 
to Pasquier, a gentle purgative, which keeps very well, and is not disagreeable to take. The 
dose is from half a pint to a pint. 
By freezing, sea water is almost entirely freed from saline matter, the ice being nearly pure 
water. It is obvious that the unfrozen water contains much more than its ordinary proportion 
of salts; and this is one of the methods of concentrating this and other saline solutions. 
Medical Properties of Water. Water is a remedy of great importance. When taken 
into the stomach, it acts by its temperature, by its bulk, and by being absorbed. When of the 
temperature of about 15-5° C. (60° F.), it gives no positive sensation either of heat or cold; 
between 15-5° C. (60° F.) and 7-2° C. (45° F.), it creates a cool sensation; and below 7,2° C. 
(45° F.), a decidedly cold one. Between 15-5° C. (60° F.) and 37,7° C. (100° F.), it relaxes 
the fibres of the stomach, and is apt to produce nausea, particularly if the effect of bulk be 
added to that of temperature. By its bulk and solvent powers, it allays irritation by diluting 
the acrid contents of the stomach and bowels, and favoring their final expulsion; and by its 
absorption, it promotes the secretion of urine and cutaneous transpiration. 
Water externally applied as a bath is also an important remedy. It may act by its own 
specific effect as a liquid, or as a means of modifying the heat of the body. It acts in the 
latter way differently, according to the temperature at which it may be applied. When this is 
above 36-1° C. (97° F.), it constitutes the vapor or hot bath; when between 36T° C. (97° F.) 
and 29-4° C. (85° F.), the warm bath; between 29'40 C. (85° F.) and 18-3° C. (65° F.), the 
tepid bath; and between 18-3° C. (65° F.) and 0° C. (32° F.), the cold bath. 
The general action of the vapor bath is to accelerate the circulation, and produce profuse 
sweating. It acts locally on the skin, by softening and relaxing its texture. In stiffness of 
the joints, and in various diseases of the skin, it has often proved beneficial. 
The hot bath, like the vapor bath, is decidedly stimulant. By its use the pulse becomes full 
and frequent, the veins turgid, the face flushed, the skin red, and the respiration quickened. 
If the temperature be high, and the constitution peculiar, its use is not without danger, as it 
is apt to produce a feeling of suffocation, violent throbbing in the temples, and vertigo with 
tendency to apoplexy. When it acts favorably, it produces profuse perspiration. 
* The following analysis of sea water, taken at two leagues from F6camp, on the coast of France, merits specia 
notice from the care with which it was made, and the large quantity operated on. The sp. gr. was 1'026, at 57° F. 
Gaseous Contents, 
In one kilog. 
In one liter. 
Solid Contents. 
In one kilog. 
In one life 
liters. 
liters. 
Atmospheric air 
0-0123 
Sodium sulphate 
2-640: 
Free carbonic acid 
traces 
Magnesium sulphate 
0-335' 
“ sulphydric acid 
traces 
Magnesium phosphate 
. 0-00046 
o-ooor 
Solid Contents. 
Potassium chloride 
grs. 
grs. 
0*10019 
(Aramoniaco-magnesian) phosphate . 
Calcium carbonate 
. signs 
. 0*13600 
sigr 
0-139 
Sodium “ 
26-78913 
Magnesium “ 
trace 
Lithium “ 
0-00043 
Iron “ 
o-ooa 
Ammonium “ 
0-00183 
Manganese “ 
sigi 
Magnesium “ 
3-27700 
Silicic acid 
. 0-01420 
o-oi# 
Sodium iodide 
0-00944 
Organic matter 
sigj 
“ bromide 
. . 0-10605 
0-10882 
Pure water 
991-91.7 
Magnesium bromide 
0-03163 
Calcium sulphate 
Potassium “ 
0-92540 
Total 
1000 00000 
1026.300 
. . 0-00919 
0-00943 
(Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 
4e ser., i. 381 
1865.) PAET I. 
Aqua. 
201 
The warm bath, though below the animal heat, nevertheless produces a sensation of warmth, 
as its temperature is above that of the surface. It diminishes the frequency of the pulse, 
renders the respiration slower, lessens the heat of the body, and relaxes the skin. It cannot, 
therefore, be deemed a stimulant. By relieving certain diseased actions and states, accom- 
panied by morbid irritability, it often acts as a soothing remedy, producing a disposition to 
sleep. 
The tepid bath is not calculated to have much modifying influence on the heat of the body. 
Its peculiar effects are to soften and cleanse the skin, and to promote insensible perspiration. 
The cold bath acts differently according to its temperature and manner of application, and 
the condition of the system to which it is applied. When of low temperature and suddenly 
applied, it acts primarily as a stimulant, by the sudden and rapid manner in which the heat is 
abstracted ; next as a tonic, by condensing the living fibres; and finally as a sedative. It is 
often useful in diseases of relaxation and debility, when practised by affusion or plunging. 
But it is essential to its efficacy and safety that the stock of vitality should be sufficient to 
create, immediately after its use, those feelings of warmth and invigoration included under 
the term reaction. In febmle diseases with high bodily temperature the use of the cold bath 
is a very important therapeutic measure. For details as to method of use, see 10th edition of 
H. C. Wood’s Treatise on Therapeutics. 
Cold water is frequently applied as a sedative in local inflammations, and as a means of 
restraining hemorrhage. Its use, however, is scarcely admissible in inflammations of the chest. 
Aqua Acidi Carbonici, Carbonic Acid Water, or Soda Water (so called), {Aqua acidula 
simplicior, F. P.; Eau gazeuse simple, Fr.; Kohlensdure- Wasser, G_), which was formerly official 
in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, consists of water highly charged with carbonic acid. Water is 
found to take up its volume of this gas under the pressure of the atmosphere ; and Dr. Henry 
ascertained that precisely the same volume of the compressed gas is absorbed under a higher 
pressure. From this law, the bulk taken up is constant, the quantity being different in pro- 
portion as there is more or less driven into a given space. As the space occupied by a gas is 
inversely as the compressing force, it follows that the quantity of the acid forced into the 
water will be directly as the pressure. From the principles above laid down it follows that, 
to saturate water with five times its volume of carbonic acid, as directed in the formula, it 
must be subjected to a pressure of five atmospheres. Carbonic acid gas compressed into the 
liquid state is now supplied by the “American Carbonate Co.” of New York, and its agencies, 
in wrought-iron cylinders, which contain either 10 or 20 pounds of compressed gas, equal to 
600 or 1200 gallons of gas at normal pressure. This allows of convenient transportation, and 
guarantees the purity of the gas. 
Carbonic acid water is familiarly called in this country “ mineral water” and 11 soda water f" 
the latter name, originally applied to the preparation when it contained sodium carbonate, being 
from habit continued since the alkali has been omitted. 
Carbonic acid water is dispensed in most of the pharmacies in this country. The fountain 
is usually placed in the cellar, and the tube proceeding from the fountain is made to pass through 
the floor and counter of the store, and to terminate in a draught tube, by means of which the 
carbonic acid water may be drawn off at pleasure. In order to have the liquid cool, the tube 
from the cellar generally terminates in a strong metallic vessel of convenient shape, or a series 
of block tin pipes called coolers, placed inside the counter apparatus, and surrounded with ice. 
For some practical suggestions upon the making of carbonic acid water and use of apparatus, 
see N. R., June, July, August, 1877. 
Properties. Carbonic acid water is a sparkling liquid, possessing an agreeable pungent, 
acidulous taste. It reddens litmus deeply from its state of concentration, and is precipitated by 
lime water. Being impregnated with a large quantity of the acid gas under the influence of 
pressure, it effervesces strongly when freed from restraint. Hence, to preserve its briskness, it 
should be kept in strong well-corked bottles placed inverted in a cool place. Several natural 
waters are of a similar nature, such as those of Selters, Spa, Pyrmont, Apollinaris, etc. ; 
but the artificial water has the advantage of a stronger impregnation with the acid gas. Car- 
bonic acid water should he made with every precaution to avoid metallic impurity. Hence the 
necessity of having the fountain well tinned on the inner surface. Even with this precaution, 
a slight metallic impregnation is not always avoided, especially in the winter season, when the 
water is less consumed as a drink, and, therefore, allowed to remain longer in the tubes and 
stop-cocks. Iron fountains lined with a hard enamel are greatly to be preferred, but the best 
fountains are now made of cast steel, lined with block tin. When leaden tubes are employed 202 
Aqua.—Ammonia. 
PART I. 
to convey the water, it is liable to be contaminated with this metal, which renders it deleterious. 
Tubes of pure tin are free from objection, and should be exclusively used. 
Copper fountains, well tinned, are liable to the objections that the tin lining wears away by 
use, and that there is no convenient means of inspecting the interior, owing to the solder joint 
which permanently unites the two sections of the fountain. To remove the latter objection, 
the improvement has been proposed by Dr. R. 0. Doremus, of New York, of having the two 
sections with flanges, securely bolted together, with intervening gutta-percha packing, in order 
to furnish facilities for examining the interior, to determine whether re-tinning is necessary. 
Sometimes drops of solder and chips of copper are carelessly left in the fountain, and form an 
additional source of danger. There can be no doubt that carbonic acid water is not unfre- 
quently rendered poisonous by metallic impregnation. Dr. Doremus has proved by a chemical 
examination that lead and copper are sometimes present. (A. J. P., 1854, p. 422 ; from the 
Am. Med. Monthly.) Dr. John T. Plummer, of Richmond, Ind., has found lead. The latter 
metal is detected by hydrogen sulphide, which gives with it a black precipitate, and copper 
by potassium ferrocyanide, which causes a brown precipitate. In testing for copper, a few 
drops of the reagent should be added to a glass of the suspected water, placed on a sheet of 
white paper, when, if even a minute proportion of copper be present, a brownish discoloration 
will be seen, upon looking down through the liquid. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Carbonic acid water is a grateful drink to febrile 
patients, allaying thirst, lessening nausea and gastric distress, and promoting the secretion of 
urine. The quantity taken need only be regulated by the reasonable wishes of the patient. 
It also forms a very convenient vehicle for the administration of magnesia, the carbonated 
alkalies, magnesium sulphate, and the saline cathartics generally; rendering these medicines 
less unpleasant to the palate, and, in irritable states of the stomach, increasing the chances of 
their being retained. When used for this purpose, six or eight fluidounces (178-236 C.c.) 
will be sufficient. 
AMMONIA. Ammonia. 
NH3; 17*1. (AM-MO'NI-A.) NHS; 17. 
All the ammoniacal compounds owe their distinctive properties to the presence of a peculiar 
gaseous substance, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, called ammonia. This is most easily 
obtained by the action of lime on ammonium chloride, or sal ammoniac,—when the lime 
unites with the hydrochloric acid, so as to form calcium chloride and water, and expels the 
ammonia. It is transparent and colorless, like common air, but possesses an acrid taste and 
an exceedingly pungent smell. It has a powerful alkaline reaction, and, from this property and 
its gaseous nature, was called the volatile alkali by the earlier chemists. Itssp. gr. is 059. It 
is irrespirable, the glottis closing spasmodically when the attempt is made to breathe it. It 
consists of one atom of nitrogen and three of hydrogen; or, in volumes, of one volume of 
nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, condensed into two. Its formula is NH3. The 
sources of ammonia have been mentioned elsewhere (see Ammonii Chloridum, p. 157), but a 
synthesis of ammonia from simple elements may be noted here. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and aque- 
ous vapor in the presence of porous contact substances like pumice, charcoal, etc., unite to form 
ammonia, and this, in the presence of CO and C02, gives rise to ammonium formate or carbonate. 
As the gas ammonia exists in the free state, the molecule NH3 is a definite saturated com- 
pound under ordinary conditions. When, however, ammonia gas is mixed with hydrochloric 
acid gas or its aqueous solution with hydrochloric acid in solution, the two unite to form a new 
compound, NII4C1, which proves to be a definite compound, analogous to potassium or sodium 
chlorides. Berzelius, therefore, proposed to call this ammonium chloride, assuming that the 
monad group (NHj)1 acted like the monad metal K‘ in forming compounds. And in fact 
we find that when sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and other acids are neutralized by ammonia 
gas or solution we get crystallizable salts like (NH4)2S04,NH4N03 and (NH4)2C03, which we 
therefore call ammonium sulphate, nitrate, and carbonate respectively. These are very similar 
to the corresponding potassium and sodium salts. 
The atmosphere contains a minute proportion of ammonia, probably in the state of carbon- 
ate. The alkali is sometimes also found in snow. (A. Vogel, Neues Repert. fur Pharm., 1872.) 
Ozonized oxygen oxidizes the elements of ammonia, producing water and nitric acid, which 
latter, by uniting with undecomposed ammonia, generates ammonium nitrate. Ordinary oxy- 
gen, under the influence of platinum-black, or finely-divided copper, likewise oxidizes the ele- 
ments of ammonia, the nitrogen to the extent only of forming nitrous acid, with the result of 
producing ammonium nitrite. PAET I. 
Aqua Ammonise. 
203 
AQUA AMMONITE. U. S. (Br.) Ammonia Water. 
(A'QUA AM-MO'NI-^E.) 
“An aqueous solution of Ammonia [NH?= 1701] containing 10 per cent., by weight, of 
the gas. Ammonia Water should be kept m glass-stoppered bottles, in a cool place.” U. S. 
“ An aqueous solution containing 10 per cent, by weight of ammonia, NH3.” Br. 
Liquor Ammonias, Br.; Solution of Ammonia; Water of Ammonia; Liquor Ammonii Caustici, P.G.; Spiritus 
Salis Ammoniaci Causticus, Ammonia Aqua Soluta; Ammoniaque liquide, Eau (Solution, Liqueur) d’Ammoniaque, 
Fr.; Salmiakgeist, Aetzammoniak, Ammoniak-Fliissigkeit, G. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 omits a process of preparing Ammonia Water. The 
U. S. P. 1870 contains an excellent process, which is appended.* 
“ Strong Solution of Ammonia, 1 pint (Imperial measure) or 500 cubic centimetres; Dis- 
tilled Water, 2 pints (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Mix.” Br. 
The title of this preparation was changed, at the revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia in 
1860, from Liquor Ammoniae to Aqua Ammoniae, that it might conform in name as well as 
character with the Waters, among which all the official preparations consisting of aqueous solu- 
tions of gaseous bodies are included. In the revision of 1890 the English name was changed 
from Water of Ammonia to Ammonia Water. 
In the U. S. P. 1870 process, the ammonium chloride is decomposed by the superior affinity 
of the lime for its acid, ammonia is disengaged, and the lime, combining with the acid, forms 
calcium chloride and water, 2NH4C1 -(- Ca2HO — CaCl2 -f- 2HaO -|- 2NH3. The process 
differs from that of 1850 in introducing the materials into the retort with a large quantity of 
water, instead of in the dry state. In both cases the gas is driven over by heat, but in the 
moist plan is accompanied with more watery vapor than in the dry. If the object were to 
obtain ammonia water in the highest possible state of concentration, there might be some 
advantage in the dry method; but, as a weak solution is contemplated, the wet method is 
equally efficient, while in all respects it is more convenient, and productive of better results) 
for, according to Dr. Squibb, the ammonia water made by the older official process has in- 
variably an empyreumatic odor, from which that made by the present process is free. (Proc. 
A. P. A., 1858, p. 407.) The receiver is intended to retain any water holding in solution 
undecomposed chloride, or the oily matter sometimes contained in the salt, as well as other 
impurities, which may be driven over by the heat while the pure gas passes forward into the 
bottle containing the distilled water, which should not fill it, on account of the increase in the 
bulk of the water during the absorption of the gas. The tube should extend to near the 
bottom of the bottle, and pass through a cork loosely fitting its mouth. To prevent the 
regurgitation of the water from the bottle into the intermediate vessel, the latter should be 
furnished with a Welter's safety tube. Very large bottles are improper for keeping the am- 
monia water; as, when they are partially empty, the atmospheric air within them may furnish 
a little carbonic acid to the ammonia. 
In preparing solution of ammonia, equal weights of ammonium chloride and lime are used 
for generating the gaseous ammonia. This proportion gives a great excess of lime, compared 
with the quantity required if determined by the molecular weights ; but in practice it is found 
advantageous to have an excess, as well to insure the full decomposition of the ammonium 
chloride, as to make up for accidental impurities in the lime. 
The British Pharmacopoeia gives directions for diluting Liquor Ammoniae Fortior so as to 
reduce it to the strength of Liquor Ammoniae. This is effected by mixing one measure of 
their stronger preparation with two measures of distilled water. The ammonia water of com- 
merce is known as “ Aqua Ammoniae F. F. F.,” or “ 20° ammonia;” it may be diluted by 
adding 2 parts of water to 3 parts of 20° ammonia water to make official ammonia water. 
Ammonia water of other strengths may be diluted by consulting the table given on page 204, 
and applying the rules given in Remingtons Practice of Pharmacy, p. 91. 
Properties. Ammonia water is “ a colorless, transparent liquid, having a very pungent 
* “ Take of Chloride of Ammonium, in small pieces, Lime, each, twelve troyounces ; Water six pints ; Distilled 
Water a sufficient quantity. Pour a pint of the Water upon the Lime, in a convenient vessel; and, after it has 
slaked, stir the mixture so as to bring it to the consistence of a smooth paste. Then add the remainder of the Water, 
and mix the whole thoroughly together. Decant the milky liquid from the gritty sediment into a glass retort, of 
the capacity of sixteen pints, and add the Chloride of Ammonium. Place the retort on a sand-bath, and adapt to 
it a receiver purposely connected with a two-pint bottle, by means of a glass tube, reaching nearly to the bottom of 
the bottle, and containing a pint of Distilled Water. Surround the bottle with ice-cold water; and apply heat, 
gradually increased, until ammonia ceases to come over. Remove the liquid from the bottle, and add to it sufficient 
Distilled Water to raise its specific gravity to 0'960. Lastly, keep the liquid in small bottles, well stopped.” U. S■ 204 
Aqua Ammoniae. 
PART I. 
odor, an acrid, alkaline taste, and a strongly alkaline reaction. Specific gravity, 0-960 at 15° C. 
(59° F.). It is completely volatilized by the heat of a water-bath. On bringing a glass rod 
dipped into hydrochloric acid near the liquid, dense, white fumes are evolved. On slightly 
supersaturating 10 C.c. of Ammonia Water with diluted sulphuric acid, no empyreumatic odor 
or red color should be developed, and if to this liquid 1 C.c. of potassium permanganate centi- 
normal volumetric solution be added, the pink color should not be completely destroyed within 
ten minutes (absence of readily oxidizable matters). If Ammonia Water be mixed with 4 
times its volume of calcium hydrate test-solution, it should not afford an immediate turbidity 
(only minute traces of carbonic acid) ; and if it be diluted with twice its volume of water, it 
should not be affected by ammonium oxalate test-solution (absence of calcium), nor should it 
be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, either before or after neutralization with hydro- 
chloric acid (absence of metallic impurities). If Ammonia Water be slightly supersaturated 
with nitric acid, it should not be affected by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sul- 
phates), nor by silver nitrate test-solution (chlorides) ; and if a third portion of the acidulated 
liquid be evaporated on a water-bath to dryness, it should afford a colorless residue, which, on 
ignition, should be completely volatilized (absence of coal-tar bases, and of fixed impurities). 
To neutralize 3-4 Grm. (3 54 C.c.) of Ammonia Water should require 20 C.c. of normal sul- 
phuric acid (each C.c. corresponding to 0-5 per cent, of Ammonia), rosolic acid being used as 
indicator.” U. S. Of the British preparation, “Each gramme should require for neutraliza- 
tion 5-9 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sulphuric acid. It should respond, 
qualitatively, to the characters and tests described under ‘ Liquor Ammoniae Fortis.’ Specific 
gravity 0-959.” Br. 
Ammonia Water is incompatible with acids, and with acidulous and many earthy and 
metallic salts; but it does not decompose the salts of lime, baryta, or strontia, and only par- 
tially decomposes those of magnesia. Commercial solution of ammonia sometimes contains 
pyrrol, naphtalin, aniline, and pyridine. These may be detected by the solution being red- 
dened by nitric acid, and, after having been supersaturated with hydrochloric acid, by its tinge- 
ing a slip of fir wood of a rich purple color, characteristic of pyrrol. (Maclagan.) The source 
of these impurities is coal-gas liquor, from which the ammoniacal compounds are largely 
obtained. Donath (Dingier's Polytechnisches Journal, vol. iv. p. 229) tested some ammonia 
prepared from gas liquor by neutralizing with diluted sulphuric acid, when the liquid assumed 
a rose-color, and a solution of the sulphate emitted the characteristic odor of naphtalin. 
Composition. Water is capable of absorbing 670 times its volume of ammoniacal gas 
at 10° C. (50° F.), and increases in bulk about two-thirds. But the official solution of am- 
monia is by no means a saturated one. Thus, the ammonia contained in the U. S. preparation 
is about 10 per cent. The following table gives the percentage of ammoniacal gas in aqueous 
solutions of different densities at the temperature of 15° C. (Lunge.) 
Per cent, 
of 
Ammonia. 
Specific Gravity 
. 15° .C. 
at 4& 
in air. 
Per cent, 
of 
Ammonia. 
Specific Gravity 
. 15° C. 
at -jFa 
in air. 
Per cent, 
of 
Ammonia. 
Specific Gravity 
. 15° C. 
a* 4° C. 
in air. 
Per cent, 
of 
Ammonia. 
Specific Gravity 
. 15° C. 
at 4° C. 
in air. 
o-oo 
1-000 
7-82 
0-968 
16-22 
0-938 
25-65 
0-908 
0-45 
0-998 
8-33 
0-966 
16-82 
0-936 
26-31 
0-906 
0-91 
0-996 
8-84 
0-964 
17-42 
0-934 
26-98 
0-904 
1-37 
0-994 
9-35 
0-962 
18-03 
0-932 
27-65 
0-902 
1-84 
0-992 
9-91 
0-960 
18-64 
0-930 
28-00 
0-9009 
2-31 
0-990 
10-00 
0-9597 
19-25 
0-928 
28-33 
0-900 
2-80 
0-988 
10-47 
0-958 
19-87 
0-926 
29-01 
0-898 
3-30 
0-986 
11-03 
0-956 
20-00 
0-9256 
29.69 
0-896 
3*80 
0-984 
11-60 
0-954 
20-49 
0-924 
30-00 
0-8951 
4-30 
0-982 
12-17 
0-952 
21-12 
0-922 
30-37 
0-894 
4-80 
0-980 
12-74 
0-950 
21-75 
0-920 
31-05 
0-892 
5-00 
0-9792 
13-31 
0-948 
22-39 
0-918 
31-75 
0-890 
5-30 
0-978 
13-88 
0-946 
23-03 
0-916 
32-50 
0-888 
5-80 
0-976 
14-46 
0-944 
23-68 
0-914 
33-25 
0-886 
6*30 
0-974 
15-00 
0-9421 
24-33 
0-912 
34-10 
0-884 
6-80 
0-972 
15-04 
0-942 
24-99 
0-910 
34-95 
0-882 
7-31 
0-970 
15-63 
0-940 
25-00 
0-9099 
Medical Properties and Uses. When brought into contact with living tissue, am- 
monia acts as a stimulant, irritant, or caustic, according to the strength of its solution. When PART I. 
Aqua Ammonise.—Aqua Ammoniae Fortior. 
205 
applied to the skin, it may excite simply burning pain and redness, but in the form even of the 
present preparation, if the contact be sufficiently maintained, it is capable of destroying the 
whole dermal tissue; taken internally in a concentrated form, it acts as a violent corrosive 
poison, and may cause rapidly fatal gastro-enteritis, with the destruction of the visceral coats. 
In some cases it has produced death in a few minutes by entering the larynx and causing 
oedema, with consequent suffocation. When taken internally in therapeutic doses its action 
is immediate, and continues but for a few moments. In the stomach it acts as a stimulant 
antacid, and is often useful in heartburn, sick headache, etc. After absorption it stimulates most 
powerfully the circulation and respiration, affecting especially the heart and respiratory centres. 
By full doses the respiratory rate and the arterial pressure are for a few moments enormously 
increased. Toxic doses are directly paralyzant to the heart muscle, and may cause, if injected 
into a vein, immediate diastolic arrest of the heart. According to Bence Jones, ammonia is 
oxidized in the system, with the formation of nitric acid, which is eliminated by the kidneys. 
Ammonia water is a valuable remedy in all forms of sudden syncope. The injection of 
ammonia into a vein was brought forward by Prof. G. B. Halford, of Melbourne, as a specific 
against the poison of serpents, and some evidence has been adduced as to its value. As long 
ago, however, as 1782, Fontana published at Florence a series of experiments showing the use- 
lessness of such injections as a remedy for snake-bite, and more recently the subject has been 
investigated in India by Sir Joseph Fayrer (.Indian Annals Med. Sci., 1872), and by a Royal 
Commission (Lancet, Sept. 1874), with the result of completely establishing the truth of the 
experiments and conclusions of Fontana. In collapse following severe accident, or in sudden 
cardiac failure from other acute cause, the intravenous injection of aqua ammoniae has been 
of the greatest service in arousing the action of the heart. Half a drachm to a drachm 
diluted with half an ounce to an ounce of water may be slowly thrown directly into a vein. In 
some cases the drug has been simply used hypodermically, but is almost certain to cause severe 
local symptoms. On account of its cheapness, ammonia water is much used as an ingredient 
in liniments, especially combined with olive or other oil. The internal dose is from ten to 
thirty drops (0-6-1-9 C.c.), largely diluted. 
AQUA AMMONITE FORTIOR. U. S. (Br.) Stronger Ammonia Water. 
(A'QUA am-mo'ni-a: for'ti-or.) 
“An aqueous solution of Ammonia [NH3 = 17-01] containing 28 per cent., by weight, of 
the gas. Stronger Ammonia Water should be kept in strong, glass-stoppered bottles, not com- 
pletely filled, in a cool place.” U. S. “ An aqueous solution containing 32-5 per cent, by weight 
of ammonia, NH3. It may be obtained by heating a mixture of ammonium chloride and 
slaked lime, and passing the resulting ammonia into distilled water.” Br. 
Liquor Ammouiae Fortis, Br., Strong Solution of Ammonia; Eau d’Ammoniaque forte, Fr.; Starker Sal- 
miakgeist, G. 
This preparation is too strong for internal exhibition, but forms a convenient ammoniacal 
solution for reduction, by dilution with two measures of distilled water, to the strength of 
ordinary Ammonia Water (Aqua Ammoniae), or for preparing strong rubefacient liniments. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia does not give a process. The process of the British Pharmacopoeia 
(1885) will be found in detail in the U. S. D., 17th ed., p. 202. 
Ammonia Water is seldom made by the formula of the Pharmacopoeia, but is prepared on a 
large scale, from one of the products of the coal-gas manufacture, by the following more eco- 
nomical process. Gas liquor is distilled, and the distillate, which is principally ammonium 
sulphide, is converted into ammonium sulphate by sulphuric acid. The rough sulphate is then 
gently distilled with milk of lime, the still being connected with a series of glass carboys, 
arranged like Woulf’s bottles, and three-fourths filled with distilled water. In this way solu- 
tion of ammonia may be obtained of maximum strength. 
Properties of Aqueous Ammonia of Maximum Strength. This is a colorless 
liquid, of an acrid taste and very pungent smell. It is strongly alkaline, and immediately 
changes turmeric, when held over its fumes, to reddish brown. Cooled to 40° F. below zero, 
it concretes into a gelatinous mass, and at 54° C. (130° F.) boils, owing to the rapid disen- 
gagement of the gas. Its sp. gr. is 0-875 at 10° C. (50° F.). Anhydrous ammonia is said to 
dissolve metallic sodium, and the solution is intensely blue. ( Chem. News, Nov. 4,1870, p. 217.) 
Properties of the Official Stronger Ammonia Water. This has similar properties 
to those above mentioned. Its sp.gr. is 0-901, TJ. S., 0-§91 ,Br. When of the former density, 206 
Aqua Ammoniae Fortior. 
PART I. 
it contains 28 per cent, of the gas ; when of the latter, 32*5 per cent.* “ To neutralize 1-7 Gm. 
(1-88 C.c.) of Stronger Ammonia Water should require 28 C.c. of normal sulphuric acid (each 
C.c. corresponding with 1 per cent, of ammonia), rosolic acid being used as indicator.” U. S. 
The stronger ammonia water of commerce usually ranges in density from 0-900 to 0-920. 
Even when of proper official strength at first, it generally becomes weaker by the escape of 
ammonia. To prevent its deterioration, it should be kept in closely-stoppered bottles in a cool 
place. If precipitated by lime water it contains carbonic acid. After having been saturated 
with nitric acid, a precipitate by ammonium carbonate indicates earthy impurity, by silver 
nitrate, a chloride, and by barium chloride, a sulphate. “ When mixed with an equal volume 
of water, with the addition of a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, no color or odor should be 
developed (absence of tarry matters). It should not yield any characteristic reaction with the 
tests for arsenium, lead, iron, aluminium, zinc, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, car- 
bonates, sulphates, or sulphides, and only the slightest reactions with the tests for chlorides. 
Specific gravity 0-891. Each gramme should require for neutralization 19-1 cubic centimetres 
of the volumetric solution of sulphuric acid." Br. 
When purchasing the Stronger Solution of Ammonia, the apothecary should not trust to its 
being of the official strength, but should ascertain the point by taking its density, either by 
the specific gravity bottle or the hydrometer. Another method of ascertaining its density is 
by the ammonia-meter of Mr. J. J. Griffin, of London, described and figured in P. J. Tr. (x. 
413). Although the U. S. Pharmacopoeia states that “ if stronger ammonia water be diluted 
with twice its volume of water it should respond to the reactions and tests described under 
Ammonia Water,” it will be usually found in practice that two volumes of water will be too 
much ; in any event it would be safer to use a smaller quantity of water (one and a half 
volumes), and, if the mixture should not have the sp. gr. 0-960, it should be brought to that 
density by the addition either of the stronger solution or of distilled water, as the case may 
require. “ Stronger Ammonia Water should be kept in strong glass-stoppered bottles, not 
completely filled, in a cool place.” U. S. Great care should he exercised in opening these bottles. 
It is safer, if the ammonia water has been kept in a warm room, to cool it with ice before 
attempting to withdraw the stopper, as the liberated gas, when warm, oftentimes is forced out 
with extreme violence, and accidents resulting in injury to the sight of the operator are recorded. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This solution is too strong for medical use in its 
unmixed state. Sufficiently diluted with spirit of camphor and rosemary, it has been much 
employed as a prompt and powerful rubefacient, vesicatory, or escharotic, in various neuralgic, 
gouty, rheumatic, spasmodic, and inflammatory affections in which strong and speedy 
irritation is indicated. When mere rubefaction is desired, a mixture may be used composed of 
five fluidounces of the ammoniacal liquid and eight of the diluent liquid ; and this will answer 
even for blistering or cauterizing, unless a very prompt effect be necessary. In the latter case 
a lotion may be resorted to consisting of five measures of the ammoniacal to three of the 
diluent liquid. These mixtures are applied by means of linen folded several times, or a thick 
piece of flannel saturated with the liniment. A convenient mode is to fill the wooden cover 
of a large pill- or ointment-box, an inch or two in diameter, with patent lint, saturate this with 
the liquid, and press it upon the part. The ammonia is thus prevented from escaping, and a 
definite boundary given to the inflammation. The application will generally produce rubefac- 
tion in from one to eight minutes, vesication in from three to ten minutes, and a caustic effect 
in a somewhat longer time. 
When a solution of ammonia of 25° (sp. gr. 0-905) is mixed with fatty matter, the mixture 
forms the vesicating ammoniacal ointment of Dr. Gondret. The revised formula of this oint- 
ment is as follows. Take of lard 32 parts, oil of sweet almond 2 parts. Melt them together 
by the gentle heat of a candle or lamp, and pour the melted mixture into a bottle with a wide 
mouth. Then add 17 parts of solution of ammonia of 25°, and mix with continued agitation 
until the whole is cold. The ointment must be preserved in a bottle with a ground stopper, 
and kept in a cool place. When well prepared, it vesicates in ten minutes. There may be 
danger of excessive irritation and inflammation of the nostrils, mouth, and air-passages, from 
the inadvertent inhalation of the gas escaping from a bottle of the stronger water of ammonia, 
when freshly opened; and serious consequences have occurred from this cause, or from the 
accidental breaking of the bottle. The best antidote, under these circumstances, would be the 
inhalation of the vapors of vinegar or acetic acid. 
* This percentage (32-5) corresponds, according to Lunge, with ammonia water of sp. gr. 0-888 instead of 0-891. Aqua Amygdalae Amarae.—Aqua Anisi. 
207 
part i. 
AQUA AMYGDALA AMARJE. U. S. Bitter Almond Water. 
(A'QUA A-MYG'DA-L2E A-MA'R.E.) 
Aqua Amygdalarum Amararum, P.G.; Eau d’Amandes ameres, Fr.; Bittermandelwasser, G. 
“ Oil of Bitter Almond, one cubic centimeter [or 16 minims] ; Distilled Water, nine hundred 
and ninety-nine cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 fluidrachms, 14 minims], To make one 
thotisand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms]. Dissolve the Oil in the Distilled 
Water by agitation, and filter through a well-wetted filter.” U. S. 
Owing to the almost universal employment at this time (1898) of artificial oil of bitter 
almond (or benzaldehyde), which is free from hydrocyanic acid (such oil being much cheaper 
than that made from bitter almond), the bitter almond water of pharmacy cannot be relied 
upon as a medicinal agent, but is used exclusively as a pleasant vehicle. This must be regarded 
as a fortunate circumstance, because the proportion of hydrocyanic acid was very variable in 
the former bitter almond water, and doubt and uncertainty about its action always prevailed. 
Notwithstanding these facts, care must he exercised not to prescribe a larger dose to begin 
with than two teaspoonfuls (7'5 C.c.), lest the water should have been made from the 
poisonous oil of bitter almond* Its principal use in this country is as a vehicle, many phy- 
sicians prescribing it not for its medicinal virtues, but on account of its agreeable taste and 
powers of masking the taste of saline substances. Under the same name, a preparation has 
been much used on the continent of Europe, prepared by distilling bitter almonds with water.f 
This when fresh is much stronger than the preparation of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, containing, 
according to an analysis of Geiger, in 1000 parts, 1-2 parts of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid. 
But, in consequence either of circumstances in the manner of its preparation, or of changes 
upon being kept, it is of variable and uncertain strength, and cannot be relied on.| It has been 
prescribed with fatal effects; and the greatest caution, therefore, should be observed by the 
apothecary not to dispense the distilled bitter almond water instead of the official. 
AQUA ANETHI. Br. Dill Water. 
(A'QUA A-NE'THI.) 
Eau d’Aneth, Fr.; Dillwasser, G. 
“ Dill Fruit, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes : Water, 2 gallons (Imp. meas.) or 10 
litres. Distil one-half.” Br. 
This water, which is frequently prescribed in Great Britain, is occasionally used here; it 
closely resembles caraway water, over which it has no advantages. 
AQUA ANISI. U. S., Br. Anise Water. 
(A'QUA A-NI'Sl.) 
Eau d’Anis, Fr.; Aniswasser, G. 
“ Oil of Anise, two cubic centimetres [or 32 minims] ; Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, four 
grammes [or 62 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic cen- 
* Under the name of chloral hydrocyanate a substance has been introduced for making cherry-laurel and bitter 
almond water extemporaneously. It occurs in white, translucent, rhombic prisms, soluble in water, alcohol, and 
ether. It has the odor of hydrocyanic acid and chloral, and is said to be a very stable compound. A solution of 
6‘5 grains of the salt in 1000 grains of distilled water corresponds with the official bitter almond water of the Ger- 
man Pharmacopoeia, which is 1 to 1000. (Merck’s Bulletin.) 
f Preparation of Bitter Almond Water (Distilled). H. C. Vielhaber powders ten pounds of bitter almonds as 
finely as possible, separates the fatty oil, which usually amounts to 36 to 38 per cent., by strong pressure, and 
reduces the almond press-cake to a very fine powder; a quantity of this corresponding to two pounds of almonds is 
then distilled with water (without alcohol) until about 500 grammes of distillate have been obtained, when the 
receiver is disconnected, and another receiver attached, and the distillation continued as long as the presence of 
hydrocyanic acid can be recognized by its odor and taste in the distillate; this second distillate is then used in the 
place of distilled water for distilling another two-pound lot of the almonds, and the operation continued thus, always 
collecting the first and second distillates separately and utilizing the latter for distilling the next lot, until all tbe 
press-cake has been subjected to distillation; the first distillates are mixed, and also the second. The author thus 
obtained from 10 pounds of almonds about 5 pounds of first and 9 to 10 pounds of second distillate, the former con- 
taining a large percentage of volatile almond oil, which is dissolved by adding the official (Ph. Germ.) percentage 
of alcohol (about £ of its weight) to the distillate. The percentage of hydrocyanic acid is then determined in tbe 
first and second distillates, and sufficient of the latter added to the former to reduce it to the official strength (one- 
tenth of one per cent.). (Archiv d. Pharm., May, 1879, p. 409; A. J. P., July, 1879.) G. A. Zwick prepares distilled 
bitter almond water by breaking up 12 pounds of peach kernels in a mill, then powdering finely, expressing 25 per 
cent, of fixed oil, powdering the press-cake, introducing this into a still, with water, reserving the first forty fluid- 
ounces of distillate, this having been shown by assay to contain the proper amount of hydrocyanic acid, one per 
mille. (A. J. P., 1881. See also Pharm. Post, 1894, 193; Zeitschr. fur Anal. Chem., 1894, 193.) 
J For a method of determining the amount of hydrocyanic acid in bitter almond water, see Archiv d. Pharm., 
Nov. 1878, 408; A. J. P., Feb. 1879; Zeitschr. Oest. Apoth. Ver., 1893, 45, 344, 387, 391. Aqua Aurantii Florum. 
208 
PART I. 
timeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6$ fluidrachms]. Triturate the Oil of Anise with the precipitated 
Calcium Phosphate, add the Water gradually, under constant trituration, and filter.” U. S. 
“Anise Fruit, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Water, 2 gallons (Imp. meas.) or 10 
litres. Distil one-half.” Br. 
Anise water is rarely made by distillation, although the product thus secured has a more 
delicate flavor than the U. S. preparation. It is used solely as a vehicle. 
AQUA AURANTII FLORUM. U. S. (Br.) Orange Flower Water. 
(A'QUA AU-RXn'TI-I FLO'RUM—au-ran'sh§-i.) 
“ The orange-flower water of commerce, prepared by distillation from the flowers of the 
Bitter Orange tree, Citrus Aurantium, var. Bigaradia, diluted, immediately before use, with 
twice its volume of Distilled Water.” Br. 
Aqua Aurantii Floris, Br., Orange Flower Water; Aqua Florum Naphae; Eau (Hydrolat) distillee de Fleurs 
d’Oranger, Eau de Naphe, Fr.; Orangenbliithenwasser, G. 
“ Stronger Orange Flower Water, Distilled Water, of each, one volume. Mix them imme- 
diately before use.” U. S. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia, 1890, has introduced “ Stronger Orange Flower Water,” providing 
for its dilution with an equal volume of distilled water to make “ orange flower water.” This 
plan enables American pharmacists to employ the imported “ triple” water, as it is known in 
commerce. This retains its fragrance longer than a weaker water; moreover, economy is 
effected through saving customs duty and freight, and a fresh, delicate water can be dispensed. 
This preparation is also considered by the British Pharmacopoeia as an object of importation. 
According to this authority, it is obtained from the flowers of the bitter orange tree; this is 
concurred in by our own official standard. In Italy and France, where it is largely made, 
the flowers of the bitter orange have long been preferred, as yielding the most fragrant 
product. It may be prepared in the most southern districts of our country from the fresh 
flowers ; and these might be brought to the North for the same purpose, if previously incor- 
porated with one-third or one-quarter of their weight of common salt. The proper method is 
to arrange the flowers and salt in successive layers in jars of stoneware or glass. They may 
also be preserved by means of glycerin. Notwithstanding, however, the facility of preparing 
this Water here, it is generally imported from the south of France, whence it usually comes 
in cans of tinned copper. 
Orange flower water is nearly colorless, though often of a pale yellowish tint. “ Stronger 
Orange Flower Water should be neutral to litmus paper, and possess a strong odor of fresh 
orange flowers. It should be colorless and clear, or only faintly opalescent, not mucilaginous, 
and give no reaction with hydrogen sulphide test-solution or ammonium sulphide test-solution 
(absence of metallic impurities).” U. S. From being kept in tinned copper cans, it sometimes 
contains metallic impurity, which is said to be chiefly carbonate of lead, derived from the lead 
used as a solder in making the cans. The means of detecting metallic impurity are mentioned 
under the general observations on distilled water. Much color, offensive odor, or mouldiness 
indicates impurity derived from the flowers in distillation. 
L. Malenfant observed that fresh orange flowers, mixed with cold water,ryield, on distillation 
over the naked fire, a milky water, possessing a somewhat empyreumatic odor and a strong, 
somewhat acrid taste. Kept for twelve or eighteen months in glass vessels covered with 
parchment, it loses its empyreuma, and after filtering has an agreeable odor and taste. If the 
flowers be mixed with boiling water and immediately distilled, the water is limpid, and gradu- 
ally separates some thick oil of a brownish color; the water has the odor and taste of the 
flowers, but complicated with a smell of the still, which it loses after long keeping; it 
seems to alter less rapidly than that obtained by the former process. Distilled by steam, a 
limpid water of a pure odor and taste is at once obtained, free from empyreuma; it may be at 
once used, and keeps better in the light than when obtained by the two former processes. (A. 
J. P., June, 1874.) A distilled water of the leaves is also prepared ; and sometimes a mixture 
of the leaves and flowers is employed. But this is a fraud, as the distilled water of the leaves 
never has the sweet perfume of that of the flowers. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e s6r., iii. 249.) 
Orange flower water is used exclusively on account of its agreeable odor. 
Orange flower water is stored in large glass vessels or carboys in cool cellars by the manu- 
facturers in Grasse, care being taken not to stopper them tightly, but simply to cover the orifice 
with a piece of paper. Aqua Aurantii Florurn Fortior.—Aqua Camphorse. 
209 
PART I. 
Nitric, sulphuric, or hydrochloric acid produces a red coloration with orange flower water; 
particularly if the water be shaken with ether to take up the oil, and the acid added to the 
ethereal solution. (P. J. Tr., 1878, 248.) 
AQUA AURANTII FLORUM FORTIOR. U. S. Stronger Orange Flower 
Water. [Triple Orange Flower Water.] 
(A'QUA AU-RXN'TI-! FLO'RUM FOR'TI-OR.) 
“ Water saturated with the volatile oil of fresh Orange Flowers, obtained as a by-product in 
the distillation of the Oil of Orange Flowers. It should be kept in loosely-stoppered bottles, 
in a dark place.” U. S. The orange flower water of commerce is a saturated solution of the 
essential oil of the fresh flowers. (See Aqua Aurantii Florum, p. 208.) 
Aqua Aurantii Florum, U. S. 1880. 
AQUA CAMPHORiE. U. S., Br. Camphor Water. 
(A'QUA cXm'pho-r^:.) 
Mistura Camphor*, Br.; Aqua Camphorata; Eau camphree, Fr.; Kampferwasser, G. 
“ Camphor, eight grammes [or 123£ grains] ; Alcohol, Jive cubic centimeters [or 81 minims] ; 
Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, Jive grammes [or 77 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Trit- 
urate the Camphor with the Alcohol and Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, then with the 
Water, gradually added, and filter.” U. S. 
“ Camphor, 70 grains (Imperial) or 5 grammes ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity ; 
Distilled Water, 1 gallon (Imp. meas.) or 5 litres. Dissolve the Camphor in a sufficient quantity 
of the Alcohol to form half a fluid ounce (or fifteen cubic centimetres) of the solution; add 
this in successive portions to the Distilled Water, shaking after each addition ; finally agitate 
occasionally until all the Camphor is dissolved.” Br. 
In both of these processes the sole object is to effect a solution; water is capable of dis- 
solving but a very small proportion of camphor; but the quantity varies with the method 
employed. The present official process is an improvement on former methods, for it undoubt- 
edly secures a transparent saturated solution easily and rapidly; the mere trace of calcium 
phosphate which dissolves in the water may he disregarded. The present British process is 
more efficient than the old formula, a definite quantity of camphor being dissolved in a small 
quantity of alcohol and this solution gradually added to the proper quantity of water; it is 
questionable, however, whether it would not be advantageous to use an insoluble powder 
to aid in the solution and thus obtain quickly a clear liquid, as the water made by the 
British process is sometimes cloudy. In the former British process no trouble was taken even 
to comminute the camphor, or to shake it with the water, which was thus allowed to take up 
what it might be disposed to do by contact with the camphor contained in a bag. The solu- 
tion thus effected was extremely feeble, containing probably less than one part in a thousand ; 
this proportion, according to Berzelius, is taken up by water when triturated with camphor. 
It was, besides, of uncertain strength, varying with the size of the fragments of camphor. 
Mr. J. C. Pooley found that 120 grains of camphor, treated according to the official direc- 
tions, gave, when cut into 4 pieces, 6 grains to half a gallon of water, but in 20 pieces gave 
20 grains, or about one part to 1750 of* water. (JP. J. Tr., 2d ser., vii. 162.) Mr. Wm. B. 
Addington proposed to add to the camphor just enough alcohol to dissolve it, and triturate the 
liquor with magnesia, during which process he affirmed that the alcohol evaporated (A. J. P., 
xlv. 209) ; and Mr. F. T. Hartzell substituted for alcohol, ether, a few drops of which enabled 
him to bring the camphor to an impalpable powder. (Ibid., xlvi. 233.) The camphor is 
separated from its aqueous solution by a solution of pure potassa, and, according to Dr. Paris, 
by magnesium sulphate and several other salts. Sir J. Murray proposes a solution of cam- 
phor and magnesium bicarbonate, which contains three grains of* the former and six grains 
of the latter in each fluidounce. 
Camphor water has this advantage over camphor in substance, that the latter is with dif- 
ficulty dissolved hy the liquors of the stomach ; but it is too feeble a preparation for use when 
a decided effect is desired; it is, however, an excellent vehicle for the administration of more 
active substances. It is usually given in the dose of one or two tablespoonfuls (15-30 C.c.), 
repeated every hour or two hours. 210 
Aqua Carui.—Aqua Chlori. 
PART i. 
AQUA CARUI. Br. Caraway Water. 
(a'qua cXr'u-J.) 
Aqua Carvi; Eau distilNse de Carvi, Fr.; Kiimmelwasser, G. 
“ Caraway Fruit, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes: Water, 2 qallons (Imp. meas.) or 
10 litres. Distil one-half.” Br. 
Distilled Caraway Water has the flavor of the fruit or seeds, but is seldom used in the United 
States. The water made from the volatile oil (15 minims in a pint), in the same manner as 
is cinnamon water, is largely employed. 
AQUA CHLORI. U. S. (Br.) Chlorine Water. 
(A'QUA CHLO'KI.) 
“ An aqueous solution of Chlorine [Cl—35-37], containing at least 0-4 per cent, of the gas.” 
TJ. S. “ Produced by saturating Distilled Water with chlorine. The chlorine may be obtained 
by the interaction of Hydrochloric Acid and Manganese Peroxide, and should be purified by 
passing through a small quantity of water contained in a wash-bottle.” Br. Appendix. 
Solution of Chlorine, Br.; Aqua Chlorata, P.G.; Aqua Chlori, Chlorum Solutum, Aqua Oxymuriatica; Eau 
chloree, Chlore liquide, Fr.; Chlorwasser, G.; Aqua Chlorini, Phar. 1870. 
“ Manganese Dioxide, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Hydrochloric Acid, thirty-five cubic cen- 
timeters [or 1 fluidounce, 88 minims] ; Water, seventy-five cubic centimeters [or 2£ fluidounces] ; 
Distilled Water, four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13£ fluidounces]. Place the Dioxide in a 
flask connected by a suitable tube with a small wash-bottle containing fifty cubic centimeters [or 
1h fluidounces] of Water, and connect this with a bottle having a capacity of one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms], and containing four hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 13£ fluidounces] of Distilled Water which has previously been boiled and allowed 
to cool. Add to the Dioxide in the generating flask the Hydrochloric Acid, previously diluted 
with twenty-jive cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce] of Water, and, by means of a sand-bath, 
apply a gentle heat. Conduct the generated Chlorine through the Water contained in the 
wash-bottle into the bottle containing the Distilled Water, which should be loosely stopped with 
cotton and kept, during the operation, at a temperature of about 10° C. (50° F.). When the 
air has been entirely displaced by the gas, disconnect the bottle from the apparatus, and, 
having inserted the stopper, shake the bottle, loosening the stopper from time to time, until 
the gas ceases to be absorbed. If necessary, reconnect the bottle with the apparatus, and con- 
tinue passing the gas and agitating, until the Distilled Water is saturated. Finally, pour the 
Chlorine Water into small, dark amber-colored, glass-stoppered bottles, which should be com- 
pletely filled therewith, and keep them in a dark and cool place. Chlorine Water, even when 
kept from light and air, is apt to deteriorate. When it is required of full strength, it should 
be freshly prepared.” U. S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia of 1898 transferred solution of chlorine to the Appendix and 
omitted a detailed process. 
In both processes, the chlorine gas is extricated from the hydrochloric acid by the manganese 
dioxide,* whilst the manganous chloride and water produced remain in the flask, and the chlorine 
is passed, through an intermediate vessel containing a little water for purifying it, into the 
bottle containing the distilled water, loosely stopped, until the vacant part of the bottle is filled 
with it to the exclusion of the atmospheric air. MnOa -f 4HC1 — MnCl2 -f- Cl2 -(- 2H20. 
The bottle, being then corked, is shaken so as to cause the absorption of the gas by the water. 
Of course the stopper must be from time to time loosened, in order to allow the entrance of 
air to supply the partial vacuum created by the absorption of the chlorine. The chlorine 
water is directed to be kept secluded from the light, because otherwise it would be apt to be 
converted partially into hydrochloric acid, through the union of the chlorine with the hydrogen 
of the water.f 
An extemporaneous chlorine water, which has the objection of not being pure, containing 
* The manganese oxide is of course deoxidized. In manufacturing chlorine on the large scale, it is of great 
importance to reoxidize the manganese, so that it can be used over again. This was first accomplished by Mr. 
Walter Weldon in 1870, and his “manganese regeneration” process has been universally adopted. It is said that 
a few years ago there were only two chlorine works in the world that did not regenerate their manganese. For 
details, see Roscoe and Schorlemmer’s Chemistry, vol. ii. part ii. p. 15. 
f Deacon’s process. Mr. Henry Deacon has discovered that chlorine may be made by passing hydrochloric acid 
vapor and oxygen over copper sulphate at a temperature of from 400° to 700° F., the copper salt coming out 
unchanged. For details of this process the reader is referred to Roscoe and Schorlemmer’s Chemistry, vol. i. p. 114. PAET I. 
Aqua Chlori.—Aqua Chloroformi. 
211 
potassium chloride and free hydrochloric acid, not more than twenty-four and twelve grains 
respectively to the pint, may be made as follows. Put in a bottle forty grains of potassium 
chlorate, add one-half troyounce of hydrochloric acid. When the bottle begins to be filled 
with chlorine vapors, add one fluidounce of distilled water. Stopper the bottle, and, when the 
crystals have dissolved, add distilled water to make a pint. (A J. P., xlii. 208.) The reaction 
liberates, however, at the same time, the somewhat explosive gas C1204, and may be dangerous 
at times. 
Properties. “ A clear, greenish-yellow liquid, having the suffocating odor and disagree- 
able taste of Chlorine, and leaving no residue on evaporation. It instantly decolorizes dilute 
solutions of litmus, indigo, and other vegetable coloring matters. When shaken with an ex- 
cess of mercury until the odor of Chlorine has disappeared, the remaining liquid should be at 
most but faintly acid (limit of hydrochloric acidf On adding 17‘7 Gm. of Chlorine Water to 
a solution of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide in 10 C.c. of water, the resulting deep-red liquid should 
require for complete decoloration not less than 20 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal vol- 
umetric solution (corresponding to at least 0-4 per cent, of Chlorine).” U. S. Like gaseous 
chlorine, it destroys vegetable colors. When cooled to about the freezing point, it forms deep 
yellow crystalline plates, consisting of chlorine hydrate. It is intended to contain at least twice 
its volume of the gas. According to MM. Biegel and Walz, chlorine water containing two 
and a half volumes of the gas at 12-2° C. (54° F.) keeps best. The official test indicates the 
quantity of chlorine in the solution, by the amount of the hyposulphite required to decolorize 
an equivalent quantity of iodine, liberated from the potassium iodide. Chlorine water decom- 
poses on keeping, and the British Pharmacopoeia directs that “ it should be recently prepared.” 
In view of the unstable properties of chlorine water, liquid chlorine in sealed glass tubes 
(each containing five grammes) can be procured in commerce, the contents of one tube being 
sufficient to prepare a litre of the water. 
Chlorine is an elementary gaseous fluid of a greenish-yellow color and characteristic smelT 
and taste. It is a supporter of combustion. Its specific gravity is 2-47, and its atomic weight 
35-37. When the attempt is made to breathe it, even much diluted, it excites cough and a 
sense of suffocation, and causes a discharge from the mucous membrane of the nostrils and 
bronchial tubes. Breathed in considerable quantities, it produces spitting of blood, violent 
pains, and sometimes death. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Chlorine water is stimulant and antiseptic. Inter- 
nally it has been used in typhus, and in chronic affections of the liver; but the diseases in 
which it has been most extolled are scarlatina, malignant sore throat, and diphtheria. Exter- 
nally it is employed, duly diluted, as a gargle in small-pox, scarlatina, and putrid sore throat, 
as a wash for ill-conditioned ulcers and cancerous sores, and as a local bath in diseases of the 
liver. It has been used with advantage as an application to buboes and large abscesses, to pro- 
mote the absorption of the matter. As it depends upon chlorine for its activity, its medical 
properties coincide with those of chlorinated lime and chlorinated soda, under which heads 
they are more particularly given. The dose of chlorine water is from one to four fluidrachms 
(3-75-15 C.c.), properly diluted. It should not be prescribed in mixtures, almost all organic 
substances causing a rapid disappearance of the chlorine. Even sugar has this action, and 
glycerin still more markedly. (A. J. P., xliv. 163.) 
Gaseous chlorine has been recommended by Gannal in chronic bronchitis and pulmonary 
consumption, exhibited by inhalation, in minute quantities, four or six times a day. Its first 
effect is to produce some dryness of the fauces, with increased expectoration for a time, fol- 
lowed ultimately by diminution of the sputa and by amendment. Dr. Christison states that he 
has repeatedly observed these results in chronic catarrh ; and both he and Dr. Elliotson have 
obtained, in consumption, a decided improvement of the symptoms. The liquid in the inhaler 
may be formed either of water containing from ten to thirty drops (0-6-1-9 C.c.) of chlorine 
water, or of chlorinated lime dissolved in forty parts of water, to which a drop or two of sul- 
phuric acid must be added, each time the inhalation is practised. The inhaler should be placed 
in water heated to about 37-7° C. (100° F.). 
AQUA CHLOROFORMI. U. S., Br. Chloroform Water. 
(A/QUA (3HLO-EO-F5k'M!,) 
Eau de Chloroforme, Fr.; Chloroformwasser, G. 
“ Chloroform, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Add enough Chloroform to a 
convenient quantity of Distilled Water, contained in a dark amber-colored bottlej to maintain 212 
Aqua Chloroformi.—Aqua Destillata. 
PART I. 
a slight excess of the former, after the contents have been repeatedly and thoroughly agitated. 
When Chloroform Water is required for use, pour off the needed quantity of the solution, 
refill the bottle with Distilled Water and saturate it by thorough agitation, taking care that 
there be always an excess of Chloroform present.” U. S. 
“ Chloroform, 30 minims (Imperial measure) or 2*5 cubic centimetres ; Distilled Water, suffi- 
cient to produce 25 fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Shake them together 
until the Chloroform is dissolved.” Br. 
This water contains one-half per cent, of chloroform, and is probably fully saturated. The 
British preparation contains half the proportion of Chloroform present in the corresponding 
preparation of the British Pharmacopoeia (1885). Chloroform water has been proved to be an 
excellent vehicle for administering active remedies, and, owing to its antiseptic properties, 
mixtures having it for a basis resist decomposition longer than those made with ordinary 
water. The dose is from one-half to two fluidounces (15—60 C.c.). 
AQUA CINNAMOMI. U. S., Br. Cinnamon Water. 
(A'QUA ClN-NA-MO'MI.) 
Eau de Cannelle, Fr.; Einfaches Zimmtwasser, G. 
“ Oil of Cinnamon, two cubic centimeters [or 32 minims] ; Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, 
four grammes [or 61 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Triturate the Oil of Cinnamon with the Pre- 
cipitated Calcium Phosphate, add the Distilled Water gradually, under continued trituration, 
and filter.” U. S. 
“Cinnamon Bark, bruised, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Water, 2 gallons (Imp. 
meas.) or 10 litres. Distil one-half.” Br. 
Of these processes, that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is the easier, though the second, the 
British, may yield a sweeter product. On standing, cinnamon water is apt to precipitate, owing 
to the gradual oxidation and formation of cinnamic acid, which is comparatively insoluble in 
water; this can be prevented, according to E. Backhaus, by passing a stream of carbonic acid 
through the fresh water for a few minutes. We have never seen the precipitation successfully 
prevented, notwithstanding the application of numerous so-called preventives ; these usually 
delay the precipitation, but in a few weeks’ time the cloudiness due to the formation of minute 
crystals of cinnamic acid invariably appears. Cinnamon water is much used as a vehicle for 
other less agreeable medicines, but should be given cautiously in inflammatory affections. For 
ordinary purposes the U. S. preparation is sufficiently strong when diluted with an equal measure 
of water. Dr. E. Holmes recommends glycerin as an excellent intermedium between the oil 
of cinnamon and water. Ten drops of glycerin will effect the solution of a drop of the oil in 
a fluidounce of water. 
AQUA CREOSOTI. U. S. Creosote Water. 
(A'QUA CRE-O-SO'TI.) 
Creasote; Eau crfjosotee, Fr.; Kreosotwasser, G. 
“ Creosote, ten cubic centimeters [or 162 minims] ; Distilled Water, nine hundred and ninety 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 228 minims]. To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Agitate the Creosote vigorously with the Distilled Water, 
and filter through a well-wetted filter.” U. S. 
This preparation contains 1 per cent., or about 4-8 minims, of creosote in each fluidounce, 
and affords a convenient method of administering that medicine. It is about the same 
strength as that formerly official. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms (3-69-15 C.c.). 
It may also be used with advantage as a gargle, a lotion, or mixed with cataplasms, to correct 
fetor, and gently stimulate indolent surfaces. 
H2O; 17*96. (A'QUA DES-TIL-LA'TA.) HjO; 18. 
AQUA DESTILLATA. U. S., Br. Distilled Water. 
“ Prepared by distillation from good natural potable water.” Br. 
Eau distill6e, Hydrolat simple, Fr.; Destillirtes Wasser, G. 
“ Water, one thousand volumes [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms], To make eight hundred 
volumes [or about 27 fluidounces]. Distil the Water from a suitable apparatus provided with 
a block-tin or glass condenser. Collect the first one hundred volumes [or 31 fluidounces], and PART I. 
Aqua Destillata. 
213 
throw this portion away. Then collect eight hundred volumes [or 27 fluidounces], and keep the 
Distilled Water in glass-stoppered bottles, rinsed with hot distilled water immediately before 
being filled.” U. S. 
No natural water is sufficiently pure for certain pharmaceutical purposes; and hence the 
necessity of the above processes for its distillation. It is best to reject the first portion 
which comes over, as this may contain carbonic acid and other volatile impurities; and the 
last portion of the water ought not to be distilled, lest it should pass over with an empyreu- 
matic taste. The distillation is usually performed with the ordinary still and worm; but, to 
avoid any impurity from the worm or the receiver, the condenser is directed in the U. S. Phar- 
macopoeia to be of block tin or glass. Mr. Brande states that distilled water often derives from 
the still a foreign flavor, which it is difficult to avoid. He therefore recommends that a still 
and condenser he kept exclusively for distilling water ; or, where this cannot he done, that steam 
he driven through the worm for half an hour, for the purpose of steaming it out, before it is 
used, the worm-tub having been previously emptied. J. N. Hurty prefers well water as the 
source of distilled water, and that it be boiled before collecting the distillate, to get rid of am- 
monia, and, to prevent access and growth of spores, that the water be heated to boiling before 
introducing it into the container, and that it be drawn off by a siphon-tube reaching to the 
bottom of the vessel, the mouth of which is loosely stopped with cotton. ( Western Druggist, 
1887, p. 4.) Even the use of pure tin, which is generally considered unexceptionable, does 
not give perfect security against impurity, as water distilled from metallic alembics with the 
head and worm of this metal has a peculiar odor which it retains for some time. Ordinary 
distilled water invariably contains ammonia, as may be proved by adding a few drops of Ness- 
ler’s reagent. (See p. 198.) In order to free distilled water from volatile nitrogenous bodies, 
it is necessary to redistil it after it has been placed in contact with potassium permanganate 
and caustic potash. After about one-twentieth of the water has come over, the distillate is 
usually free from ammonia, and leaves no residue on evaporation. If traces of ammonia 
remain, acid potassium sulphate is added, and it is redistilled. (Stas.) 
Properties, etc. Distilled water, as usually obtained, has a vapid and disagreeable taste, 
and is not perfectly pure; water, to be rendered so, requiring to be distilled in silver vessels. 
The properties of pure water have already been given under the head of Aqua. Distilled 
water should undergo no change by hydrogen sulphide, or on the addition of tincture of soap, 
lead subacetate, barium chloride, ammonium oxalate, silver nitrate, or lime water. “ The 
transparency of Distilled Water should not be affected, nor should any color be imparted to it, 
by test-solutions of hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide (absence of metallic impurities), 
or by those of barium chloride (sulphates), silver nitrate (chlorides), ammonium oxalate (cal- 
cium), or mercuric chloride (ammonia) ; nor should its transparency be affected when mixed 
with twice its volume of calcium hydrate test-solution (absence of carbonic add). It should 
give no reaction for nitrates or nitrites when tested as described under Water (see Aqua). 
When 1000 C.c. of Distilled Water are evaporated on a water-bath to dryness, no residue 
should remain. On heating 100 C.c. of Distilled Water, acidulated with 10 C.c. of diluted 
sulphuric acid, to boiling, and subsequently adding 1 C.c. of potassium permanganate centinor- 
mal volumetric solution, the color of the liquid should not be completely destroyed by boiling 
for ten minutes, nor by afterwards setting the vessel aside, well covered, for ten hours (absence 
of organic or other oxidizable matters)." U. S. It is uselessly employed in some formulas, but 
is essential in others. The British Pharmacopoeia requires distilled water to be “ Colorless, 
tasteless, and odorless. 25 cubic centimetres evaporated in a platinum capsule should leave at 
most a scarcely visible residue (absence of dissolved solids). It should yield no reaction with 
the tests for the various metals, chlorides, nitrates, nitrites, or sulphates. It should not affect 
litmus paper (absence of acid or alkaline matter). The liquid obtained on boiling 100 cubic 
centimetres for three minutes with 1-0 cubic centimetre of diluted sulphuric acid and 0*1 cubic 
centimetre of a mixture of one part of solution of potassium permanganate and two parts of 
water, should retain its color for one hour (absence of more than traces of organic matter). 
100 cubic centimetres mixed with 2 cubic centimetres of solution of potassio-mercurie iodide, 
should not afford a yellow tint more intense than that given by 0-25 cubic centimetre of solu- 
tion of ammonium chloride (Nesslers) diluted with 50,000 cubic centimetres of ammonia-free 
water when viewed, under similar conditions, in a glass tube having a diameter of one inch 
(25 millimetres) (absence of more than 0-005 part of ammonia per million parts).” As a 
rule, when small quantities of active medicines are to be given in solution, and in the prepa- 
ration of collyria, distilled water should be directed. The following list contains the chief 214 
Aqua Fcmiculi.—Aqua Hydrogenii Dioxidi. 
PART I. 
substances which require distilled water as a solvent: tartar emetic, corrosive sublimate, silver 
nitrate, barium and calcium chlorides, lead acetate and subacetate, potassium permanganate, 
iron and zinc sulphates, quinine sulphate, morphine sulphate, hydrochlorate, and acetate, and, 
in general terms, all the alkaloids and their salts. Distilled water is used in preparing the 
official diluted acids, for absorbing gaseous ammonia, and for forming nearly all the official 
aqueous solutions. 
AQUA FCENICULI. U. S., Br. Fennel Water. 
(A'QUA F(E-NlC'U-Ll.) 
Eau de Fenouil, Fr.; Fenchelwasser, G. 
u Oil of Fennel, two cubic centimeters [or 32 minims] ; Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, four 
grammes [or 62 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centi- 
meters [or 33 fluidounces, 6$ fluidrachms]. Triturate the Oil of Fennel with the Precipitated 
Calcium Phosphate, add the Distilled Water gradually, under continued trituration, and filter.” 
u. s. 
“ Fennel Fruit, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Water, 2 gallons (Imp. meas.) or 10 
litres. Distil one-half.” Br. 
Fennel water is a pleasant vehicle for other medicines, and useful when a mild aromatic is 
indicated. The process of the British Pharmacopoeia, although more troublesome, furnishes a 
more delicate and agreeable water than does that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
AQUA HYDROGENII DIOXIDI. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Hydrogen 
Dioxide. [Solution of Hydrogen Peroxide.] 
“A slightly acid, aqueous solution of Hydrogen Dioxide [H20„ — 33-92], containing, when 
freshly prepared, about 3 per cent., by weight, of the pure Dioxide, corresponding to about 10 
Volumes of available oxygen.” U. S. “ An aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide, H202, pre- 
pared by the interaction of water, barium peroxide, and a dilute mineral acid, at a tempera- 
ture below 50° F. (10° C.).” Br. 
Liquor Hydrogenii Peroxidi, Br., Solution of Hydrogen Peroxide; Oxygenized Water, Oxygen Hydrate; 
Peroxide d’hydrogene, Fr.; Wasserstoff Hyperoxyd, G. 
11 Barium Dioxide, three hundred grammes [or 10'ounces av., 255 grains] ; Phosphoric Acid, 
Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Pour yt’we hundred cubic cen- 
timeters [or 16 fluidounces] of cold Distilled Water into a suitable bottle, add to it the Barium 
Dioxide in such a way that it shall not form lumps, and shake vigorously so that a uniform 
mixture may result. Provide suitable means of refrigeration, so that the bottle and contents 
may be kept at a temperature below 10° C. (50° F.), and shake it thoroughly every few min- 
utes during half an hour. Afterwards, continuing the refrigeration, shake it occasionally, but 
vigorously, until the Dioxide has become fully hydrated, which may be recognized from the 
fact that only a small portion of the water separates from it on standing, and that it may be 
mixed with the separated water without great effort by shaking. Having introduced ninety-six 
cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 118 minims] of Phosphoric Acid into a bottle having the 
capacity of about two thousand cubic centimeters [or 4 pints], add to it three hundred and twenty 
cubic centimeters [or 10J fluidounces] of Distilled Water, cool the mixture, and remove fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidouuce, 331 minims] as a reserved portion. Now add the well-mixed 
magma, in about four portions, to the acid liquid, and mix them intimately by vigorous and 
continuous shaking, cooling the bottle after each addition of magma. From time to time test 
the reaction of the liquid, and, when it becomes alkaline, add to it, cautiously, a little of the 
reserved Phosphoric Acid, until the liquid has again acquired an acid character. Repeat the 
agitation from time to time, and also the cautious addition of Phosphoric Acid, as long as the 
liquid becomes alkaline on prolonged, vigorous shaking. If necessary, a further quantity of 
Phosphoric Acid should be diluted with Distilled Water, in the proportion above given, and a 
portion of this liquid used for saturation. Having finally shaken the bottle again very thor- 
oughly, and until the liquid part is neutral to litmus paper, set it aside until the precipitate 
occupies only about one-third of the volume of the contents, and pour the supernatant liquid 
upon a wetted, double, rapidly-acting, white filter, of a diameter of thirty centimeters [or 12 
inches]. Then transfer the semi-liquid precipitate to the filter, rinse the bottle with one hun- 
dred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] of Distilled Water, transfer this to the 
filter, and when the liquid has drained off, wash the barium phosphate on the filter with Dis- 
(A'QUA HY-DRO-GE'NI-I DI-bX'l-Dl.) PART I. 
Aqua Hydrogenii Dioxidi. 
215 
tilled Water, until the filtrate measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 
fluidrachms]. Now add to it, first, twenty drops, and afterwards, if necessary, further, smaller 
quantities of Diluted Sulphuric Acid, until a small portion of the liquid, after filtration 
(which may be assisted by a little starch), is no longer rendered cloudy by Diluted Sulphuric 
Acid. Mix the cloudy liquid with about ten grammes [or 154 grains] of starch by agitation, 
so that the starch may be thoroughly distributed throughout the liquid, and then filter it 
through a well-wetted, white filter of a diameter of twenty-five centimeters [or ten inches], 
returning the first portions until it runs through clear. When all the liquid has passed, ascer- 
tain the percentage of Hydrogen Dioxide contained in it by the method of assay given below, 
and dilute the remaining liquid if necessary, so that it will contain 3 per cent, of absolute 
Hydrogen Dioxide. Keep the product in loosely-stoppered bottles, in a cool place. 
Since Solution of Hydrogen Dioxide will gradually diminish in strength, even when care- 
fully kept, it should either be freshly made when wanted, or be kept on hand only in such 
quantity as will probably be consumed within a short time. Any Solution which has become 
weaker need not, for this reason, be thrown away, but may be reserved for an occasion when 
a weaker or diluted solution is prescribed or demanded. Or it may be employed, when making 
a fresh supply, as a diluent of the stronger solution.” U. S. 
The extended use of this preparation, which was discovered by Thenard in 1818, has 
earned for it a place in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890. It consists of water in which, by 
the presenting to it of oxygen in a nascent state, an additional atom of this element has com- 
bined with the hydrogen, forming the dioxide, (I10)2, or H202. 
The official process consists in the decomposition of barium dioxide by phosphoric acid, 
barium phosphate being thrown down as a precipitate, hydrogen dioxide being found dis- 
solved in the supernatant aqueous liquid; the barium phosphate is filtered out, and any trace 
of barium salt is finally removed by the cautious addition of sulphuric acid, which precipitates 
as insoluble barium sulphate; the very fine precipitate which usually passes through the pores 
of filter-paper is caught and held on the filter by the starch, and the clear solution is adjusted 
to contain 3 per cent., by weight, of absolute hydrogen dioxide by the official assay, which 
follows. 
Valuation of Solution of Hydrogen Dioxide. Dilute 10 C.c. of the Solution with 
water to make 100 C.c. Transfer 17 C.c. of this liquid (containing 1-7 C.c. of the Solution) 
to a beaker, add 5 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid, and then, from a burette, potassium perman- 
ganate decinormal volumetric solution, until the liquid just retains a faint pink tint after being 
stirred. Each C.c. of the potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric solution corresponds 
to 0-0017 Gm. of absolute Hydrogen Dioxide. To express the strength of any Solution of Hy- 
drogen Dioxide approximately in volumes of available oxygen (that is, in volumes of oxygen, given 
off by 1 volume of the Solution upon decomposition), multiply the number of C.c. of permanga- 
nate decinormal volumetric solution decolorized by 1 C.c. of the Solution, by 0-56 (0-5594) ; 
or those decolorized by 1-7 C.c. of the Solution, by 0-33. (It is assumed that 1000 C.c. of 
oxygen, at 0° C. (32° F.) and 760 Mm. pressure, weigh 1-43 Grin.) To express the strength in 
percentage (by weight:) of absolute Hydrogen Dioxide, multiply the number of C.c. of perman- 
ganate decinormal volumetric solution decolorized by 1 C.c. of it, by 0-17 ; or divide the number 
of C.c. of permanganate volumetric solution decolorized by 1-7 C.c. of it, by 10. 
For another method of preparing this Solution, see U. S. D., sixteenth edition, page 1887. 
According to Crismer, a pure solution may be made by dissolving barium peroxide in a slight 
excess of diluted hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1*10), and shaking the solution with an equal 
volume of ether. The ethereal layer is separated and shaken with a little water, which will 
take up most of the hydrogen peroxide, after the separation of which the ether is again shaken 
with the above separated solution of barium peroxide, and then with water as before. These 
operations are repeated five or six times. It is possible in this way to obtain solutions con- 
taining from 0-8 to 0-9 per cent, of the peroxide, which are perfectly neutral and free from 
foreign substances. (Bull. Soc. Chim., 1891, 24.) The official Solution is strong enough for 
most practical uses, for, although it can readily be made stronger, the difficulties of preserving 
it largely increase with its increased strength, and hence the Committee of Revision wisely 
fixed the standard at ten volumes of available oxygen. The British Pharmacopoeia requires 
that the Solution shall indicate a yield of from nine to eleven volumes of oxygen when tested by 
the nitrometer test. (See page 216.) 
Properties. Solution of hydrogen dioxide was prepared by Regnault in a nearly pure 
state. As thus procured, it is a colorless liquid of a fluid consistence, of the sp. gr. 1-452, 216 
Aqua Hydrogenii Dioxidi. 
PART I. 
remaining liquid at zero, beginning to give out oxygen when heated above 15-5° C. (60° F.), 
and at a higher heat rapidly and sometimes explosively resolved into water and oxygen. But 
when diluted with water, with which it unites in all proportions,* it is not decomposed under 
37‘7f C. (100° F.). It may be evaporated in vacuo at a gradually increasing temperature, a 
nearly pure hydrogen dioxide coming over at about 84° C. Wolffenstein states that he has 
prepared, after repeated fractioning, hydrogen peroxide (99*1 per cent.). (See Ber. d. Ghent. 
Ges., 1894, 3307. See also Schiloff’s process, Chem. News, 1896, 38.) The great facility with 
which it parts with oxygen renders it a powerful oxidizer; and the simple contact with various 
substances, as platinum, gold, and silver, causes it to be resolved into oxygen and water. On 
the contrary, certain other substances, even though ordinarily evincing a strong affinity for 
oxygen, as phosphorus, for example, are unaffected by it, and there are a number of bodies 
which have the property not only of being unaffected by it, but of restraining its oxidizing 
influence on other bodies, whilst some salts, like silver oxide, are actually reduced by it. Traces 
of impurities modify the stability of hydrogen dioxide; acids increase, alkalies decrease, its 
stability. 
The official Solution is described as “ a colorless liquid, without odor, slightly acidulous 
to the taste, and producing a peculiar sensation and soapy froth in the mouth; liable to 
deteriorate by age, exposure to heat, or protracted agitation. Specific gravity, about 1-006 
to 1-012 at 15° C. (59° F.). When exposed to the air at the ordinary temperature, or when 
heated on a water-bath at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.), the solution loses 
chiefly water. When rapidly heated, it is liable to decompose suddenly. Solution of Hydro- 
gen Dioxide has an acid reaction due to a small amount of free acid purposely allowed to 
remain in it for preservation. On adding to 10 C.c. of water, in a test-tube, 1 drop of potassium 
chromate test-solution, then 10 drops of diluted sulphuric acid, and pouring a few C.c. of ether 
on top, the subsequent addition of a few drops of Solution of Hydrogen Dioxide, even when 
considerably diluted, will cause a blue color to appear at the zone of contact of the two 
liquids. After shaking, the ethereal layer will separate with a blue color. Upon evaporating 
50 C.c. of the Solution to dryness, on a water-bath, not more than 0-25 Gm. of residue should 
remain. Upon evaporating 50 C.c. of the Solution, previously rendered alkaline by sodium 
hydrate test-solution, to dryness, transferring the dry residue to a watch-glass, moistening it 
with sulphuric acid, and setting the glass in a moderately warm place for a few hours, the 
surface of the glass, after being washed, should exhibit no sign of corrosion (absence of hydro- 
fluoric acid). 50 C.c. of the Solution should not require more than 0-5 C.c. of potassium 
hydrate volumetric solution to render the liquid alkaline, phenolphtalein being used as indi- 
cator (limit of free acid). The addition of a few drops of diluted sulphuric acid to 10 C.c. 
of the Solution should produce no turbidity or precipitate (absence of barium.)" U. S. “ On 
adding a few drops to 8 or 10 cubic centimetres of water containing a drop of solution of 
potassium chromate, 10 drops of diluted sulphuric acid, and 2 or 3 cubic centimetres of ether, 
a blue layer will appear between the ethereal and aqueous liquids, and, after agitation, the 
ether will also become blue. 1 volume, treated in a brine-charged nitrometer with 10 or 12 
times its bulk of a mixture of 1 volume of sulphuric acid, 2 volumes of a 5 per cent, solution 
of potassium permanganate, and 7 volumes of water, should afford, at normal temperature and 
pressure, not less than 18 and not more than 22 volumes of oxygen, indicating a yield of 9 to 
11 volumes from the Solution of Hydrogen Peroxide. It should give no characteristic reaction 
with the tests for barium. Evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, not more than 0.5 per cent, of 
solid residue should remain.” Br. Charles llice suggests improvements in the method of assay 
which are practical (see Amer. Drug., 1892, 30). F. X. Moerk has proposed a rapid and 
effective method of assaying this solution (see A. J. P., 1893, 65) ; J. F. Brown confirmed the 
value of Moerk’s method (P. J. Tr., 1896, 271). Solution of hydrogen dioxide should be kept 
in a cool place, and not too tightly stoppered. Neglect of these precautions, particularly in hot 
weather, will be likely to result in an explosion and fracture of the bottle containing it, due to 
a brisk evolution of oxygen in a confined space, on account of the increased temperature. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Many years ago, Dr. B. W. Bichardson, of London, 
pointed out that hydrogen peroxide is a powerful physiological agent, which when brought 
in contact with most animal tissues, or with sugar or starch, acts as an oxidizant. He stated 
* Ozonic ether is a name proposed for a solution of hydrogen peroxide in ether, which was first noticed by 
Dr. Richardson. Ether will take a portion of the peroxide from its watery solution, forming a compound of con- 
siderable stability, as it has borne a voyage to Australia without change. Care, however, must be taken to guard 
against the consequences of its extreme inflammability. (See A. J. P., 1869, p. 156.) Aqua Hydrogenii JJioxidi. 
217 
PART I. 
that when injected into the left cavity of the heart of an animal it restores recently-lost 
irritability, but that it has an opposite effect in the right cavity; also, that when thrown 
into the artery immediately after death it restores for a time the contractile power of the 
muscles, and suspends cadaveric rigidity. It does not, however, seem to he of value for 
affecting the general system, as it was found in the experiments of Dr. H. C. Wood to co- 
agulate blood so rapidly when put into the blood-vessel that it does not seem possible for it to 
find entrance into the blood. Nevertheless it has been used internally in low fevers and whoop- 
ing-cough, and various other diseases, and has been strongly lauded by Dr. John Day (London 
Lancet, Jan. 1868) and others as a positive cure in diabetes. Further experience has demon- 
strated, however, its inutility in glycosuria. It is extremely improbable that any of the per- 
oxide can find its way into the system when its solutions are given by the mouth, as it would 
certainly destroy itself by acting upon the organic contents and secretions of the gastro- 
intestinal tract. 
When hydrogen peroxide is brought in contact with mucous membranes or ulcerated sur- 
faces, albuminous coagulation is immediate, with the formation of a white coating and a 
rapid evolution of gas. It is a very powerful antiseptic, which has been found by various 
experimenters, especially Dr. Pane {Land. Med. Rec., Jan. 1891) to be extremely poisonous 
to pathogenic germs. The conclusions of Dr. Pane were that (1) Hydrogen peroxide in a 
solution of 1 to 100 has an energetic disinfecting power. (2) The solution 1 to 1000 is a 
weak antiseptic, and inferior to the corresponding solution of corrosive sublimate. The solution 
of H20„, in nutritive substances, 1 to 352. not only impedes the development but after some 
days kills the spores of the bacillus of charbon. (3) The solution of H202, in nutritive sub- 
stances, from 1 to 352 to 5052, impedes the development of the spores of the bacilli of char- 
bon, but does not deprive them of their germinative power when they are transferred to 
another nutritive substance. Thus, oxygenated water in nutritive substances has a more 
powerful action on the spores of the bacillus of charbon than has corrosive sublimate, since 
the spores can develop freely in a solution of gelatin of 1 to 1000 of the mercurial. 
On account of its oxidizing properties, it is a powerful deodorant, rapidly destroying hydro- 
gen sulphide and similar gases. When hydrogen peroxide is brought in contact with pus, 
rapid change occurs, with evolution of oxygen gas, and Dr. Pane found under the microscope 
that so soon as charged with gas the corpuscles become granular, lose their form, and break up 
into detritus. 
Its liquid form makes it especially adapted for putrid cavities and abscesses, which it will thor- 
oughly cleanse. It cannot, however, take the place of such antiseptics as mercuric chloride, 
because its influence is so immediate and fugacious. As a preventive antiseptic it is of little 
value. For disinfecting the hands and instruments of the surgeon it has the great advan- 
tage of immediate and powerful action, and of not staining the hands or clothing. By some 
surgeons it is said not to affect the instruments. 
As a local application in specific inflammations of mucous membranes hydrogen peroxide is 
of greatest value. In scarlet fever and diphtheria the official solution may he applied by mop 
to the pharynx, often with extraordinarily good results. Diluted one-half, it may be injected 
into the nasal cavities when they are affected. Injection of a solution of from 20 per cent, to 
full strength has received commendation in the treatment of gonorrhoea and chana'e. The 
official solution has also been used with alleged great success as a local styptic. It is probably 
for practical purposes free from poisonous properties. The fatal results which Dr. Pane pro- 
duced by injecting the strong solution directly into the peritoneal cavity of the rabbit being, in 
all probability, due to the shock produced by the intense local irritation of the peritoneum. 
Death from shock also affords the most plausible explanation of the case reported by Dr. 
Laach (Lancet, Oct. 1886), in which six injections into the pleural cavity, each containing 
0-8 cubic centimeter of a 3-per-cent, solution of hydrogen peroxide, were administered, but at 
the seventh the patient complained of faintness, the pulse failed, respiration became oppressed, 
and death occurred in ten minutes. As a local application to mucous membranes, the official 
solution should be used; the stronger solutions are sometimes too irritating. 
Solution of hydrogen dioxide has come to be a common commercial preparation in 10- or 
15-per-cent, aqueous solutions. It is used for the purpose of cleaning and bleaching old and 
stained engravings and oil paintings. The dioxide has also been used as an auricome for 
bleaching dark-colored hair. It is employed, moreover, in increasing degree in the textile indus- 
tries for bleaching. Lunge has proposed its use in the ready valuation of chlorinated lime or 
bleaching powder, which is decomposed by it with the simultaneous liberation of oxygen from 218 
Aqua Lauro-Cerasi. 
PART I. 
both substances in equal amount. It has been detected by M. Struv£, of St. Petersburg, in 
minute proportion, in the air of the atmosphere in Southern Russia. (Chem. News, July 2, 
1869, p. 23.) Sehonbein has made the same discovery in the vicinity of Basel, in Switzerland. 
In both instances it was found in the rain water. (Neues Repertorium, 1869, xviii. 364.) 
AQUA LAURO-CERASI. Br. Cherry-Laurel Water. 
(A'QUA LAu'RO-gEB'A-SI.) 
Eau distillee de Laurier-cerise, Fr.; Kirschlorbeerwasser, G. 
“Fresh Cherry-Laurel Leaves, 1 pound (Imperial) or 320 grammes; Water, 2J pints 
(Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Place the crushed Cherry-Laurel Leaves with the water 
in a retort; distil one pint (or four hundred cubic centimetres) of liquid ; shake the product; 
filter, if necessary; adjust the strength of the finished product either by adding hydrocyanic 
acid or by diluting the distillate with Distilled Water, so that, when tested as described under 
‘ Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum,’ it shall contain one-tenth per cent, of hydrocyanic acid, 
HCN.” Br. 
It is greatly to be regretted that this uncertain, dangerous, and troublesome preparation 
should retain its place in European pharmacopoeias, inasmuch as it could easily be replaced 
by a flavored water containing a definite amount of a soluble cyanide. 
As the cherry-laurel is little cultivated in the United States, the Water is not official; but 
from experiments by the late Prof. Procter there is little or no room to doubt that a prepa- 
ration identical in its effects might be made from the leaves of our common wild cherry, 
Cerasus serotina. The imported cherry-laurel water, as found in commerce, is generally impaired 
by age, and not to be relied on. 
A. Ripping, of Rotterdam, proposes to make an artificial cherry-laurel water by adding 6 
grammes of oil of cherry-laurel and 4-5 grammes of potassium cyanide to a half-liter of water, 
and distilling the mixture in a tubulated retort, a current of carbonic acid gas being passed 
through it at the same time. The distillate is afterwards diluted with distilled water so as to 
contain one-tentli per cent, of hydrocyanic acid. (Arckiv d. Pharm., 1876, pp. 526-531.) 
Cherry-laurel leaves contain 65 per cent, of water, sufficient to provoke the reactions which 
result in the formation of a volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid. Water is very prone to hasten 
the conversion of the volatile oil into benzoic acid by oxidation, and it has been found by Mr. 
C. Umney (P. J. Tr., x. 467) and by Dr. Moore (Ibid., 604) that the water distilled without 
previous maceration is somewhat stronger in hydrocyanic acid and decidedly stronger in oil 
(Umney) than the official product. The strength of official cherry-laurel water is so uncertain 
as to render it ineligible. It ought to be a powerful preparation, about one-twentieth the 
strength of the official hydrocyanic acid (Br. Ph.), and yet in commerce it varies as 53 to 100 
(Umney). The difference depends upon the age of the preparation, the mode of preparing, and 
the time of year at which the leaves are gathered. M. Garot (Annuaire de Therap., 1843, 
45) has found that the leaves yield only half as much in July as in April. Mr. C. Umney 
obtained 1*26 grains of acid in 1000 grains in March, in July 1-08 grains, and in November 
0 64 grains. (P. J. Tr., x. 468.) Dr. Moore, in an elaborate series of experiments, obtained the 
largest product in July of'one year and in October of the next. Mr. Leger (Ibid., June, 
1873) has found the maximum percentage in July, and also that different leaves taken from 
the same bush on the same day vary enormously, young leaves being much richer than old ones. 
The proportion of hydrocyanic acid in the Water diminishes with time. It has been ascer- 
tained by M. Deschamps that if a drop of sulphuric acid be added to a pint of the prepara- 
tion it will keep unchanged for at least a year. It is best preserved by the entire exclusion 
of air and light. M. Lepage found that, preserved in full and perfectly air-tight bottles, both 
this and bitter-almond water remained unchanged at the end of a year ; while if freely exposed 
to the air, they lost all their hydrocyanic acid and essential oil in two or three months. (Journ. 
de Pharm., xvi. 346.) In view of the uncertain strength of the Water as obtained from the 
leaves, it was proposed in France, in reference to the Codex then in preparation, to fix upon a 
definite proportion of hydrocyanic acid ; and the percentage generally adopted was from 0-04 
to 0-05.* For Deniges’s method of assaying the water, see Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 556. Dr. 
* The following conclusions in reference to cherry-laurel water were arrived at by a committee of pharma- 
ceutists in Paris, appointed to examine the subject of the distilled waters with a view to the revision of the Codex. 
1. The whole of the volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid furnished by cherry-laurel leaves results from a reaction 
between two substances analogous to the emulsin and amygdalin of bitter almonds, which can take place only in the PART i. 
Aqua Menthse Pipe nine.—Aqua Menthse Vindis. 
219 
W. H. Pile proposed an easy volumetric method for estimating the hydrocyanic acid strength 
of cherry-laurel and bitter-almond waters, as well as of other liquids containing; this acid (See 
A. J. P., 1862, 130.) H e 
Medical Properties. Cherry-laurel water is employed in Europe as a sedative narcotic, 
identical in its properties with a dilute solution of hydrocyanic acid; but it is of uncertain 
strength, and should not be allowed to supersede the more definite preparation of the acid now 
in use. Its fraudulent use in Paris in the preparation of a cordial, in imitation of the genuine 
cherry cordial, made by fermentation and distillation, and like it called “ kirsch,” has been the 
subject of no little reprobation. {Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e s6r., i. 33, 1865.) The 
dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (1-9-3-7 C.c.) 
AQUA MENTHA PIPERITA2. U. S., Br. Peppermint Water. 
(A'QUA MEVTH2E Pi-PMI'T/E.) 
Eau de Menthe poivree, Fr.; Pfefferminzwasser, G. 
“ Oil of Peppermint, two cubic centimeters [or 32 minims] ; Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, 
four grammes [or 62 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Triturate the Oil of Peppermint with the 
Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, add the Distilled Water gradually, under constant trituration, 
and filter.” U. S. 
“ Oil of Peppermint, 77 minims (Imperial measure) or 10 cubic centimetres ; Water, 1J gallons 
(Imp. meas.) or 15 litres. Distil two-thirds.” Br. 
AQUA MENTHA VIRIDIS. U. S., Br. Spearmint Water. 
Eau de Menthe verte, Fr. 
“ Oil of Spearmint, two cubic centimeters [or 32 minims] ; Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, 
four grammes [or 62 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Triturate the Oil of Spearmint with the 
Precipitated Calcium Phosphate, add the Distilled Water gradually, under constant trituration, 
and filter.” U.S. 
“ Oil of Spearmint, 77 minims (Imperial measure) or 10 cubic centimetres ; Water, 1£ gallons 
(Imp. meas.) or 15 litres. Distil two thirds.” Br. 
There would seem to be no good reason for distilling the mint waters from their respective 
volatile oils, as directed in the British processes. If the fresh plants were available, a good 
source for a distilled water could be provided ; but if a volatile oil must be used, with its uncer- 
tainty of freshness always present, the quicker process of the U. S. Pharm. is greatly preferable. 
The two mint waters are among the most grateful and most employed of this class of prepa- 
rations. Together with cinnamon water, they are used in this country, almost to the exclusion 
of all others, as the vehicle of medicines given in the form of mixture. They serve not only 
to conceal or qualify the taste of other medicines, but also to counteract their nauseating prop- 
erties. Peppermint water is generally thought to have a more agreeable flavor than that of 
spearmint, but some prefer the latter. Their effects are the same. 
(A'QUA MKN'THiE YIK'I-DIS.) 
presence of water. 2. The quantity of volatile oil furnished by the leaves is always in direct relation to that of 
hydrocyanic acid. 3. The leaves furnish, by mere contact for twenty-four hours with cold water, only one-third of 
tbe quantity which they can be made to yield. 4. The fermentable matter of the leaves is liable to change, so that 
the leaves, after being picked, afford less and less of the acid the longer they are kept; and a moist heat favors 
change, so that complete decomposition takes place in a few hours. 5. Difference in climate, soil, exposure to the 
sun, and age of the tree, have but a secondary influence on the productiveness of the leaves. 6. The season of the 
year, however, has a great influence. The younger the leaf, the greater is its yield; so that, while 0'150 per cent, 
of the acid was obtained from the forming leaves in spring, those of the autumn yielded only 0’132, those of the 
winter 0’120, and leaves two years old gave only 0'112. 7. Different plants, under apparently the same circum- 
stances, differ greatly in productiveness, so that 0'176 per cent, was obtained from the most productive, and only 
0'092 from the least so. 8. The distillation by steam yields the greatest possible product. The committee, there- 
fore, propose the adoption of this method, the bruised leaves having been previously mixed with at least three 
times their weight of water, and exposed to a gradually increasing heat, not to exceed 140° F., when all reaction 
ceases. 9. Bruising is the best method of comminuting the leaves. 10. As it is impossible to obtain a Water always 
identical from the leaves, the committee propose to fix a definite strength, and state that the proportion generally 
adopted is from 0'040 per cent, of acid as the minimum to 0'050 or one-twentieth of one per cent, as the maximum, 
which is only one-half the strength proposed for bitter-almond water. 11. Though a change rapidly takes place in this 
and bitter-almond water exposed to the air, yet in bottles full, and perfectly closed by glass stoppers, the change at 
the end of a year is scarcely perceptible; and this observation applies to the distilled waters in general. (Journ. de 
Pharm., 1864, p. 520.) 220 
Aqua Pimentse.—Aqua Rosse. 
PART I. 
AQUA PIMENTVE. Br. Pimento Water. 
(A'QUA Pi-MEN'T2E.) 
“Pimento, bruised, 8 ounces (Imperial) or 250 grammes; Water, 2 gallons (Imp. meas.) 
or 10 litres. Distil one-half.” Br. 
Pimento water is an agreeable aromatic water, used as a vehicle. 
AQUA ROSJE. U. S., Br. Rose Water. 
(A'QUA RO'§.E.) 
Eau distillee de Rose, Fr.; Rosenwasser, G. 
“ Stronger Rose Water, Distilled Water, of each, one volume [or 1 pint]. Mix them imme- 
diately before use.” U. S. “ The rose water of commerce,* prepared by distillation from the 
flowers of Rosa damascena, Linn., diluted, immediately before use, with twice its volume of 
Distilled Water.” Br. 
The British Pharmacopoeia of 1898 abandoned the former process of distilling the leaves and 
followed the method adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of diluting the so-called triple rose 
water of commerce with distilled water. This, however, does not make rose water identical 
in strength in these authorities, the U. S. preparation being about 17 per cent, the stronger. 
Although domestic rose water of fair quality may be made by distilling fresh rose petals, it 
does not possess the strength or delicacy of the by-product obtained from abroad, as officially 
described under Aqua Rosse Fortior; hence the above process of diluting this stronger rose 
water. The process of distilling the fresh petals of the hundred-leaved rose is sometimes prac- 
tised. These are usually preferred in the recent state ; but it is said that, when preserved by 
being incorporated with one-third of their weight of common salt, they retain their odor, and 
afford a water equally fragrant with that prepared from the fresh flowers. Indeed, Mr. Haselden 
prefers the salted roses, believing that the water prepared from them is less mucilaginous, less 
apt to become sour, and keeps its odor better than that prepared from the fresh flowers. (P. J. 
Tr., xvi. 15.) It is not uncommon to employ the whole flower, including the calyx; but the 
product is less fragrant than when the petals only are used, as officially directed.f Rose water 
is sometimes made by distilling together water and the oil of rose. This is best performed by 
dropping 10 drops of oil of rose on a sponge and adjusting it in the upper part of a still in the 
body of which a gallon of water is placed: the steam from the boiling water will carry over 
portions of the oil, and the distillate will thus be impregnated. 
When properly prepared, it has the delightful perfume of the rose in great perfection. It 
is most successfully made on a large scale. Like the other distilled waters, it is liable to spoil 
when kept; and the alcohol which is sometimes added to preserve it is incompatible with some 
of the purposes to which the water is applied, and is even said to render it sour through ace- 
tous fermentation. It is best, therefore, to avoid this addition, and to substitute a second dis- 
* “The rose water of commerce ig a saturated solution of the essential oil of the rose flowers.” Br. 
f A. Monthus states that the petals of the hundred-leaved rose are more odorous the nearer they are to the centre 
of the flower, and, contrary to what is said in the text, thinks that the calyx should not be rejected in preparing the 
distilled water. He maintains that so far from injuring the product it in fact contributes to its preservation, and 
that the water obtained from the whole flower is less liable to that mucosity which is the commencement of decom- 
position. This effect he ascribes to the astringent matter of the calyx, coagulating the mucilaginous matter of the 
petals, and preventing it from passing over in the distillation. (Journ. de Pharm., 1863, p. 497.) 
Milk of Roses. In making this cosmetic it is essential to produce an emulsion which, if it separates after long 
repose, may be restored by slight agitation. Although other perfumes may be, and are, commonly added to it, the 
scent of roses should predominate and form its characteristic odor. There are three varieties, the English, French, 
and German. The latter variety should never be employed as a cosmetic, on account of its containing lead. 
English. Almonds (blanched) 1J ounces; Oil of Almonds and AVhite Windsor Soap, of each, 1 drachm; Rose 
W ater 3 pint. Make an emulsion ; to the strained emulsion add a mixture of Essence or Spirit of Roses i fluidrachm ; 
Alcohol 2£ fluidounces; and subsequently of Rose Water q. s. to make the whole measure one pint; more alcohol 
is apt to cause the separation of the ingredients. Some makers add a few drops of oil of bergamot, with two or 
three drops each of oil of lavender and otto of roses, dissolved in the alcohol. 
Or, Oil of Almonds and AVhite AVindsor Soap, of each, 1 ounce; Salts of Tartar £ drachm; Boiling AVater 3 pint. 
Triturate, and subsequently agitate until perfectly united. AVhen cold, further add Alcohol 2 fluidounces; Spirit of 
Roses a few drops; Rose AVater q. s. to make the whole measure a pint. 
French. Tincture of Benzoin (simple) J) fluidounce; Tincture of Styrax J fluidounce; Spirit of Roses 1 to 2 
fluidrachms; Alcohol 2J fluidounces. Mix, and add gradually, with agitation, Rose Water 16} fluidounces. Au- 
gustin recommends the addition of a little potassium carbonate (say 1 drachm to the pint) when it is intended to be 
used as a lotion in acne. 
Or, Tincture of Benzoin (simple) 1 fluidrachm; Tincture of Balsam of Peru 20 drops; Rose AVater i pint. The 
addition of an ounce of alcohol, in lieu of a like quantity of rose water, improves it. 
German. Dilute solution of Lead Diacetate, fluidounce; Lavender Water 2 fluidrachms; Alcohol fluid- 
ounces; Rose Water 3 of a pint. Mix and agitate. Aqua Rosse Foiiioi'.—Argentum. 
PART I. 
221 
tillation. This distilled water is chiefly employed, on account of its agreeable odor, in collyria 
and other lotions. It is wholly destitute of irritating properties, unless it contain alcohol. 
AQUA ROSi*E FORTIOR. U. S. Stronger Rose Water. [Triple Rose Water.] 
(A'QUA RO'§iE FOR'TI-OR.) 
Aqua Rosae, U. S. 1880. 
“ Water saturated with the volatile oil of Rose petals, obtained as a by-product in the distil- 
lation of Oil of Rose. Stronger Rose Water should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a 
dark place.” U. S. 
This has been introduced for the purpose of making rose water. (See article next above.) 
“Stronger Rose Water should be colorless and clear, not mucilaginous, and give no reaction 
with hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of metallic impurities).” 
AQUA SAMBUCI. Br. Elder-Flower Water. 
(A'QUA SXM-BU'Cl.) 
“ Fresh Elder Flowers, 10 pounds (Imperial) or 5000 grammes (or an equivalent quantity 
of the flowers preserved, while fresh, with common salt) ; Water, 5 gallons (Imp. meas.) or 25 
litres. Distil one-fifth.” Br. 
Elder flowers yield very little oil upon distillation ; and, if the water be needed, it may be 
best prepared from the flowers. Mr. Haselden prefers the salted flowers to the fresh, for the 
reason stated under Rose Water. The preparation is little used in this country. 
ARAROBA. Br. 
(Xr-a-ro'ba.) 
“ A substance found in cavities in the trunk of Andira Araroba, Aguiar, freed as much as 
possible from fragments of wood, dried, and powdered.” Br. 
Crude Chrysarobin, Goa Powder, Poh di Bahia; Poudre de Goa, Fr.; Goa-Pulver, G. 
Under the name of Chrysarobin, or Araroba, there has long been used a medicine in Brazil, 
and exported in considerable quantities to Portugal, whence it found its way through the Portu- 
guese colonies into Eastern commerce. In the East Iudies it is usually known as Goa Powder. 
Indeed, the identity of the two powders was first proved in 1875 by Dr. J. F. Dasilva Lima. 
(P. J. Tr., v.) It has been supposed to be yielded by certain lichens, but was shown by Dr. 
It. A. Monteiro to be obtained from a leguminous tree abundant in the forests of the Brazilian 
province of Bahia, which was referred by Mr. E. M. Holmes to the genus Caesalpiuia, but 
which was determined by studies made in its native forests by Dr. J. M. de Aguiar to be an 
undescribed Andira. 
Andira araroba, Aguiar, is a large tree, attaining a height of 100 feet, with a smooth trunk, 
and a spheroidal, not very bushy head. The wood is yellowish, with numerous longitudinal 
canals, besides abundant irregular interspaces or lacunae, in which the chrysarobin is deposited. 
(See P. J. Tr., ix. 755 ; x. 42, 814.) The oldest trees yield the largest amount of the powder; 
the parts containing it are finely chipped or scraped off1. The workmen who procure it often 
suffer severely from irritation of the eyes and face. As first obtained, chrysarobin is stated 
to be of a pale primrose yellow, but it rapidly darkens with age, so that in commerce it 
varies from a dull ochre to a dark chocolate or maroon-brown. It is sometimes a rather fine 
powder, but is usually more or less agglomerated, and not rarely contains fragments of woody 
tissue. Its taste is bitter. It is insoluble in water and most menstrua, but yields as much as 
80 per cent, of its weight to solutions of caustic alkalies and to benzol. The British Pharma- 
copoeia requires that it should yield to hot chloroform, not less than 50 per cent, of pure chrysa- 
robin. Attfield analyzed Goa powder, and found, along with 2 per cent, of resin, 5-5 per cent, 
of woody fibre, and 7 per cent, of bitter extractive, from 80 to 84 per cent, of what he considered 
to be chrysophanic acid; but Liebermann and Siedler showed that this was not chrysophanic 
acid at all, but a substance easily convertible into the acid, which substance they called chrysa- 
robin, and gave to it the formula C30H26Or (See Chrysarobinum, p. 385.) 
ARGENTUM. 
Ag; 108. Ag; 108. 
Argent raffine, Argent, Fr.; Silber, Raffinirtes Silber, G.; Argento, It.; Plata, Sp. 
Silver is occasionally found in the metallic state, sometimes crystallized, at other times com- 
bined with gold, antimony, arsenic, or mercury ; but usually it occurs in the state of sulphide, 222 
Argentum. 
PART I. 
either pure or mixed with other sulphides, as those of copper, lead, and antimony. It is 
sometimes found as a chloride. 
The most productive mines of silver are found on this continent, being those of Mexico 
and Peru and our own llocky Mountain States and Territories ; the richest in Europe are those 
of Norway, Hungary, and Transylvania. Mines have been opened and profitably worked in 
California and Nevada, but at present it is chiefly Colorado and Montana which furnish the 
great bulk of the American silver production. Idaho, Utah, and Arizona also contain very 
rich silver deposits. The principal ore is the sulphide. The mineral containing silver which 
is most disseminated is argentiferous galena, which is lead sulphide containing a little silver 
sulphide. Argentiferous galena exists in several localities in the United States. Native silver 
is associated, in small quantities, with the native copper of the Lake Superior region, and a 
little of it has come into the market. The two metals, though more or less mixed, are yet 
quite distinct, never being alloyed to any considerable extent, showing conclusively that the de- 
posits have not undergone igneous fusion at any time, but that the metals have deposited from 
solution. The production of silver in the United States for 1896 was 58,488,810 troyounces, 
valued at $39,245,992, and for 1897, 56,457,292 ounces, valued at $33,755,815. The world’s 
production, however, grew from 176,706,718 ounces in 1896, to 179,290,820 ounces in 1897. 
Extraction. Silver is extracted from its ores by two principal processes, amalgamation and 
cupeUation. At Freiberg, in Saxony, the ore, which is principally the sulphide, is mixed with 
a tenth of sodium chloride and roasted in a reverberatory furnace. As fast as the sulphide is 
oxidized to sulphate, this reacts with the sodium chloride, forming silver chloride and sodium 
sulphate. The roasted mass is then reduced to very fine powder, mixed with half its weight 
of mercury, one-third of its weight of water, and about a seventeenth of iron in flat pieces, 
and subjected for sixteen or eighteen hours to constant agitation in barrels turned by ma- 
chinery. The chlorine combines with the iron, and remains in solution as iron chloride; while 
the reduced silver forms an amalgam with the mercury. The amalgam is then subjected to 
pressure in leathern bags, through the pores of which the excess of mercury passes, a solid 
amalgam being left behind. This is then subjected to heat in a distillatory apparatus, by 
means of which the mercury is separated from the silver, which is left in a porous mass. In 
Peru and Mexico the process is similar to that above given, common salt and mercury being 
used ; but slaked lime and iron sulphide are also employed, with an effect which is not very 
obvious. 
When argentiferous galenas are worked for the silver they contain, they are at first reduced, 
and the argentiferous lead obtained is fused on a large, oval, shallow vessel called a test, and 
exposed to the blast of a bellows, whereby the lead is oxidized, half vitrified, and driven off 
the test in scales, in the form of litharge. The operation being continued on successive por- 
tions of argentiferous lead, the whole of the lead is separated, and the silver, not being oxi- 
dizable, accumulates on the test as a brilliant fused mass, until its amount is sufficient to be 
removed. The time required for the separation is much abridged by the process of Mr. Pat- 
tinson, of Newcastle, England. This consists in allowing the melted alloy to cool slowly, and 
separating the crystals which first form, consisting mainly of lead, by means of a perforated 
ladle. The residue is a very fusible alloy of lead and silver, in which the latter metal is in 
large proportion, and from which it can be easily separated by cupellation or other means. 
Properties. Silver is a white metal, very brilliant, tenacious, malleable, and ductile. In 
malleability and ductility it is inferior only to gold. It is harder than gold, but softer than 
copper. Its atomic weight is 108, symbol Ag, and sp. gr. from 10*4 to 10-5. It forms but one 
well-characterized oxide. Exposed to a full red heat, it enters into fusion, and exhibits a 
brilliant appearance. It is not oxidized in the air, but contracts a superficial tarnish of silver 
sulphide by the action of hydrogen sulphide in the atmosphere ; from which it may be freed 
by washing it with a strong solution of potassium cyanide, and, as soon as it becomes bright, 
washing it with water and drying it. (Chem. News, 1866, p. 12.) It is entirely soluble in 
diluted nitric acid. If any gold be present, it will remain undissolved as a dark-colored 
powder. From the nitric solution the whole of the silver may be thrown down by sodium 
chloride, as a white precipitate of silver chloride, characterized by being completely soluble in 
ammonia. If the remaining solution contain copper or lead, it will be precipitated or discol- 
ored by hydrogen sulphide. “ The solution, deprived of silver by means of sodium chloride, 
and filtered, is not colored, or but slightly so, and is not precipitated by hydrosulphurie acid.” 
U. S. 1870. “ If ammonia be added in excess to a solution of the metal in nitric acid, the 
resulting fluid exhibits neither color nor turbidity” (i?r. 1885) ; proving the absence of copper, PART I. 
Argenti Cyanidum.—Argenti Iodidum. 
223 
lead, and other metals. “ 10 grains dissolved in a little nitric acid, the solution diluted with 
water, and diluted hydrochloric acid added in slight excess, yields a white precipitate which, 
when thoroughly washed, dried, and heated, weighs 13*25 grains.” Br. 1885. 
ARGENTI CYANIDUM. U. S. Silver Cyanide. 
AgCN; 133*64. (AR-<JEN'Tl CY-Xn'I-DUM.) AgCN; 133*7. 
Cyanuret of Silver; Argentum Cyanatum; Cyanure d’Argent, Fr.; Cyansilber, G. 
A process for preparing this salt is no longer official. Below may be found that of the 
U. S. P. 1870* 
In the process of 1870 all the silver contained in a given weight of silver nitrate, placed in 
a receiver in solution, is converted into cyanide by hydrocyanic acid, produced from potassium 
ferrocyanide by the action of sulphuric acid, AgN03 -f- HCN = HN03 -f- AgCN. The mate- 
rials in the retort are sufficient to produce a little more hydrocyanic acid than is necessary to 
convert the whole of the silver in the receiver into cyanide ; so that the complete decomposition 
of the silver nitrate is insured. Silver cyanide should be kept in dark amber-colored vials, 
protected from light. 
According to Messrs. G-lassford and Napier, the best way of obtaining silver cyanide is to 
add potassium cyanide to a solution of silver nitrate so long as a precipitate is formed. 
Properties. Silver cyanide is “ a white powder, without odor or taste, permanent in dry 
air, but gradually turning brown on exposure to light. Insoluble in water, alcohol, or cold 
nitric acid, but soluble in boiling nitric acid with evolution of hydrocyanic acid; also soluble 
in ammonia water and in solution of sodium hyposulphite or of potassium cyanide. When 
heated, the salt fuses, gives off cyanogen gas, and, on ignition, leaves a residue of metallic 
silver, amounting to 80-56 per cent, of its original weight.” U. S. 
Its best solvent is potassium cyanide. It has no medical uses, but is official solely for the 
purpose of making Hydrocyanic Acid. 
ARGENTI IODIDUM. U. S. Silver Iodide. 
Ag I; 234*19. (ar-<?en't! !-£>D'I-DUM.) Ag I; 234*3. 
This official salt may be readily prepared by adding a solution of potassium iodide to one of 
silver nitrate, and washing and drying the precipitate, which should be kept in dark amber- 
colored vials, protected from light. 
According to the experiments of M. Fizeau, it has the remarkable property of contracting 
with heat and expanding with cold, differing in this respect from the chlorides and bromides 
of the same metal, and the iodides of other metals. (Journ. de Pharrn., 1867, p. 435.) This 
appears, however, to be only a partial truth, the iodide having three allotropic forms and a point 
of maximum density at about 116° C. (240-8° F.). See paper by Gr. F. Rodwell, in Chem. 
Neivs, xx. 288; xxi. 14. The Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ a heavy, amorphous, light yel- 
lowish powder, unaltered by light, if pure, but generally becoming somewhat greenish-yellow, 
and having neither odor nor taste. Insoluble in water, alcohol, diluted acids, or in solution of 
ammonium carbonate, but soluble in about 2500 parts of stronger ammonia water. It is' also 
dissolved by an aqueous solution of potassium cyanide, and by a concentrated solution of 
potassium iodide, and the resulting solutions yield a black precipitate with hydrogen sulphide 
test-solution or ammonium sulphide test-solution. When heated to about 400° C. (752° F.), 
the salt melts to a dark-red liquid, which, on cooling, congeals to a soft, yellow, slightly trans- 
parent mass. When mixed with ammonia water, it turns white, but regains its yellowish color 
upon being washed with water. If a small quantity of chlorine water be agitated with an 
excess of the salt, the filtrate acquires a dark-blue color on the addition of starch test-solution. 
If 0-5 6m. of the salt be digested for five minutes with 10 C.c. of a cold 15-per-cent, solution 
of ammonium carbonate, the filtrate, when supersaturated with nitric acid, should not be ren- 
dered more than faintly opalescent (absence of chloride). On digesting a portion of the salt— 
which has been found to be free from chloride, or from which the latter has been completely 
removed by repeated digestion with ammonium carbonate—for five minutes with 10 C.c. of 
* “Take of Nitrate of Silver, Ferrocyanide of Potassium, each, two troyouncea ; Sulphuric Acid a troyounce and 
a half; -Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Nitrate of Silver in a pint of Distilled Water, and pour 
the solution into a tubulated glass receiver. Dissolve the Ferrocyanide of Potassium in ten fluidounces of Distilled 
Water, and pour the solution into a tubulated retort, previously adapted to the receiver. Having mixed the Sul- 
phuric Acid with four fluidounces of Distilled Water, add the mixture to the solution in the retort, and distil, by 
means of a sand-bath, with a moderate heat, until six fluidounces have passed over, or until the distillate no longer 
produces a precipitate in the receiver. Lastly, wash the precipitate with Distilled Water, and dry it.” U. S. 1870. 224 
Argenti Nitras. 
PART I. 
ammonia water, and supersaturating the filtrate with nitric acid, only a slight opalescence, but 
no yellowish-white precipitate, should be produced (absence of bromide')." U. S. 
Medical Properties. Dr. Chas. Patterson, of Dublin, states that this salt possesses the 
general medical properties of silver nitrate, and may be used without any danger of producing 
discoloration of the skin, but in the latter assertion he is probably incorrect. The dose is one 
or two grains (0 065-0 13 6m.), three times a day, given in the form of pill. 
ARGENTI NITRAS. U. S., Br. Silver Nitrate. 
Ag NOs ; 169-55. NI'TRXs.) AgN03; 169-7. 
“ A salt, AgN03, prepared by the interaction of nitric acid and silver.” Br. 
Nitrate of Silver, Lunar Caustic; Argentum Nitricum Crystallisatum, P. G.; Azotas (Nitras) Argenticus; Azotate 
d’Argent, Nitre lunaire, Fr.; Salpetersaures Silberoxyd, Silbersalpeter, G. 
The U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias do not give processes for making this salt. The U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia, 1870, gave the following. “Take of Silver, in small pieces, two troy ounces; 
Nitric Acid two troy ounces and a half; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix the Acid 
with a fluidounce of Distilled Water in a porcelain capsule, add the Silver to the mixture, cover 
it with an inverted glass funnel, resting within the edge of the capsule, and apply a gentle 
heat until the metal is dissolved, and red vapors cease to be produced ; then remove the funnel, 
and, increasing the heat, evaporate the solution to dryness. Melt the dry mass, and continue 
the heat, stirring constantly with a glass rod, until free nitric acid is entirely dissipated. 
Dissolve the melted salt, when cold, in six fluidounces of Distilled Water, allow the insoluble 
matter to subside, and decant the clear solution. Mix the residue with a fluidounce of Dis- 
tilled Water, filter through paper, and, having added the filtrate to the decanted solution, 
evaporate the liquid until a pellicle begins to form, and set it aside in a warm place to crystal- 
lize. Lastly, drain the crystals in a glass funnel until dry, and preserve them in a well-stopped 
bottle. By evaporating the mother-water, more crystals may be obtained.” 
In the above process two peculiarities deserve notice. One of these is the direction to cover 
the materials in the capsule, during the continuance of the reaction, with a glass funnel. This 
is in order to prevent the escape of fumes and to economize the nitric acid, a portion of which 
rises in vapor, and, being condensed on the inner surface of the funnel, falls again into the 
capsule. The second peculiarity is the fusion of the salt before being dissolved; the effect 
is to decompose any copper nitrate that might have been derived from the silver, which, 
if coin be employed, always contains copper. The heat decomposes the copper nitrate, and 
the comparatively insoluble oxide is formed, which remains on the filter when the mass is 
subsequently dissolved in water and filtered, the silver nitrate not being decomposed by the 
heat used. 
A practical method for separating the copper nitrate used in Calcutta depends upon the fact 
that strong nitric acid only slightly dissolves silver nitrate in the presence of copper nitrate. 
The silver nitrate is crystallized out from the first solution as long as it can be obtained pure, 
and the bluish-green mother-liquor is evaporated to dryness; the powdered salt, placed in a 
funnel stopped with asbestos, is percolated with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42). This washes out all 
of the copper nitrate, and the silver nitrate can be freed from the adhering nitric acid by 
heat. (P. J. Tr., 1897, 61.) 
During the solution of silver in nitric acid, part of the acid is decomposed and nitric oxide 
is given off, which becomes red by contact with the atmosphere, and the oxygen oxidizes the 
silver. This is taken up by the remainder of the acid, and produces silver nitrate in solution, 
which, by due evaporation, furnishes crystals of the salt. The silver should be pure, and the 
acid diluted for the purpose of promoting its action. If the silver contain copper, the solution 
will have a greenish tint, not disappearing on the application of heat; and if a minute portion 
of gold be present, it will be left undissolved as a black powder. The acid also should be pure. 
The commercial nitric acid, as it frequently contains both hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, 
should never be used. The hydrochloric acid gives rise to an insoluble chloride, and the sul- 
phuric, to the sparingly soluble silver sulphate.* For an account of the manufacture of silver 
nitrate on a large scale, see Druggists' Circular, 1887, p. 3. 
* It is desirable that pure silver, free from copper, should be used in this process. As silver coin always contains 
copper, it should be purified before being employed. For this purpose, according to the method of M. Lienau, it 
should be dissolved in nitric acid, and the solution precipitated by chlorine water, which throws down the silver only 
in the form of chloride. The precipitate is to be well washed with chlorine water, then dissolved in solution of 
ammonia, and precipitated by clean copper wire. The silver is deposited as a black powder, which, when washed 
with solution of ammonia, is perfectly pure. (See A. J. P., 1862, p. 368.) PART I. 
Argenii Nitras. 
225 
Properties. Silver nitrate is in “ colorless, transparent, tabular, rhombic crystals, be- 
coming gray or grayish black on exposure to light in presence of organic matter, odorless, 
having a bitter, caustic, and strongly metallic taste and a neutral reaction. Soluble, at 15° C. 
(59° F.), in 06 part of water, and in 26 parts of alcohol; in 0-1 part of boiling water, and in 
5 parts of boiling alcohol. When heated to about 200° C. (392° F.), the salt melts, forming a 
faintly yellow liquid, which, on cooling, congeals to a pure white, crystalline mass. At a higher 
temperature it is gradually decomposed with evolution of nitrous vapors.” U. S. “ Soluble in 
ether and glycerin.” Br. The solution stains the skin an indelible black color, and is itself 
discolored by the most minute portion of organic matter, for which it forms a delicate test. The 
affinity of this salt for animal matter is evinced by its forming definite compounds with albumen 
and fibrin. The solution also stains linen and muslin in a similar manner ; and hence its use in 
making the so-called indelible ink. To remove these stains, Mr. W. B. Herapath advises to let 
fall on the moistened spots a few drops of tincture of iodine, which converts the silver into sil- 
ver iodide. The iodide is then dissolved by a solution of sodium hyposulphite, made with from 
half a drachm to a fluidounce of water, or by a moderately dilute solution of caustic potassa, 
and the spots are washed out with warm water. Silver stains may also be taken out by a solu- 
tion of two and a half drachms of potassium cyanide, and fifteen grains of iodine, in three 
fluidounces of water. Dr. H. Kraetzer recommends, instead of potassium cyanide, a solution 
of 10 parts sal ammoniac and 10 parts corrosive sublimate in 100 parts of water, with which 
the stains are said to be removed readily from the hands, and from linen, wool, and cotton 
without injuring the fabric. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1880, 52.) Silver nitrate is incompatible 
with most spring and river waters, on account of a little common salt usually contained in them ; 
with soluble chlorides; with hydrogen sulphide, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and tartaric acids, 
and their salts; with the alkalies and their carbonates ; with lime water; and with astringent 
infusions. It is sometimes improperly prescribed in pill with tannic acid, by which it is de- 
composed. Silver nitrate is an anhydrous salt, consisting of one atom of silver, combined with 
the monatomic group characteristic of nitric acid. 
Impurities and Tests. Hydrochloric acid or a solution of sodium chloride, added in 
excess to one of silver nitrate, should throw down the whole of the silver as a white curdy 
precipitate darkening on exposure to light, and nothing besides. This precipitate should be 
entirely soluble in ammonia. If not so, the insoluble part is probably lead chloride. If the 
supernatant liquid, after the removal of the precipitate, be discolored or precipitated by hydro- 
gen sulphide, the fact shows the presence of metallic matter, which is probably copper or some 
remains of lead, or both. The solution, after precipitation by hydrochloric acid and filtration, 
should leave no residue when evaporated. A piece of the salt, heated on charcoal by the 
blow-pipe, melts, deflagrates, and leaves behind a whitish metallic coating. After all, the 
best sign of the purity of silver nitrate is the characteristic appearance of the crystals. “ An 
aqueous solution of the salt is neutral to litmus paper, and yields, with hydrochloric acid, a 
white precipitate, which is readily dissolved, without color (absence of copper), by ammonia 
water. If 5 C.c. of a 10-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt be mixed with 20 C.c. of diluted 
sulphuric acid, and heated to boiling, no turbidity should be perceptible (absence of lead'). 
If another portion of the aqueous solution be completely precipitated by hydrochloric acid, 
and the filtrate evaporated to dryness, no residue should be left (absence of foreign salts). 
0-34 (0-3391) Gm. of Silver Nitrate, dissolved in 10 C.c. of water, should require, for complete 
precipitation, 20 C.c. of sodium chloride decinormal volumetric solution (corresponding to 100 
per cent, of the pure salt).” U. S. “ 1 gramme dissolved in 15 cubic centimetres of water 
affords with hydrochloric acid a precipitate, which, when thoroughly washed and dried, should 
weigh 0-843 gramme. The filtrate, when evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, should leave 
no residue.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. When silver nitrate in a pure state is brought in con- 
tact with a living tissue, it acts as an escharotic. Owing to the formation of a dense film of 
coagulated albumen, the depth of its action is very limited; the albuminous coating is at first 
white, but soon becomes blackish, owing to the reduction of the silver. The solution of the 
salt is, if not too strong, a local stimulant and astringent, and is very largely employed (grs. 
xx to fgi) in ordinary angina, or more concentrated (grs. xxx to fgi) in diphtheria, and is also 
used in inflammations of the urethral and conjunctival mucous membranes; for the latter pur- 
pose the strength should usually not exceed one or two grains to the ounce. As a counter- 
irritant, stimulant, and alterative, or an escharotic in various external ulcerations, morbid 
growths, etc., silver nitrate finds a very wide use. It is largely employed, also, internally in 226 
Argenti Nitras.—Argenti Nitras Dilutus. 
PART I. 
injlammations and ulcerations of the alimentary tract, such as subacute gastritis, pyrosis, ulcer of 
the stomach, chronic diarrhoea, catarrh of the gall-ducts, etc. In all stomachic diseases it should 
be given half an hour before eating, so as to reach as thoroughly as possible the gastric mucous 
membrane. Dr. Boudin, of Marseilles, employed it in typhoid fever, and Prof. Wm. Pepper 
has followed the practice with asserted brilliant results. As it has been found in all the tissues 
of the body, it is undoubtedly absorbed. It is soluble in peptones, and is probably so taken 
up, although some believe that it is converted in the stomach into a soluble double chloride 
with sodium or potassium. It is never used in practical medicine to produce an acute impres- 
sion on the general system, but was at one time much employed as a slowly acting alterative 
in certain nervous affections, especially epilepsy and chronic spinal inflammation, such as loco- 
motor ataxia, spasmodic tabes, tabes dorsalis, etc., but this method of treatment has about passed 
out of vogue. The occasional production of a slate-colored discoloration of the skin is a great 
drawback to the long-continued use of the nitrate, but it probably never occurs under a course 
of the remedy of less than two months. It affects also the mucous membrane, and, according 
to Dr. Branson (confirmed by Dr. Wm. Pepper), an indication of the approach of discoloration 
is furnished by the occurrence of a dark-blue line on the edges of the gums, very similar to 
that produced by lead, but somewhat darker. When once produced, the discoloration seems 
to be permanent, although Dr. L. P. Yandell has reported two cases in which the discoloration 
of the skin disappeared during a course of potassium iodide. (W. R., July, 1873.) 
The dose of silver nitrate (crystals) is the fourth of a grain (0-016 Gm.), gradually in- 
creased to half a grain (0-03 Gm.), three times a day. For internal exhibition, the physician 
should always prescribe the crystals, and never direct the fused nitrate, which may not be pure. 
Silver nitrate should always be given in pill, as the solution is decomposed by the liquids of 
the mouth. It should not be made up into pill with crumb of bread, as this contains common 
salt, but with some vegetable powder and mucilage, preferably powdered sugar of milk with 
an excipient of glucose. But, as all organic substances decompose it more or less, M. Vee 
proposes the use of inorganic matter, such as nitre, or preferably pure silica obtained by pre- 
cipitating one of the silicates by an acid, and washing it. The least possible proportion of 
tragacanth may be used to give adhesiveness to the mass. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1864, p. 
408.) 
When ingested in sufficient dose, silver nitrate is a violent poison, and has several times 
caused death. The symptoms are those of toxic gastro-enteritis, with marked constitutional 
disturbance, especially coma, convulsions, paralysis, and profound alteration of the respiration. 
The treatment of the poisoning resolves itself into the use of the ordinary antidotes (common 
salt, soap, alkalies, etc.). 
ARGENTI NITRAS DILUTUS. U. S. (Br.) Diluted Silver Nitrate 
[Mitigated Caustic.] 
(ar-<j£n't! ni'tkas di-lu'tds.) 
Argenti Nitras Mitigatus, Br., Mitigated Caustic; Silver and Potassium Nitrate. 
“ Silver Nitrate, thirty grammes [or 463 grains] ; Potassium Nitrate, sixty grammes [or 2 
ounces av., 51 grains]. Melt the salts together in a porcelain crucible, at as low a temperature 
as possible, stirring the melted mass well until it flows smoothly. Then cast it into suitable 
moulds. Keep the product in dark amber-colored vials.” TJ. S. 
“ Silver Nitrate, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Potassium Nitrate, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 
40 grammes. Fuse and mix thoroughly in a capsule of platinum or thin porcelain, and pour 
the melted mass into proper moulds.” Br. 
The introduction of these preparations grew out of the frequent demand for a fused silver 
nitrate which would not be so severe in its action as the pure article. The manufacturers 
have been furnishing for many years a “ No. 2 Lunar Caustic,” which contains 67 per cent, 
of pure silver nitrate; the diluted nitrate of the U. S. P. 1880 contained 50 per cent, of lunar 
caustic, but the present Pharmacopoeia has further reduced the strength to 33 per cent., and 
it is now identical with the British preparation. 
Properties. Diluted silver nitrate is officially described as “ a white, hard solid, generally 
in the form of pencils or cones of a finely granular fracture, becoming gray or grayish-black 
on exposure to light in presence of organic matter; odorless, having a caustic, metallic taste, 
and neutral to litmus paper. Each of its constituents retains the solubility in water and in 
alcohol mentioned, respectively, under Argenti Nitras and Potassii Nitras. An aqueous solu- 
tion of Diluted Silver Nitrate yields, with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, a white pre- PART I. 
Argenti Nitras Dilutus.—Argenti Nitras Fusus. 
227 
cipitate, which is readily soluble in ammonia water. The filtrate from this precipitate, when 
evaporated to dryness, yields a white residue which is completely soluble in water, and this 
solution affords a yellow, crystalline precipitate with platinic chloride test-solution, and a white, 
crystalline precipitate with sodium bitartrate test-solution. If to an aqueous solution of 
Diluted Silver Nitrate a slight excess of ammonia water be added, it should neither assume a 
blue color (absence of copper), nor show any turbidity (absence of lead and bismuth). If 1 
Gm. of Diluted Silver Nitrate, dissolved in 10 C.c. of water, be mixed with 20 C.c. of sodium 
chloride decinormal volumetric solution and a few drops of potassium chromate test-solution, 
not more than 0'5 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solution should be required to 
impart to the liquid a permanent red color (corresponding to at least 33 per cent, of pure 
silver nitrate).” U. S. “ White or grayish-white cylindrical rods or cones; freely soluble in 
water, but only sparingly so in alcohol (90 per cent.). 3 grammes dissolved in 15 cubic centi- 
metres of water should afford with hydrochloric acid a precipitate, which, after washing with 
hot water and drying, weighs 0-843 gramme.” Br. 
Medical Properties. This preparation is used only externally. It is similar in its 
action to the fused nitrate, but less energetic. 
ARGENTI NITRAS FUSUS. U. S. (Br.) Moulded Silver Nitrate. [Lunar 
Caustic.] 
Argenti Nitras Induratus, Br., Toughened Caustic; Lunar Caustic; Lapis Infernalis, Argentum Nitricum 
Fusum, P.G.; Azotas (Nitras) Argenticus Fusus; Azotate d’Argent fondu, Pierre infernale, Fr.j Hollenstein, 
Geschmolzenes Salpetersaures Silberoxyd, G.; Fused Nitrate of Silver. 
“ Silver Nitrate, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Hydrochloric Acid, 
four grammes [or 62 grains]. To the Silver Nitrate, contained in a porcelain capsule, add the 
Hydrochloric Acid, and ruelt the mixture at as low a temperature as possible. Stir well, and 
pour the melted mass into suitable moulds. Keep the product in dark amber-colored vials, 
protected from light.” U. S. 
“ Silver Nitrate, 475 grains (Imperial) or 95 grammes; Potassium Nitrate, 25 grains (Imp.) 
or 5 grammes. Fuse and mix thoroughly, in a capsule of platinum or thin porcelain, and pour 
the melted mass into proper moulds.” Br. 
For most purposes it is desirable to have the silver nitrate less brittle than in its pure state. 
Prof. J. L. Smith, of Louisville, Ky., found that this could be effected by adding a little silver 
chloride, which rendered the stick tough, without materially impairing its efficiency. Dr. 
Squibb proposed to accomplish the object by adding 40 grains of hydrochloric acid, with half 
a fluidounce of distilled water, to two ounces of silver nitrate, heating the mixture by means 
of a sand-bath to dryness, and then melting and casting into moulds. (Proc. A. P. A., 1858.) 
This process has been practically adopted in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. In order to keep the 
sticks from becoming discolored during the casting process, it is advisable to add a diluted 
nitric acid (1 in 5) occasionally to the melted nitrate, and carefully prevent the mass from 
becoming overheated. In the British process the “ toughening” is effected by the addition of 
5 per cent, of potassium nitrate. In our opinion, this is not as efficient as is the use of hydro- 
chloric acid. As the salt while melting penetrates a common crucible, the fusion is performed 
in one of porcelain or platinum, the size of which should be sufficient to hold five or six times 
the quantity of the salt operated on, in order to prevent its boiling over. Sometimes small 
portions of the liquid are spurted out, and the operator should be on his guard against this 
occurrence. When the mass flows like oil, it is completely fused, and ready to be poured into 
the moulds. These should be warmed, but not greased, as the organic matter would partially 
decompose the fused salt. 
Properties. Moulded silver nitrate, as prepared by the above process, is in the form of hard 
brittle sticks of the size of a goose-quill, at first translucent, but quickly becoming gray or more 
or less dark under the influence of light, owing to the reduction of the silver, effected probably 
by organic matter or hydrogen sulphide contained in the atmosphere. That the change does 
not depend on the sole action of light has been proved by Mr. Scanlan, who finds that silver 
nitrate in a clean glass tube hermetically sealed undergoes no change by exposure to light. 
The sticks often become dark-colored and nearly black on the surface, and when broken across, 
exhibit a crystalline fracture with a radiated surface. Moulded silver nitrate, when pure, is 
wholly soluble in distilled water; but even fair samples of the moulded salt will not totally dis- 
solve, a very scanty black powder being left of reduced silver, arising probably from the salt 
(AR-<JSn'tT NI'TIiXS FU'SUS.) 228 
Argenti Nitras Fusus. 
PART I. 
having been exposed to too high a heat in fusion. Stein (Schweiz. Wochenschrift fur Phar- 
macies 6, 10,1877) recommends a plan for obtaining sticks of lunar caustic of special diameter 
or length by taking a glass tube or rod of the required outside diameter and wrapping around it 
moistened parchment paper, pasting the edges, tying the lower end, and drying. The melted 
lunar caustic is poured into the paper mould, held upright in a test-tube, and allowed to cool 
by standing. Elastic crayons of silver nitrate may be made by taking a laminaria tent of 
an inch (0-002 mm.) in diameter, dipping it into thick mucilage, rolling it in finely-powdered 
lunar caustic, and drying it. (Pajot.) Entirely black lunar gaustic is sometimes seen in 
France, which contains about 2 per cent, of potassium nitrate and the same quantity of black 
manganese oxide. Heller’s caustic pencils look like ordinary lead-pencils, and consist of long, 
thin sticks of lunar caustic, encased in wood; they may be sharpened' like lead-pencils, and 
the point protected by a cap to prevent injury when not in use. “ A white, hard solid, gener- 
ally in the form of pencils or cones of a fibrous fracture, becoming gray or grayish-black on 
exposure to light in the presence of organic matter, odorless, and having a bitter, caustic, and 
strongly metallic taste. Soluble at 15° C. (59° F.), with the exception of about 5 per cent, 
of silver chloride, in 0-6 part of water, and in 26 parts of alcohol; in 0-1 part of boiling 
water, and in 5 parts of boiling alcohol. The portion left undissolved by water should be 
completely soluble in ammonia water.” U. S. 
Impurities and Tests. Moulded silver nitrate is liable to contain free silver from having 
been exposed to too high a heat, lead and copper nitrates from the impurity of the silver 
dissolved in the acid, and potassium nitrate from fraudulent admixture or otherwise. Free 
silver will be left undissolved as a black powder, after the action of distilled water. A very 
slight residue of this kind is hardly avoidable; but if there be much free silver it will be 
shown by the surface of a fresh fracture of one of the sticks presenting an unusually dark 
gray color. (Christison.) The mode of detecting lead and copper is explained under silver 
nitrate. (See Argenti Nitras.) “ A clear, aqueous solution of the salt, decanted from the in- 
soluble portion, should be neutral to litmus paper, and should respond to the tests of identity 
and purity mentioned under Argenti Nitras. If 0-34 6m. of Moulded Silver Nitrate, dissolved 
as completely as possible in 10 C.c. of water, be mixed with 20 C.c. of sodium chloride deci- 
normal volumetric solution and a few drops of potassium chromate test-solution, not more than 
1 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solution should be required to impart to the 
liquid a permanent red color (corresponding to 95 per cent, of pure silver nitrate).” U. S. In 
order to detect potassium nitrate, a solution of the suspected salt should be treated with hydro- 
chloric acid in excess, to remove silver, and with hydrogen sulphide, to throw down other 
metals if they happen to be present. The filtered liquid, if the salt be pure, will entirely 
evaporate by heat; if it contain potassium nitrate, this will be left, easily known by its prop- 
erties as a nitrate. This impurity sometimes exists in moulded silver nitrate in large amount, 
varying, according to different statements, from 10 to 75 per cent. According to Dr. Christi- 
son, it may be suspected if the sticks present a colorless fracture. Prof. Pollacci (Joum. de 
Pharm., 4e ser., xvii. 160) states that if silver nitrate, after having been heated in a porcelain 
capsule to redness and cooled, imparts an alkaline reaction to water, it contains nitre. In the Br. 
Pharmacopoeia the following method is given for testing toughened silver nitrate for impurity; 
the British preparation contains no hydrochloric acid. “ 1 gramme, dissolved in 15 cubic 
centimetres of waters should yield with hydrochloric acid a precipitate, which, when washed and 
dried, should weigh 0 8 gramme, and the filtrate when evaporated should leave a white resi- 
due.” If the weight of the precipitate be greater or less than here stated, there must be some 
impurity in the nitrate; and any non-precipitable matter, if solid at the temperature of the 
water-bath, will be left behind when the filtrate is evaporated. 
Medical Properties. Moulded silver nitrate should be restricted to external use. Exter- 
nally applied, the moulded nitrate acts variously as a stimulant, vesicant, and escliarotic, and 
may be employed either dissolved in water or in the solid state. A drachm of the moulded 
salt, dissolved in a fluidounce of water, forms an escharotic solution, which may often be resorted 
to with advantage. But moulded silver nitrate is most frequently employed in the solid state; 
and, as it is not deliquescent nor apt to spread, it forms the most manageable caustic that can 
be used. If the moulded nitrate be rubbed gently over the moistened skin until this becomes 
gray, it generally vesicates, causing usually less pain than is produced by cantharides. The 
fused nitrate is also employed to destroy strictures of the urethra, warts and excrescences, fungous 
flesh, incipient chancres, and the surface of other ulcers. 
It is often of service lightly applied, either in concentrated solution or in stick, to ulcers in PART I. 
Argenti Nitras Fusus.—Argenti Oxidum. 
229 
expediting their cicatrization. It is very largely employed in the local treatment of inflam- 
mations of the mucous membranes, as in cystitis, leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea, conjunctivitis, faucitis, 
laryngitis, etc. In these cases the strength of the solution must be adapted to the suscepti- 
bility and the exact condition of the membrane. In cases of intense and especially of specific 
inflammations, the solution may be a saturated one, the object being to destroy the specific 
granulations: thus, in gonorrhoeal conjunctivitis, and in virulent diphtheritic faucitis, even the 
solid stick is used by some practitioners, whereas in ordinary conjunctivitis the strength should 
rarely be above one or two grains to the ounce, and in faucitis twenty to forty grains to the 
ounce. Strong solutions of silver nitrate are sometimes used for the aborting of a gonorrhoea, 
but the treatment is usually considered dangerous, as liable to increase the intensity of the in- 
flammation if unsuccessful. In the advanced stages of gonorrhoea a solution of three to five 
grains to the ounce may be injected. 
Lunar caustic is also frequently used as a topical remedy in various superficial inflammations. 
The method originated in 1820 by Mr. John Higginbottom of treating erysipelas by silver 
nitrate still finds favor with some of the profession. After thorough washing of the skin 
with soap and water, and afterwards with pure water, and subsequent drying, a concentrated 
solution of twenty grains of silver nitrate to a drachm of distilled water is applied freely on 
the inflamed surface and beyond it on the healthy skin by means of a linen mop. In vari- 
ous inflammations of the subcellular tissues silver nitrate often acts advantageously: thus, 
applied to the skin in sufficient concentration to blacken the surface, it will sometimes avert a 
felon or an epididymitis. It has been employed by injection for the radical cure of hydrocele, 
and in solid stick applied as a fine point to each pustule of small-pox upon the face for the 
prevention of pitting. 
ARGENTI OXIDUM. U. S., Br. Silver Oxide. 
Ag* O ; 231*28. (AK-£EN'Tl OX'I-DUM.) AgjO; 231*4. 
“ Silver Oxide should be kept in dark amber-colored vials. It should not be triturated with 
readily oxidizable or combustible substances, and should not be brought in contact with 
ammonia.” U. S. “ Silver Oxide, Ag20, is prepared by mixing solutions of silver nitrate and 
calcium hydroxide.” Br. 
Argentum Oxydatum, Argentic Oxide; Oxyde d’Argent, Fr.; Silberoxyd, G. 
A process for preparing silver oxide has not been adopted in either of the present U. S. or 
Br. Pharmacopoeias; that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870 is given below.* 
Silver oxide was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1850, and was adopted in the 
Br. Pharmacopoeia from the Dublin. In the processes for making it, silver nitrate is decom- 
posed by potassa or lime, the oxide being precipitated, and potassium nitrate or calcium nitrate, 
as the case may be, remaining in solution. When thus obtained, the oxide is an olive-brown 
powder. If the potassa used be not wholly free from carbonic acid, the precipitated oxide 
will be contaminated with some silver carbonate. According to Mr. Borland, of London, the 
carbonate is sometimes sold for the oxide. A third process for obtaining this oxide is that of 
Gregory, which consists in boiling the moist, recently-prepared silver chloride with a very 
strong solution of caustic potassa (sp. gr. 1-25 to 1-30), when, by double decomposition, silver 
oxide and potassium chloride are formed. 
Properties and Tests. “ A heavy, dark brownish-black powder, liable to reduction by 
exposure to light, odorless, and having a metallic taste. Very slightly soluble in water, to which 
it imparts an alkaline reaction, and insoluble in alcohol, but readily and completely soluble in 
nitric acid without effervescence (absence of carbonate). When heated to about 250° to 300° C. 
(482° to 572° F.), it is rapidly decomposed, with the evolution of oxygen, and leaving a resi- 
due of metallic silver. The solution of the oxide in nitric acid should be colorless, and should 
respond to the reactions and tests mentioned under Silver Nitrate (see Argenti Nitras). If 
0-5 Gm. of the Oxide be ignited in a porcelain crucible, it should yield 0-465 Gm. (or 93-1 
per cent.) of metallic silver.” U. S. “A brown powder, which at a low red heat gives off 
oxygen and yields metallic silver. It dissolves in nitric acid without the evolution of any 
reddish fumes (absence of metallic silver). Each gramme, dissolved in nitric acid, should 
yield with hydrochloric acid a precipitate, which, when thoroughly washed and dried, weighs 
* “Take of Nitrate of Silver four troyounces ; Distilled Water half a pint; Solution of Potassa a pint and a 
half, or a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Nitrate of Silver in the Water, and to the solution add Solution of Po- 
tassa so long as it produces a precipitate. Wash this repeatedly with water until the washings are nearly tasteless. 
Lastly, dry the precipitate and keep it in a well-stopped bottle, protected from the light.” U.S. 1870. 230 
Argenti Oxidum.—Armor arise Radix. 
PART I. 
1-237 grammes. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, or 
iron. Silver Oxide is liable to decompose with violence when mixed with creosote, phenol, 
potassium permanganate, and many other substances.” Br. When its solution in nitric acid 
is precipitated by sodium chloride in excess, the supernatant liquid is not discolored by am- 
monium sulphide. The non-action of this test shows the absence of most foreign metals, 
especially copper and lead. It parts with its oxygen with great facility, being decomposed by 
many organic substances; in this way it causes sulphur, amorphous phosphorus, or tannin to 
take fire when rubbed together with it quite dry, in a mortar. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This oxide has been proposed as a substitute for 
silver nitrate, as having the general therapeutic virtues of the latter, without its escharotic 
effect and its objectionable property of discoloring the skin. Experience, however, has shown 
that it will tint the skin. (New York Med. Journ., June, 1869; Phila. Med. Times, vi.) It 
was first tried as a medicine by Van Mons and Sementini. In 1840 it was employed by Dr. 
Butler Lane, who considered it to act as a sedative. In 1845 the late Sir James Eyre strongly 
recommended it in his work on exhausting diseases. Dr. Lane used it with more or less suc- 
cess in nausea, cardialgia, pyrosis, various painful affections of the stomach without organic 
lesion, dysentery, diarrhoea, night-sweats without other obvious affection, dysmemrrhoea, menor- 
rhagia,, leucorrhoea, chronic enlargements of the uterus attended with flooding, etc. The oxide 
appeared to exert a peculiar control over uterine fluxes. Some of the cases treated required 
the use of tonics after the curative influence of the oxide had been exerted. The late Dr. 
Golding Bird also obtained favorable effects from the use of silver oxide, and confirmed to a 
certain extent the results of Dr. Lane, especially as to its valuable powers in menorrhagia. In 
stomach disease characterized by a glairy instead of a watery discharge, Dr. Bird derived not 
the slightest benefit from the oxide, though he used it in thirty cases. In taenia it has been used 
successfully in two cases by Mr. Whittel. The dose of silver oxide is a grain (0-065 Gm.) twice 
or thrice a day. If pills are ordered, they should not be made with honey, conserve of roses, or 
other excipient containing glucose; and, indeed, most organic substances, especially in a moist 
state, deoxidize the oxide, reviving the silver. There would seem to be need-of great caution 
in making these pills. Dr. Jackson has recorded a case in which pills of silver oxide, morphine 
muriate, and extract of gentian exploded violently in the pocket of the patient. (P. J. Tr., xi. 
552.) Pills may be made with gum arabic, but it is better to dispense the dry powder in 
capsules. An ointment, from five to ten grains to the drachm, has been used as an application 
to venereal sores, and to the urethral membrane in gonorrhoea, smeared on a bougie. 
ARMORACIA RADIX. Br. Horse-radish Root. 
(AR-MO-RA'CI-iE RA'DIX.) 
“ The fresh root of Cochlearia Armoracia, Linn., collected from cultivated plants.” Br. 
Armoracia, Br. 1864; Raifort sauvage, Moutarde des Moines, Radis de Cheval, Fr.; Meerrettig, G.; Rafano rus- 
ticano, It.; Rabano rusticano, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Silicida emarginate, turgid, scabrous with gibbous, obtuse valves. Willd. 
Cochlearia Armoracia. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 451 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 400, t. 145. The 
root of this plant is perennial, sending up numerous very large leaves from the midst of which 
a round, smooth, erect, branching stem rises two or three feet in height. The radical leaves 
are lance-shaped, waved, scolloped on the edges, sometimes pinnatifid, and stand upon strong 
footstalks. Those of the stem are much smaller, without footstalks, sometimes divided at the 
edges, sometimes almost entire. The flowers are numerous, white, peduncled, and form thick 
terminal clusters. The calyx has four ovate, deciduous leaves, and the corolla an equal num- 
ber of obovate petals, twice as long as the calyx, and inserted by narrow claws. The pod is 
small, elliptical, crowned with the persistent stigma, and divided into two cells, each containing 
from four to six seeds. 
The horse-radish is a native of western Europe, growing wild on the sides of ditches, and 
in other moist situations. It is cultivated for culinary purposes in most civilized countries, 
and is naturalized in some parts of the United States. Its flowers appear in June. 
The root, which is official in its fresh state, is long, conical at top, then nearly cylindrical for 
some inches, at last tapering, whitish externally, very white within, fleshy, of a strong pungent 
odor when scraped or bruised, and of a hot, biting, somewhat sweetish, and sometimes bitter- 
ish taste. Its virtues are imparted to water and alcohol. They depend upon a volatile oil, 
which is dissipated by drying ; the root becoming at first sweetish, and ultimately insipid and PART I. 
Armoracise Radix.—Arnicae Radix. 
231 
quite inert. Its acrimony is also destroyed by boiling. The oil may be obtained by distilla- 
tion with water. It is colorless or pale yellow, heavier than water, very volatile, excessively 
pungent, acrid, and corrosive, exciting inflammation and even vesication when applied to the 
skin. Hubatka considers it as identical with the volatile oil of mustard. He combined it 
with ammonia and obtained crystals of thiosinamin, NH2.CS.N(C3H6)H, which agreed with 
that produced from mustard oil. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., v. 42.) According to Gutret, 
only six parts of it are obtained from 10,000 of the root. Besides this principle, the fresh 
root contains, according to the same chemist, a bitter resin in minute quantity, sugar, extract- 
ive, gum, starch, albumen, acetic acid, calcium sulphate and acetate, water, and lignin. A. 
Hilger found in the ashes of the root of horse-radish, lime, magnesia, potassa, a trace of soda 
and iron oxide, with sulphuric, hydrochloric, carbonic, phosphoric, and silicic acids in combi- 
nation. ( Chem. Centralblp. 597,1878 ; A. J. P., 1879, p. 21.) From observations made by 
F. L. Winckler, it may be inferred that myronic acid exists in the root combined with potassa, 
and that it is from the reaction between this acid, myrosine, also existing in the root, and 
water, that the volatile oil is produced, in the same manner as oil of mustard from mustard 
seed. (See Sinapis.) Horse-radish when distilled with alcohol yields none of the oil. (Journ. 
fur Pralct. Pharm., xviii. 89.) The root may be kept for some time without material injury, 
if buried in sand in a cool place. 
It is said that if to the powder of the dried root, which has become apparently inert, 
the emulsion of white mustard seed containing myrosine be added, it reacquires its original 
irritant properties ; so that it is the myrosine and not the potassium myronate which is injured 
by drying. Hence the powdered root may be added with advantage to mustard in preparing 
cataplasms, pediluvia, etc. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., xxvii. 268.)* 
Medical Properties and Uses. Horse-radish is highly stimulant, exciting the stomach 
when swallowed, and promoting the secretions, especially that of urine. Externally it is rube- 
facient. Its chief use is as a condiment to promote appetite and invigorate digestion ; but it is 
also occasionally employed as a medicine, particularly in dropsy attended with enfeebled diges- 
tion and general debility. It has, moreover, been recommended in palsy and chronic rheuma- 
tism, both as an internal and an external remedy, and in scorbutic affections is highly esteemed. 
Cullen found advantage in cases of hoarseriess, from the use of a syrup prepared from an 
infusion of horse-radish and sugar, and slowly swallowed in the quantity of one or two tea- 
spoonfuls, repeated occasionally. The root may be given in the dose of half a drachm (1-95 
Gm.) or more, grated or cut into small pieces. 
ARNICiE FLORES. U. S. Arnica Flowers. 
(AR'NT-qAS FLO'RE§.) 
“ The flower heads of Arnica montana, Linne (nat. ord. Composite).” U. S. 
Leopard’s Bane; Flores Arnicte, P. G.; Fleurs d’Arnique, Fr.; Wohlverleichbliithen, Arnicabliitben, G. 
ARNICA RADIX. U. S. (Br.) Arnica Root. 
(AR'NI-QjE ra'dix.) 
“ The rhizome and roots of Arnica montana, Linne (nat. ord. Composite).” U. S. “ The 
dried rhizome and roots of Arnica montana, Linn.” Br. 
Arnicse Rhizoma, Br., Arnica Rhizome; Racine d’Arnique, Fr.; Arnikawurzel, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx with equal leaflets in a double row. Seed-down hairy, sessile. Seeds of the 
disk and ray furnished with seed-down. Receptacle hairy. Hayne. 
Arnica montana. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2106 ; B. & T. 158. This is a perennial, herbaceous 
plant, having a woody, brownish, horizontal root, from one to three inches long, and two or 
three lines thick, ending abruptly, and sending forth numerous slender fibres of the same 
color. The stem is about a foot high, cylindrical, striated, hairy, and terminating in one, two, 
* The French Codex contains a formula for a Compound Syrup of Horse-radish (Strop Antis cor butique), as fol- 
lows. Scurvy-grass, water-cress, horse-radish (root), all fresh, of each, 100 parts, buckbean (marsh trefoil), fresh, 
10 parts, bitter orange peel 20 parts, canella 5 parts, white wine 400 parts, sugar 500 parts. Thoroughly contuse 
and comminute the solid ingredients, macerate for 48 hours with the wine, and distil off 100 parts. Express and 
strain the residue from the distillation, clarify the liquid with white of egg, and strain; add 300 parts sugar, and 
make into a syrup of sp. gr. 1’270 whilst boiling; with the rest of the sugar and sufficient water make a thick 
syrup, mix this with the other syrup, allow to cool, then add the distilled essence. Iodized Syrup of Horse-radish 
may be made by adding one part of tincture of iodine to ninety-nine parts of the compound syrup above. 232 
Arnicas Radix. 
PART I. 
or three peduncles, each bearing a flower. The radical leaves are ovate, entire, ciliated, and 
obtuse ; those of the stem, which usually consist of two opposite pairs, are lance-shaped. Both 
are bright green, and somewhat pubescent on their upper surface. The flowers are yellow. 
This plant is a native of the mountainous districts of Europe and Siberia, and is found, 
according to Nuttall, in the northern regions of this continent, west of the Mississippi. It has 
been introduced into England, and might no doubt be cultivated in this country. The flowers, 
leaves, and root are employed; but the flowers are usually preferred. 
Properties. The whole plant, when fresh, has a strong, disagreeable odor, which is apt to 
excite sneezing, and is diminished by drying. The taste is acrid, bitterish, and durable. The 
dried root is cylindrical, contorted, and marked by scars from the insertion of the leaves. 
Water extracts its virtues. The Pharmacopoeia thus describes the flowers and the root: 
“ Heads about 3 Cm. [one and one-fifth inch] broad, depressed-roundish, consisting of a 
scaly involucre in two rows, and a small, nearly flat, hairy receptacle, bearing about sixteen 
yellow, strap-shaped, ten-nerved ray-florets, and numerous yellow, five-toothed, tubular disk- 
florets, having slender, spindle-shaped achenes, 
crowned by a hairy pappus. Odor feeble, aro- 
matic ; taste bitter and acrid.” U. S. 
“ Rhizome about 5 Cm. [two inches] long, and 
3 or 4 Mm. [one-eighth to one-sixth inch] thick; 
externally brown, rough from leaf-scars ; internally 
whitish, with a rather thick bark, containing a 
circle of resin-cells, surrounding the short, yellow- 
ish wood-wedges, and large, spongy pith. The 
roots numerous, thin, fragile, grayish-brown, with 
a thick bark containing a circle of resin-cells. 
Odor somewhat aromatic ; taste pungently aro- 
matic and bitter.” U. S. 
Bastick (P. J. Tr., x. 389) separated an alka- 
loid from the flowers, to which he gave the name 
of arnicine. The arnicine of Walz (JSf. Jahrb. 
Pharm., xiii.), extracted from both the root and 
the flowers, is a different substance ; it is an amor- 
phous yellow mass of acrid taste, slightly soluble 
in water, freely in alcohol or ether, and dissolving also in alkaline solutions. It is precipitable 
from its alcoholic solution by tannic acid or by water. Walz assigns to arnicine the formula 
C20Hao04 ; other chemists that of C35H64Or Arnicine has not been proved to be a glucoside, 
although it is decomposed by dilute acids. Sigel (1873) obtained from dried arnica root about 
£ per cent, of essential oil, and 1 per cent, from the fresh; the oil of the latter had a sp. gr. 
of 0-999 at 18° C. (64-4° F.). The oil was found to be a mixture of various bodies, the prin- 
( OCH 
cipal being the dimethyl ether of thymohydroquinone, C10H12 j Q(jjj3 boiling at about 235° C. 
(455° F.), and with this, phloryl isobutyrate to the extent of one-fifth of the oil, and the methyl 
ether of a phlorol. (Pflanzenstoffe, 2d ed., p. 1530.) The water from which the oil separates 
contains isobutyric acid; probably also a little angelic and formic acids ; but neither capronic 
nor caprylic acid, which had been pointed out by Walz. Arnica root contains inulin, which 
Dragendorff extracted from it to the extent of about 10 per cent. (Pharmacographia, 2d 
edition, p. 391.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. When taken internally in sufficient dose, arnica acts 
as an irritant to the stomach and bowels, often producing an emetic and cathartic effect, and 
is said by Bergius to be diuretic, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue. It is capable of acting as a 
poison in overdoses, causing burning in the stomach, violent abdominal pains, intense headache, 
and great nervous disturbance, with, in some cases, marked reduction of the pulse-rate, and 
finally collapse. A case of tetanic spasm of one side, and ultimate death, under its use, is on 
record; but there is reason to doubt whether arnica was the real cause of the fatal issue. 
(Ann. de Thirap., 1854, p. 46.) It is much used by the Germans, who prescribe the flowers 
and root with advantage in amaurosis, paralysis, and other nervous affections. It is said to 
prove useful in that disordered condition which succeeds concussion of the brain from falls, 
blows, etc., and from this circumstance has received the title of panacea lapsorum. It has also 
been recommended in chronic catarrh of the old, intermittent fever and its sequelae, dysentery, 
Arnica root, c, pith, marrow; h, outer bark ; o, middle 
bark ; p, resin-tubes; y, woody bundles. PART I. 
Arnicse Radix.—Arseni Iodidum. 
233 
diarrhoea, nephritis, gout, rheumatism, passive hemorrhages, dropsy, chlorosis, amenorrhcea, and 
various other complaints, in most of which it seems to have been empirically prescribed; but 
the exact value of the remedy has not been determined. The powdered flowers and leaves are 
employed as a sternutatory; and the inhabitants of Savoy and the Vosges are said to substi- 
tute them for tobacco. They may be given in substance or infusion. The dose of the powder 
is from five to twenty grains (0-33—1-3 Gm.) frequently repeated. The infusion may be pre- 
pared by digesting an ounce of the flowers in a pint of water, of which from half a fluidounce 
to a fluidounce (15—30 C.c.) may be given every three hours. It should always be strained 
through linen, in order to separate the fine fibres, which might irritate the throat. A tincture 
prepared from the flowers is largely used in this country as a domestic remedy in sprains, 
bruises, etc. It is employed externally. A tincture of the root is now official: this would be 
preferable for internal use. (See Tinctura Arnicse Radio is i) 
ARSENI IODIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Arsenic Iodide. 
As I3; 454*49. (AR'SE-NI !-5d'I-DUM.) Asia; 454-7. 
“ Arsenious Iodide, Asl3, may be obtained by the direct combination of iodine and ar- 
senium.” Br. 
Arsenii Iodidum, Br.; Arsenici Iodidum, U.S. 1870; Iodide of Arsenic, Arsenious Iodide; Arsenicum jodatum, 
Arsenik Jodiir, G.; Iodure d’Arsenic, Fr. 
“ Arsenic Iodide should be kept in glass-stoppered vials, in a cool place, protected from 
light.” This iodide was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia for the purpose of being 
used in preparing the solution of arsenic and mercury iodide. It is made by the direct combi- 
nation of its constituents, with the aid of a gentle heat. 
For U. S. process of 1870 see foot-note* J. F. Babcock (Proc. A. P. A., 1875, p. 693) 
proposes to make it by placing a troy ounce of iodine in a suitable vessel with 10 or 12 fluid- 
ounces of water, and passing hydrogen sulphide through until the iodine color is entirely gone; 
then filtering, heating the filtrate until the odor of hydrogen sulphide has been dissipated ; then 
adding a quarter of a troyounce of arsenous acid, heating until dissolved, filtering, and evapo- 
rating to dryness. As203 -f- 6HI = 2AsI3 -f- 3H20. Nickle’s process enables the operator to 
obtain the salt in a crystalline condition. Arsenic and iodine in equivalent proportions are 
heated together with carbon disulphide in a flask, to which an upright condenser is attached, 
until the iodine color disappears. The solution is then evaporated to the crystallizing point. 
In the Berichte d. Deutsch. Ghent. Ges., 2643,1881, may be found a process for obtaining this 
salt chemically pure, by making a hot solution of arsenous acid in hydrochloric acid, and mixing 
it with a concentrated solution of potassium iodide, whereupon the teriodide separates as a 
crystalline powder; this may be washed with hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1-120, until a portion 
of the washings on evaporation ceases to leave a residue of potassium chloride. 
Properties, etc. Arsenic iodide is in “glossy, orange-red, crystalline masses, or shining, 
orange-red, crystalline scales, having an iodine-like odor and taste, and gradually losing iodine 
on exposure to air and light. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 7 parts of water, and in about 30 
parts of alcohol; also soluble in ether, and in carbon disulphide. The salt is gradually de- 
composed by boiling water, and by boiling alcohol. By heat it is completely volatilized ; and 
if it be heated with diluted nitric acid, vapor of iodine will be evolved. The aqueous solution 
of the salt has a yellow color, is neutral to litmus paper, and, on standing, gradually decomposes 
into arsenous and hydriodic acids. On adding hydrogen sulphide test-solution to the solution 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, a lemon-yellow precipitate is produced.” U. S. It has a great 
tendency to decompose even at ordinary temperatures, iodine separating and volatilizing, oxygen 
being absorbed and arsenous acid formed. Arsenic iodide as found in commerce varies greatly 
in composition, being usually deficient in arsenic. (See Ephemeris, vol. ii. p. 772.) It has been 
used by Biett as an external application in corroding tubercular shin diseases. By the late Dr. 
A. T. Thomson it was given internally with alleged advantage in lepra. The ointment used 
by Biett was composed of three grains of the iodide to an ounce of lard. The dose is an 
eighth of a grain (0 008 Gm.) three times a day, in pill or solution. 
* “ Take of Arsenic sixty grains ; Iodine three hundred grains. Rub the Arsenic in a mortar until reduced to a 
fine powder; then add the Iodine, and rub them together until they are thoroughly mixed. Put the mixture into a 
small flask or a test-tube, loosely stopped, and heat it very gently until liquefaction occurs. Then incline the vessel 
in different directions, in order that any portion of the iodine, which may have condensed on its surface, may be 
returned into the melted mass. Lastly, pour the melted iodide on a porcelain slab, and, when it is cold, break it 
into pieces, and keep it in a well-stopped bottle.” U. S. 1870. Arsenum. 
PART I. 
234 
As; 74*9. , (AR'SE-nCm.) As; 75. 
ARSENUM. Arsenic. 
Arsenicum, U.S. 1870; Arsenum, Arsenium; Arsenic, Fr.; Arsenik, G.; Arsenico, It., Sp. 
This metal was introduced into the U. S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias in 1850, for the pur- 
pose of being used to form arsenic iodide, and the solution of arsenic and mercury iodide, at 
that time two new salts of those works. It has been rejected by the compilers of the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia and the British. The Dublin College gave the following formula : 
“ Take of White Oxide of Arsenic of Commerce two drachms [Dub. weight]. Place the 
Oxide at the sealed end of a hard Gierman glass tube, of about half an inch in diameter and 
eighteen inches long, and, having covered it with about eight inches of dry and coarsely pul- 
verized charcoal, and raised the portion of the tube containing the charcoal to a red heat, let 
a few ignited coals be placed beneath the Oxide, so as to effect its slow sublimation. When 
this has been accomplished, the metallic arsenic will be found attached to the interior of the 
tube at its distant or cool extremity. 
“ In conducting this process, the furnace used in the performance of an organic analysis 
should be employed, and the fuel should be ignited charcoal. It will be proper also to connect 
the open extremity of the tube with a flue, for the purpose of preventing the possible escape 
into the apartment of arsenical vapors; and, with the view of keeping it from being plugged 
by the metal, to introduce occasionally into it, as the sublimation proceeds, an iron wire through 
a cork, fixed (but not air-tight) in its open extremity.” 
In the above process, the white oxide (arsenous oxide) is reduced by the agency of ignited 
charcoal, which attracts the oxygen of the oxide, and revives the metal. On the large scale, 
metallic arsenic is generally obtained by heating arsenical pyrites (FeAs,FcS2) in earthen 
tubes; when the metal sublimes, and two mols. of ferrous sulphide, FeS, are left. 
Properties. Arsenic is a brittle, crystalline metal, of a steel-gray color, and possessing 
much brilliancy when recently broken or sublimed. Exposed to the air, its surface becomes 
dull and blackish. Its texture is granular, and sometimes a little scaly. Bubbed on the hands, 
it communicates a peculiar odor; but it is devoid of taste. Its sp. gr. is about 5-73 (5-88, 
U. S.). When heated to about 180° C. (356° F.) it sublimes, giving rise to white vapors 
having a garlicky odor.* Its atomic weight is 74'9. It forms two combinations with oxygen, 
arsenous and arsenic oxides, As203 and As206 respectively, to each of which the correspond- 
ing acid is known, and three with sulphur, namely, the disulphide, or realgar, As2S2; the tri- 
sulphide, or orpiment, As2S3, corresponding in composition to arsenous oxide; and the penta- 
sulphide, As2S6, corresponding to arsenic oxide. (See Acidum Arsenosum; also Realgar and 
Orpiment in Part II. of this work.) Arsenic oxide is obtained by distilling off a mixture of 
twelve parts of nitric and one of hydrochloric acid from four parts of arsenous acid, until the 
whole acquires the consistence of a thin syrup. The liquid is then poured into a porcelain 
dish, and evaporated at a moderate heat. Suddenly the arsenic oxide concretes into an opaque 
white mass, which should be transferred, while warm, to a well-stopped bottle. Arsenic oxide 
is white, solid, deliquescent, and soluble in six parts of cold and two of boiling water. It 
forms several acids, corresponding to the several varieties of phosphorie acid, to which it bears 
a close analogy. With silver nitrate it gives a brick-red precipitate of silver arsenate. As a 
poison it is even more virulent than arsenous oxide. It consists of two atoms of arsenic and 
five of oxygen (As206). 
The world’s supply of arsenic and arsenic compounds at the present time is obtained from 
Germany and England. The German production of crude arsenic (including arsenous oxide) 
for 1895 amounted to 3005 metric tons, valued at 0207,189 ; for England, in the same year, 
4875 metric tons, valued at 0260,990. 
Arsenic is much diffused. Besides being present in a great many minerals, it has been de- 
tected, in minute proportion, in the earth of graveyards by Orfila; in certain soils and mineral 
waters by M. Walchner; in the ashes of various plants b}r M. Stein ; in various mineral coals; 
also in the incrustation formed in the boiler of a sea-going steamer, by M. Daubree. 
* The statement that arsenic on being heated sufficiently passes at once into the state of vapor without fusing 
was disproved by experiments of Dunnington and Odger, made under the direction of Prof. Mallet, of the University 
of Virginia. They succeeded in fusing arsenic without great difficulty. (Chem. News, Aug. 30, 1872.) PAET 1. 
Ascifcetida. 
235 
ASAFCETIDA. U. S. (Br.) Asafetida. 
(iS-A-F(ET' I-DA—as-?-f6t' J-da.) 
“ A gum-resin obtained from the root of Ferula foetida (Bunge), Kegel (nat. ord. Umbel- 
liferaa).” US. “A gum-resin obtained by incision from the root of Ferula foetida, Regel; 
and probably other species.” Br. 
Asafetida, Br.; Cibus Deorum; Gummi-resina Asafoetida; Asse-fetide, Assafoetida, Fr.; Stinkasant, Teufels- 
dreck, G.; Assafetida, It.; Asafetida, Sp.; Ungoozeh, Pers.; Hilteet, Arab.; Stercus Diaboli, L. 
Concerning the genus Ferula there has been much dispute by botanists, but at present a 
much wider range is given to it than formerly. H. Falconer ( Trans. Linn. Soc., xx. 285) sep- 
arated from it the genus Narthex, relying chiefly upon the distinctness of the vittae as charac- 
teristic, whilst Bunge separated the genus Scorodosma on account of the absence of vittae. 
According, however, to Bentham and Hooker, the vittae in Bunge’s type specimens are no more 
inconspicuous than in various other species of the genus ; and, further, the vittae vary so much 
that no generic character can be drawn from them. The genus Ferula is a very difficult one 
to characterize briefly, and for its description the reader is referred to Bentham and Hooker, 
Genera Plantarum, i. 917. 
Ferula foetida. Kegel. F. scorodosma. Bentham and Hooker. Scorodosma foetidum. Bunge. 
Ferula assafoetida, L., of Boissier, Flora Orientalis, ii. 994, is a coarse umbelliferous plant, 
growing from five to seven feet high, with a large fleshy root, the crown of which is covered 
with coarse bristly fibres, and gives origin to large bipinnate radicle leaves and a nearly naked 
stem which has only a few bipinnate leaves without wide sheathing petioles, and ends at the 
top in very numerous umbels. The flat-winged fruit have the vittae almost obsolete. This 
plant was first discovered in the sandy desert near the sea of Aral, by Lehmann, in 1844. 
Bunge found it in Persia about twenty years later. It would seem to be native all through 
Afghanistan. 
Ferula assafoetida. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1413. B. & T. Ferula narthex. Bois. Narthex assa- 
foetida. Falconer. This plant, which was formerly recognized officially as a source of asafetida, 
was first described from actual observation by H. Falconer, who found it near Kashmir, and 
has long been successfully cultivated in the Edinburgh Botanical Gardens. It is distinguished 
from the true asafetida plant by the greater height of the stem (6 to 10 feet), and by the 
numerous stem leaves furnished with wide sheathing petioles. The flowers are pale yellow, 
and the oval fruit thin, flat, foliaceous, and reddish brown, with pronounced vittae. It yields 
a milky juice having a powerful smell of asafetida. 
It is possible that asafetida is obtained from several species of umbelliferous plants, although 
it seems to be determined that the official plant yields the bulk of it. This plant does not 
agree with the figures given by Engelbert Kaempfer of the plant which he observed in 1687, 
and to which he gave the name of Assafoetida disgunensis, although Falconer considers the 
latter plant as identical with his Narthex assafoetida, and Borszczon, who studied F. scoro- 
dosma, growing wild in the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea, believes this plant the same as 
that of Kaempfer. It is very likely that the difficulty of identification is due to inaccuracies 
in the original figure of Kaempfer. F. persica is also said to produce an asafetida-like gum- 
resin, and was recognized by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Ferula Jseschkeana, Vatke, which 
has been believed to be the source of asafetida, according to E. M. Holmes, has, at least in its 
dried state, not the slightest odor of asafetida, and indeed yields a strongly celery-scented 
juice. (Ph. Jr., 1894, xxv.) 
The oldest plants are most productive, and those under four years old are not considered 
worth cutting, according to the statement of Kaempfer in 1687. At the season when the 
leaves begin to fade, the earth is removed from about the top of the root, and the leaves and 
stem, being twisted off near their base, are thrown with other vegetable matters over the root, 
in order to protect it from the sun. After some time the summit of the root is cut off trans- 
versely, and, the juice which exudes having been scraped off, another thin slice is removed, in 
order to obtain a fresh surface for exudation. This process is repeated at intervals till the 
root ceases to afford juice, and perishes. During the whole period of collection, which occu- 
pies nearly six weeks, the solar heat is as much as possible excluded. The juice collected from 
numerous plants is put together, and allowed to harden in the sun. Dr. H. W. Bellew visited 
Kandahar in 1872, and witnessed the collection of the drug; he describes the process essentially 
as did Kaempfer. The roots varied in size from that of a carrot to the thickness of a man’s 
leg, and their yield from half an ounce to two pounds. The drug, he states, is very much 236 
Asafcetida. 
PART I. 
adulterated. The fruit is said to be sent to India, where it is highly esteemed as a medicine. 
In 1884 Afghanistan was visited by Dr. J. E. T. Aitchison, who found the plains having an 
altitude of 2000 to 4000 feet, arid and bare in winter, but in the early summer covered with a 
thick growth of Ferula foetida, Dorema ammoniacum, and Ferula galbanijlua. The great 
cabbage-like heads of the asafetida plant, representing the primary stage of the flower-heads 
covered over by the stipules of its leaves, are eaten raw by the natives as a sort of green. In 
June the asafetida is obtained. The root-stock is first laid bare to the depth of a couple of 
inches, those plants only which have not reached their flower-bearing stage being selected. A 
slice is then taken from the top of the root-stock, which is immediately covered with twigs and 
clay, forming a sort of dome, with an opening towards the north, so that the sun cannot get 
at the exposed root. About five or six weeks later, a thick, gummy, not milky, reddish sub- 
stance found upon the exposed surface of the root in more or less irregular lumps is scraped 
off with a piece of iron hoop or removed with a slice of the root and at once placed in a leather 
bag. The asafetida is conveyed to Herat, where it is adulterated with red clay before being 
sent into commerce. It is brought to this country either from India, whither it is conveyed 
from Bushire and down the Indus, or by the route of Great Britain. It sometimes comes in 
mats, but more frequently in cases, the former containing eighty or ninety pounds, the latter 
from two hundred to four hundred pounds. It is sometimes also imported in casks. 
Properties. As found in commerce, asafetida is in irregular masses, softish when not 
long exposed, of a yellowish or reddish-brown color externally, exhibiting when broken an 
irregular, whitish, somewhat shining surface, which soon becomes red on exposure, and ulti- 
mately passes into a dull yellowish brown. This change of color is characteristic of asafetida, 
and is ascribed to the influence of air and light upon its resinous ingredient. The masses 
appear as if composed of distinct portions agglutinated together, sometimes of white, almost 
pearly tears, embedded in a darker, softer, and more fetid paste. Occasionally the tears are 
separate, though rarely in the commerce of this country. They are roundish, oval, or irregu- 
lar, and generally flattened, from the size of a pea to that of a large almond, sometimes larger, 
yellowish or brownish externally and white within, and not unlike ammoniac tears, for which 
they might be mistaken except for their odor, which, however, is weaker than that of the 
masses. A very fine variety of asafetida is spoken of by Bellew as being procured from the 
leaf-bud in the centre of the root. It does not come into European commerce, but is the Kan- 
daharee Iling of the Indian bazaars. (P. J. Tr., viii. 103.) It occurs in moist flaky pieces and 
tears, yielding a reddish-yellow oil on pressure, and mostly mixed with the remains of leaf- 
buds. The odor of asafetida is alliaceous, fetid, and tenacious; the taste, bitter, acrid, 
and durable. The effect of time and exposure is to render it more hard and brittle, and to 
diminish the intensity of its smell and taste, particularly the former. Kaempfer assures us 
that one drachm of the fresh juice diffuses a more powerful odor, through a close room, than 
one hundred pounds of the drug as usually kept in the stores. The color, which is at first 
white, becomes pink, and finally the well-known brown, on exposure. Asafetida softens by 
heat without melting, and is of difficult pulverization. Its sp. gr. is 1-327. (Berzelius.) It is 
inflammable, burning with a clear, lively flame. It yields all its virtues to alcohol, and forms 
a clear tincture, which becomes milky on the addition of water. “ When triturated with water, 
it yields a milk-white emulsion, which becomes yellow on the addition of ammonia water. It 
is partly soluble in ether, and at least 60 per cent, of it should dissolve in alcohol.” U. S. 
Macerated in water it produces a turbid red solution, and triturated with that fluid it gives a 
white or pink-colored milky emulsion of considerable permanence. Touched with nitric acid 
(sp. gr. 1-2) the tear becomes of an evanescent green color. “ If a small fragment be strongly 
heated in a dry test-tube, the contents of the tube, after cooling, yield with boiling water a 
solution which when largely diluted and made alkaline with solution of ammonia exhibits a 
blue fluorescence.” Br. In 100 parts, Pelletier found 65 parts of resin, 19-44 of gum, 11-66 of 
bassorin, 3-60 of volatile oil, with traces of acid calcium malate.* “ Asafetida should contain 
* J. Pohlsek examined the pure tears of Asafcetida amygdaloides, finding the following constituents : 61-40 per 
cent, of resin soluble in ether, which is regarded by him to be the ferulaic acid ester of asaresino-tannol; 0.60 per 
cent, of resin insoluble in ether, regarded to be free asaresino-tannol; 25-10 per cent, of gum; 6-70 per cent, of vola- 
tile oil; 0-06 per cent, of vanillin; 1-28 per cent, of free ferulaic acid; 2-36 per cent, moisture; 2’50 per cent, impu- 
rities. Asaresino-tannol has the composition corresponding to the formula €2*113505. The author has prepared a 
benzoyl derivative, C24H33O5.C6H5CO, and an acetyl derivative, C24H33O5.CH3CO, which prove it to contain a hydroxyl 
group,—viz., C24II33O4.OH. Uinbelliferone was obtained as a secondary product of hydrolysis with sulphuric acid 
from asaresino-tannol, and was also obtained from ferulaic acid synthetically, guaiacol being produced at the same 
time. By nitrification of asaresino-tannol, picric acid is produced. {Arch. d. Pharm., 235 (March, 18117), 125-132.) Asafcetida. 
237 
PART I. 
not less than 65 per cent, of matter soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.), and should yield not more 
than 10 per cent, of ash when incinerated.” Br. The odor of the gum-resin depends on the 
volatile oil, which may be procured by distillation with water or alcohol, and amounts to from 6 
to 9 per cent., according to Fliickiger. It is lighter than water, colorless when first distilled, but 
becoming yellow with age, of an exceedingly offensive odor, and of a taste at first flat, but 
afterwards bitter and acrid. It contains, according to Stenhouse, from 15 75 to 23 per cent, 
of sulphur; but, according to Fliickiger, it may contain as much as 25 per cent. Hlasiwetz 
(Ann. Ghem. und Pharm., 71, 23) considers it a mixture, in variable proportions, of the 
sulphide and bisulphide of a compound radical consisting of carbon and hydrogen 
Allyl persulphide, which is sublimed when oil of mustard is heated with potassium persulphide, 
is said by Wertheim to have an extremely intense odor of asafetida; a fact which justifies the 
supposition that it may be identical with the oil of that gum-resin. (Gmelin, ix. 377.) The 
oil boils at about 138° C. (280° F.), but suffers decomposition, yielding hydrogen sulphide. 
When long exposed to the air it becomes slightly acid, and acquires a somewhat different odor. 
(Chem. Gaz., No. 178.) 
The resin is, according to Hlasiwetz and Barth (Ann. Chem. und Pharm., 138, 61), a 
mixture containing ferulaic acid, C10H1004, crystallizing in iridescent needles, and obtained by 
precipitating the alcoholic solution with lead acetate, washing the precipitate, and decomposing 
it with diluted sulphuric acid. Submitted to dry distillation, the resin yields umbelliferone, 
C9H608, and blue-colored oils. Fused with caustic potash, ferulaic acid yields oxalic acid and 
carbonic acid, several acids of the fatty series, and protocatechuic acid. The resin itself 
treated in like manner, after it has been freed from gum, yields resorcin. 
Impurities and Adulterations. Asafetida is often purposely adulterated ; it frequently 
comes of inferior quality, and mixed with various impurities, such as sand and stones. Por- 
tions which are very soft, dark brown, or blackish, with few or no tears, and indisposed to 
assume a red color when freshly broken, should be rejected. We have been informed that a 
case seldom comes without more or less of this inferior asafetida, and of many it forms the 
larger portion. It is sold chiefly for horses. A factitious substance, made of garlic juice and 
white pitch with a little asafetida, has occurred in commerce. Asafetida is said to be usually 
mixed with wheat or barley flour or with earthy matters at the place of its production, the 
impurities sometimes exceeding 30 per cent. Hingra of the Bombay bazaars is a very stony 
variety, composed largely of earthy matter. 
Prof. J. U. Lloyd, after examining a large number of samples of commercial asafetida, was 
convinced that it is impracticable to obtain the crude drug of the official standard; gypsum, 
carbonates, and other insoluble matters being present in large amounts. He did not find white 
turpentine or rosin in any of the samples; exhausting asafetida with alcohol and evaporating 
the alcohol carefully, he obtained an extract for which he proposed the name of Purified Asa- 
fetida. (Pharm. Rev., 1896.) 
Asafetida is sometimes kept in a powdered state; but this is objectionable, as the drug is 
thus necessarily weakened by the loss of volatile oil, and is more liable to adulteration. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Asafetida acts as a stimulant antispasmodic, efficient 
expectorant, and feeble laxative. Some consider it also emmenagogue and anthelmintic. Its 
volatile oil is undoubtedly absorbed, as its peculiar odor may be detected in the breath and the 
secretions. As an antispasmodic, it is employed in the treatment of hysteria, hypochondriasis, 
convidsions of various kinds, spasm of the stomach and bowels unconnected with inflammation, 
and in numerous other nervous disorders of a merely functional character. From the union 
of expectorant with antispasmodic powers, it is highly useful in spasmodic pectoral affections, 
such as whooping-cough and asthma, and in certain infantile coughs and catarrhs, complicated 
with nervous disorder, or with a disposition of the system to sink. In catarrhus senilis; in 
the secondary stages of peripneumonia notha, croup, measles, and catarrh; in pulmonary con- 
sumption; in fact, in all cases of subacute or chronic disease of the chest in which there is want 
of due nervous energy, asafetida may be occasionally prescribed with advantage. In the form 
of enema, it is useful in cases of inordinate accumulation of air in the bowels, and also in the 
hysteric paroxysm and other functional convulsions. Its laxative tendency is often advanta- 
geous, and it may be usefully combined with cathartics in flatident constipation. 
It appears to have been known in the East from very early ages, and, notwithstanding its repul- 
sive odor, is at present much used in India and Persia as a condiment. Persons soon habituate 
themselves to its smell, which they even learn to associate pleasantly with the agreeable effects 
experienced from its internal use. Children with whooping-cough sometimes become fond of it. PART I. 
238 
Asclepias. 
The medium dose is ten grains (0-65 Gm.), which may be given in pill or emulsion. The 
tincture is official, and is much used. When given by injection, the gum-resin should’ be 
triturated with warm water. From half a drachm to two drachms (l-95-7-8 Gm.) may be 
administered at once in this way. It may also sometimes be conveniently given in the form 
of a suppository.* A syrup has been recommended in which the fetid odor of the drug is 
obviated by the use of the infusion of wild cherry bark. (See A. J. P., 1871, p. 397.) f 
ASCLEPIAS. U. S. Asclepias. [Pleurisy Root.] 
(AS-CLE'PI-AS.) 
“ The root of Asclepias tuberosa, Linne (nat. ord. Asclepiadeae).” U. S. 
Butterfly-Weed; Racine d’AsclSpiade tubereuse, Fr.; Knollige Sehwalbenwurzel, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx small, five-parted. Corolla rotate, five-parted, mostly reflexed. Staminal 
crown (or nectary) simple, five-leaved; leaflets opposite the anthers, with a subulate averted 
process at the base. Stigmas with the five angles (corpuscles) opening by longitudinal chinks. 
Pollinia five distinct pairs. Torrey. 
Several species of Asclepias besides A. tuberosa have been employed medicinally: A. syriaca 
and A. incarnata were recognized in the Secondary Catalogue U. S. Pharm. 1870. 
A. incarnata, or Flesh-colored Asclepias, has an erect, downy stem, branched above, two or three 
feet high, and furnished with opposite, nearly sessile, lanceolate, somewhat downy leaves. The 
flowers are red, sweet-scented, and disposed in numerous crowded erect umbels, which are gen- 
erally in pairs. The nectary is entire, with its horn exserted. In one variety the flowers are 
white. The plant grows in all parts of the United States, preferring a wet soil, and flowering 
from June to August. Upon being wounded it emits a milky juice. Dr. Griffith states that 
the root is a useful emetic and cathartic. (Journ. of the Phila. Coll, of Pharm., iv. 283.) Dr. 
Gram has found in the Asclepias curassavica, A. incarnata, A. vincetoxicum, A. officinale, a glu- 
coside, asclepiadin, which he believes to be a pure form of the asclepiadin of Harnack and 
the asclepin of Feneulle, and closely to resemble emetine in its physiological action, but to be so 
unstable as to be of no practical value. From A. vincetoxicum M. Tanret (Compt -Rend., c. 
277) has isolated two glucosides, soluble and insoluble vincetoxin, with the formula C16H12Oe. 
The soluble vincetoxin is a clear yellow amorphous powder, easily soluble in water, alcohol, and 
chloroform, insoluble in ether. It begins to decompose at 130° C. The insoluble vincetoxin 
dissolves readily in alcohol, chloroform, and ether, but in water only in the presence of the 
soluble vincetoxin. It fuses at 59° C. Decomposed by dilute acids, they each yield an un- 
crystallizable, inactive, unfermentable sugar. An indigenous species, A. verticillata, is used in 
the Southern States as a remedy in snake-bites and the bites of venomous insects. Three gills of 
a saturated decoction are said to cause an anodyne and sudorific effect, followed by a gentle sleep. 
( Va. Med. Journ., Dec. 1858.) 
A. syriaca. Willd. A. cornuti (Decaisne, Grays Manual). Common Silk-weed, or Com- 
mon Milk-weed, has simple stems, from three to five feet high, with opposite, lanceolate-oblong, 
petiolate leaves, downy on their under surface. The flowers are large, of a pale-purple color, 
sweet-scented, and arranged in two or three nodding umbels. The nectary is bidentate. The 
pod or follicle is covered with sharp prickles, and contains a large quantity of silky seed-down. 
It is very common in the Middle United States. It flowers in July and August. Its milky 
juice has a faint smell, a sub-acrid taste, and an acid reaction. According to Schultz, 80 parts 
of it contain 69 of water, 3-5 of a wax-like fatty matter, 5 of caoutchouc, 0-5 of gum, 1 of 
sugar with salts of acetic acid, and 1 of other salts. (Pharm. Centralblatt, 1844, p. 302.) Dr. 
C. List found the chief solid ingredient of the juice to be a peculiar resinous crystalline sub- 
stance (asclepion, C20H3403) allied to lactucon. To obtain it, the juice is coagulated by heat, 
filtered, and the filtrate digested with ether, which dissolves the asclepion, and yields it by 
* Emplastrum Asafoetidce. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia formerly recognized a plaster of asafetida, which is some- 
times used locally in hysteria, pneumonia, convulsions in children, etc. It was prepared as follows. “ Asafetida, 
thirty-five parts [or thirteen ounces ay.] ; Lead Plaster, thirty-five parts [or thirteen ounces av.] ; Galbanum, fifteen 
parts [or five and a half ounces av.] ; Yellow Wax, fifteen parts [or five and a half ounces av.] ; Alcohol, one hun- 
dred and twenty parts [or three pints]. Digest the Asafetida and Galbanum with the Alcohol on a water-bath, sep- 
arate the liquid portion, while hot, from the coarser impurities by straining, and evaporate it to the consistence of 
honey; then add the Lead Plaster and the Wax, previously melted together, stir the mixture well, and evaporate to 
the proper consistence.” U. S. 1880. 
f J. W. Wood prepares syrup of asafetida by dissolving 256 grains of asafetida in two fluidounces of glycerin by 
the aid of a gentle heat, and straining. lie then dissolves 15 drops oil of wintergreen, 5 drops oil of cinnamon, and 
1 drop oil of bitter almond, in three fluidraclnns of 95 per cent, alcohol, and adds to it the above, together with 
enough simple syrup to make one pint. Each fluidrachm represents two grains of asafetida. (A. J. P., 1874.) PART I. 
A sclepias.—Aspidium. 
239 
evaporation. To purify it, the residue must be treated repeatedly with anhydrous ether, which 
leaves another substance uudissolved. It is white, crystalline, tasteless, inodorous, fusible, in- 
soluble in water and alcohol, soluble in ether, oil of turpentine, and concentrated acetic acid. 
A strong hot solution of potassa does not affect it. (Liebig's Annalen, Jan. 1849.) Hinchman 
examined A. cornuti in 1881, and found asclepion, caoutchouc, fixed oil, tannin, glucose, a 
bitter principle, gum, starch, volatile oil, and ash. (A. J. P., liii. p. 435.) Anodyne, cathartic, 
and alterative properties have been claimed for the root of this plant, and it has been especially 
commended in asthma and in scrofula, but probably is of very little medical value. A drachm 
of it in decoction may be given two or three times a day. 
Asclepias tuberosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1273; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 59; Barton, Med. 
Bot. i. 239. The root of the butterfly-weed, or pleurisy root, is perennial, and gives origin to 
numerous stems, which are erect, ascending, or procumbent, round, hairy, of a green or reddish 
color, branching at the top, and about three feet in height. The leaves are scattered, oblong- 
lanceolate, very hairy, of a rich deep-green color on their upper surface, paler beneath, and 
supported usually on short footstalks. They differ, however, somewhat in shape according to 
the variety of the plant. In the variety with decumbent stems they are almost linear, and in 
another variety cordate. The beautiful reddish-orange-colored flowers occur in terminal or 
lateral corymbose umbels. The fruit is an erect lanceolate follicle, with flat ovate seeds con- 
nected to a longitudinal receptacle by long silky hairs. 
This plant differs from other species of Asclepias in not emitting a milky juice when 
wounded. It is indigenous, growing throughout the United States from Massachusetts to 
Georgia, and as far west as Texas, and when in full bloom, in June and July, having a splen- 
did appearance. It is most abundant in the Southern States. The root is the only part used 
in medicine. It is “ large and fusiform, dried in longitudinal or transverse sections, from 2 to 
15 Cm. long, and about 2 Cm. or more in thickness; the head knotty, and slightly but dis- 
tinctly annulate, the remainder longitudinally wrinkled, externally orange-brown, internally 
whitish; tough, and having an uneven fracture; bark thin, and in two distinct layers, the 
inner one whitish; wood yellowish, with large, white, medullary rays. It is inodorous, and 
has a bitterish, somewhat acrid taste. When long kept it acquires a gray color.” U. S. 
When dried, it is easily pulverized ; and its taste is bitter, but not otherwise unpleasant. Mr. 
E. Rhoads discovered in it a peculiar principle, which he obtained by treating the cold infusion 
with tannic acid, mixing the precipitate, previously washed and expressed, with litharge, dry- 
ing the mixture and exhausting it with hot alcohol, and finally decolorizing and evaporating 
the alcoholic liquor. The product was a yellowish-white powder, having the taste of the root, 
soluble in ether, and much less readily so in water, from which it was precipitated by tannic 
acid. Mr. Rhoads also found evidence of the existence in the root of tannic and gallic acids, 
albumen, pectin, gum, starch, a resin soluble and another insoluble in ether, fixed oil, a volatile 
odorous fatty matter, and various salts, besides from 30 to 35 per cent, of lignin. (A. J. P., 
xxxiii.) Quackenbush (A. J. P., 1889) found in it and also in A. cornuti a crystalline glucoside. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The root of Asclepias tuberosa is diaphoretic and ex- 
pectorant, and in sufficient dose cathartic. In the Southern States it has long been employed 
by regular practitioners in catarrh, pneumonia, pleurisy, consumption, and other pectoral affec- 
tions. It is said to be gently tonic, and has been popularly used in pains of the stomach from 
flatulence and indigestion. From twenty grains to a drachm (1 -3-3-9 Gm.) of the root in 
powder may be given several times a day ; but as a diaphoretic it is best administered in de- 
coction, an ounce to a quart; dose, a teacupful every two or three hours till it operates. 
ASPIDIUM. U. S. (Br.) Aspidium. [Male Fern.] 
(AS-PID'l-UM.) 
“ The rhizome of Dryopteris Filix-mas, Schott, and of Dryopteris marginalis, Asa Gray 
(nat. ord. Filices).” TJ. S. “ The rhizome of Aspidium Filix mas, Swartz. Collected late in 
the autumn, divested of its roots, leaves, and dead portions, and carefully dried. Should not 
be used if more than a year old.” Br. 
Filix Mas, Br. and U. S. 1870; Rhizoma Filicis, P. G.; Radix Filicis maris, Male Shield Fern; FougSre male, 
Fr.; Wurmfarnwurzel, Woldfarnwurzel, Johanniswurzel, G.; Felce maschia, It.; Helecho, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Fruit dots roundish or round, borne on the backs or extremities of free pinnate 
veins; indusium flat, scarious, orbicular, or round kidney-shaped, covering the sporangia, 
attached to the receptacle at the centre, or at the sinus opening all round the margin. 
As the term Dryopteris was first used by Amman in 1739, and was again applied by Adan- 240 
Aspidium. 
PART I. 
son in 1763, as the name of the genus which has been commonly known as Aspidium by bot- 
anists, the revisers of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia are at least theoretically correct in using the 
term; although some may doubt the wisdom of disturbing a name so thoroughly established 
as Aspidium, especially in view of the fact that the word “ Dryopteris” has been used for the 
sub-genus of Aspidium, to which the official species belongs,—namely, that in which the 
indusium is fixed at the narrow sinus, and the fronds are membranous or thin. * 
The male fern has a perennial, horizontal root or rhizome, from which numerous annual 
fronds or leaves arise, forming tufts from a foot to four feet in height. The 6tipe, or footstalk, 
and midrib are thickly beset with brown, tough, transparent scales; the frond itself is oval- 
lanceolate, acute, pinnate, and of a bright-green color. The pinnae or leaflets are remote be- 
low, approach more nearly as they ascend, and run together at the summit of the leaf. They 
are deeply divided into lobes, which are of an oval shape, crenate at the edges, and gradually 
diminish from the base of the pinna to the apex. The fructification is in small dots on the 
back of each lobe, placed in two rows near the base, and distant from the edges. The plant 
is a native of Europe, Asia, and the north of Africa. It is also said to have been found in 
some of the Polynesian islands, and grows in Canada, following the Rocky Mountain chain 
through Mexico, Venezuela, etc., as far south as Peru. In the Eastern United States it is 
replaced by A. marginale, Sw., and A. goldianum, Hook. 
A. marginale. Swartz. (Grays Manual.') Frond ovate-oblong in outline (one to two feet 
long), pale green; pinnae lanceolate, from a broad almost sessile base; pinnules oblong, obtuse, 
crowded. This species differs from A. Jilix mas chiefly in having its fruit dots upon the 
margins of its evergreen fronds.f 
The revisers of our Pharmacopoeia have perhaps acted prematurely in admitting Dryopteris 
marginale, but it is probable that most species of the genus, if not of the natural order, are 
medicinally active. Mr. J. L. Patterson (A. J. P., 1875) found that the newly-recognized A. 
marginale contained all of the active principle of A. Jilix mas, and Mr. Chas. H. Cressler has 
demonstrated the activity of its oleoresin. (Ibid., 1878.) On the Pacific slope the indigenous 
A. rigidum is locally used against the tape-worm, and Mr. W. J. Bowman has found in it 
filicic acid and resin. Popular belief has long ascribed tasnicidal virtues to our native Asple- 
nium Jilix foemina; and the Kaffirs of South Africa use the rhizome of Aspidium athaman- 
ticum under the name of inkomankomo, or uncomocomo. It is the pannum of European com- 
merce. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 447.) According to R. Kiirsten (P. J. Tr., xxii., 1891), the active prin- 
ciple of pannum is closely allied to filicic acid, from which it differs in being especially soluble 
in strong alcohol, in subliming at 80° C., and in not yielding isobutyric acid when heated in 
a sealed tube with water. Pannic acid crystallizes in thin, shining, light yellow, rectangular 
prisms, melting at 187° C. (368-6° F.). 
* The synonymes of the male fern are extraordinarily numerous. We append some of them: Aspidium filix 
mas, of many authors ; Polypodium filix mas, Linn.; Polystichum filix mas, Roth.: Nephrodium filix mas, Rich.; 
Lastrea filix mas, Presl.; Tectarea filix-mas, Cavan; Dryopteris filix-mas, Schott; Lophodium filix-mas, Newm.; 
Polypodium nemorale, Salisb.; Polystichum durum et induratum, Schur.; Polystichum ahbreviatum, De Candolle; 
Aspidium mildeanum, Gdppert; Dryopteris ajfinis ; Polypodium heleopteris. 
t Botanical Nomenclature. We think the botanical nomenclature in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 has some- 
what unfortunately been adopted to suit the views of certain botanists who have been recently attempting to radi- 
cally revise botanical nomenclature. In accordance with the rules adopted by an international congress held 
in Paris in 1867, the first name applied to any plant, species, or genus must be adopted for the genus and species, 
provided that the generic name has been given previous to 1737, and the specific name previous to 1753. It is 
plain, however, that these rules are arbitrary and involve certain absurdities, and that the attempt to carry them 
out strictly must introduce great confusion into botanical nomenclature, involving the rearrangement or renaming 
of the herbaria of the world, and much use of printer’s ink and confusion of thought. The rules would require us 
to call the fennel plant Fneniculum foeniculum ; the sassafras plant, Sassafras sassafras ; and so on. The confusion 
which results from these rules, and the absurdity of the rules, are further shown by the genus Calceolaria. Ac- 
cording to Fifer’s Nomenclator Botanicus, the name Calceolaria was given in 1725 to a Scrophularaceous genus, 
and was adopted as the name of that genus by Linnaeus in 1771. It would seem, however, that in 1758, Loefling 
gave the name Calceolaria to a genus of Violacea. It is plain that Calceolaria was first applied to the Scrophulara- 
ceous genus ; but, because the first application was made previous to 1737, the name must, according to the rules, be 
applied to the genus of violets, and it is so applied by the school of botanists already spoken of. (See Annals of New 
York Academy, 1893, p. 51.) It so happens that the world over the name Calceolaria has for one hundred and 
twenty-five years been used for the Scrophularaceous group, and for one hundred years or so fonidium has been em- 
ployed for the group of violets. Now, forsooth, the rights of priority are to be thrown aside, the universal custom 
of over a century overthrown, all the world’s herbaria rearranged, books rewritten, and confusion in general to 
reign, because gentlemen in 1867, in the city of Paris assembled, chose to say, We will make a set of arbitrary rules! 
In our opinion so long as the authoritative botanical works, like Gray’s Manual, adopt a certain botanical nomen- 
clature, the Pharmacopoeia should cling to general custom, and not be led into the disputed and barren territory of 
botanical revision in nomenclature. Of course, in drug definitions the Pharmacopoeial botanical nomenclature 
must be adhered to; but we can see no sufficient reason for changing the nomenclature in the U. S. Dispensatory. Aspidium. 
241 
PART I. 
Heffter (Archiv f Exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1897, 458) finds three well-characterized and 
crystallized principles in pannum : flavopannin, C21II2607, crystallizing in citron-yellow prisms, 
melting at 151° C., and soluble in ether, benzene, acetic ether, acetone, and boiling methyl 
and ethyl alcohols, insoluble in petroleum ether and water; albopannin, C21H2407, crystallizing 
in silky-white needles, which melt at 147° C.; and pannol (panuic acid of Kiirsten), CuH1404, 
fusing at 192° C., which is easily soluble in hot glacial acetic acid and acetone, more difficultly 
soluble in alcohol and ether, and very slightly soluble in petroleum ether, benzene, and water. 
The alcoholic solution is colored intensely dark green with ferric chloride. Heffter compares 
these three compounds with the three obtained from A. Jilix, and finds a close chemical and 
therapeutic correspondence between aspidin and flavopannin, between albaspidin and albo- 
pannin, and between aspidinol and pannol. According to the experiments of A. Heffter, both 
flavopannin and albopannin are powerful muscle poisons, directly affecting the heart. (Arch, 
f. Exp. Path. u. Pharm., Bd. xxxviii ) 
According to M. Peschier, of Geneva, aspidium deteriorates rapidly when kept, and in about 
two years becomes entirely inert. The rhizomes of other species of fern are frequently sub- 
stituted for the official; and in the dried state it is difficult to distinguish them. The chaff, 
together with the dead portions of the rhizome and stipes, should be removed, and only such 
portions as have retained their green color should be used. 
Properties, etc. As taken from the ground, the rhizome consists of a long cylindrical 
caudex, around which are closely arranged, overlapping each other like the shingles of a roof, 
the remains of the leafstalks or stipes, which are an inch or two in length, from two to four 
lines thick, somewhat curved and directed upwards, angular, brown, shining, and surrounded 
near their origin from the rhizome with thin 
silky scales of a light brown color. From be- 
tween these remains of the footstalks emerge 
numerous small radical fibres. The whole 
rhizome, thus constituted, presents a some- 
what flexible, cylindrical mass, one or two 
inches thick, and from three inches to a foot 
or more in length. In this form, however, it 
is not usually found in commerce. The whole 
is ordinarily broken up into fragments, con- 
sisting of the separated remains of the leaf- 
stalks before described, with a small portion 
of the substance of the rhizome attached to 
their base, where they are surrounded by the 
silky scales. These fragments, as seen in 
commerce, often appear as if long kept, and 
are probably, in general, much deteriorated 
by time. The following observations are made 
by Geiger in relation to the collection and 
preservation of the rhizome. The inner parts 
of the fresh rhizome, and of the portions of 
stalk attached to it, are fleshy and of a light 
yellowish-green color. In collecting them, all 
the black discolored portions should be cut 
away, the fibres and scales separated, and 
only the sound green parts preserved. These 
should be immediately but carefully dried, 
and then pulverized; and the powder should 
be kept in small well-stopped glass bottles. 
The powder thus prepared has a pale yellow- 
ish color with a greenish tinge. 
The dried rhizome is “ from 5 to 15 Cm. 
long, 10 to 25 Mm. in thickness, and, together with the closely imbricated, dark brown, round- 
ish, and slightly curved stipe-remnants, 50 to 75 Mm. in diameter ; densely covered with brown, 
glossy, transparent, and soft, chaffy scales ; internally pale green, rather spongy.” U. S. Micro- 
scopic examination shows that it is composed of polyhedral, porous-walled cells and vascular 
bundles containing scalariform ducts: in A. jilix mas ten of these bundles are larger than the 
Rhizome of Aspidium. Ic, open interspace; pr, prosenchyma; 
i, parenchyma. 
16 242 
Aspidium.—A spidosperma. 
PART I. 
others, and are arranged in an attempted circle near to the surface ; whilst in A. marginale there 
are only six bundles in the circle. It has been analyzed by H. Bock, who gives as its constit- 
uents volatile oil, fixed oil, resin, starch, vegetable jelly, albumen, gum, sugar, tannic and gallic 
acids, pectin, lignin, and various salts. (See A. J. P., xxiv. 64.) Peschier ascertained that its 
active properties reside in the ethereal extract, which is the fixed oil in an impure state, con- 
taining volatile oil, resin, coloring matter, etc. It is a thick dark liquid, wTith the odor of the 
fern, and a nauseous, bitterish, somewhat acrid taste. Dr. E. Luck has found in it a peculiar 
acid, which he denominates Jilicic acid, and has extracted from the root two others, named 
tannaspidic and pteritannic adds. ( Cliem. Gaz., ix. 407 and 452.) Luck gave to the filicic acid 
the formula C13H1404, but Grabowsky claimed that it should be C14H1806, and that the acid 
was in reality dibutyrylphlorogludn, C6H4(C4H70)203. Daccomo found in male fern (A. J. P., 
1889) JHide add, to which he gives the formula C14li1606, a white waxy substance, melting at 
80° C., with the formula (C13H260)n, glucose, tannin, a red coloring matter (filix red), a green 
oil which he separated into several fractions, and two resins, one brick-red, melting at 85°-93° C., 
and the other black and plastic. He considers that filicic acid is probably an isobutyric acid 
derivative of hydroxynaphthaquinone. Poulson (Archiv f Exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1891) states 
that, when pure, crystalline, inactive filicic acid is dissolved in alkalies and reprecipitated by an 
acid, the amorphous precipitate possesses the active properties of the extract. He thinks that 
the inactive crystalline body is an anhydride or lactone of the amorphous filicic acid, and should 
be called jilidn. Robert believes that the activity of male fern is due partly to volatile oil, one 
reason being that pure filicic acid given in very large doses was not as effective as a smaller 
dose of the acid mixed with a portion of the fixed and volatile oils from the male fern. (Pharm. 
Post, 1892, 1325.) For an assay method for male fern extract, see Am. Drug., 1897, 73. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Male fern was used by the ancients, and is mentioned 
as a vermifuge in the works of Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Galen, and Pliny, and by some of 
the earlier modern writers. But it does not appear to have been generally known till about 
the year 1775, when the King of France purchased from Madame Nouffer, the widow of a 
Swiss surgeon, a secret remedy for tape-icorm, which proved to be the powdered root of the male 
fern. The oleoresin of male fern is a very efficient taenicide, and is also much used against the 
anchylostoma. It is, however, in overdose a distinct poison, Drs. Katayama and Okamoto 
(Sei-i-kwai, July, 1892) having collected from literature twenty-two cases of poisoning by it, 
of which five proved fatal. Six drachms have caused death. (Lancet, 1882.) The symptoms 
have been vomiting, diarrhoea, vertigo, headache, tremor, cold sweat, dyspnoea, cyanosis, mania, 
coma, convulsions. In nearly half of the cases there was amblyopia, or even amaurosis, with 
dilated, fixed pupils ; the loss of sight is usually temporary, but has proved permanent. Kata- 
yama and Okamoto succeeded in producing blindness in the lower animals. They believe that 
the use of castor oil with the male fern notably increases the absorption of the extract. 
Prevost and Binet have found that in the lower animals, given hypodermically, the oleoresin 
produces violent dyspnoea and death from arrest of the heart in systole, and Frohner has found 
parenchymatous nephritis in animals fatally poisoned by it. For the expulsion of tape-worm, 
the patient should live upon milk and a little bread for one day, and the following morning 
take a full dose (f3ss to f3i) of the oleoresin, fasting, and repeating it in two or three hours. 
At noon the patient may resume the use of food, and in the evening a brisk cathartic should 
be given. Male fern is said (with doubtful accuracy) to prove more effectual against the 
tape-worm of the Swiss (Bothriocephalus latus) than against the Taenia solium, which is more 
frequent in France and England. (Bremser.) 
ASPIDOSPERMA. U. S. Aspidosperma. [Quebracho.] 
(AS-PI-DO-SPER'MA.) 
“ The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco, Schlechtendal (nat. ord. Apocynaceae).” U S. 
Quebracho Bark, Quebracho Blanco. 
The technical characters of the genus Aspidosperma, in which are included a number of 
South American trees, may be found in De Candolle’s Prodromus, vol. viii. p. 396, or in 
Hooker’s Genera Plantarum, vol. ii. p. 702. 
Quebracho is an evergreen tree, which sometimes reaches the height of one hundred feet, 
and is remarkable for its erect stem and its wide-spreading crown reaching out over the cacti 
and lower bushes among which it grows. The smooth grayish or yellowish branches at the 
top are more or less erect, whilst below they are horizontal or descending, like those of the PART I. 
Aspidospei'ma. 
243 
weeping willow. The opposite or ternately verticillate leaves are short petiolate or subsessile, 
coriaceous, rigid, glaucescent, elliptical-lanceolate. The flower occurs in axillary or terminal 
sub-cymose panicles ; the five-parted, glaucous, campanulate calyx has its segments ovate, acute, 
whilst the yellowish, five-divided, hypocrateriform corolla has its oblong-linear lobes extended 
or subinvolute, with an auriculate, sinistrorsely contorted base. The oval, four-angled pollen- 
grains are smooth and yellowish. The capsules, with the ovule solitary for abortion, are dehis- 
cent into two valves, which are usually medianly subcarinate. The pericarp is thick and 
woody. The wood of the quebracho tree is not met with in commerce, but is said to be very 
hard, distinctly marked with rings of growth, and of a bright chocolate-brown color, except 
the very young wood, which is yellowish or reddish. According to the experiments of Hesse 
and Penzoldt, the wood is inactive, and contains no alka- 
loids ; it is used for tanning purposes in South America* 
Properties. Quebracho bark is remarkable for the 
extreme thickness of the corky layer which often consti- 
tutes more than half of its entire substance, and is sepa- 
rated from the lower layer by more or less sharply defined 
outline. The corky layer is usually externally dirty gray, 
or where it has been rubbed appears yellowish red. As 
seen with the magnifying glass it is traversed by nearly 
parallel yellowish lines having numerous whitish points 
between them. The inner portion of the bark is uniform, 
except for whitish points. These characteristics of the 
bark are more plainly observed after moistening the sur- 
face. In different specimens the color of the inner bark 
varies up to light yellow. When examined with high 
powers the outer layer is seen to be composed of superim- 
posed parenchymatous cells, traversed by bands of small, 
thick-walled cork cells, constituting the parallel lines be- 
fore spoken of. The whitish points spoken of are groups 
of sclerenchymatous cells whose membrane has been so 
thickened by secondary deposits that the cavity is nearly 
obliterated. The inner portion of the bark is composed 
of parenchymatous cells, usually of cinnamon-brown 
color, rich in starch, and containing a light-brown granu- 
lar substance, with groups of sclerenchymatous cells similar to those already spoken of, but 
containing a dark-yellow substance, which seems to be in drops. These sclerenchymatous cells 
are more abundant in the inner part of the bark, and are arranged in spindle-shaped fibres, 
which can be readily separated by scraping the inner surface of the bast. The fibres are 
surrounded by angular bodies, which on careful examination will be seen to be really a mul- 
titude of small cells, each containing a crystal of calcium oxalate. The U. S. P. description 
of quebracho bark is as follows. “ In nearly flat pieces, about 1 to 3 Cm. thick; the outer 
surface yellowish-gray or brownish, deeply fissured ; inner surface yellowish-brown or reddish- 
brown, distinctly striate; fracture displaying two sharply defined strata, of about equal thick- 
ness, and both marked with numerous whitish dots and striae arranged in tangential lines; 
the fracture of the outer, lighter colored layer rather coarsely granular, and that of the 
darker colored, inner layer short-splintery ; inodorous ; taste very bitter and slightly aromatic.” 
Chemical Constituents. In 1878, Fraude (Ber. der Chem. Ges., 1878, p. 2189; 1879, 
p. 1560) discovered in the quebracho bianco an alkaloid, aspidospermine, C22H30N202; but a 
series of experiments have led Dr. F. Penzoldt to the conclusion that it does not represent the 
whole medical activity of the bark, and 0. Hesse is said to have found five other alkaloids, 
Section from the inner bark of Quebracho, 
showing isolated bast cells and a group of 
sclerenchymatous cells. 
* Quebracho Colorado and Quebracho Gum are respectively the wood and the dried juice or watery extract of the 
Loxopterygium lorentzii, a large tree growing in the Argentine Republic. The wood is very heavy, hard, and of a 
reddish-brown color. (See A. J. P., 1879, p. 152; also Penzoldt, loc. cit.; P. J. Tr., xii.) Quebracho Colorado has 
been used as a substitute for the true quebracho, but is essentially different from it, and probably is a simple astrin- 
gent and gastro-intestinal stimulant, although Dr. Penzoldt claims that it is similar in its action, but much weaker 
than quebracho bianco. Perkin and Gunnel have determined tho yellow coloring matter of the wood of quebracho 
Colorado to be identical with fisetin, CisIIioOe, the coloring matter of young fustic (Rhus cotinus). It occurs in 
glistening yellow needles, dyeing similarly to quercetin, and yields compounds with mineral acids. Its benzoyl and 
acetyl derivatives have also been prepared. Fused with alkalies it yields protocatechuic acid and probably resor- 
cinol. Ellagic and gallic acids have also been obtained from the wood, these being probably formed during the 
isolation of the fisetin. (A.J.P., Nov. 1896, 626.) 244 
Aspidosperma. 
PART I. 
aspidospermatine, C22H28N20„, and isomeric with it aspidosamine, C22H28N202, quebrachine, 
C2iH2„N202, and isomeric with this hypoquebrachine, C21H26N202, and quebrachamine. (Ber. 
der Chem. Ges., xiii. 2308.) Aspidospermine fuses at 205°-206° C., is soluble in about 
6000 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and the solution has a decidedly bitter taste, soluble 
in about 48 parts of absolute alcohol, in 106 parts of ether, insoluble in glycerin; it dissolves 
readily in fats and fixed oils, cod-liver oil dissolving a larger proportion than it does of qui- 
nine. Its sulphate and hydrochlorate are very soluble. The citrate is crystallizable, and very 
soluble. The yield of aspidospermine is very small, 0-33 per cent, of the bark. Aspidosper- 
matine is crystalline, and fuses at 162° C.; aspidosamine is amorphous, and fuses at 100° C.; 
quebrachine in colorless crystals fuses at 214°—216° C.; hypoquebrachine is a yellowish mass 
resembling albumen, and fuses at 80° C.; quebrachamine forms colorless silky needles, only 
slightly soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzin, and fuses at 142° C. Two new 
varieties of sugars have also been extracted by Tanret, quebrachite and Isevogyre inosite. 
Tannin and starch have also been found in the bark. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Quebracho bark is said to be employed as an anti- 
periodic in Chili, but in Europe and America it has been used solely as a remedy in cardiac 
and asthmatic dyspnoea. (Die Wirlcungen Quebrachodrogin, Dr. F. Penzoldt, Erlangen, 1881.) 
In the lower animals large doses of the bark produce motor palsy, with dyspnoea, and finally 
death, apparently from asphyxia. The breathing early becomes slower in rate, but deeper; 
the blood-pressure is not much affected until late. Our knowledge of the action of the alkaloids 
of quebracho is very imperfect, and we give a synopsis of the important researches in a foot- 
note* A notable phenomenon observed with all the alkaloids was that, although death appar- 
ently took place from asphyxia, the venous blood was red or reddish. It would seem to be 
proved that the active principles of quebracho have a very notable influence upon the respira- 
tory centres; and the curious coloration of the blood seen after death has given rise to the 
belief that the alkaloid directly affects the blood in its relations to oxygen. Indeed, Dr. F. 
Penzoldt (loc. cit.) believes that the relief of dyspnoea obtained clinically by the use of the 
drug is caused by its increasing the power of the blood to take oxygen, and the dyspnoea 
caused by poisonous doses he attributes to its preventing the blood yielding the oxjgen to the 
tissues, but he does not prove his theory. There would seem to be a physiological basis for 
the results obtained by various clinicians, who have found that quebracho is a valuable remedy 
when the respiration is embarrassed by emphysema, bronchitis, chronic pneumonia, and other 
complaints mechanically influencing pulmonary functions. Even in uraemic dyspnoea the remedy 
has been found useful. Aspidospermine of commerce is a more or less impure mixture of 
all alkaloids of the bark, and hence may be considered to represent its activity. The dose 
of the commercial aspidospermine is from a quarter to half a grain (0-016 to 0*03 Gm.). 
The fluid extract may be given in doses of from a quarter to one fluidrachm (1 to 4 C.c.) ; the 
solid extract is said to be ten times the strength of the crude bark, and may be given in 
doses of from one to three grains (0-065 to 0194 Gm.). 
* Several experimenters have studied more or less completely the physiological action of the alkaloids of que- 
bracho bianco. Harnack and Hoffmann (Zeit.filr Klin. Med., 1884, vol. viii.) find that aspidospermatine causes in 
the frog respiratory paralysis, with palsy of all the striated muscular fibre of the body, including the heart-muscle. 
Upon mammals it acts very feebly, its most marked influence being upon the respiration. Quebrachine acted upon 
the frog precisely as did aspidospermatine. Its influence upon the mammal was at least twenty times as great as 
that of aspidospermatine, comparatively small doses producing death by respiratory paralysis. Quebrachamine 
acted very much as did aspidospermatine upon the breathing and upon the muscular fibre. Aspidosamine acted 
upon the breathing and upon the muscular fibre like aspidospermatine, but also paralyzed the motor nerve-endings. 
Its influence upon mammals was quite feeble. According to this research, the combined alkaloids have especial 
influence upon the respiration and the respirator}7 centres, and at the same time affect the muscular fibres directly 
and the peripheral nerve-endings. Schiffer (Archiv f. Physiol., 1883, p. 249) has found that the extract of a com- 
mercial quebracho bianco produces in the rabbit general muscular weakness, followed by paralysis with greatly 
diminished reflexes and an appearance of the deepest narcosis, with increased frequency of breathing, unaltered 
cardiac activity, and unchanged pupils. After very large doses death occurs in a very short time, preceded by 
convulsions. The motor nerve-trunks were found even during life almost devoid of functional activity. The exact 
nature of the bark used for the making of the extract is not stated. Eloy and Huchard (Archives de Phys. et 
Path., April 1, 1886) found that the extract of quebracho bianco has some effect on sensibility after the taking 
out of the quebrachine, hypoquebrachine, aspidospermine, and aspidospermatine, but that these alkaloids them- 
selves have no effect on general sensibility. The four alkaloids named produced paralysis, with, if in excessive 
doses, tonic convulsions, and all of them had the power of reducing the temperature, quebrachine being in this 
respect the most active. Aspidospermine increased the amplitude of the respiratory movements to a very marked 
degree, but in overdose produced irregularity and failure of respiration. The three other alkaloids had much less 
effect upon respiration. Atropina. 
PART I. 
245 
ATROPINA. U. S., Br. Atropine. 
On H23 NOs; 288*38. (Xt-RO-PI'NA.) Cn II23 N03; 289. 
“ An alkaloid obtained from Belladonna. As it occurs in commerce, it is always accom- 
panied by a small proportion of hyoscyamine extracted along with it, from which it cannot 
be readily separated.” U. S. “ An alkaloid, C17H23NOa, obtained from Belladonna Leaves or 
Boot.” Br. 
Atropia; Atropinum, P. G.; Atropine, Fr.; Atropin, G. 
Because atropine cannot profitably be manufactured on a small scale, both Pharmacopoeias 
have omitted the processes of preparation, and furnish only qualitative tests. For the U. S. 
process of 1870, see foot-note* For discussion, see U. S. D., 14th edition. 
Properties and Tests. Atropine is in “white, acicular crystals, or a more or less 
amorphous, white powder, without odor, having a bitter, acrid taste, and gradually assuming a 
yellowish tint on exposure to air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 130 parts of water, 3 parts 
of alcohol, 16 parts of ether, 4 parts of chloroform, and about 50 parts of glycerin. At about 
115° C. (239° F.) it melts, forming a colorless liquid; at about 140° C. (284° F.) it begins 
to give off white, acrid fumes, and, when ignited, it is consumed without leaving a residue. 
It has a markedly alkaline reaction ; its saturated aqueous solution acquires a pink color upon 
the addition of a drop of phenolphtalein test-solution. If a small quantity of atropine, or of 
one of its salts, be heated with a few C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, a peculiar odor, 
recalling that of a mixture of rose, orange-flower, and melilot, will become noticeable. On now 
gradually adding minute fragments of potassium dichromate, the odor will change to that of 
oil of bitter almond, the rose odor disappearing as more dichromate is added. Atropine and 
its salts are decomposed by prolonged contact with sodium or potassium hydrate, and if heated 
with either of them, evolve ammonia. On dissolving a small quantity (about 0-1 6m.) of 
atropine in 2 C.c. of alcohol, and adding an equal volume of mercuric chloride test-solution, a 
yellow precipitate, which soon turns red, is produced. On adding concentrated sulphuric acid 
to atropine, no color should be produced (absence of readily carhonizable, organic impurities), 
nor should any color be developed by the subsequent addition of nitric acid (absence of and 
difference from morphine'). The aqueous solution of atropine, or of any of its salts, is not 
precipitated by platinic chloride test-solution (difference from most other alkaloids). With 
gold chloride test-solution it gives a precipitate which, when recrystallized from boiling water 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, is deposited, on cooling, in minute crystals forming a yellow, 
lustreless powder on drying (difference from, and absence of more than a small proportion of, 
hyoscyamine)." U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia states that atropine is “ soluble in 300 parts 
of water, readily soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.), in chloroform, and in ether. Melting point 
239° to 240° F. (115° to 115-5° C.). When moistened with fuming nitric add and evaporated 
to dryness on a water-bath, the residue gives with freshly prepared alcoholic solution of potas- 
sium hydroxide a fugitive reddish-violet coloration. It leaves no ash when burned with free 
access of air (absence of mineral matter).” For further information, see Belladonna; f also 
A. J. R, 1884, 206. 
It is inflammable, giving off an odor like that of benzoic acid, and, when burned in the open 
air, leaving no residue. By distilling it with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, Dr. E. 
Pfeiffer succeeded in obtaining crystals of benzoic acid and propylamine. (A. J. P., 1864, 
226.) Dr. Kraut, by heating it with baryta water, succeeded in obtaining a peculiar acid and 
* “Take of Belladonna Root, in fine powder, forty-eight troyouncee ; Purified Chloroform four troyouncee and a 
half; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Solution of Potassa, Alcohol, Water, each, a eufficient quantity. Mix the powder 
with a pint of Alcohol, and having introduced the mixture into a cylindrical percolator, pour alcohol gradually upon 
it until sixteen pints have passed. From the liquid thus obtained distil off twelve pints of Alcohol. To the residue 
add sufficient Diluted Sulphuric Acid to give it an acid reaction, and, having evaporated the liquid to half a pint, 
add an equal bulk of Water, and filter through paper. To the filtered liquid add, first a troyounce and a half of 
the Chloroform, and then Solution of Potassa in slight excess, and shake the whole together at intervals for half an 
hour. When the heavier liquid has subsided, separate it, and, having added a troyounce and a half of the Chloro- 
form to the lighter liquid, again shake them together, and separate the heavier from the lighter liquid as before. 
Add to this lighter liquid the remainder of the Chloroform, and, after agitation, separate the heavier liquid for the 
third time. Mix the heavier liquids in a capsule, and set the mixture aside until, by spontaneous evaporation, the 
Atropia is left dry.” 17. S. 1870. 
f For the behavior of atropine under the influence of an electric current, see P. J. Tr., 1870, i. 244. 
It is stated by H. Bullot that if to an aqueous solution of atropine acidulated with sulphuric acid an aqueous 
solution of picric acid be added, a precipitate will not form with good English atropine; with that obtained by the 
method of Simon, there will be a very slight precipitate; with the German alkaloid, an abundant yellow precipitate. 246 
Atropina. 
PART I. 
peculiar base, the former of which he calls tropic acid, C9H1003, melting at 117° C., and oxi- 
dizable by dilute potassium permanganate to bitter almond oil and benzoic acid, and the latter 
tropine,* C8H16N0, melting at 62° C. (Ibid., 232.) Ladenburg (Bcr. Chem. Ges., 12, 942, 
and 13, 104) has succeeded in effecting the synthesis of atropine from these two constituents, 
which, when heated over a water-bath in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid, unite to 
form the alkaloid. Ladenburg has also succeeded in forming a series of compound esters of 
tropine with other organic acids to which the general name of tropeines has been given. 
Some of these have pronounced toxic effects, and one (homatropine) has found use as a valu- 
able substitute for atropine. The list of artificial tropeines thus prepared includes: 
Benzoyl-tropeine, C16H19N02 + 2HaO. 
Salicyl-tropeine, C16li19N03. Strong base, weak poisonous action. 
m-oxybenzoyl-tropeine, C15H19N03. 
p-oxybenzoyl-tropeine, C16I110NO3. -f- 2IIaO. 
Phenyl-acet-tropeine, CielI21N02 -f- H20. 
Oxytoluyl-tropeine (homatropine), C10II21NO3. Has mydriatic action ; less poisonous than 
atropine. 
Cinnamyl-tropeine, C17H21N02. Strong base, but without mydriatic action. 
Atropyl-tropeine, C17II2JN02. 
Atrolactyl-tropeine, C17H23N03. Has similar action to atropine. 
Phthalyl tropeine, C24lI32N204. 
Hinterberger states that an alcoholic solution of atropine, when cyanogen is passed through 
it, assumes a blood-red color, and, on spontaneous evaporation, deposits a red, syrupy liquid 
insoluble in water. (Gmelin.) The detection of atropine in small quantity is a matter of 
great difficulty ; the best test is the physiological, which consists in placing the suspected liquid 
in the eye of a cat, or other animal, when, if the alkaloid be present, dilatation of the pupil 
will occur. According to Brunner, the best chemical test is the aromatic smell which is pro- 
duced by adding the alkaloid and a little water to a hot mixture of sulphuric acid and potas- 
sium bichromate or ammonium molybdate. (P. J. Tr., iv. 385.) Fabris believes that strych- 
nine in the presence of atropine interferes writh the toxicological identification of the latter by 
chemical tests, but a physiological test reveals the presence of both alkaloids. (Bui. rfe la 
Soctiti Royale de Pharm., 1894.) Prof. Wormley made comparative examinations of various 
tests for atropine, hyoscyamine, and hyoscine. (See A. J. P., 1894, 513.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. The local and general effects of atropine on the sys- 
tem are precisely those of belladonna. It is, however, more speedy in its operation, probably 
in consequence of its easier absorption. Thus, the poisonous action of belladonna is seldom 
experienced in less than half an hour, while that of atropine shows itself violently in fifteen 
or twenty minutes. The most prominent effects from small remedial doses are dryness and 
stricture of the throat, and slight uneasiness of the head, with confusion or giddiness ; from 
somewhat larger doses, dilatation of the pupil, some dimness of vision, frontal headache, hur- 
ried respiration, slight delirium, flushed face, and sometimes a scarlet rash. After poisonous 
doses the above symptoms occur in a more aggravated form. Two distinct stages of the poi- 
soning can usually be noted. At first there is great dimness or total temporary loss of vision, 
excessive dilatation of the pupil, headache, delirium, which is always talkative and may be 
violent, an enormous increase in the frequency of the pulse, which is also small and hard, 
an elevation of the bodily temperature, and decided increase of the rate of respiration. Sub- 
sequently the second stage develops, and paralytic symptoms set in : the delirium gives way 
to stupor, restlessness to paralytic weakness, the pulse becomes very feeble, the surface cold, 
the respirations grow more and more shallow, and death from failure of both respiration and 
circulation occurs. 
* The physiological action of tropine hydrochlorate has been partially investigated by Dr. H. G. Beyer. {Med. 
News, Aug. 27, 1887.) He concludes that it gives rise to vaso-motor constriction by exciting the vaso-motor con- 
strictors, and that it sometimes causes vaso-motor dilatation by exciting vaso-motor dilator nervous elements. As 
the result of an elaborate series of experiments, Gottlieb (Archiv f. Exp. Path. u. Pliarm., Bd. xxxii., 1896) has 
reached the conclusion. First, that some of the tropeines not only differ quantitatively in their action from atropine, 
but are wanting in the peripheral action of that alkaloid ; such are Acetyltropine and Succitiyltropine. Second, as far 
as our knowledge goes, there seems to be a complete parallelism in the action of the tropines and the tropeines on the 
ends of the vagi in the heart and the pupils. (This influence can be seen in certain Fettsaure-Estern, and may be 
wanting in some aromatic tropeines.) Third, the tropines and the less poisonous tropeines arc cardiac stimulants, 
an influence not shared by atropine. [This latter assertion is probably incorrect.] The influence upon the heart 
probably consists in an increasing of the excitability of the motor heart ganglia. PART I. 
Atrophia. 
247 
In some instances violent convulsions have occurred ; nausea and vomiting, and even diar- 
rhoea, are occasionally produced. The atropine is eliminated by the kidneys, and may produce 
increased diuresis, but usually there is, in cases of poisoning, retention of urine from vesical 
paralysis. The increase of the heart’s action by atropine is chiefly due to its paralyzing the 
peripheral vagi, the inhibitory nerves of the heart; the final cardiac failure which takes place 
when poisonous doses have been taken is apparently the result of a direct depressant action on 
the heart-muscle. Upon the vaso-motor centres atropine in a moderate dose acts as a stimu- 
lant, thereby causing a great rise of the arterial pressure. After poisonous doses the primary 
vaso-motor spasm is followed by dilatation of the vessels and great fall of the arterial pressure. 
Paralysis of the motor nerves is one of the most marked effects of the poison ; upon the afferent 
nerves the poison seems to have but little influence. On all non-striated muscle atropine exerts 
a very powerful influence, and it is probable, although not certain, that whilst in poisonous 
amount it lessens and finally paralyzes intestinal movements by a direct action upon the mus- 
cular coats, in small doses it increases peristalsis by paralyzing the inhibitory nerves which control 
this intestinal function. The action of the drug upon the respiratory centres is a very important 
one, atropine being in moderate doses one of the most powerful persistent stimulants to the 
respiratory centre known. The asphyxia of belladonna poisoning is certainly in large measure 
due to the paralysis of the nerve-trunks which the poison produces, although it is also probable 
that the first period of excitation of the respiratory centres is followed by one of depression. 
Atropine chiefly depends for its therapeutic powers upon—1st, its sedative action upon the 
peripheral nerves; 2d, its stimulant action on the respiratory centres; 3d, its influence upon 
the heart and vaso-motor centres. By virtue of its first-mentioned power it is useful in spas- 
modic diseases, such as whooping-cough, dysmenorrhcea,, local spasm, etc. As the action is upon 
the nerve-trunks, the remedy is much more effective when it can be applied locally, as by 
atomization in whooping-cough and asthma, or by hypodermic injection in wry neck. As atropine 
has some influence upon the afferent nerve, it has some power of relieving pain ; but for this 
action to be marked, direct application is necessary. On account of its influence upon respira- 
tion, it is invaluable in narcotic poisonings and other bodily conditions with failure of the func- 
tion. In shock and other similar states in which vaso-motor paralysis is an important part of 
the morbid condition, it is a very useful stimulant. On account of the paralyzing influence 
which it has upon the inhibitory intestinal nerves, atropine may be used as an adjuvant to 
more decided laxatives. 
On the glandular system atropine exerts a decided influence; its effect upon the salivary 
and perspiratory glands being at present best understood. The remarkable action which it has 
in checking the functional activity of these glands is probably exerted through the nervous 
system, for in Keuchel’s experiments it was distinctly proved that the chorda tympani nerve, 
excitation of which normally provokes salivation in atropine poisoning, is paralyzed. In a 
case recorded by Dr. James Andrew two-thirds of a grain of atropine occasioned the most 
alarming symptoms, which continued for several days (Ed. Month. Journ. of Med. Sci., xiv. 34) ; 
and a lady under the care of M. Roux, of Brignolles, took somewhat more than a grain, with 
the same alarming symptoms (Ann. de Thfaap., 1861, p. 14) ; though in both cases recovery 
took place under treatment. In a child three years old less than half a grain was followed by 
similar dangerous symptoms and the same favorable result. (Med. Times and Gaz., Dec. 1850, 
p. 601.) A solution of atropine dropped into the eye produces dilatation of the pupil after ten 
or fifteen minutes, without causing congestion or inflammation ; and the dilatation will usually 
continue for three or four days. It is said that the dilatation is sometimes followed by con- 
traction of the pupil, especially when the dose is large. The alkaloid also produces its char- 
acteristic constitutional effects when applied to the skin denuded of the epidermis, or to a 
mucous membrane, as of the rectum, vagina, etc., and especially when injected into the subcu- 
taneous areolar tissue. The remedies for its poisonous operation are the same as those for 
belladonna; the most prominent being evacuation of the stomach, cold applications to the 
head, the preparations of opium internally, and stimulants when the strength is failing. As 
the value of atropine in opium poisoning, which seems unquestionable, is due to its influence 
on the respiratory centres, it is far from certain that opium is of at all proportionate advan- 
tage in poisoning by belladonna, etc. The official compound solution of iodine has been given 
as a chemical antidote to atropine, and with asserted advantage. It acts by forming an insolu- 
ble compound with the alkaloid. (See Belladonna.) 
Atropine may be administered internally for all the purposes for which belladonna is given ; 
and it is very largely used as a local remedy, for application to the eye, or to the surface of 248 
A tropina.—A it ■opinse Sulphas. 
PART I. 
the body, or for subcutaneous injection ; and for these purposes it has the advantage over the 
ordinary preparations of belladonna of greater precision of dose, quickness of action, and neatness 
and cleanness. In ptyalism and in colliquative sweats the most prompt effects can be obtained 
from the hypodermic use of atropine. The hypodermic dose of atropine may be set down as 
the one-hundredth of a grain, the dose by the mouth as the one-seventy-fifth of a grain, although 
in serious cases these amounts may he much exceeded. Thus, in some cases of opium poison- 
ing one-twentieth of a grain (0-003 Gm.) may be exhibited at once. On the other hand, in 
susceptible persons, one-hundredth of a grain (0-0006 Gm.) will produce decided dryness of the 
throat, and one-fiftieth of a grain (0-0012 Gm.) is alleged to have caused toxic symptoms. 
As the atropine itself is insoluble, the sulphate should always be preferred. For application 
to the sound skin, the form of ointment is most convenient. This may be made by rubbing a 
grain of the alkaloid first with four minims of alcohol, and then with a drachm of lard. 
Glycerin and olein also have been recommended as vehicles of atropine for external use, and 
may be incorporated with it in the same proportion. 
When solution of atropine sulphate is used for dilating the pupil, it may be either dropped 
into the eye within the lower lid, or introduced on small slips of paper previously saturated 
with the solution and dried, or, what is still more convenient, by means of minute circular 
disks of gelatin, made by mixing the solution with gelatin and evaporating so as to procure 
a thin film, which is to be cut into circular pieces. These have the advantage over paper 
that they do not require to be subsequently removed from the eye. 
The external use of atropine is not without danger, unless great caution be observed. A 
case is on record in which an ointment composed of three grains of the sulphate and two 
drachms of lard, applied upon a vesicated surface on the neck, produced in a few minutes the 
most violent symptoms of belladonna poisoning, ending in death in two hours. {Ann. de Thtrap., 
1867, p. 9.) The solution of atropine or its salts* is very apt to have developed in it a fungous 
growth with consequent decomposition of the alkaloid. 
ATROPINE SULPHAS. U. S., Br. Atropine Sulphate. 
(CiT H23 N03)2, H2 SO*; 674*58* (XT-RO-Pi'NTE SUL'PHiS.) (Cn H23 N03)2, II2 SO*; 676. 
“Atropine Sulphate, (C17H23N03)2H2S04, may be obtained by neutralizing Atropine with 
Diluted Sulphuric Acid.” Br. 
Sulphate of Atropia; Atropinum Sulfuricum, P. G.; Sulfate d’Atropine, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Atropin, G. 
Neither the U. S. nor Br. Pharmacopoeias give a process for preparing this salt. The official 
formula of 1870 is essentially the process of M. Ch. Maitre.f Atropine being soluble in ether, 
while its sulphate is insoluble in that fluid, a convenient method is afforded for preparing the 
sulphate with little evaporation. By adding the mixed acid and alcohol to the ethereal solu- 
tion, the sulphate is formed, and, being insoluble in the ether, is deposited; while the little 
left dissolved in the alcohol is obtained by spontaneous evaporation. The quantity of acid 
added is intended to be just sufficient to saturate the alkaloid ; but if the saturation should 
not be exact, it would be easy to render it so by the addition of a little more alkaloid or a 
little more acid, as required. 
From the great facility with which atropine undergoes change, much caution is necessary in 
preparing its salts, and the process was arranged in reference to this caution. Upon the addi- 
tion of the mixed acid and alcohol to the ethereal solution, the liquid becomes milky, and de- 
posits on the sides of the vessel a copious precipitate of a viscid appearance, which soon dries 
upon the decantation of the ether and the placing of the vessel in a drying-room. To succeed 
* Atropine Salicylate. This salt is alleged to have advantages over the sulphate, mainly because of its more 
rapid and efficient action, provided it be pure and perfectly neutral. It may be prepared by Frederici’s process, 
which is to dissolve 23 parts of atropine in pure alcohol by a gentle heat, and to add enough salicylic acid (about 
18 parts) to render the solution neutral, which is determined by the use of litmus paper. The solution is carefully 
evaporated, and finally dried in a drying-oven. It is deliquescent, and should be kept in securely-stopped vials. 
The dose is the same as that of the sulphate. 
Atropinum Santonicum, a compound of atropine and santonic acid, is described by Herr Bombelon (Pharm. 
Zeitung, April, 1886) as an amorphous non-hygroscopic powder, readily soluble in water, which presents advantages 
over all other atropine salts in being non-irritating, and also in affording a solution which is stable if kept in yellow 
glass bottles to avoid the formation of photo-santonic acid. One drop of a solution of 0• 01 Gm. in 20 Gm. of water 
is sufficient to dilate the pupil, the dilatation disappearing in from twelve to twenty-four hours. 
f “ Take of Atropia sixty grains; Stronger Ether four Jluidounces and a half; Sulphuric Acid six grains; 
Stronger Alcohol a flnidrachm. Dissolve the Atropia in the Ether; then mix the Acid and Alcohol, and add the mix- 
ture, drop by drop, to the ethereal solution until the Atropia is saturated. Allow the liquid to stand until the precipi- 
tate formed is deposited. Then decant the ether, and expose the residue to spontaneous evaporation until the salt is 
dry.” U. S. 1870. PART I. 
Atropinse Sulphas.—Aurantii Dulcis Cortex. 
249 
with this process it is necessary that the liquids employed should be carefully freed from water, 
the sulphuric acid being monoliydrated, and that the temperature should be kept as low as pos- 
sible. There should be no excess of acid ; and, if such an excess should be found upon apply- 
ing the test of litmus paper, the solution should be neutralized by a portion of reserved solu- 
tion of atropine. (A. J. P., xxviii. 361 ; from Rtpert. de Pharm.') In the British process the 
same object of avoiding decomposition by heat is attained by the low temperature at which the 
evaporation is effected. 
Properties. A white, indistinctly crystalline powder, permanent in the air, odorless, having 
a very bitter, nauseating taste, and a neutral reaction. “ Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-4 
part of water, 6-2 parts of alcohol, 2270 parts of ether, or 694 parts of chloroform. At 187° 
C. (309° F.) the salt melts, forming a brownish-yellow liquid. When ignited, it chars, emits 
acrid vapors, and is completely consumed. The salt is neutral to litmus paper. On adding 
sodium carbonate test-solution to a concentrated aqueous solution of the salt, a white precipitate 
is obtained which should respond to the reactions and tests given under atropine (see Atropina). 
The aqueous solution of the salt yields, with barium chloride test-solution, a white precipitate 
insoluble in hydrochloric acid.” U. S. “ Soluble in 10 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.) and in 1 
part of cold water, forming solutions which are neutral to litmus, and which, even when con- 
siderably diluted, if applied to the eye will dilate the pupil. It is insoluble in ether and in 
chloroform. It yields the characteristic reactions with the tests for sulphates. Melting point 
361-4° F. (183° C.).” Br. 
If it be required to procure the sulphate in the form of crystals, which may sometimes be 
desirable, to avoid adulteration, the process of M. Laneau may be employed. A solution of 
crystallized atropine in absolute alcohol, in the proportion of 2-89 parts of the former to 4 parts 
of the latter by weight, having been made with the assistance of a gentle heat, 0-4 part of sul- 
phuric acid of the sp. gr. 1-85, diluted with 3 parts of absolute alcohol, is to be gradually added, 
and stirred with a glass rod, until saturation, as shown by test-paper, is effected. The solution 
is then allowed to evaporate spontaneously, and the thinner the stratum the sooner will the 
process be completed. The crystals are in colorless needles more or less interlaced. (See A. J. P., 
1863, p. 315.) 
The effects of the salt on the system are precisely the same as those of atropine, and it may 
be used in the same dose. Its great advantage over the alkaloid is its solubility in water. A 
one-per-cent, solution is said to be instantaneously efficacious in toothache, applied to the denuded 
dental pulp; and also to produce complete insensibility of the dental nerves, in cases in which 
an artificial tooth is inserted in a living root. (Ann. de Therap., 1861, p. 19.) 
AURANTII AMARI CORTEX. U. S. (Br.) Bitter Orange Peel. 
(AU-RAN'TI-I A-MA'Kf COR'TEX—au-rAn'shg-I.) 
“ The rind of the fruit of Citrus vulgaris, Risso (nat. ord. Rutaceae).” U. S. “ The fresh 
outer part of the pericarp of Citrus Aurantium, var. Bigaradia also “ The dried outer part of 
the pericarp of Citrus Aurantium, var. Bigaradia.” Br. 
Aurantii Cortex Recens, Aurantii Cortex Siccatus, Br.; Aurantii pericarpium; Cortex Fructus Aurantii, 
P. G.; Cortex Aurantiorum, Cortex Pomorum Aurantii; Ecorce (Zestes) d’Oranges ameres, Ecorce de Bigarade, Fr.; 
Pomeranzenschale, G. 
AURANTII DULCIS CORTEX. U. S. Sweet Orange Peel. 
(Au-eXn'ti-I dul'cis cor'tex.) 
“ The rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium, Linne (nat. ord. Rutaceae).” U. S. 
Cortex Aurantiorum Dulcium; Ecorce (Zestes) d’Oranges douces, Fr.; Apfelsinenschalen, G.; Seorze del Frutto 
deli’ Arancio, It.; Corteza de Naranja, Sp. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia includes two kinds of orange peel, hitter and sweet, the former 
obtained from Citrus vulgaris, the latter from Citrus Aurantium ; on the other hand, the 
British Pharmacopoeia recognizes bitter orange peel in two forms, the fresh and the dried, 
under the respective names of Aurantii Cortex Recens, fresh hitter orange peel, and Aurantii 
Cortex Siccatus, dried bitter orange peel; but the orange peel which is called sweet by the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia—i.e., Citrus Aurantium—is termed bitter orange peel by the British authority. 
This very interesting genus is composed of small evergreen trees, with ovate or oval-lanceo- 
late and shining leaves, odoriferous flowers, and fruits which usually combine beauty of color 
with a fragrant odor and grateful taste. They are all natives of warm climates. Though the 
species are not numerous, great diversity exists in the character of the fruit; and many va- 
rieties, founded upon this circumstance, are noticed by waiters. In the splendid work on the 250 
Aurantii Dulcis Cortex. 
PART I. 
natural history of the Citrus by Risso and Poiteau, 169 varieties are described under the eight 
following heads: 1, sweet oranges, 2, bitter and sour oranges, 3, bergamots, 4, limes, 5, shad- 
docks, 6, lumes, 7, lemons, and 8, citrons. Of these it is difficult to decide which have just claims 
to the rank of distinct species and which must be considered merely as varieties. Those em- 
ployed in medicine may be arranged in two sets, of which the orange, C. aurantium, and the 
lemon, C. medica, are respectively the types; the former characterized by a winged, the latter 
by a naked or nearly naked petiole. The form and character of the fruit, though not entirely 
constant, serve as the basis of subdivisions. C. decumana, which yields the shaddock, agrees 
with C. aurantium in the form of its petiole. 
Citrus aurantium. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1427 ; B. & T. 51. The orange-tree grows to the 
height of about fifteen feet. Its stem is rounded, much branched, and covered with a smooth, 
shining, greenish-brown bark. In the wild state, and before inoculation, it is often furnished 
with axillary spines. The leaves are ovate, pointed, entire, smooth, and of a shining pale green 
color. When held between the eye and the light, they exhibit numerous small transparent 
vesicles, filled with volatile oil; and, when rubbed between the fingers, are highly fragrant. 
Their footstalks are about an inch long, and have wings or lateral appendages. The flowers, 
which have a delightful odor, are large, white, and attached by short peduncles, singly, or in 
clusters, to the smallest branches. The calyx is saucer-shaped, with pointed teeth. The petals 
are oblong, concave, white, and beset with numerous small glands. The filaments are united 
at their base in three or more distinct portions, and support yellow anthers. The germen is 
roundish, and bears a cylindrical style, terminated by a globular stigma. The fruit is a spheri- 
cal berry, often somewhat flattened at its base and apex, rough, of a yellow or orange color, and 
divided internally into nine vertical cells, each containing from two to four seeds, surrounded 
by a pulpy matter. The rind of the fruit consists of a thin exterior layer, abounding in 
A'esicles filled with a fragrant volatile oil, and of an interior one, which is thick, white, fungous, 
insipid, and inodorous. There are two varieties of C. aurantium, considered by some as distinct 
species. They differ chiefly in the fruit, which in one is sweet, in the other is sour and bitterish 
and has a darker and rougher rind. The first retains the original title, the second (the Seville 
orange) is called Citrus vulgaris by De Candolle, and C. bigaradia by Risso.* 
This beautiful evergreen, in Avhich the fruit is mingled, in every stage of its growth, with 
the blossoms and foliage, has been applied to numerous purposes of utility and ornament. A 
native of China and India, it was introduced into Europe at a very early period, was trans- 
planted to America soon after its first settlement, and is now found in every civilized country 
Avhere the climate is favorable. The fruit is brought to us chiefly from Florida, the south of 
Europe, and the West Indies. The Florida and Havana oranges are the sweetest. 
Various parts of the plant are used in medicine. The leaves, which are bitter and aromatic, 
are employed in some places in the form of infusion as a gently stimulant diaphoretic. They 
yield by distillation with water a volatile oil, which is said to be often mixed by the distillers 
with the oils obtained from the flowers and unripe fruit. In regard to polarized light it has a 
rotatory power to the left, which is considerably weakened by the prolonged action of heat. 
(Chautard, Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., xliv. 28.) The fresh floAvers may be kept for some time 
by mixing them well Avith half their weight of sodium chloride, pressing the mixture in a 
suitable jar, and keeping it well closed in a cool place. They were formerly recognized by the 
U. S. P. under the name of Aurantii Flores, and were officially described as “ about half an 
inch (12 mm.) long; calyx small, cup-shaped, five-toothed; petals five, oblong, obtuse, rather 
fleshy, Avhite and glandular-punctate; stamens numerous, in about three sets; ovary globular, 
upon a small disk, with a cylindrical style, and a globular stigma; odor very fragrant; taste 
aromatic and somewhat bitter.” U. S. 1880. The dried flowers are used on the continent of 
Europe as a gentle nervous stimulant, in the form of infusion, two drachms to the pint of 
boiling water, taken in the dose of a teacupful. The floAvers should be dried in the shade, at 
a temperature between 24° C. (75° F.) and 35° C. (95° F.). 
An oil is obtained also from the floAvers by distillation, which is called neroli in France, and is 
much used in perfumery, and in the composition of liqueurs. (See Oleum Aurantii Florum.) 
* A variety of the orange, called the Mandarin Orange (Citrus bigaradia sinensis or C. bigaradia myrtifolia), 
which is probably a native of China, but cultivated in Sicily, the south of Italy, and Florida, bears a fruit much 
smaller than the common orange, round, but flattened above and below, with a smooth, thin, delicate rind, and a very 
sweet delicious pulp. A volatile oil is obtained from the rind by expression, of a yellow color, a very bland agreeable 
odor, different from that of the orange or lemon, and a not unpleasant taste, like that of the rind. When freed from 
coloring matter by distillation, it was found by M. S. de Luca to be a pure hydrocarbon, with the formula CioHis. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 3e s6r., xxxiii. 52.) Aurantii Duleis Cortex. 
251 
PART I. 
It is an ingredient of the famous Cologne water. That obtained from the flowers of the Seville 
or bitter orange (C. vulgaris) is deemed the sweetest. It was introduced into the Edinburgh 
Pharmacopoeia, with the title of Aurantii Oleum, to serve for the preparation of orange-flower 
water. Soubeiran considers this oil rather as a product of the distillation than as pre-existing 
in the flowers. The fact may thus be explained that orange-flower water made by dissolving 
even the finest neroli in water has not the precise odor of that procured by distillation from 
the flowers. Pure neroli has a rotating power to the right, in this respect differing from the oil 
of the leaves. ( Chautard.) 
The fruit is applied to several purposes. Small unripe oranges, about the size of a cherry or 
less, previously dried, and rendered smooth by a turning-lathe, are sometimes employed to 
maintain the discharge from issues. They are preferred to peas on account of their agreeable 
odor, and by some are thought to swell less with the moisture; but this is denied by others, 
and it is asserted that they require to be renewed at the end of twenty-four hours. These 
fruits are sometimes found in commerce under the name of orange berries. They are of a 
grayish or greenish brown color, fragrant odor, and bitter taste, and are said to be used for 
flavoring cordials. A volatile oil is obtained from them by distillation, known to the French 
by the name of essence de petit grain, and employed for similar purposes with that of the flowers. 
The oil, however, which now goes by this name is said to be distilled from the leaves, and those 
of the bitter orange yield the best. The oils from the unripe and the ripe fruit have a rotating 
power to the right, the latter much greater than the former; and this property might serve to 
distinguish them from the oil of the leaves. Several of the oils from the Aurantiaceae deposit 
a crystalline substance, differing from camphor. ( Chautard.) The juice of the Seville orange 
is sour and bitterish, and forms with water a refreshing and grateful drink in febrile diseases. 
It is employed in the same manner as lemon-juice, which it resembles in containing citric acid, 
though in much smaller proportion. The sweet orange is more pleasant to the taste, and is 
extensively used as a light refrigerant article of diet in inflammatory diseases, care being taken 
to reject the membranous portion. The best mode of separating the outer rind, when its 
desiccation arid preservation are desired, is to pare it from the orange in narrow strips with 
a sharp knife, as we pare an apple. When the object is to use the fresh rind for certain 
pharmaceutical purposes, as for the preparation of the confection of orange peel, it is best 
separated by a grater. The dried peel sold in the shops is usually that of the Seville orange, 
and is brought chiefly from countries adjacent to the Mediterranean. 
Properties. Orange peel has a grateful aromatic odor, and a warm bitter taste, which 
depend upon the volatile oil contained in its vesicles. “ In narrow, thin bands, or in quarters; 
epidermis of a dark brownish-green color, glandular, and with very little of the spongy, white, 
inner layer adhering to it; it has a fragrant odor, and an aromatic, bitter taste.” U. S. The 
Br. Pharmacopoeia requires that the outer surface both of the fresh and of the dried bitter 
orange peel shall be of a deep orange-red color, and rough and glandular. As lemon peel is 
sometimes substituted for orange peel, a means of distinguishing between them has been devised 
by E. G. Clayton (Analyst, xix. 134), which is to touch small fragments of peel with a glass 
rod dipped in hydrochloric acid. Orange peel is colored a rich, dark green ; the color of lemon 
peel is unaffected. The sweet peel is orange yellow and has a sweetish, fragrant odor, and an aro- 
matic, slightly bitter taste. Both orange peels yield their sensible properties to water and alcohol. 
The bitter principle, hesperidin, C22H20O12, was discovered by Lebreton in 1828, but its char- 
acter as a glucoside was first established by Hilger and Hoffmann. (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 9, 26, 
685.) Treated with dilute acids it yields hesperetin, C16H1406, and glucose. It is crystalline 
(fusing point 250°-251° C.), and may be prepared by Paterno and Briosi’s process, as follows. 
The cut and bruised oranges are covered with diluted alcohol, potassa solution added in excess, 
the liquor filtered after two days, and impure hesperidin precipitated by hydrochloric acid ; the 
precipitate is boiled with acetic acid for ten minutes, and, after cooling, filtered from the resin- 
ous mass left. The hesperidin gradually separates from the filtrate upon standing, in white 
fine needles. From 4000 oranges about 6 ounces av. of the principle were obtained. (Ber. 
d. Chem. Ges., 1876, 250-252.) Tanret found in the rind of the bitter orange, 1, a crys- 
talline acid, C44H28014; 2, a noncrystalline resinous body; 3, hesperidin; 4, isohesperidin, a 
crystalline glucoside isomeric with hesperidin; 5, aurantianarin, a new glucoside, to which the 
bitterness of the peel is due. (Pi J. Tr., 1886, 839.) Orange peel contains also albumen, 
gum, resin, a trace of fixed oil, volatile oil, and a principle resembling tannin in its action on 
salts of iron. The bitter principles are said to be much more abundant in the white spongy 
inner portion of the peel than in the outer yellowish layer. The volatile oil may be obtained 252 
Aurantii Dulcis Cortex.—Auri et Sodii Chloridum. 
PART I. 
by expression from the fresh grated rind, or by distillation with water. It is imported into 
the United States in tinned copper cans. It has properties resembling those of the oil of 
lemons, but spoils more rapidly on exposure to the air, acquiring a terebinthinate odor. The 
perfumers use it in the preparation of Cologne water, and for other purposes; and it is also 
employed by the confectioners. According to Dr. Imbert-Gourbeyre, persons who are much 
exposed to the inhalation of the oil of bitter oranges are apt to be affected with cutaneous 
eruptions, and various nervous disorders, as headache, tinnitus aurium, oppression of the chest, 
gastralgia, want of sleep, and even muscular spasm. (Pharm. Gentralblatt, Feb. 1854, 128.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Bitter orange peel is a mild tonic, carminative, and 
stomachic; the sweet is simply aromatic; but neither is much used alone. They are chiefly 
employed to communicate a pleasant flavor to other medicines, to correct their nauseating prop- 
erties, and to assist their stimulant impression upon the stomach. They are a frequent and 
useful addition to bitter infusions and decoctions, such as those of gentian, quassia, columbo, 
and Peruvian bark. It is obviously improper to subject orange peel to long boiling, as the 
volatile oil is thus driven off. The dose in substance is from half a drachm to a drachm 
(1-95—3-9 Gm.). Violent colic, convulsions, and even death have been caused in children by 
eating large quantities of the rind. When orange peel is used simply for its agreeable flavor, 
the rind of the sweet orange is preferable; as a tonic, that of the Seville orange. 
AURUM. Gold. 
(AU'RUM.) 
The preparations of gold were introduced into medical practice in 1810 by Chrestein, of 
Montpellier. They have been especially recommended in various chronic diseases of the 
nervous system and skin, also in inveterate constitutional syphilis and allied disorders. The 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia recognizes one preparation (see below). For a discussion of the various 
non-official preparations which have been used in medicine, see Gold, Part II. 
AURI ET SODII CHLORIDUM. U. S. Gold and Sodium Chloride. 
(Au'R! KT SO'DI-i eHLO'RI-DDM.) 
“ A mixture of equal parts, by weight, of dry Gold Chloride [AuC13 = 302-81] and Sodium 
Chloride [NaCl = 58-37]. It should be kept in well-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
Gold and sodium chloride may be prepared by dissolving gold in nitrohydrochloric acid, 
evaporating the solution to dryness, weighing, and dissolving the dry mass in eight times its 
weight of distilled water. To this solution a weight of pure decrepitated common salt equal- 
ling that of the dry gold chloride is added, previously dissolved in four parts of water. The 
mixed solution is then evaporated to dryness, being in the mean time constantly stirred with a 
glass rod. A process for making this salt from gold coin without requiring the preliminary 
purification necessary in the above process may be found in Proc. A. P. A., 1882, p. 311. 
Properties. The salt is of a golden-yellow color, and, when crystallized, is in the form of 
long prismatic crystals, unalterable in the air. The Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ an orange- 
yellow powder, odorless, having a saline and metallic taste, and slightly deliquescent in damp 
air. The compound is very soluble in water, and at least one-half of it should be soluble in 
cold alcohol. When exposed to a red heat, it is decomposed, and metallic gold is separated. 
A fragment of the compound imparts a persistent, intensely-yellow color to a non-luminous 
flame. Its aqueous solution has a slightly acid reaction, and yields, with silver nitrate test- 
solution, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. On bringing a glass rod, dipped into am- 
monia water, close to a portion of the compound, no white fumes should make their appearance 
(absence of free acid). If 0-5 Gm. of Gold and Sodium Chloride be dissolved in 50 C.c. of 
water, in a porcelain capsule, the solution acidulated with 5 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid, and 
after the addition of 1 Gm. of pure oxalic acid, heated for about two hours, on a water-bath, 
a precipitate of metallic gold will be obtained, which, when washed, dried, and ignited, should 
weigh not less than 0-15 Gm. (corresponding to at least 30 per cent, of metallic gold). The 
filtrate from the precipitated gold should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, 
nor, after being supersaturated with ammonia water, by ammonium sulphide test-solution 
(absence of metallic impurities).” U. S. 
Medical Properties. The precise action of this salt upon the system is not known, but 
it is thought to affect the general nutrition, and to be therefore alterative. By many gynaecolo- 
gists it is believed to have a specific direction to the genital organs, and it is used in hysteria, 
ovarian irritation and neuralgia, chronic ovaritis, and even chronic uterine inflammation. It PART I. 
Balsamum Peruvianum. 
253 
has also been commended in syphilis, chronic rheumatism, diabetes mellitus, and other chronic 
disorders affecting nutrition. The double salt of gold and sodium chloride has recently been 
very largely used in the treatment of the alcoholic habit. It is believed to be the basis of 
the notorious “Keeley cure," which, according to the best information obtainable, seemingly 
reliable, consists in chief part of the administration of ascending doses of the double chloride, 
with hypodermic injections in the interim (one every three hours) of very minute doses of 
atropine and strychnine. It would seem certain that no medication can suffice for moral 
reformation, but there is considerable evidence to show that the treatment just spoken of, by 
toning up the nervous system and bringing about a general increase of nutritive tone, may aid 
those who are determined upon reform. Dose, one-quarter to one-twelfth of a grain (0-015 
to 0-005 Gm.). 
BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM. U. S., Br. Balsam of Peru. 
(BiL'SA-MUM pe-ru-vi-a'num.) 
“ A balsam obtained from Toluifera Pereirae (Royle), Baillon (nat. ord. Leguminosse).” U. S. 
“ A balsam exuded from the trunk of Myroxylon Pereirae, Klotzsch, after the bark has been 
beaten and scorched.” Br. 
Balsamum Peruvianum Nigrum, Balsamum Indicum; Baume des Indes, Baume de P6rou, Fr.; Peruvianischer 
Balsam, G.; Balsamo del Peru, It.; Balsamo negro, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx subincurved, irregularly dentate. Vexillum broadly orbiculate; four in- 
ferior petals sub-equal, free, narrow. Stamens deciduous with the petals, free or at their ex- 
treme base very shortly connate. Ovaries long, stipitate, near the apex two ovulate. Styles 
short incurved, with a minute terminal stigma. Legume stipitate, compressed, indehiscent, 
with the apex indurated, and one-seeded. Seed one, subreniform, with a thin testa. Cotyle- 
dons plano-convex. Radicle very short, incurved. (Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plan- 
tarum.) 
De Candolle and other botanists considered that the genera Myroxylon and Toluifera of Lin- 
naeus are not distinct from Myrospermum of Jacquin, but it is now generally recognized that 
the two Linnaean genera are, taken together, entitled to rank as a single genus. To this the 
title of Myroxylon has been generally applied by botanists following Bentham and Hooker, but 
Baillon (Natural History of Plants, vol. ii. 366) seems to be in accord with the generally 
accepted rules of botanical nomenclature in preferring the name Toluifera. In regard to the 
species now under consideration there has been much discussion, and although the plant is now 
well known botanically, botanists are not agreed as to its specific distinctness ; Ruiz (Flora Pe- 
ruviana), Carson (A. J. P., 1860, p. 297), Baillon, and others believing it to be identical with 
the tree which yields balsam of Tolu. Fliickiger and Hanbury (Pliarmacographia, 2d ed., 205) 
give the following points of difference: in M. pereirse the branches come oft' near the ground, 
the calyx is widely cup-shaped, and shallow, the racemes loose, 6 to 8 inches long, and the 
legume much narrowed at its base; whilst in M. toluifera the trunk does not branch for 30 or 
40 feet, the calyx is rather tubular, the racemes dense and 3 to 4£ inches long, the legume 
scarcely narrowed at the base. Besides the official species, there are others of the genus which 
possess medical virtues, and have been more or less employed* The pod of M. frutescens (Jacq.), 
growing in Trinidad, is popularly used in that island as a carminative, and externally, in the 
form of a tincture, as a lotion in rheumatic pains; and by incisions in the stem a small quan- 
tity of balsamic juice is obtained not distinguishable from balsam of Tolu. {P. J. Tr., Sept. 
1862, p. 108.) Another species is known in Paraguay under the name of quino-quino, the bark 
of which is used, in powder and decoction, as a remedy in wounds and ulcers, and from the 
trunk of which a juice is obtained which in its concrete state closely resembles dried balsam 
of Peru. {Ibid., Oct. 1862, p. 183.)f 
* For an account of the various imperfectly described species related to this plant, see 14th Ed. U. S. D. 
f A product of T. peruiferum, sometimes known as Brazilian balsam or as Oleo-Balsam, has been offered for sale 
as genuine Peru balsam. In bulk it is of a dark brown color, but in thin layers it is dark red. Its odor is smoky, 
feebly fragrant; its taste slightly pungent, leaving a choking, disagreeable, persistent feeling. It is entirely soluble 
in ether and in rectified spirits. It also mixes with castor oil in all proportions, forming with carbon disulphide 
a clear light brown solution with residue, and in the deposit, by its chloroform solution, of a powdery precipitate 
upon standing. At 17° C. its specific gravity is 1-031. Its general constitution is very similar to that of Balsam 
of Peru, containing volatile oil, myroxylin, cinnamic and tannic acids, and resin. (P. J. Tr., 3d ser., xi. 818.) It 
is especially to be distinguished from Peru Balsam by its behavior with sulphuric acid. When Peru Balsam is 
treated with sulphuric acid, and cold water poured upon it, a beautiful violet is imparted to the surface, and the 
whole mass has a bright shade. The same procedure yields with the Oleo-Balsam a gray mass. For further infor- 
mation see P. J. Tr., xv. 771. 254 
Balaamum Peruvianum. 
PART I. 
Toluifera, pereirse. ; Myrotiylon pereirse, Klotzsch ; Myrospermum pereirse, Royle et Auctores ; 
u Myrospermum of Sonsonate,” Pereira ; is a handsome tree, with a straight, round, lofty stem, 
a smooth ash-colored bark, and spreading branches at the top. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, 
and unequally pinnate. The leaflets are from five to eleven, shortly petiolate, oblong, oval- 
oblong, or ovate, about three inches long by somewhat less than an inch and a half in breadth, 
rounded at the base, and contracting abruptly at top into an emarginate point. When held up 
to the light they exhibit, in lines parallel with the primary veins, beautiful rounded and linear 
pellucid spots. The common and partial petioles and midribs are smooth to the naked eye, but 
when examined with a microscope are found to be furnished with short hairs. The fruit, 
including the winged footstalks, varies from two to four inches in length. At its peduncular 
extremity it is rounded or slightly tapering ; at the top enlarged, rounded, and swollen, with a small 
point at the side. The mesocarp, or main investment of the fruit, is fibrous, and contains in 
distinct receptacles a balsamic juice, which is most abundant in two long receptacles or vittas, 
one upon each side. The yellowish-white beans yielded to Mr. Rother (-P. J. Tr., xv. 244) two 
per cent, of coumarin ; the husks, a brown, extremely bitter, somewhat acrid resin. A gum- 
resin exudes in small quantities from the trunk of the tree, which, though containing, besides 
gum and resin, a small proportion of volatile oil, is distinct from the proper balsam, and yields 
no cinnamic acid. (Attfield, P. J. Tr., Dec. 1863.) 
This tree grows in Central America, in the State of San Salvador, upon the Pacific coast. It 
is found in the wild forests, singly or in groups, but the trees are owned by individuals. Dr. 
Charles Dorat states that it is never found at a greater height on the mountains than one thou- 
sand feet, that it begins to be productive after five years, and continues to yield for thirty years 
or more, and that the aroma of its flower is perceived at the distance of one hundred yards. 
(A. J. P., xxxii.) The balsam is collected by the aborigines, on lands reserved to them, within a 
small district denominated the Balsam Coast, extending from Acajutlato Port Libertad. Early 
in November or December the bark is beaten on four sides of the trunk, so as to separate it 
from the wood without breaking it; intermediate strips being left sound, in order not to destroy 
the life of the tree. The bruised bark soon splits, or cuts are made in it. Five or six days 
after the beating the injured surface is set on fire, and about a week later the bark, if it has 
not fallen off spontaneously, is removed. The juice now begins to exude freely from the ex- 
posed wood, which the natives cover with rags. The latter, when saturated, are boiled in water 
in large jars, and the liquid allowed to stand; whereupon the water rises to the top, and is 
poured off, leaving the balsam, which is put into calabashes or bladders. It is then taken for 
sale to the neighboring towns, where it is purified by subsidence and straining and put into jars 
or metallic drums for exportation. The destroyed bark is said to renew itself in two years, so 
that by care a tree can be long worked ; two pounds is stated to be the average yearly yield. 
In 1861 the tree was introduced in Ceylon with complete success. 
A substance called white balsam (Balsamo bianco') is procured from the fruit by expression. 
This has been confounded with the balsam of Tolu, but is wholly distinct. It is of a semi-fluid 
or soft-solid consistence, somewhat granular, and, on standing, separates into a white resinous 
crystalline deposit, and a superior translucent more fluid portion. The smell, though quite dis- 
tinct from that of the balsam of Tolu and Peru, is not disagreeable. Dr. Stenhouse has obtained 
from it a peculiar resinous body, readily crystallizable, and remarkably indifferent in its chemi- 
cal affinities, which he denominates myroxocarpin. {P. J. Tr., x. 290.) Dr. Dorat, however, 
denies that the white balsam is produced by the same tree, or in the same vicinity. 
Another substance obtained from the same tree, and much used in Central America, is a 
tincture of the fruit made by digesting it in rum. It is called balsamito by the inhabitants, 
and is said to be stimulant, anthelmintic, and diuretic. It is also used as an external applica- 
tion to gangrenous or indolent ulcers, and as a wash to the face to remove freckles. According 
to Dr. Dorat, the balsamito is not the tincture, but an alcoholic extract of the young fruit. 
Neither this nor the white balsam reaches the markets of this country. 
The balsam of Peru was named from its place of exportation; and it was long thought to 
be a product of Peru. It is now shipped partly from the Pacific coast, and partly from the 
Balize or other Atlantic ports, whither it is brought across the country. It was Guibourt who 
first made known the fact of its exclusive production in Central America. As imported, it is 
usually in tin canisters, with a whitish scum on its surface, and more or less deposit, which is 
dissolved with the aid of heat. 
Properties. Balsam of Peru is viscid like syrup or honey, of a dark reddish-brown color, 
a fragrant odor, and a warm bitterish taste, leaving when swallowed a burning or prickling sen- PART I. 
Balsamum Peruvianum. 
255 
sation in the throat. When exposed to flame it takes fire, diffusing a white smoke and fragrant 
odor. Containing resin, volatile oil, and both benzoic and cinnamic acids, it is properly con- 
sidered a balsam, though probably somewhat altered by heat. “ A liquid having a syrupy 
consistence, free from stringiness or stickiness, of a brownish-black color in bulk, reddish-brown 
and transparent in thin layers, of an agreeable vanilla-like, somewhat smoky odor, and a bitter 
taste, leaving a persistent after-taste. On exposure to air it does not become hard. Specific 
gravity, 1-135 to 1-150 at 15° C. (59° F.). Miscible, in all proportions, with absolute alcohol, 
chloroform, or glacial acetic acid ; only partially soluble in ether or benzin. It is completely 
soluble in 5 parts of alcohol.” U. S. Boiling water extracts the acid. The oily liquid which 
separates on agitating Peru balsam with caustic potash or soda, called Peru balsam oil by Stolze, 
cinnamein by Fremy, may be separated by fractional distillation into three portions,—viz., 
benzyl alcohol, C7H80, passing over at about 200° C. (392° F.) ; benzylic benzoate, C7H602,C7H7, 
the principal portion, boiling at 303°-304° C. (577-5°-579° F.) ; and benzylic cinnamate, 
C0H7O2,C7H7, passing over at about the boiling point of mercury. The crude oil likewise 
contains small quantities of free cinnamic and benzoic acids, resulting from the decomposition 
of the benzylic ether by the alkali used in separating it, and equivalent to the free benzylic 
alcohol also contained in it. According to Kraut {Ann. Ch. Pharm., 153, p. 129), the benzylic 
cinnamate constitutes nearly 60 per cent, of the balsam; but Trog (Archiv d. Pharm., 1894, 
70-98) states that it is the benzyl benzoate which makes up the bulk of the oily portion and 
amounts to from 63 to 64 per cent. 
Peru balsam appears to contain only a single resin, yielding, by analysis, 66-3 to 67-25 per 
cent, of carbon, and 6-22 to 6-32 per cent, of hydrogen (Kraut, loc. cit.). This resin separated 
from the alkaline solution of the balsam by hydrochloric acid is brown, has a faint odor of 
vanilla, and when fused with potash yields protocatechuic acid, together with a little benzoic 
acid. The resin yielded about two-thirds its weight of protocatechuic acid. (Kachler, Zeitsch. 
fur Ch., [2] 6, 59.) The tree also exudes a gum-resin, which, according to AttfieM (P. J. 
Tr., 1864, p. 248), contains 77-4 per cent, of a resin, and is non-aromatic, devoid of cinnamic 
acid, and entirely distinct from Balsam of Peru. The leaves of the tree contain a fragrant 
oil. Trog found the fluid portion of the balsam to consist almost entirely of benzyl benzoate, 
with small quantities of cinnamic acid, vanillin, and benzyl cinnamate. The resin, he states, is 
an ester. Like benzoin, balsam of Peru appears to be a pathological product. 
The balsam is said to be adulterated in Europe (especially at Bremen) with castor oil, copaiba, 
Canada turpentine, etc. (P. J. Tr., xii. 549) ; and a factitious substance has been sold in this 
country for the genuine Balsam, prepared by dissolving balsam of Tolu in alcohol. This may 
be distinguished by its taking fire readily and burning with a blue flame. (W. Y. Journ. of 
Pharm., i. 133.) The British Pharmacopoeia gives the following tests. “ 1 volume is soluble 
in 1 volume of alcohol (90 per cent.), but on the further addition of 2 or more volumes of the 
alcohol, the mixture becomes turbid. Specific gravity between 1-137 and 1-150. 10 drops 
triturated with 0 4 gramme of lime produce a permanently soft mixture (absence of copaiBa 
and resins) ; and this, on being warmed until all volatile matter is given off and until charring 
commences, gives no fatty odor (absence of castor oil and other fatty oils). It should not 
diminish in volume when shaken with an equal bulk of water (absence of ethylic alcohol). 
About 40 per cent, of resin should separate when one part of the Balsam is treated with three 
parts of carbon bisulphide; and the clear supernatant liquid should be of a pale brown color 
with only a slight fluorescence (absence of gurjun balsam). If 5 grammes of the Balsam be 
shaken with 5 cubic centimetres of a solution of sodium hydroxide of specific gravity 1-16, and 
then washed with three successive quantities, each of 15 cubic centimetres, of Purified Ether, 
and the Ether removed, the residue (after cautious drying until the loss, in two weighings at 5 
minutes’ interval, does not exceed one centigramme) should weigh between 2-85 and 3 
grammes. To this weighed residue 20 cubic centimetres of normal volumetric alcoholic solution 
of potassium hydroxide and 40 cubic centimetres of alcohol (90 per cent.) are to be added and 
the whole saponified under a reflux condenser for one hour. Thus treated, the residue above 
specified should combine with from 11-9 to 12 8 cubic centimetres of the normal volumetric 
alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide (presence of a sufficient proportion of cinnamein). 
The amount of uncombined alkali may be determined in the usual way by means of titra- 
tion with the volumetric solution of sulphuric acid." For additional tests, see Proc. A. P. A., 
1894. 903; also 1895, 866, and Drug. Circ., 1898, 60. A method of detecting castor oil, 
proposed by Dr. Wagner, is to expose a small portion of the suspected balsam to distillation 
until somewhat more than one-half has passed, to shake the distillate with baryta water, to Balsamum Peruvianum.—Balsamum Tolutanum. 
256 
PAET I. 
remove by means of a pipette the layer of oil floating on the surface, and to shake this with a 
concentrated solution of sodium bisulphite. If castor oil be present, the liquid will immediately 
become a crystalline mass. (A. J. P., xxx. 570.) The official tests of purity are as follows. 
“ Water agitated with a portion of the Balsam reddens blue litmus paper. If 1 C.c. of carbon 
disulphide be mixed with 3 C.c. of the Balsam, contained in a dry test-tube, a clear liquid will 
result. On now adding 8 more C.c. of carbon disulphide and agitating, the resinous constituent 
of the Balsam (amounting to about 15 per cent.) will adhere to the walls of the tube, and the 
liquid portion will be clear, of a tint not deeper than light brownish, and not more than faintly 
fluorescent (absence of gurjun balsam). If 2 C.c. of the Balsam be vigorously shaken, in a 
dry test-tube, with 8 C.c. of benzin, so that the Balsam may be spread over the walls of the 
tube, and the liquid then immediately poured off, the Balsam should remain adherent to the 
walls for some minutes and subside slowly, while the liquid (which should be filtered, if turbid) 
should be colorless or only faintly yellow, and should deposit no sediment on standing (absence 
of appreciable quantities of storax, turpentine, copaiba, etc.). If 10 drops of the Balsam be 
triturated, in a small mortar, with 20 drops of sulphuric acid, a tough, homogeneous, brownish- 
red mass will result, which, when washed with cold water, should, after a few minutes, be con- 
verted into a brittle, resinous mass (absence of fixed oils). On distilling water with a portion 
of the Balsam, no essential oil should pass over.” U. S. Prof. Fliickiger relies upon the specific 
gravity, which should be between 1-140 and 1-145, and the lime test, in which 10 drops of the 
balsam are shaken with 6 grains (0-4 Gm.) of slaked lime, forming, if there be no adulteration, 
a soft mixture, which does not harden. Grote's test consists in shaking 3 drops of balsam with 
2 C.c. of official ammonia water; if, after standing, the mixture solidifies, colophony or other 
adulterant is present: benzoin, storax, and certain other substances cannot be detected by this 
test. (A. J. P., 1881, 302, 361.) 
As stated by Trog and others, the percentage of cinnamein should approximate 60. The 
saponification number should be between 235 and 238. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This balsam is a warm stimulating stomachic and 
expectorant, and has been recommended in chronic catarrhs, certain forms of asthma, phthisis, 
and other pectoral complaints attended with debility. It has also been used in gonorrhoea, 
leucorrhoea, amenorrhoea, chronic rheumatism, and palsy. At present, however, it is little 
employed by American physicians. As an external application it has been found beneficial in 
chronic indolent idcers and in local tubermlosis of skin, bone, larynx, etc. The dose is half a 
fluidrachm (1-9 C.c.). It is best administered diffused in water with sugar and the yolk of 
egg or gum arabic, or in smaller doses dropped on a lump of sugar. When prescribed as an 
addition to expectorant mixtures, sufficient mucilage of acacia should be ordered with it to 
suspend it properly* 
BALSAMUM TOLUTANUM. U. S., Br. Balsam of Tolu. 
(BiL'SA-MUM TO-LU-TA'NUM.) 
“A balsam obtained from Toluifera Balsamum, Linne (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” U.S. “ A 
balsam obtained by making incisions in the trunk of Myroxylon Toluifera.” Br. 
Baume de Tolu, Baume de Carthagene, Fr.; Tolubalsam, G.; Balsamo del Tolu, It.; Balsamo de Tolu, Sp. 
Although Linnaeus described this tree as a distinct species, Ruiz, one of the authors of the 
Flora Peruviana, considered it identical with Myroxylon peruiferum ; but M. Achille Richard 
determined that it was distinct, and gave it the specific name of toluiferum, which was formerly 
adopted in both the Br. and U. S. Pharmacopoeias. Very properly, however, the revisers of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia have returned to the Linnaean name. 
The balsam is procured by making V-shaped incisions in the trunk quite through the bark. 
The juice is received in small calabash cups, which are inserted in slight excavations beneath 
the point of the two vertical incisions meeting at the lower end; and Mr. Weir has seen as 
many as twenty cups at a time on one tree. The collectors go from tree to tree, emptying the 
cups into flasks of raw hide. In these skin vessels the juice is taken to the different ports on 
the river, where it is transferred to tin cans. It is brought from Carthagena in calabashes or 
baked earthen jars, or in tin or glass vessels. 
Properties. As first imported, balsam of Tolu has a soft tenacious consistence, which 
varies considerably with the temperature. By age it becomes hard and brittle like resin. It 
is shining, translucent, of a reddish or yellowish brown color, a highly fragrant odor, and a 
* In the case of alleged fatal poisoning in a child six days old, reported by Dr. Lohaus (Therap. Monatsch., March, 
1892), it does not seem probable that the Peru balsam was the cause of the symptoms. PART I. 
Balsamuun Tolutanum. 
257 
warm, somewhat sweetish and pungent, but not disagreeable taste. Exposed to heat, it melts, 
inflames, and diffuses an agreeable odor while burning. It is entirely soluble in volatile oils. 
The official description of it is as follows. “ A yellowish-brown, semi-fluid or nearly solid mass, 
becoming more brittle when exposed to cold, transparent in thin layers, having an agreeable 
odor recalling that of vanilla, but distinct from it, and a mild, aromatic taste.” “ When 
pressed between pieces of glass with the aid of heat, it exhibits, when examined with a lens, 
an abundance of crystals.” Br. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia gives the following tests of' purity. 
“ Readily and completely soluble in alcohol, the solution showing an acid reaction with litmus 
paper. Also completely soluble in chloroform, and in solutions of the fixed alkalies; almost 
completely soluble in ether, but nearly insoluble in water, benzin, or carbon disulphide. Car- 
bon disulphide, aided by a gentle heat, removes from the Balsam scarcely anything but some 
of its cinnamic and benzoic acids. On decanting and evaporating the disulphide, no sub- 
stance having the properties of resin should remain.” “ It is soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.) 
and the solution has an acid reaction. If 5 grammes are gently warmed with two successive 
portions of 25 and 10 cubic centimetres of carbon bisulphide, the solution should yield, when 
evaporated to dryness, a distinctly crystalline residue which should require not less than one- 
third of its weight of potassium hydroxide for its saponification (presence of a sufficient pro- 
portion of benzoates and cinnamates).” Br. The latter test is based upon Braithwaite’s 
researches upon spurious balsams of Tolu. (See P. J. Tr., 1895, 145; also 1897, 307.) 
Boiling water extracts its acid. Distilled with water it affords a small proportion of volatile 
oil; and, if the heat be continued, an acid matter sublimes. Mr. Hatchett states that when 
dissolved in the smallest quantity of solution of potassa it loses its own characteristic odor and 
acquires that of the clove pink. G. L. Ulex gives as a test of the purity of the balsam, that 
if heated in sulphuric acid it dissolves without disengagement of sulphurous acid, and yields 
a cherry-red liquid. (Archiv der Pharm., Jan. 1853.) A modification of this test is that of 
R. A. Cripps (P. J. Tr., xix. 1888), who states that by a comparative test of the suspected 
balsam with a pure specimen 1 per cent, of storax or other resinous adulterant can be detected. 
Thirty grammes of the sample are digested in carbon disulphide for fifteen minutes with 
general warmth, the clear liquid decanted, evaporated to dryness, and dissolved in sulphuric 
acid. A bright-red rose color is produced, remaining rose for a length of time if the balsam 
be pure, rapidly becoming brown if the balsam have been adulterated. The balsam is a mixture 
of volatile oil, free acid, and resin. The volatile oil is obtained by distilling the balsam with 
water, and may amount to a little over 1 per cent. This oil is chiefly tolene, C10Hie, boiling at 
170° C. (338° F.), and rapidly hardening by absorption of oxygen from the air. The free 
acid, according to Deville and Scharling, consists of benzoic and cinnamic acids, which state- 
ment has been confirmed by Fliickiger. (Pharmacographia, 2d ed., 204.) Busse (Ber. Chem. 
Ges., 1876, 833) has shown, moreover, that the benzylic ethers of both cinnamic and benzoic 
acids are present in the balsam, the benzyl cinnamate in larger amount. 
According to Kopp, there are two resins in Tolu balsam, one easily soluble in alcohol, 
C18H1904, and another sparingly soluble, C18H2005. According to Deville, however, there is 
only one resin, that to which the second formula belongs. Trommsdorff obtained 88 per cent, 
of resin, 12 of acid, and only 0-2 of volatile oil. According to Mr. Heaver, the balsam yields 
by distillation about one-eighth of its weight of pure cinnamic acid. The acid distils over in 
the form of a heavy oil, which condenses into a white crystalline mass. It may be freed from 
empyreumatic oil by pressure in bibulous paper, and subsequent solution in boiling water, which 
deposits it in minute colorless crystals upon cooling. (A. J. P., xv. 77.) A later investigation 
by Oberlander shows that the resinous portion of the balsam consists of tolu-resino-tannol in 
combination with cinnamic and benzoic acids, the latter in small proportion only. The balsam 
contains, in addition, 7-5 per cent, of an aromatic, acid, oily liquid, composed mainly of benzyl 
benzoate, with a little benzyl cinnamate and a trace of vanillin. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1894, 599.) 
A factitious balsam described by Dr. R. Y. Mattison (A. J. P., 1876, 51) contained 63 per 
cent, of storax. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Balsam of Tolu is a feeble stimulant expectorant; the 
syrup of Tolu is much used, on account of its agreeable flavor, as the basis of cough-mixtures. 
Old and obstinate catarrhs are said to be sometimes greatly relieved by the inhalation of the 
vapor proceeding from an ethereal solution of this balsam. Dose, from ten to thirty grains 
(0-65-1-95 Gm.), frequently repeated. The best form of administration is that of emulsion, 
made by triturating the balsam with mucilage and loaf-sugar, and afterwards with water. 258 
Barii Dioxidum.—Barium. 
PART I. 
BARII DIOXIDUM. U. S. Barium Dioxide. [Barium Peroxide.] 
Ba 02; 168*82. (BA'BI-I Di-5x'l-DUM.) 
“ Commercial, anhydrous Barium Dioxide. It should be kept in well-closed vessels.” U S. 
This compound of barium is introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 for the first 
time. It is used solely for making hydrogen dioxide. Barium forms two oxides, BaO and 
Ba02: the former is produced by the action of oxygen or dry air on barium. Barium Dioxide, 
Ba02, is made by heating barium oxide to about 450° C., when it takes up another atom of 
oxygen. It is “ a heavy, grayish-white, or pale yellowish-white, amorphous, coarse powder, 
odorless and tasteless. When exposed to the air, it slowly attracts moisture and carbon dioxide, 
and is gradually decomposed. Almost insoluble in cold water, with which, however, it forms a 
definite hydrate, and to which it imparts a decidedly alkaline reaction. Hydrochloric, phos- 
phoric, and most other mineral acids decompose it, producing the corresponding barium salts, 
and hydrogen dioxide, which remains in solution for a considerable time, if the reaction have 
taken place in the cold, and an excess of the acid be present. When heated to a bright red 
heat, Barium Dioxide fuses, loses oxygen, and is reduced to barium oxide. Barium Dioxide 
should be dissolved by diluted hydrochloric or phosphoric acid without leaving more than a 
trace of residue. If 2*11 Gm. of Barium Dioxide be dissolved, as completely as possible, in 
ice-cold water to the volume of 25 C.c., with the aid of 7-5 C.c. of phosphoric acid, and 5 C.c. 
of this solution (corresponding to 0-422 Gm. of the Dioxide) be measured off for assay, it should 
require not less than 40 C.c. of potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric solution to impart 
to the liquid a permanent pink tint, corresponding to not less than 80 per cent, of pure Barium 
Dioxide (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 2 per cent, of the latter).” U. S. 
Barium Dioxide is not used medicinally. 
BARIUM. Barium. 
Ba; 136*8. (BA'KI-UM.) Ba; 136-8. 
This is the metal present in the earth baryta. It was first obtained in 1808 by Sir H. Davy, 
who described it as a difficultly fusible metal, of a silvery-gray color, decomposing water 
readily, and considerably heavier than sulphuric acid. When exposed to the air, it instantly 
becomes covered with a crust of baryta. Barium chloride and barium carbonate were formerly 
official. 
Baryta (or barium oxide) may be obtained from the native carbonate by intense ignition 
with carbonaceous matter, or from the native sulphate by ignition with charcoal, which con- 
verts it into barium sulphide, subsequent solution of the sulphide in nitric acid, and strong 
ignition of the nitrate formed, to dissipate the acid. As thus obtained, it is an anhydrous 
solid, caustic, alkaline, difficultly fusible, and of a grayish-white color. Its sp. gr. is about 4. 
It acts on the animal economy as a poison. When sprinkled with water it slakes like lime, 
becomes hot, and is reduced to the state of a white pulverulent hydrate. The same hydrate 
is formed in mass when the anhydrous earth is made into a paste with water and exposed to 
a red heat in a platinum crucible. The excess of water is expelled, and the hydrate, under- 
going fusion, may be poured out and allowed to congeal. Barium hydrate dissolves in water, 
and forms the reagent called baryta water. A boiling saturated solution, as it cools, yields 
crystals of barium hydrate containing eight molecules of water of crystallization. 
Baryta consists of one atom of barium and one of oxygen. Its chemical formula is, therefore. 
BaO. When barium oxide is heated in a current of oxygen or air, it takes up an atom of oxygen 
and is changed into barium dioxide, Ba02. When this is heated somewhat higher, it gives 
off" the extra atom of oxygen and becomes BaO again. This power of taking up oxygen from 
the air and giving it up at a somewhat higher heat is now utilized on a commercial scale in the 
Brin process for making oxygen, and it is found that this change from BaO to Ba02 and back 
again can be effected at one and the same temperature by simply heating first under pressure 
and then by exhausting and reducing below the normal atmospheric pressure. Barium dioxide 
is also of growing importance as the material from which hydrogen dioxide, H202, is made, and 
has been introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890. Barium carbonate, BaC03, is the 
native carbonate, a rare mineral, discovered in 1783 by Dr. Withering, in honor of whom it is 
called witherite. It is found in Sweden and Scotland, but most abundantly in the lead-mines 
of the north of England. It occurs usually in grayish, or pale yellowish-gray, fibrous masses, 
but sometimes crystallized. Its sp. gr. varies from 4-2 to 4-4. It is generally translucent, but 
sometimes opaque. It effervesces with acids, and, before the blow-pipe, melts into a white PART I. 
Barium.—Belladonnae Radix. 
259 
enamel without losing its carbonic acid. It is distinguished from strontium carbonate, with 
which it is most liable to be confounded, by its greater specific gravity, and by its yielding a 
light greenish rather than a reddish flame upon the burning of alcohol impregnated with its 
solution in hydrochloric acid. The presence of strontium is indicated by a reddish flame. 
When pure, barium carbonate is entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid. Any barium sulphate 
present is left undissolved. If neither ammonia nor hydrogen sulphide produces discoloration 
or a precipitate in the hydrochloric acid solution, the absence of aluminum, iron, copper, and 
lead is shown. Lime may be detected by adding an excess of sulphuric acid, which will throw 
down the baryta as a sulphate, and afterwards testing the clear liquid with sodium carbonate, 
which, if lime be present, will produce a precipitate of calcium carbonate. 
Barium carbonate acts as a poison on the animal economy. Its only pharmaceutical use is 
to prepare barium chloride. (For Barium Chloride and Barium Sulphate, see Part II.) 
BELLADONNA FOLIA. U. S., Br. Belladonna Leaves. 
(BEL-LA-DON'NiE FO'LI-A.) 
“ The leaves of Atropa Belladonna, Linn6 (nat. ord. Solanaceae).” U. S. “ The fresh leaves 
and branches of Atropa Belladonna, Linn., collected when the plant is in flower.” Br. 
Folia (s. Herba) Belladonnae; Feuilles de Belladone, Fr.j Tollkirschen-Blatter, Wolfskirschen-Blatter, Toll- 
kraut, G. 
BELLADONNA RADIX, U. S., Br. Belladonna Root. 
ra'dix.) 
“ The root of Atropa Belladonna, Linne (nat. ord. Solanaceae.)” U. S. “ The root of Atropa 
Belladonna, Linn., collected in the autumn, and dried.” Br. 
Kacine de Belladone, Belladone, Fr.; Gemeine Tollkirsche, Wolfskirsche, 
lollkirschen-Wurzel, Wolfskirschsn-Wurzel, G.; Belladonna, It.; Belladona, Bella- 
Jama, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla bell-shaped. Stamens distant. Berry globular, 
two-celled. WiUd. 
Atropa Belladonna. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1017 ; Carson, Illust. of 
Med. Bot. ii. 19, pi. lxv.; B. & T. 193. The belladonna, or deadly 
nightshade, is an herbaceous perennial, with a fleshy, creeping root, 
from which rise several erect, round, purplish, branching stems, to 
the height of about three feet. The leaves, which are attached by 
short footstalks to the stem, are in pairs of unequal size, oval, 
pointed, entire, of a dusky green on their upper surface, and paler 
beneath. The flowers are large, bell-shaped, pendent, of a dull 
reddish color, with solitary peduncles, rising from the axils of the 
leaves. The fruit is a roundish berry with a longitudinal furrow on 
each side, at first green, afterwards red, ultimately deep purple, 
slightly resembling a cherry, and containing, in two distinct cells, 
numerous seeds, and a sweetish violet-colored juice. The calyx 
adheres to the base of the fruit. 
The plant is a native of Europe, where it grows in shady places, along walls, and amidst 
rubbish, flowering in June and July, and ripening its fruit in September. It grows vigorously 
under cultivation in this country, and retains all its activity, as shown by the observations of 
Mr. Alfred Jones. (A. J. P., xxiv. 106.) All parts of it are active. The leaves and roots are 
directed by the United States and British Pharmacopoeias, the latter including the young 
branches, which are probably not less efficient. The leaves should be collected in June or July, 
when the plant is in flower, the roots in the autumn or early in the spring, and from plants 
three years old or more. Leaves which have been kept long should not be used, as they undergo 
change through absorption of atmospheric moisture, emitting ammonia, and probably losing a 
portion of their active nitrogenous matter. It has been affirmed that the finest-looking leaves 
are to be rejected, as probably being those of cultivated plants, and inferior in strength to the 
smaller and less sightly leaves of the wild plant. (A. J. P., xxvii. 455.) This is, however, 
probably an error, as the analyses made by Mr. A. W. Gerrard (P. J. Tr., xv. 153) show that 
while the wild belladonna plant contains a little more alkaloid than the cultivated, the differ- 
ence is not sufficient to be of material consequence. The same investigator found that the 
Belladonna Leaf. 1, epider- 
mis of the under side, with 
stomata and hair; 2, piece of 
a bundle of wood vessel; 3, 
parenchymatous tissue of leaf, 
showing raphides. Belladonnse Radix. 
260 
PART I. 
leaf yields the alkaloid most abundantly, the root, fruit, and stem being the next in order, and 
that the period of flowering, between two and four years of age, is the best time for collecting 
the plant. The dried leaves as they occur in the American market appear to vary remarkably 
in the percentage of alkaloid ; the best are fully equal to the finest English leaves. Specimens 
which contain much stem or are musty should always be rejected, as weak in active principle. 
Mr. Holmes has found in the English market the root of Medicago sativa used as an adulterant. 
(P. J. Tr., 1882.) 
Transverse section of Belladonna Root. 
Properties. “Leaves from 10 to 15 Cm. long, from 5 to 10 Cm. broad, broadly ovate, 
equilaterally narrowed into a petiole, tapering at the apex, entire on the margin, smooth, thin, 
the upper surface brownish-green, the lower surface grayish-green, both surfaces whitish punc- 
tate ; odor slight; taste bitterish, disagreeable.” U. S. 11 The transverse section of the leaf 
exhibits bi-collateral vascular bundles; the mesopliyll contains numerous cells filled with very 
minute crystals of calcium oxalate.” Br. The roots occur “ in cylindrical, somewhat taper- 
ing, longitudinally wrinkled pieces, 10 to 25 Mm. or more in thickness ; externally brownish 
gray, internally whitish; fracture nearly smooth and mealy, not radiating or showing medul- 
lary rays in the thicker roots, only in the layer near the bark ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweetish, 
afterwards bitterish and strongly acrid. Roots which are tough and woody, breaking with 
a splintery fracture, should be rejected; likewise the hollow stem-bases which are sometimes 
present.”* U. S. The bark of the belladonna root is thick, presenting immediately under 
* Scopolia. In 1771, Dr. John Anthony Scopoli, of the University of Pavia, described in the Flora Carniolica an 
Atropa from Idria. Three years later, Jacquin made this plant the type of the new genus Scopolia, and gave it the 
specific name of carniolica. Of this plant Koch made two species, one with green and the other with purple flowers, 
but the more recent botanists are in accord in believing that the green-flowered plant, the Scopolia hladnikiana of 
Koch, the Scopolia viridiflora of Rabenhorst, is not specifically distinct, there being, indeed, three varieties of S. 
carniolica, one with purple, one with green, and one with yellow flowers, the latter being the S. concolor of De Can- 
dolle : indeed, E. M. Holmes has shown that the root examined by Schmidt was probably from a plant with yellow 
’ flowers, and therefore the concolor of De Candolle. Scopolia atropoides has also been described by Nevinny. 
(Pharm. Post, 1894, 333, 349, 357.) 
The genus Scopolia (often spelled Scopola) is the connecting link between Atropa and Hyoscyamus, resembling 
Atropa in leaf and flower and in the microscopical charactor of its rhizome, but differing in that its fruit is not a 
berry and in the inflation of its calyx. The Japanese plant, S. japonica, is so closely allied to S. carniolica that its 
specific distinctness is very doubtful; it has been separated upon the characters of the style being curved, the calyx- 
teeth unequal, and the leaves less obovate and having much longer petioles than S. carniolica ; but Holmes has 
shown that the curved style occurs in S. carniolica. Scopolia carniolica is a common plant in Bavaria, Austro- 
Hungary, and southwestern Russia, usually in the hilly districts, where it grows in damp, stony places. Its 
general appearance is that of the belladonna, but it is much shorter, rarely growing above a foot in height, has 
thinner leaves, and is especially distinguished by its fruit being a transversely dehiscent capsule and by the presence 
of a distinct rhizome. The latter occurs in commerce either entire or longitudinally split in half, in pieces from 
two to five inches in length and from one-third to three-fourths or even one inch in diameter; of a grayish-brown 
color, very irregular in shape, often much bent or twisted, the whole surface usually covered thickly with the 
broad, subcircular, deeply-hollowed-out, projecting scars of the stems of successive seasons, and finely and coarsely 
wrinkled longitudinally and transversely. The section is whitish and distinctly starchy in appearance. The texture 
is hard, but somewhat brittle. The taste is slightly bitter, and disagreeable. PART I. 
Belladonnse Radix. 
261 
the epidermis a dark line composed of from six to eight layers of tabular cells. The bark 
itself is composed entirely of parenchymatous cells, more or less filled with muller-shaped 
starch grains, which are often united in the cells into compound grains. Bundles of raphides, 
probably of calcium oxalate, are usually very evident. As to the relative strength of these two 
parts, M. Hirtz, of Strasburg, inferred from his experiments that the root yields an extract 
five times stronger than that obtained from the leaves, but did not determine the relative yield 
of extract; whilst Lefort obtained from young roots 0-6, from old roots 0-25, and from dried 
leaves 0-44 per cent, of atropine; and DragendorfF obtained 0-66 from dried leaves, and 0-4 
per cent, from the roots. (Jahresb., 1874, p. 96.) Both the leaves and root, as well as all other 
parts of the plant, impart their active properties to water and alcohol. Brandes rendered it 
probable that these properties reside in a peculiar alkaline principle which he supposed to exist 
in the plant combined with an excess of malic acid and appropriately named atropine. Besides 
atropine malate, Brandes found in the dried herb two principles, a green resin (chlorophyll), 
wax, gum, starch, albumen, lignin, and various salts. The alkaloid principle was first, however, 
procured in a state of purity by Mein, a German apothecary, who extracted it from the root* 
Ladenburg (1879—1884) exhaustively studied the several sources of atropine and the allied 
alkaloids that exert a mydriatic action, and found that there are three alkaloids, atropine, hyos- 
cyamine, and hyoscine, which possess the common formula C17H23N03, and in belladonna root, 
belladonine, C17H23N04. Of these, atropine occurs in the Atropa belladonna and in Datura 
stramonium, hyoscyamine in these plants and also in Hyoscyamus niger and Duboisia myopo- 
roides ; hyoscine is found in Hyoscyamus niger alone, and belladonine in belladonna root alone. 
The first of the alkaloids of the formula C17H23N03, atropine, fuses at 114° C.-1150 C. 
(237-2° F.-239° F.), and forms a double gold chloride, fusing at 135° C.-137° C. (275° F.- 
278-6° F.); the second, the alkaloid known under the several names of hyoscyamine, daturine, 
and duboisine, fuses at 108-5° C. (227-5° F.), and yields a gold salt, fusing at 160° C.-162° C. 
(320° F.-323-6° F.) ; and the third, hyoscine, obtained as yet only in the form of a syrup, but 
forming a crystalline gold salt, which fuses at 198° 0.-200° C. (388-4° F.-392° F.), and is less 
soluble than the hyoscyamine gold salt. In Duboisia myoporoides (see Part II.) the only alka- 
loid present seems to be the second of these, and the complete identity of it with the purified 
alkaloid of hyoscyamus has been established by Ladenburg, both by analysis of the free alkaloid 
and its salts, and by study of the action of different reagents upon it.f Hyoscyamine is more 
soluble in water and dilute alcohol than atropine, and, as already stated, forms a gold salt of 
different fusing point. Its decomposition products under the influence of caustic baryta or 
hydrochloric acid are the same as those of atropine,—viz., tropine and tropic acid. Begnauld 
The Japanese rhizome is from two to six inches long, about one-half inch in diameter, rarely branched, cylin- 
drical or slightly compressed, knotty, bent, with circular disk-like scars, of a pale brown color, not whitish when 
abraded, with a slightly mousy, narcotic odor, and a taste nearly free from bitterness. According to Mr. Thos. 
Greenish, the microscopical characteristics of the rhizome of Scopolia carniolica are very similar to those of bella- 
donna root, the chief differences being that the bark is less thick, the dark line under the epidermis narrower, the 
vascular bundles neither so large nor so numerous, and the bundles of raphides less pronounced; the starch grains 
are also smaller and their shape less distinct. The structure of the rhizome of S. japonica was found to he the same 
as that of the European species. 
Chemistry. The alkaloid scopolamine (or scopoleine), C17H21NO4, has been found to be the characteristic constitu- 
ent of the root, but is also found in small quantities in belladonna root, stramonium seeds, and Duboisia myoporoides. 
Prof. E. Schmidt considers scopolamine to be identical with hyoscine. (Archie d. Charm., 1892, 206-232.) Scopo- 
lamine forms permanent transparent crystals of the formula C17H21NO4 -f- H2O, melting at 59° C. to a colorless liquid. 
The double gold chloride melts at from 212°-214° C. Scopolamine is decomposed by baryta into scopoline, C8II13NO2, 
a crystalline base, melting at 110° C., and atropic acid, C9H8O2. Commercial hyoscine hydrobromide is said by 
E. Schmidt often to consist almost entirely of scopolamine hydrobromide, and Hesse has considered the two bases as 
identical. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1894, 409.) Dr. 0. Hesse examined commercial scopolamine hydrochloride, and found 
it to consist of salts of two bases, hyoscine and atroscine. (P. J. Tr., 1896, 289.) Schmidt, continuing his investi- 
gations, proves that hyoscine is a mixture of scopolamine and some other body, and believes Hesse’s atroscine to be 
optically inactive scopolamine. He doubts the existence of hyoscine as a distinct body. (Apoth. Zeit., 1896.) Mr. 
Seward W. Williams states, as the result of the assay of many tons of the root of Atropa belladonna and of the 
rhizome of Scopolia, each of the best qualities occurring in the American market, that whilst the belladonna root 
yields on an average 0-50 per cent, of alkaloid, the scopolia yields 0‘58 per cent. 
Medical Properties. The physiological and medical properties of the scopolia rhizome are undoubtedly very 
similar to those of belladonna. If, as seems scarcely probable, the observation of Sir Dyce Duckworth, that sco- 
polia is less apt than belladonna to dry the mouth and dilate the pupils when given internally, be confirmed, the 
drug may be more useful than the belladonna itself. At present scopolia rhizome is used very largely in America 
for the making of belladonna plasters, and probably also for the manufacture of atropine. 
* It is probable that the state of growth affects the alkaloidal contents of belladonna roots, for, according to the 
researches of Prof. Schmidt (Pharm,. Zeit., Sept. 1889), roots one year old contained free atropin', with hyoscyamine, 
but in fresh old roots only hyoscyamine was present. 
t Ladenburg collected additional facts and embodied them in a valuable historical sketch of these researches in 
the Annalen. (See A. J. P., 1883, 463; 1884, 206.) 262 
Belladonnse Radix. 
PART I. 
and Valmont have confirmed Ladenburg’s results as far as atropine and hyoscyamine are con- 
cerned. (A. J. P., Dec. 1881, 610.) Hiibschmann (Schweiz. Zeits. Pharm., 1858, 123) and 
Kraut (Ann. der Ch. und Pharm., 148, 236) both described, under the name of belladonine, 
a second alkaloid extracted from belladonna. This belladonine and another alkaloid, atropa- 
mine, found at times in belladonna root, and obtained from the by-products of the manufacture 
of atropine, possess the formula C17H21N02, and are considered as anhydro-atropines. Both 
bases form varnish-like masses. Merck has isolated a base isomeric with Hesse’s atropamine, 
which has been termed apoatropine, the salts of which are easily crystallizable. He asserts 
that atropamine and apoatropine are identical. Hesse, on the other hand, denies this assertion. 
(Ann. d. Chem., 271, 10.) For the mode of preparing atropine, and its properties, see the 
article Atrophia. Dunstan and Ransom have devised processes for isolating the alkaloids from 
the root and leaves which they assert are simple and accurate. (See A. J. P., 1884, 277 ; 
Proc. A. P. A., 1886, 392.) A. W. Adams states that only 53 per cent, of the atropine in 
belladonna leaves can be separated by these processes. (Am. Drug., 1891, 328.) For other 
assays of belladonna leaves and root, see Schwickerath. (Pharm. Rund., 1893, 282.) The 
British Pharmacopoeia has adopted a process of assay for these alkaloids. (See Extractum 
Belladonnas Liquidum.) 
The imported belladonna, especially that from Germany, is occasionally adulterated. (See 
15th edition U. S. D., page 284.) W. Will published (Archiv f. Physiolog.) in 1888 the results 
of an investigation undertaken at the request of the Schering manufactory to determine why 
the proportion of hyoscyamine and atropine in a root seems to vary with the method of working, 
and reached the surprising conclusion that hyoscyamine can be changed into atropine under a 
variety of circumstances, such as fusion, action of weak soda solution (even at ordinary tem- 
peratures), and of ammonia. The change of the optical activity of the hyoscyamine into the 
inactive atropine, the alteration of fusing point in the two alkaloids, and of their double gold 
chloride salts, all confirm the results of the investigation. (Ber. der Chem. Ges., 1888, p. 1717.) 
These results were also confirmed by Schmidt. They were at first doubted by Ladenburg, but 
seem now to be admitted, the two alkaloids being stereo-isomeric, and capable of such change. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The action of belladonna upon the system is that of 
atropine. (See page 246.) All parts of the plant are poisonous. It is not uncommon, in 
countries where it grows wild, for children to pick and eat the berries, allured by their fine 
color and sweet taste. Soon after the poison has been swallowed, its peculiar influence is ex- 
perienced in dryness of the mouth and fauces, burning in the throat and stomach, great thirst, 
difficult deglutition, nausea and ineffectual retching, loss of vision, vertigo, and intoxication 
or delirium, with violent gestures and sometimes fits of laughter, followed by coma. A feeble 
pulse, cold extremities, subsultus tendinum, deep coma or delirium, and sometimes convul- 
sions, precede death. To obviate the poisonous influence of the belladonna the most effect- 
ual method is to evacuate the stomach as speedily as possible, by means of emetics or the 
stomach-pump, and afterwards to cleanse the bowels by purgatives and enemata. The infusion 
of galls may be serviceable as an antidote. Both morphine and pilocarpine are to some extent 
physiologically antagonistic to atropine, and have been found very useful in belladonna poison- 
ing. (See Brit. Med. Journ., Feb. 1890.) They should be given hypodermically. 
Belladonna has been used as a medicine from early times. The leaves were first employed 
externally to discuss scirrhous tumors and heal cancerous and other ill-conditioned ulcers, and 
were afterwards administered internally for the same purpose. Belladonna has acquired con- 
siderable credit as a preventive of scarlatina,—an application of the remedy first suggested by 
the author of the homoeopathic doctrine,—but it is absolutely devoid of any such power. For 
further information, see Atropine. 
The extract is much used locally. Rubbed upon the areola of the breast, it has been found 
to arrest the secretion of milk; and upon the abdomen, to relieve the vomiting of pregnancy, 
and other irritations sympathetic with the gravid uterus. In cardiac diseases the plaster is 
often applied with advantage over the heart. The decoction or extract, applied to the neck 
of the uterus, is asserted to have hastened tedious labor dependent on rigidity of the os tincae; 
and spasmodic stricture of the urethra, neck of the bladder, and sphincter ani, anal fissures, and 
painful uterine affections, have been relieved by the local use of the extract, either smeared 
upon bougies or administered by injection. In the latter mode it lias relieved strangulated 
hernia. It is asserted also to be useful in paraphimosis. The inhalation of the vapor from a 
decoction of the leaves or extract has been recommended in spasmodic asthma. For this pur- 
pose, two drachms of the leaves, or fifteen grains of the aqueous extract, are employed to the PART I. 
Benzinum.—Benzoinum. 
263 
pint of water. A much better plan is to smoke the dried leaves, either in the form of a cigar- 
ette or in a pipe. Belief is said to have been obtained in phthisis by smoking the leaves, 
infused when fresh in a strong solution of opium, and then dried. 
Belladonna should never be given in substance, but in the form of extract or tincture, or, 
when accuracy or quickness of action is desired, of atropine. (See Atropine.) 
BENZINUM. U.S. Benzin. [Petroleum Benzin. Petroleum Ether.] 
(BEN-ZI'NUM.) 
“ A purified distillate from American petroleum, consisting of hydrocarbons, chiefly of the 
marsh-gas series [C6H12, CeH14, and homologous compounds]. Benzin should be carefully 
kept in well-stoppered bottles or tin cans, in a cool place, remote from lights or fire.” U. S. 
This useful product of petroleum was first introduced in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 ; 
it is obtained in the process of purifying petroleum by fractional distillation (see Petroleum, 
Part II.), and it is defined in the Pharmacopoeia as “ a transparent, colorless, diffusive liquid, 
of a strong, characteristic odor, slightly resembling that of petroleum, but much less disagree- 
able, and having a neutral reaction. Specific gravity, 0-670 to 0-675 at 15° C. (59° F.). 
Boiling point, 50° to 60° C. (122° to 140° F.). Insoluble in water; soluble in about 6 parts 
of alcohol, and readily soluble in ether, chloroform, benzol, and fixed and volatile oils. Benzin 
is highly inflammable, and its vapor, when mixed with air and ignited, explodes violently. On 
evaporating Benzin from the hand, it should leave no odor, and on evaporating it from a warmed 
dish, it should leave no residue (absence of heavy hydrocarbons). When it is boiled for a few 
minutes with one-fourth its volume of spirit of ammonia, and a few drops of silver nitrate 
test-solution, the ammoniacal liquid should not turn brown (absence of pyrogenous products and 
sidphur compounds). If 5 drops of Benzin be added to a mixture of 40 drops of sulphuric 
and 10 drops of nitric acid, in a test-tube, the liquid warmed for about ten minutes, and then 
set aside for half an hour, on diluting it, in a shallow dish, with water, it should not evolve 
the bitter-almond-like odor of nitro-benzol (difference from, and absence of, benzol)." U. S. 
Petroleum benzin must be carefully distinguished from benzol (now generally called benzene 
by chemists, and official in the British Pharmacopoeia), a product derived from coal tar (see 
Benzol). Although the Pharmacopoeia gives a test to distinguish an admixture with benzol, 
this adulteration of benzin is hardly likely to take place here in the near future, because of the 
great difference in price. The principal consumption of benzin at present is in the arts as a 
solvent, especially as a substitute for oil of turpentine, which it resembles very much in its solvent 
properties. In pharmacy it has been used: to deprive powdered drugs of their fixed oil by 
percolation (see Charta Sinapis) ; to obtain volatile oils by percolating the oily drug with the 
benzin and subsequently evaporating the mixture spontaneously; as a substitute for ether in 
making oleoresins ; and for many other purposes to which it is adapted on account of its powers 
as a solvent. Benzin is a good solvent for fats, resins, rubber, and some of the alkaloids. 
Dragendorff recommends the rectification of benzin by fractional distillation from lard, col- 
lecting the portion which distils below 45° C. We have found petrolatum to be efficient in 
retaining the impurities in the still.* Other methods of deodorizing benzin have been used, 
such as agitating it with fresh portions of mercury, allowing it to stand for two days, de- 
canting and rectifying; agitating the benzin with sodium plumbate and rectifying; digesting 
litharge in a strong solution of soda and shaking the benzin with the mixture; agitation with 
animal charcoal and decantation. 
BENZOINUM. U. S., Br. Benzoin. 
(BEN-ZO-I'NUM.) 
“ A balsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin, Dryander (nat. ord. Styraceae).” U. S. 
“ A balsamic resin obtained from Styrax Benzoin, Dryand., and probably from other species of 
Styrax, Linn. Known in commerce as Siam and Sumatra benzoin.” Br. 
Benzoe, P.G.; Resina Benzoe, Asa Dulcis; Gum Benjamin; Benjoin, Fr.j Benzoe, G.; Belzoino, It.; Benjui, Sp. 
* Geo. M. Beringer {A. J. P., 1890, p. 6) has found the following process useful for rapidly purifying benzin. 
Take of Potassium Permanganate, 1 ounce av.; Sulphuric Acid, J pint; Water, 3£ pints. Mix the acid and water, 
and when the mixture has become cold, pour it into a two-gallon bottle. Add the permanganate and agitate until 
it is dissolved. Then add Benzin, 1 gallon, and thoroughly agitate. Allow the liquids to remain in contact for 24 
hours, frequently agitating the mixture. Separate the benzin and wash in a similar bottle with a mixture of Potas- 
sium Permanganate, J ounce av.; Soda, ounce av.; Water, 2 pints. Agitate the mixture frequently during several 
hours. Then separate the benzin and wash it thoroughly with water. The quantity of permanganate necessary is 
in direct proportion to the impurities existing in the benzin. 264 
Benzoinum. 
PART I. 
The botanical source of benzoin was long uncertain. At one time it was generally supposed 
in Europe to be derived from the Lauras benzoin of this country. This error was corrected 
by Linnaeus, who, however, committed another in ascribing the drug to Groton benzoe, a shrub 
which he afterwards described under the name of Terminalia benzoin. Mr. Dryander was the 
first who ascertained the true benzoin-tree to be a Styrax. (Lond. Phil. Trans., lxxvii.) 
Gen. Ch. Calyx inferior. Corolla funnel-shaped. Drupe two-seeded. Willd. 
Styrax benzoin. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 623; B. & T. 169. This is a tall tree of quick 
growth, sending off many strong round branches, covered with a whitish downy bark. Its 
leaves are alternate, entire, oblong, pointed, smooth above, and downy beneath. The flowers 
are in compound, axillary clusters, nearly as long as the leaves, and usually hang, all on the 
same side, upon short slender pedicels. 
The benzoin- or benjamin-tree is a native of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Laos, and Siam. By 
wounding the bark near the origin of the lower branches, a juice exudes, which hardens upon 
exposure and forms the benzoin of commerce. According to the researches of A. Tschirch 
(Journ. Roy. Microscop. Soc., 1890), the exudation is purely the result of pathological processes, 
the plant containing no resin-receptacles. The trees, which are either wild or cultivated, are 
deemed of a proper age to be wounded at six years, when the trunks are usually about seven 
or eight inches in diameter. The operation is performed annually, and the product on each 
occasion from one tree never exceeds three pounds. The juice which first flows is the purest, 
and affords the whitest and most fragrant benzoin. It is exported chiefly from Bangkok in 
Siam, and Acheen in Sumatra. Siam benzoin is usually imported in cubical blocks, which take 
their form from the wooden boxes in which the soft resin has been packed. It is brittle, with 
a peculiar, vanilla-like fragrance, but bitter taste. It may be a compact mass, containing more 
or less numerous opaque white tears embedded in a rich amber-colored translucent resin, mixed 
to a greater or less extent with bits of bark, wood, etc. In some specimens these tears are 
exceedingly small, in others almost wanting. The finest variety is composed almost entirely of 
these tears, loosely agglutinated together. The tree which yields the Siam benzoin is stated to 
grow in an extremely circumscribed locality, on the bank of the river Mek-hong, occurring on 
high ground in clusters of from fifty to sixty trees. According to E. M. Holmes, its leaves 
are thinner and less distinctly venated than are those of the true Styrax Benzoin. In July and 
August the Siam trees are notched, and from, these notches three months later the hardened 
benzoin is picked out. (See Kew Bulletin, 1895.) Sumatra benzoin differs from the Siam in 
having a much grayer color; the resin is grayish brown, the tears are usually fewer than in 
the finer variety, and the bits of wood, etc., more abundant. The odor differs from, and is 
less agreeable than, that of Siam benzoin. Palcmbang benzoin resembles Sumatra benzoin, 
but is somewhat more transparent, and is stated to yield a larger percentage of benzoic acid. 
It is also asserted that it can be distinguished by its tincture when dropped into water, not 
producing milkiness, but a flocculent deposit.* Penang benzoin also resembles Sumatra benzoin, 
but has an odor which is more like that of storax, and it is probably not yielded by the Styrax 
benzoin; possibly it is the product of one of the Sumatran species, S. subdenticulata. and S. 
porterianum. For an account of the cultivation and collection of benzoin in Sumatra, by Mr. L. 
M. Vonck, see Cliem. and Drug., 1891, 486-488 ; also Drug. Circ. and Chem. Gaz., 1891, 258. 
Liidy made an investigation of the bark and wood of a benzoin tree brought from Java by 
Prof. Tschirch. He reached the conclusion that benzoin balsam was produced from the 
tannin of the bark. (Arch. d. Pharm., 1893, 43, 95.) 
Properties. Benzoin has a fragrant odor, with very little taste, but when chewed for 
some time leaves a sense of irritation in the mouth and fauces. It breaks with a resinous 
fracture, and presents a mottled surface of white and brown or reddish brown ; the white spots 
being smooth and shining, while the remainder, though sometimes shining and even translucent, 
is usually more or less rough and porous, and often exhibits impurities. In the inferior kinds 
the white spots are very few, or entirely wanting. Benzoin is easily pulverized, and, in the 
process of being powdered, is apt to excite sneezing. Its sp. gr. is from 1-063 to 1-092. “ In 
lumps consisting of agglutinated, yellowish-brown tears, which are internally milk-white, or in 
the form of a reddish-brown mass, more or less mottled from whitish tears embedded in it. It 
is almost wholly soluble in 5 parts of moderately warm alcohol, and in solutions of the fixed 
alkalies. When heated, it gives off fumes of benzoic acid. It has an agreeable, balsamic 
* A factitious substance has been sold in our markets for benzoin, consisting of chips of wood agglutinated 
by a resinous substance, with no benzoic acid, and with only a trace of cinnamic acid. (J. M Maisch A J P 
xxxv. 494.) a PAET I. 
Benzoinum. 
265 
odor, and a slight, aromatic taste.” U. S. “ It is almost entirely soluble in alcohol ( 90 per 
cent.) and in solution of potassium hydroxide." Br. When heated it melts, and emits thick, 
white, pungent fumes which excite cough when inhaled, and consist chiefly of benzoic acid. 
It is wholly soluble, with the exception of impurities, in alcohol, and is precipitated by water 
from the solution, rendering the liquor milky. It imparts to boiling water a notable propor- 
tion of benzoic acid. Lime water and the alkaline solutions partially dissolve it, forming 
benzoates, from which the acid may be precipitated by the addition of other acids. Its chief 
constituents are resin and benzoic acid ; and it therefore belongs to the balsams. The white 
tears and the brownish connecting medium are said by Stolze to contain nearly the same pro- 
portion of acid, which, according to Bucholz, is 12-5 per cent., to Stolze, 19-8 per cent. In a 
more recent examination by Kopp, the white tears were found to contain from 8 to 10 per cent, 
of acid, and the brown 15 per cent. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e s£r., iv. 46.) The resin is of three 
kinds, one extracted with the benzoic acid by a boiling solution of potassium carbonate in 
excess, another dissolved by ether from the residue, and the third affected by neither of these 
solvents. Besides benzoic acid and resin, the balsam contains a little extractive and traces of 
volatile oil. Benzoin retards the oxidation of fatty matters, and thus tends to prevent rancidity. 
It appears from recent researches that benzoin, besides its own characteristic acid, often con- 
tains also cinnamic acid, which is found more especially in the white tears. Indeed, Hermann 
Aschoff obtained from some benzoin of Sumatra a pure cinnamic acid, without any benzoic ; 
and Messrs. Kolbe and Lautermann, upon examining a specimen of the tears, discovered what 
they at first supposed to be a peculiar acid, but which on further investigation proved to be 
a mixture of cinnamic and benzoic acids. H. Beckurts and W. Brueche confirm the state- 
ment that Siam benzoin contains no cinnamic acid, which is usually present in Sumatra benzoin. 
They found the specific gravity from 1-120 to 1-171; ash from 0-05 to 2-38 per cent.; portion 
insoluble in alcohol from 2-1 to 9 per cent. On the other hand, Liidy (Archiv d. Pharm., 
1893, 500) extracted benzoic acid from Siam benzoin by the wet process. He found Sumatra 
benzoin to contain esters which yielded by saponification 32-9 per cent, of cinnamic acid, the 
proportion of esters being benzoresiuol cinnamate, 7-4 per cent., and resinotannol cinnamate, 92-6 
per cent.; at least 75 per cent, of Sumatra benzoin consisting of cinnamates yielding from 20 to 
24 per cent, of cinnamic acid. (See also Archied. Pharm., 1893, 461 ; A. J. P., 1893, 223 ; and 
Journ. de Pharm. et de Oliim , 1894, 172.) Benzoin may be rapidly tested for cinnamic acid by 
heating a small quantity with a little soda and water and warming the filtrate with potassium 
permanganate, when the odor of bitter almonds will be developed. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1892, 
ccxxx.) Aschoff recommends the following method of detecting cinnamic add. Boil the ben- 
zoin with milk of lime, filter, decompose with hydrochloric acid, and add either potassium bi- 
chromate with sulphuric acid, or potassium permanganate, when, if cinnamic acid be present, the 
odor of oil of bitter almond will be perceived. The two acids, which when they occur together 
in benzoin are said to be always mixed in equal proportion, may be at least partially separated 
by simple crystallization ; their melting points being very different, that of benzoic acid 121° C. 
(249° F.), and that of the mixed acid, consisting of one part of the cinnamic and two of the 
benzoic, only 25-5° C. (78° F.). (P'. J. Tr., 1863, p. 77.) According to Mr. A. C. Curtis, cinna- 
mein may be obtained by boiling benzoin with twice its bulk of lime in forty parts of water for 
fifteen or twenty minutes, filtering, cooling, adding hydrochloric acid, washing the precipitate, 
and recrystallizing from water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. (A. J. P., 1872, p. 486.) 
Rump (1878) treated Siam benzoin with caustic lime, precipitated the benzoic acid with 
hydrochloric acid, and agitated the liquid with ether. The latter on evaporating afforded a 
mixture of benzoic acid and vanillin, C8H80a. Subjected to dry distillation, benzoin affords as 
chief product benzoic acid, together with empyreumatic products, among which Berthelot has 
proved the presence (in Siam benzoin) of styrol, C8H8. The latter was also obtained in 1874 
by Theegarten from Sumatra benzoin by distilling it with water. (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 1874, 
p. 727.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Benzoin is stimulant and expectorant, and was for- 
merly employed in pectoral affections; but, except as an ingredient of the compound tincture 
of benzoin, it has fallen into disuse. Trousseau and Pidoux recommend strongly its inhalation 
in chronic laryngitis. Either the air of the chamber may be impregnated with its vapor by 
placing a small portion upon some live coals, or the patient may inhale the vapor of boiling 
water to which the balsam has been added. It is employed in pharmacy for the preparation 
of benzoic acid (see Acidum Benzoicum) ; and the milky liquor resulting from the addition of 
water to its alcoholic solution is sometimes used as a cosmetic, under the impression that it 266 
Benzol. 
PART I. 
renders the skin soft. A tincture has been strongly recommended in anal fissure. In the East 
Indies, the balsam is burnt by the Hindoos as a perfume in their temples.* 
BENZOL. Br. Benzol. 
(ben'zOl.) 
C6H6; 77-82. 
11 A mixture of homologous hydrocarbons obtained from light coal-tar oil. It contains about 
70 per cent, of benzene, CeIIe, and 20 to 30 per cent, of toluene, CeH6,CH3.” Br. 
Benzene, Benzole, Phenyl Hydride, Benzen. 
This substance must not be confounded with the commercial article sold as benzin, which is 
a mixture of various hydrocarbons of light specific gravity, obtained in the distillation of 
petroleum. (See Benzinum.) Originally the two names benzol and benzin were applied to the 
same substance, but after the discovery of petroleum it was found that the liquid obtained 
by distillation from coal tar was quite different from that obtained from petroleum. Little 
by little in the United States it has become the custom to call the liquid obtained by the 
fractional distillation of petroleum having the specific gravity 0*724 to 0*735 benzin. It is 
unfortunate that in Europe, and on the Continent especially, the term benzin is used for both 
liquids. The two substances are essentially different, although resembling each other in their 
solvent powers. Benzol is a definite hydrocarbon of fixed constitution; benzin a complex 
body of varying constitution. Benzol can be frozen; benzin has never yet been congealed. 
Benzin boils at from 54° C. (129*2° F.) to 56° C. (132*8° F.). Benzol can be converted into 
nitro-benzol, and by further treatment into aniline colors; benzin cannot. When benzin is 
shaken in the cold with one-third of its volume of fused crystals of absolute carbolic acid, the 
latter remains undissolved, whilst benzol is miscible with absolute carbolic acid in all propor- 
tions. (Allen.) According to Pusch, benzol can be distinguished from benzin by the fact that 
benzol forms a violet-red and benzin a raspberry-colored solution with iodine. (A. J. P., xlvii. 
268.) Although the term Benzene is given above as one of the synonymes of Benzol, its use 
abroad is gradually becoming limited to the pure hydrocarbon, C6II6, whilst Benzol is applied 
to the mixture of benzene with its homologues Totuene, Paraxylene, Metaxylene, Mesitylene, 
Pseudo-cumene, etc. 
Benzol was discovered by Faraday in the condensed liquid from oil gas, and was next 
obtained by Mitscherlich by distilling benzoic acid with lime. It was afterwards discovered by 
Hofmann as a constituent of coal-gas tar. This tar, when distilled, furnishes coal-naphtha or 
light oil of tar, a complex substance, containing a number of hydrocarbons, among which is 
benzol. Upon distilling this naphtha from a metallic still, surmounted by an open vessel filled 
with water, and containing a worm terminating in a refrigerated receiver, the benzol will pass 
over and condense in the receiver; while the other substances associated with it, having higher 
boiling points, will condense in the worm and fall back into the still. The benzol is then 
purified by distillation at a heat between 80° C. (176° F.) and 90° C. (194° F.), and by sub- 
jecting the product to a new distillation from one-fourth of its volume of sulphuric acid. M. 
E. Kopp purifies benzol by taking advantage of its high congealing point. He exposes the 
impure mixture containing it to a degree of cold sufficient to solidify it (—15° C. or 5° F.), 
presses the congealed mass to separate the liquid hydrocarbons, allows it to become fluid, then 
again freezes and presses it, and thus obtains it almost entirely pure. He obtains the impure 
mixture containing the benzol by decomposing the heavier tar oils by a high degree of heat. 
(Chem. Mews, May 14, 1864, p. 229.) 
Prof. Calvert, of Manchester, purifies coal-naphtha, so as to render it a sufficiently pure 
* A styptic liquid, prepared by a Roman pharmaceutist named Pagliari, and kept secret for a time, has acquired 
some reputation among the French army surgeons. It is made by boiling, for six hours, eight ounces of tincture of 
benzoin (containing about two ounces of the balsam), a pound of alum, and ten pounds of water, in a glazed earthen 
vessel, stirring constantly, and supplying the loss with hot water. The liquor is then strained and kept in stopped 
bottles. It is limpid, styptic, of an aromatic smell, and said to have the property of causing an instantaneous 
coagulation of the blood. (See Am. Journ. Med. Set., N. S., xxv. 199.) M. Meyer, believing that the long boiling 
is injurious, if in no other way, by dissipating the benzoic acid, proposes to dispense with it, and has substituted 
the following formula, which furnishes a product always identical. Take tears of benzoin, 6 grammes (about 3iss)> 
alcohol at 90° C. 15 grammes; dissolve, and add of water 300 grammes, alum 30 grammes; mix, and boil till the 
liquid becomes clear. The liquid should mark 6° on the hydrometer. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e ser., v. 123.) 
Benzoin Alumina Cotton is recommended by Giulio Morpurgo as an efficient haemostatic which does not stain the 
clothing. It is made by boiling solution of aluminum acetate with benzoin, straining, and at once impregnating the 
cotton. The prepared cotton is white and has a very pleasant odor; a considerable quantity of finely divided benzoin 
is separated upon the fibres, assisting by a mechanical action the astringent properties of the alumina. (Pharm. Post, 
1893.) PART I. 
Benzol. 
267 
benzol to be usefully applied to the purpose of removing fatty and oily matters from animal 
and vegetable substances, by subjecting it to the action of sulphuric acid, added in small 
quantities, so long as coloration is produced, then washing it with pure water, and afterwards 
subjecting it to distillation in an ordinary still. The sulphuric acid combines with the less 
volatile hydrocarbons present, which interfere with the solvent power of the benzol. 
Prolonged treatment with sulphuric acid is also necessary to free the benzol from thiophene, 
C4H4S, an impurity which to the extent of about 0-6 per cent, is always present in commercial 
benzol. Its complete removal from the benzol is to be tested for by the indophenin reaction 
(blue coloration in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid and a small quantity of isatine). 
In consequence of the great volatility and extreme inflammability of benzol and its attend- 
ant hydrocarbons, much care is necessary both in their preparation and in their subsequent 
use to avoid any possible exposure to flame. Very serious results have taken place from want 
of caution in this respect. 
Properties. Benzol is a colorless limpid liquid, possessing an agreeable odor. Its sp. gr. 
is 0-85, congealing point 0° C. (32° F.), and boiling point 80° C. (176° F.). The British 
Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ A colorless volatile liquid free from opalescence, with a strong 
characteristic odor. Specific gravity from 0-880 to 0-888. It should begin to distil at 176° 
F. (80° C.), and about 90 per cent, of the whole should pass over at a temperature below 212° 
F. (100° C.). It should wholly distil below 248° F. (120° C.).” Its powers as a solvent are 
very extensive. Among the substances soluble in it are sulphur, phosphorus, and iodine, 
and most resins and fats. It dissolves quinine, but not cinchonine, with which it forms a 
bulky gelatinous mass. Morphine and strychnine are sparingly soluble. Its solvent power 
over some of the organic alkaloids led Mr. John Williams, of London, to employ it in extract- 
ing them. Dragendorff has corroborated and extended this use of benzol for obtaining the 
alkaloids, whose salts are, however, not usually soluble in the menstruum. Benzol is also a 
solvent of many of the resins, of mastic, camphor, wax, fatty and oily substances, essential 
oils, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. It often becomes a matter of great importance com- 
mercially to test the purity of commercial benzol, and a very thorough method of assay based 
on fractional distillation is proposed by A. H. Allen, in his Commercial Organic Analysis, 
1882. The following method, originating with Schorlemmer, is based on the conversion of 
this hydrocarbon into aniline, and of that into one of the characteristic colors derived from it. 
That part of the mixture which volatilizes at 150° C. (302° F.) is operated on. This is treated 
wTith fuming nitric acid, which, if benzol be present, gives rise to a nitrobenzol with its bitter- 
almond odor. The nitrobenzol is then converted by the action of granulated tin and hydro- 
chloric acid into aniline, which is isolated by distilling the product with potassa. The aniline 
floats on the top of the liquid that passes. A little of this gives with sodium hypochlorite a 
fine purple color; and a drop of it, if heated with a little corrosive sublimate, will yield the 
beautiful color of rosaniline. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., ii. 177.) According to Balls, magne- 
sium ribbon, with the addition of a few drops of solution of platinic chloride, rapidly and 
completely reduces nitrobenzene in alcoholic solution to aniline, giving a solution which can be 
at once decanted and tested with bleaching powder. (Allen.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. It has been asserted by Naunyn, Wiederhold, and 
Possoz that benzol is an active germicide; but A. Chassevant found that it has no power of 
destroying the vitality of spores. (Archiv. d. Pharmacodyn., vol. ii., 1896.) In Chassevant’s 
experiments it rapidly produced complete coma in the lower animals, with muscular relaxation 
and greatly lowered temperature (10° C. without death). In the early stages of the poisoning 
tetanus and very rapid breathing were noticed. From one to two fluidounces of it are stated 
to have caused in man exhilaration and vertigo, followed by sleep and delirium (Journ. de 
Pharm., 1861) ; but it is probably of no value in practical medicine. In the attempt to use it 
as an anaesthetic, Simpson, of Edinburgh, found that it caused violent constrictive headache 
and was scarcely capable of producing insensibility. According to Chassevant, it depresses 
arterial pressure by dilating the vessels, and acts most unfavorably on persons suffering from 
arterio-sclerosis or heart disease. According to M. lleynal, a mixture of ten parts of benzol, 
five of soap, and eighty-five of water is very destructive to human parasites, and does not affect 
the skin or the general system. Gruyot states (Brit. Med. Journ., 1897) that the habitual exposure 
to the fumes of benzol during its manufacture produces a chronic poisoning, characterized by 
uncertainty of gait, mental disturbance, wandering delirium, loss of sexual power, and epilepti- 
form convulsions. Dose, from ten minims (0-62 C.c.) to half a fluidrachm (1-86 C.c.). According 
to Chassevant, toluene acts like benzene, but xylene is much more toxic, rapidly producing coma. 268 
Bismuthum.—Bismuthi Citras. 
PART I. 
Bi; 208‘9. (Bl§-MU'THUM.) Bi; 210. 
BISMUTHUM. Bismuth. 
Etain de Glace, Bismuth, Fr.; Wismuth, G.; Bismutte, It.; Bismut, Sp. 
Bismuth occurs usually in the metallic state, occasionally as a sulphide or a telluride, and 
rarely as an oxide. It is found principally in Saxony, Schneeberg being the chief point of 
production. It has been found at Monroe, in Connecticut, in Archer County, Texas (A. J. P., 
1871, 228), and in Colorado with gold and silver ores. Small quantities have been found 
in Utah and Wyoming. It has also been discovered largely in South Australia, whence a 
quantity of it has been sent into commerce. It is obtained almost entirely from native bis- 
muth, which is heated by means of wood or charcoal, whereby the metal is fused and sepa- 
rated from its gangue. Most of the bismuth of commerce comes from Saxony, although it is 
now also largely obtained from Bolivia. The bismuth from South America is said to be natu- 
rally free from arsenic, and to be therefore preferable for pharmaceutical purposes. 
Bismuth was first recognized as a metal by Agricola in 1520. Before that period it was 
confounded with lead. It is a brittle, pulverizable, brilliant metal, of a crystalline texture, 
and of a white color with a slight reddish tint. Its crystals are rhombohedral, but with an 
angle of 87° 40', which makes it difficult to distinguish them from cubes, in which the angle 
would be 90°. Indeed, many books still speak of it as cubical in form. It undergoes but a 
slight tarnish in the air. Its sp. gr. is 9-8, 9-83, Br. (purified), melting point 264° C. (507° 
F.). When impure bismuth solidifies after fusion, globules of the metal, nearly pure, are thrown 
up from the mass. This takes place when the metal contains as much as 50 per cent, of im- 
purity. The same phenomenon does not occur when pure bismuth is melted. (R. Schneider.') 
At a high temperature, in close vessels, bismuth volatilizes, and may be distilled over. When 
heated in the open air to a full red heat, it takes fire, and burns with a faint blue flame, 
forming an oxide of a yellow color. This is the teroxide, and consists of two atoms of bis- 
muth and three of oxygen. There is another compound of bismuth and oxygen, consisting 
of two atoms of the former and five atoms of the latter, which is called bismuthic oxide, 
Bi206. It is obtained in the form of a hydrate by boiling bismuth nitrate in solution of 
potassa, washing the precipitate, and mixing it while moist with solution of potassa into 
which chlorine is passed. A mixture of bismuthous and bismuthic oxides is precipitated, from 
which the former is separated by digestion with nitric acid. The hydrated oxide remaining, 
when washed and dried, is in the form of a red powder, which gives up its water at 130° C. 
(266° F.), and at a higher heat loses oxygen. Bismuth is acted on freely by hydrochloric 
acid, but violently by nitric acid, which dissolves it with a copious liberation of red fumes. 
Sulphuric acid, when cold, has no action on it, but at a boiling heat effects its solution with 
the liberation of sulphurous acid. As it occurs in commerce, it is generally contaminated with 
other metals, among which are arsenic in minute quantity, traces of silver, cadmium, nickel, 
lead, and iron, and sometimes a very small proportion of thallium. Classen has found in so- 
called “ purissimus” bismuth, lead, copper, and iron, and in one sample of bismuth, sold as 
suitable for scientific purposes, he obtained from 500 grammes 10 grammes of lead chloride. 
(Apoth. Zeitung, 1891, p. 121 ; see, also, Chem. Mews, 1892, lxv. 28.) It may be purified 
from all contaminating metals by dissolving the bismuth of commerce in diluted nitric acid, 
precipitating the clear solution by adding it to water, and reducing the white powder thus 
obtained with black flux. The same precipitate is obtained by adding ammonia to the nitric 
solution ; if the supernatant liquor is blue, the presence of copper is indicated ; if the precipi- 
tate is yellowish, iron is present. The British Pharmacopoeia (1885) contained a process for 
purifying bismuth which was not introduced in the (1898) edition of the same authority. 
(See U. S. D., 17th ed., p. 270.) 
Pharm. Uses, etc. Bismuth is not used in medicine in an uncombined state, but is employed 
pharmaceutically to obtain bismuth subcarbonate and subnitrate, the only medicinal prep- 
arations formed from this metal. In the arts its oxide is used to form a cosmetic for the 
complexion, called pearl white, and as an ingredient of the best pewter. 
BISMUTHI CITRAS. U. S. Bismuth Citrate. 
Bi C6 H5 07 ; 397*44. (BI§-MU'THI CI'TRXs.) Bi C6 H5 07; 399. 
Citrate of Bismuth ; Bismuthum Citricum ; Citrate de Bismuth, F>\; Citronensaures Wismuth, G. 
“ Bismuth Subnitrate, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Citric Acid, seventy 
grammes [or 2 ounces av., 205 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Bismuth PAET I. 
Bismuthi Citras.—Bismuthi el Ammonii Citras. 
269 
Subnitrate and the Citric Acid with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13£ fluidounces] of 
Distilled Water for about fifteen minutes, or until a drop of the mixture yields a clear solution 
with ammonia water. Then add Jive thousand cubic centimeters [about 11 pints] of Distilled 
Water, allow the suspended matter to deposit, wash the precipitate, first by decantation, and 
afterwards on a strainer, with Distilled Water, until the washings are tasteless, and dry the 
residue at a gentle heat.” U. S. 
As citric acid (H3C6H507) is tribasic, one atom of bismuth, being trivalent, will exactly 
replace the three hydrogen atoms of the citric acid and form a neutral bismuth citrate. When 
bismuth subnitrate is boiled with a solution of citric acid it is decomposed, the nitric acid is 
replaced by the citric acid, and the insoluble bismuth citrate is formed; the completion of the 
process is known by the mixture yielding a clear solution with ammonia water. 
Properties. “ A white, amorphous or micro-crystalline powder, odorless and tasteless, and 
permanent in the air. Insoluble in water or alcohol, but soluble in ammonia water, and in solu- 
tions of the citrates of the alkalies. When strongly heated, the salt chars, and, on ignition, 
leaves a more or less blackened residue having a yellow surface, and soluble in warm nitric acid. 
This solution, when dropped into water, occasions a white turbidity. A solution of the salt in 
ammonia water, when treated with hydrogen sulphide in excess, yields a black precipitate. If 
the filtrate from the latter be deprived by heat of the excess of hydrogen sulphide and cooled, 
a portion of it, boiled with lime water, yields a white precipitate. If another portion of the 
cooled filtrate be mixed with an equal volume of concentrated sulphuric acid, and again cooled, 
no brown or brownish-black color should appear around a crystal of ferrous sulphate dropped 
into the liquid (limit of nitrate)." U. S. 
Medical Properties. This salt is used solely for pharmaceutical purposes. It is no 
longer recognized by the British Pharmacopoeia. 
BISMUTHI ET AMMONII CITRAS. U. S. Bismuth and Ammonium 
Citrate. 
(bT§-mu'thI £t am-mo'ni-i cI'trXs.) 
Citrate of Bismuth and Ammonium; Citrate de Bismuth et d’Ammoniaque, Fr.; Citronensaures Wismuthoxyd- 
Ammonium, G. 
“ Bismuth Citrate, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Ammonia Water, 
Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Bismuth Citrate with two hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 6J fluidounces] of Distilled Water to a smooth paste, heat the mixture on a 
water-bath, and gradually add Ammonia Water, until the salt is dissolved, and the liquid is 
neutral or has only a faintly alkaline reaction. Then filter the solution, evaporate it on a water- 
bath to a syrupy consistence, and spread it upon plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may 
be obtained in scales. Keep the product in small, well-stoppered bottles, protected from 
light.” U S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) does not recognize this salt, which has been used quite 
extensively during the last twenty years, principally for preparing extemporaneously the London 
Liquor Bismuthi originally suggested by Schacht. (See Liquor Bismuthi et Ammonise Citratis.) 
Properties. “ Small, shining, pearly or translucent scales, odorless, having a slightly 
acidulous and metallic taste, and becoming opaque on exposure to the air. Very soluble in 
water, and but sparingly soluble in alcohol. When strongly heated, the salt fuses, and finally 
leaves a more or less blackened residue, having a yellow surface, and soluble in warm nitric 
acid. This solution, when dropped into water, occasions a white turbidity. The aqueous solu- 
tion of the salt is neutral or faintly alkaline to litmus paper. When boiled with potassium or 
sodium hydrate test-solution, it evolves the vapor of ammonia, and when treated with hydrogen 
sulphide, it yields a black precipitate. If the filtrate from the latter be deprived by heat of 
the excess of hydrogen sulphide and cooled, a portion of it, boiled with lime water, yields a 
white precipitate. If another portion of the cooled filtrate be mixed with an equal volume of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, and again cooled, no brown or brownish-black color should appear 
around a crystal of ferrous sulphate dropped into the liquid (absence of nitrate).” U. S. As 
frequently seen in commerce it is not entirely soluble in water : this is due to the loss of ammonia 
through exposure, and a few drops of ammonia water added to the turbid solution are gener- 
ally sufficient to restore its transparency. The Committee of Bevision very properly omitted 
to give its chemical formula, as it is by no means proved that it has a definite composition. It 
is believed by some to be a true double citrate, BiC6H607(NH4)3C6H607. On the other hand, 
Bartlett (Zeitsch. fur Chem., 1865, p. 350) obtained on evaporation of the ammoniacal solution 
BiCeH607,NH3-)-3H20, and Rother (Jahresbericht, 1876, p. 564) obtained on crystallizing 270 
Bismuthi Oxidum.—Bismuthi Salicylas. 
PART I. 
from warm ammonia BiCeH607,3NH3 -f- 3HaO. “ Ten grains dissolved in water, and treated 
with sulphuretted hydrogen in excess, yield a precipitate which, when washed and dried, weighs 
about six and a half grains.” Br. (1885). 
Medical Properties. This salt differs from the older preparations of bismuth in its solu- 
bility, and probably is for this reason more rapid, more astringent, and more irritant in its 
action. In cases of irritation or inflammation of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane it is 
very much inferior to the insoluble preparations, but when there is relaxation with excessive 
discharges it may usefully be employed. The dose is from one to three grains ((H)65-0-20 Gm.). 
BISMUTHI OXIDUM. Br. Oxide of Bismuth. 
Bi2 03; 465*68. (BI§-MU'THf OX'I-DUM.) Bis Os; 468. 
“ Bismuth Oxide, Bi203, may be prepared by boiling bismuth oxynitrate with solution of 
sodium hydroxide.” Br. 
Oxyde de Bismuth, Fr.; Bismuthum Oxydatum, Oxydum Bismuthicum; Wismuthoxyd, G. 
The bismuth subnitrate is decomposed by the solution of soda in this process, bismuth hydrate 
being formed, which is precipitated, whilst sodium nitrate remains in solution. 2(BiN04,H20) -j- 
2NallO = Bi26HO (or Bi203,3H20) -f 2NaN03. At the temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) 
the bismuth hydrate is decomposed, water is liberated, and the anhydrous oxide is left. 
Properties. Bismuth oxide is a powder of a dull lemon-yellow color, insoluble in water, 
but soluble in nitric acid mixed with half its volume of water without effervescence. The 
British Pharmacopoeia (1898) describes it as “A slightly brownish-yellow powder. It should 
answer to the general characters and tests enumerated under ‘ Bismuth Oxycarhonate.’ Each 
gramme should yield 1*1 grammes of bismuth sulphide. Heated to incipient redness it is 
scarcely diminished in weight (absence of bismuth oxycarbonate, bismuth oxynitrate, and 
moisture).” 
Medical Properties. Bismuth oxide resembles bismuth subnitrate in its medical proper- 
ties, and may be administered in similar doses. 
BISMUTHI SALICYLAS. Br. Bismuth Salicylate. 
(bI§-mu'th! sXl-i-cy'lXs.) 
“ Bismuth Salicylate, or oxysalicylate, C6H4.0H.C00.Bi0, may be prepared by the inter- 
action of bismuth nitrate and sodium salicylate.” Br. 
This salt is a bismuthyl salicylate of definite composition, the bismuth oxide resulting from 
its ignition being about 64 per cent. Samples which show a higher percentage than this either 
contain bismuth subnitrate or hydrate. It may be made by Wolff’s process, by diluting a 
glycerin solution of crystallized bismuthous nitrate with one or two parts of water, and decom- 
posing this with a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium salicylate, then washing the precipi- 
tate well with hot water and carefully drying. Another method for its preparation will be found 
in A. J. P., 1891, 401. Fischer and Griitzner (Arcldv d. Pharm., 1894, 680) object to the 
variable composition of commercial bismuth salicylate, and recommend the following process 
for making a basic salt of constant composition. Crystallized bismuth nitrate is dissolved in 
four times its weight of diluted acetic acid, the solution diluted with about forty times its 
weight of water, and the bismuth precipitated as hydroxide by ammonia water. The precipi- 
tate is washed and mixed with the molecular proportion of salicylic acid. After heating on a 
water-bath, a magma of crystals of basic bismuth salicylate is formed; these are drained and 
dried. 
The British Pharmacopoeia describes this salt as “ A white or nearly white amorphous 
powder, insoluble in water. It affords the reactions characteristic of bismuth. Diluted teat- 
solution of ferric chloride is colored violet when Bismuth Salicylate is introduced. It should 
yield only the faintest characteristic reaction with the copper test for nitrates. Alcohol (90 
per cent.), with which Bismuth Salicylate has been shaken, should not give a violet color with 
test-solution of ferric chloride (absence of free salicylic acid). Decomposed by heating with 
solution of sodium carbonate, the liquid portion of the resulting mixture, if containing not less 
than 1 per cent, of salicylate, affords a yellowish-brown precipitate on the addition of solution 
of uranium nitrate (distinction from carbolates and sulphocarbolates). Each gramme of Bis- 
muth Salicylate should yield 0-7 gramme of bismuth sulphide. When heated, salicylic acid 
volatilizes and 62 to 64 per cent, of bismuth oxide remains. It should be free from the im- 
purities indicated under ‘ Bismuth Oxycarbonate.’ ” PART I. 
Bismuthi Subcarbonas. 
271 
Medical Properties. Bismuth salicylate was originally proposed as an intestinal anti- 
septic and feeble astringent, and has been used to a considerable extent in the treatment of 
chronic intestinal catarrhs and subacute diarrhoeas with marked tendency to intestinal fermen- 
tation ; also as a local antiseptic remedy for wounds and various inflammations of mucous 
membranes. We have never been able to perceive that it is more effective or different in its 
action from the older preparations of the metal. It may be given in doses of from ten to 
twenty grains (0-648 to 1*3 Gm.) every four to eight hours. 
BISMUTHI SUBCARBONAS. U. S. (Br.) Bismuth Subcarbonate. 
(Blij-MU'THI SUB-CAR'BO-NAS.) 
“ Bismuth Oxycarbonate, (Bi202C03)2,II20, may be prepared by the interaction of bismuth 
nitrate and ammonium carbonate.” Br. 
Bismuthi Carbonas, Br., Carbonate of Bismuth; Oxycarbonate of Bismuth; Bismuthum S u be arbonic urn, Sub- 
carbonas Bismuthicus; Souscarbonate de Bismuth, Fr.; Basisches Kohlensaures Wismuthoxyd, G. 
A process for this salt is no longer official; that of the Pharm. 1870 will be found in the 
foot-note below.* 
This preparation was first made official in the 1860 edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
As metallic bismuth generally contains arsenic, it is very important to provide that this should 
be left behind, in the processes for making its medicinal preparations. It is on this account 
that the formula of the U. S. Pharm. 1870 was so elaborate. The bismuth is first dissolved 
in nitric acid, a portion of which oxidizes the metal, with the evolution of nitrous vapors, 
while another portion combines with the oxide produced to form bismuth nitrate. At the same 
time the arsenic is also oxidized at the expense of the nitric acid, and unites with a portion 
of the oxidized metal so as to produce bismuth arsenate. Both of these salts, therefore, are 
contained in the solution, which is very concentrated. Both have the property, when their 
solution is diluted with water, of separating into two salts, one an insoluble subsalt which is 
deposited, and the other a soluble acid salt which is held in solution. But the arsenate is more 
disposed to the change than the nitrate, and requires for the purpose a smaller amount of 
water of dilution. Hence the first direction, after the metal has been dissolved, is to add a 
moderate quantity of distilled water, insufficient to cause the decomposition of the nitrate. 
From this diluted solution the insoluble subarsenate is slowly deposited, so as, in the course of 
twenty-four hours, to free it almost if not entirely from the poisonous metal. This is separated 
by filtration, and the solution is now diluted with a much larger quantity of distilled water, 
which causes a copious deposition of bismuth subnitrate. But, in order not to waste the acid 
nitrate remaining in solution, this is decomposed by ammonia, which takes most of the nitric 
acid, and precipitates the bismuth combined with the remainder, in the form of subnitrate. 
The whole of the precipitated subnitrate, thus freed from arsenic, is redissolved in nitric acid, 
and the solution of the nitrate now obtained, being diluted with just so much water as to 
produce a commencing precipitation of subnitrate, is freed by filtering from the small quantity 
formed, and slowly added to a solution of sodium carbonate. An interchange takes place; 
sodium nitrate and bismuth carbonate are formed, the former of which remains in solution, 
and the latter is deposited. This part of the process tends still further to get rid of the arsenic; 
for if any of the arsenic acid or bismuth arsenate existed in the solution the poisonous acid 
would combine with the soda, and, thus forming a soluble salt, would be retained by the water. 
Nothing now remains but to wash, dry, and powder the precipitate. 
The British (1885) process (see U. S. JD., 17th ed., p. 265) is more simple, because, using 
bismuth already purified, it is without the preliminary measures taken in the U. S. process to 
separate the arsenic. 
*“ Take of Bismuth, in pieces, two troyounces ; Nitric Acid eight troyouncea and a half; Water of Ammonia 
five fluidounce8 ; Carbonate of Sodium ten troyounces ; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix four troyounces 
and a half of the Nitric Acid with four fluidounces of Distilled Water in a capacious glass vessel, and, having added 
the Bismuth, set the whole aside for twenty-four hours. Dilute the resulting solution with ten fluidounces of Distilled 
Water, stir it thoroughly, and, after twenty-four hours, filter through paper. To the filtered liquid, previously diluted 
with an equal measure of Distilled Water, slowly add the Water of Ammonia, constantly stirring. Transfer the 
whole to a strainer, and after the precipitate has been drained, wash it with two pints of Distilled Water, and drain 
it again. Then place the precipitate in a proper vessel, add the remainder of the Nitric Acid, and afterwards four 
fluidounces of Distilled Water, and set the solution aside. At the end of twenty-four hours, filter through paper. 
Dissolve the Carbonate of Sodium in twelve fluidounces of Distilled Water, with the aid of heat, and filter the solu- 
tion through paper. To this, when cold, slowly add the solution of nitrate of bismuth, with constant stirring. 
Transfer the whole to a strainer, and after the precipitate has been drained, wash it with Distilled Water until the 
washings pass tasteless. Lastly, press, dry it on bibulous paper with a gentle heat, and rub it into powder.” U. S. 
1870. 272 
Bismuthi Subcarbonas.—Bismuthi Subnitras. 
PART I. 
Properties. Bismuth subcarbonate is “ a white or pale yellowish-white powder, of some- 
what varying chemical composition* odorless and tasteless, and permanent in the air. Insolu- 
ble in water or alcohol, but completely soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid, with copious effer- 
vescence. When heated to redness, the salt loses water and carbon dioxide, and leaves from 
87 to 91 per cent, of a yellow residue which is soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid, and black- 
ened by hydrogen sulphide.” U. S. Its sp. gr. is about 4. It effervesces with acids, and, when 
exposed to heat, loses 9-5 per cent, of its weight (U. S. 1870) in consequence of the escape of 
carbonic acid, and is converted into the anhydrous teroxide, of a light yellow color. When 
mixed with sulphuric acid, and subjected to Marsh’s test, it should yield no arsenic, or merely 
a trace. 
Tests. “ If 3 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in just a sufficient quantity (about 4 C.c.) 
of warm nitric acid, and the solution poured into 100 C.c. of water, a white precipitate is 
produced. After filtering, and evaporating the filtrate on a water-bath to 30 C.c., again filter- 
ing, and dividing this filtrate into portions of 5 C.c., these should respond to the following 
tests: On mixing one portion with an equal volume of diluted sulphuric acid, it should not 
become cloudy (absence of lead.) If another portion be precipitated with a slight excess of 
ammonia water, the supernatant liquid should not exhibit a bluish tint (absence of copper). 
Other portions should not be affected by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of chloride), or 
barium nitrate test-solution (sulphate), nor yield, with hydrochloric acid, a precipitate which is 
insoluble in a slight excess of the latter (silver). If 1 Gm. of the salt be boiled with 10 C.c. 
of a mixture of equal parts of acetic acid and water, the solution cooled and filtered, and the 
filtrate freed from bismuth by hydrogen sulphide and again filtered, the last filtrate should leave 
no residue on evaporation (absence of alkalies and alkaline earths). On boiling 1 Gm. of the 
salt with 10 C.c. of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, it should not evolve the odor 
of ammonia. If 1 Gm. of the salt be added to 10 C.c. of a mixture of equal parts of con- 
centrated sulphuric acid and water, tinged slightly blue with indigo test-solution, on heating, 
the bluish tint should not be discharged (absence of nitrate). If 1 Gm. of the salt be ignited 
in a porcelain crucible, the residue, when cold, dissolved in 5 C.c. of stannous chloride test>so- 
lution (see List of Reagents, Bettendorff’s Test for Arsenic), no dark coloration or precipitate 
should be produced within fifteen minutes (limit of arsenic)." U. S. The British Pharma- 
copoeia describes it as follows: “ A whitish powder, the general chemical characters and re- 
actions of which are similar to those of Bismuth Oxide and Bismuth Oxynitrate. All three 
compounds are heavy powders insoluble in water, but soluble in nitric acid diluted with half its 
bulk of water. Each yields the reactions characteristic of bismuth. When either is dissolved 
in a little hydrochloric acid, the solution diluted with water slightly acidulated with the same 
acid, and then excess of hydrogen sulphide passed through the liquid, a brownish-black pre- 
cipitate of bismuth sulphide falls. This precipitate, when rapidly washed on a counterpoised 
filter with water, and quickly dried at 212° F. (100° C.), serves for the estimation of the 
amount of bismuth present in the compound. These bismuth salts, when suitably treated, 
should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for silver, lead, copper, arsenium, iron, 
zinc, calcium, magnesium, chlorides, or sulphates, nor with the tests for selenium or tellurium. 
Bismuth Oxycarbonate affords the reactions characteristic of carbonates, but not more than 
the slightest reactions with the tests for nitrates. Each gramme of it should yield 0 99 
gramme of bismuth sulphide when treated as described above.” If arsenic were present, a 
precipitate would take place with a much smaller proportion of water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This salt was brought into notice by M. Hanndn, of 
Brussels (Ann. de Therap., 1857, 214), on the ground that it was more tonic than the sub- 
nitrate ; it is, however, exactly equivalent to the latter salt in therapeutic action and dose. 
BISMUTHI SUBNITRAS. U. S., Br. Bismuth Subnitrate. Bismuth 
Oxynitrate. 
(Bl§-MD'THI SUB-NI'TRAS.) 
“ Bismuth Oxynitrate, Bi0N03,H20, is prepared by the interaction of bismuth nitrate and 
water.” Br. 
Subnitrate of Bismuth ; Bismuthum Album, Br. 1864; White Bismuth ; Bismuthum subnitricum, P.G.; Bisniu- 
thum Hydrioo-nitricum, Magisterium Bismuthi, Subazotas (s. Subnitras) Bismuthicus; Sous-azotate de Bismuth, 
Fr.; Basisches Salpetersaures Wismuthoxyd, G.; Oxynitrate of Bismuth. 
* The British Pharmacopoeia gives the following chemical formula : (B^C^COs^HjO. PART I. 
Bis'/nuthi Subnitras. 
273 
A process for bismuth subnitrate is no Longer official in the U. S. or Br. Pharmacopoeia. 
The process of the U. S. P. (1870) is given in the foot-note.* 
The alterations from the old process in the U. S. P. formula of 1870 were based upon the 
wish to get rid of any arsenic that might be present in the bismuth used. This is accomplished 
by first preparing the carbonate, by adding the nitric acid solution of bismuth to a solution of 
sodium carbonate in excess, whereby most of the arsenic is retained in the solution, probably 
as sodium arsenate, while the insoluble carbonate is precipitated. This is dissolved, with the 
aid of heat, in nitric acid, so as to make a very concentrated solution of the nitrate, to which, 
when cold, just so much water is added as to begin to produce a permanent turbidity. The 
object of this is to allow any arsenic that may be still present to be deposited, which happens 
for reasons stated in explaining the process for procuring the subcarbonate. (See page 271.) 
The deposited matter having been precipitated, only the pure nitrate remains in solution, which 
is made to yield the subnitrate by large dilution with water, and still more completely by the 
addition of ammonia. 
In the British formula, the old method is pursued of simply dissolving the bismuth, which 
has been previously purified, in nitric acid somewhat diluted, concentrating the solution, and 
precipitating by adding it to a large quantity of water. When bismuth is added to dilute 
nitric acid, red fumes are copiously given off, and the metal, oxidized by the decomposition of 
part of the nitric acid, is dissolved by the remainder so as to form a solution of bismuth ter- 
nitrate. It is unnecessary to have the metal in powder, as it dissolves with great facility when 
added to the acid in fragments. When the solution is completed, the liquor should be added 
to the water, and not the water to the solution. In order to have a smooth light powder, which 
is most esteemed, the precipitate should be well washed to remove every trace of free nitric 
acid, and dried as speedily as possible. In the use of this formula it is taken for granted that 
the bismuth has been ascertained to be free from arsenic; and if it prove upon the appli- 
cation of Marsh’s test to be otherwise, means should certainly be employed to purify it be- 
fore using it. Measures for this purpose are mentioned under Bismuthum. Should the sub- 
nitrate or subcarbonate be ascertained to contain arsenic, it may, as suggested by Dr. Herapath, 
be purified by boiling it with solution of caustic soda or potassa twice successively, then thor- 
oughly washing the residue, which will be yellow oxide of bismuth, dissolving it again in nitric 
acid, and precipitating by water as before. (Chem. News, 1863, p. 77.) In the washing of 
bismuth subnitrate, the salt is asserted to lose a portion of its nitric acid ; and the change may 
be considerable, if the washing be continued so long as the liquid comes away in any degree 
acidulous. It has been ascertained by Julius Lowe that this effect may be avoided by washing 
with a very dilute solution of ammonium nitrate, containing one part in 500 parts of water. 
(CVtem. (r<xz., March 15, 1859, 119.)f Bismuthous nitrate, a crystalline salt (Bi3N03,5H20), 
is deposited from a solution of bismuth in nitric acid. This has been used by Dr. Balmanno 
* Take of Bismuth, in pieces, two troyounces ; Nitric Acid eight troyounces and a half; Carbonate of Sodium ten 
troyounces ; Water of Ammonia five fiuidouncs ; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Mix four troyounces and a 
half of the Nitric Acid with four fluidounces of Distilled Water, in a capacious glass vessel, and, having added the 
Bismuth, set the whole aside for twenty-four hours. Dilute the resulting solution with ten fluidounces of Distilled 
Water, stir it thoroughly, and, after twenty-four hours, filter through paper. Dissolve the Carbonate of Sodium in 
twenty fluidounces of Distilled Water with the aid of heat, and filter the solution through paper. To this, when 
cold, slowly add the solution of nitrate of bismuth, with constant stirring. Transfer the whole to a strainer, and, 
after the precipitate has been drained, wash it with Distilled Water until the washings pass tasteless, and drain 
again as completely as possible. Then place the moist precipitate in a capacious vessel, gradually add the remain- 
der of the Nitric Acid, and afterwards four fluidounces of Distilled Water, and set the solution aside. At the end 
of twenty-four hours, filter through paper, and to the filtered liquid, previously diluted with four pints of Distilled 
Water, slowly add the Water of Ammonia, with constant stirring. Transfer the whole to a strainer, and, after the 
precipitate has been drained, wash it with two pints of Distilled Water, drain it again, and press out as much of the 
liquid as possible. Lastly, dry it upon bibulous paper with a gentle heat, and mb into powder.” U. S. 1870. 
| In order to avoid the handling of large volumes of liquid, as well as the loss of bismuth by the production of 
soluble salts, A. Lalieu proposes the following process, which, he says, yields a much larger, purer, and denser product: 
200 grammes of bismuth are dissolved in a sufficient quantity of nitric acid; the clear solution is decanted and 
poured into about 8 liters of water containing 500 grammes of water of ammonia. The precipitate is washed, trans- 
ferred to a capsule, and 50 to 60 grammes of caustic soda, dissolved in a little water, are added to it. The capsule 
is then exposed for 15 to 20 minutes to the heat of a water-bath, and the contents stirred up several times. After 
having again become cold, the supernatant liquor is poured off, the precipitate is thoroughly washed, and a quantity 
of nitric acid, representing 48-5 grammes of anhydrous nitric acid (to be determined from the sp. gr., etc.), is added 
to it in small portions at a time, and under constant stirring. If, during this addition, the mass should become too 
thick, a little water may be added, but not enough to destroy the pasty consistence of the mass. The capsule is then 
replaced for a few minutes on the water-bath, and the mass well stirred. The latter, which had been yellow, becomes 
soon perfectly white, and somewhat more liquid. It is then diluted with a little water, the precipitate collected on 
a filter placed on a muslin strainer, washed, drained, pressed, and dried. The product amounts to about 265 grammes. 
(L’ Union Pharmaceutique, No. 8; N. R., Nov. 1878.) 274 
Bismuthi Subnitras. 
PART I. 
Squire dissolved in glycerin, under the name of Glycerole of Nitrate of Bismuth. (P. J. Tr., 
Nov. 11,1876.) W. W. Moorhead prepares it by taking two troyounces of crystalline bismuth 
nitrate and dissolving in sufficient glycerin to make eight fluidounces. No heat should he used. 
This preparation can be diluted with an equal bulk or less of water, or one part can be added 
to forty-eight of water without ready precipitation, but one part to twelve, eight, or six of 
water soon precipitates. (A. J. P., 1877, p. 98; also pp. 23 and 89.) 
Properties. Bismuth subnitrate is “ a heavy, white powder, of somewhat varying chemi- 
cal composition,* odorless and almost tasteless, and permanent in the air. Almost insoluble in 
water, and insoluble in alcohol; but readily soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. When 
heated to 120° C. (248° F.), the salt loses water (between 3 and 5 per cent, of its weight) ; 
and when subsequently heated to redness, it evolves nitrous vapors, leaving from 79 to 82 per 
cent, of its weight of a yellow residue which is soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid, and black- 
ened by hydrogen sulphide. When brought upon moistened blue litmus paper, the salt shows 
a slightly acid reaction. On dissolving 3 Gm. of the salt in 3 C.c. of warm nitric acid, no 
effervescence should occur (absence of carbonate), and no residue should be left (absence of 
insoluble foreign salts'). If this solution be poured into 100 C.c. of water, a white precipitate 
is produced. If the filtrate separated from this precipitate be evaporated on a water-bath to 
30 C.c., the liquid again filtered, and the new filtrate divided into portions of 5 C.c. each, these 
should respond to the tests for purity described under Bismuthi Subcarbonas. When further 
tested as described under Bismuthi Subcarbonas, the salt should be found free from alka- 
lies and alkaline earths, and should give no reaction for ammonia. If 1 Gm. of the salt be 
heated, in a porcelain crucible, until nitrous vapors cease to be evolved, the residue, when cold, 
dissolved in 5 C.c. of stannous chloride test-solution (see List of Reagents, Bettendorff’s Test 
for Arsenic), no dark coloration or precipitate should be produced within fifteen minutes (limit 
of arsenic)." U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ A heavy white inodorous 
powder consisting of minute crystalline scales, with not more than a slight action on litmus. 
It should answer to the general characters and tests enumerated under ‘ Bismuth Oxycarbon- 
ate.’ Each gramme should yield 0-84 gramme of bismuth sulphide. It should afford only 
the slightest reactions with the tests for carbonates. If 1 gramme be dissolved in nitric acid 
and the liquid mixed with a solution of about 2 grammes of citric acid and sufficient solution 
of ammonia to give decided alkalinity, no precipitate or opalescence should be produced by 
boiling the mixture while still faintly alkaline (absence of calcium phosphate).” It is readily 
soluble in the strong acids, from which it is precipitated by water. The fixed alkalies dissolve 
it sparingly, and ammonia more readily. It is darkened by hydrogen sulphide gas, but not 
by exposure to light, unless it contains a little silver, or is subjected to the influence of organic 
matter. If the nitric solution is not precipitated by dilute sulphuric acid, it is free from lead. It 
sometimes contains arsenic, which may be detected by acting on it with pure sulphuric acid, evapo- 
rating to dryness, dissolving in hot distilled water, and testing a part of the solution by Marsh’s 
apparatus. By this method M. Lassaigne detected one-sixth of 1 per cent, of arsenic in a sample 
of subnitrate sold in Paris. M. Glenard proposes two new methods of searching for arsenic in the 
subnitrate; one merely qualitative, the other quantitative. The first consists in strongly heat- 
ing a mixture of the suspected salt with potassium acetate. The least trace of arsenic will be 
detected by the strong and offensive odor produced, owing to the formation of cacodyl. In the 
second, the bismuth subnitrate is heated with pure hydrochloric acid. If arsenic be present 
it will rise in vapors in the form of chloride. These should be carefully collected and con- 
densed, and then treated with an excess of hydrogen sulphide. The arsenic sulphide pre- 
cipitated will be the measure of the metal. (Ann. de Therap., 1868, p. 176.) M. Lassaigne 
has found as much as 27 per cent, of bismuth chloride in this preparation, when obtained by 
precipitating, with water, a solution of bismuth in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. 
The same impurity is introduced, to a small extent, by using common water containing chlo- 
rides ; and bismuth subsulphate renders the preparation impure, when the water used contains 
calcium sulphate. (Journ. de Chim. et Med., 1855, p. 276.) These facts show the necessity of 
using distilled water. As regards the origin of the chlorine sometimes existing in commer- 
cial bismuth subnitrate, it is asserted by Mr. II. C. Tichborne to be a common practice with 
the manufacturer, in order to save the bismuth existing in the mother-liquor, after the deposi- 
tion of the subnitrate, to precipitate it with sodium chloride, thus obtaining an insoluble bis- 
muth oxychloride, which is then added to the previous product. (P. J. Tr., 1860, 413.) For 
* The British Pharmacopoeia gives the following chemical composition: Bi0N03,H20. PART I. 
Bismuthi Subnitras.—Bromum. 
275 
the modes of detecting and separating it, the reader is referred to the Chemical News (1863, 
p. 109). The metal thallium is said to be present in most specimens of the pharmaceutical 
preparations of bismuth, whilst the fetid odor of the breath so often produced when the sub- 
nitrate is administered is believed to be due to traces of tellurium. (Brownen, P. J. Tr., Oct. 
16, 1875.) It has also been said that the arsenic usually present in minute quantities is the 
cause of the garlicky odor of the breath. Dr. E. R. Squibb (Ephemeris, Sept. 1882) states, 
however, that the “ bismuth breath” has been noticed in patients who were taking a prepara- 
tion of bismuth in which the absence of both tellurium and arsenic was conclusively shown. 
The cause of the peculiar odor is, therefore, at present doubtful. Calcium phosphate has been 
ascertained to be an occasional adulteration of the subnitrate. A ready method of detecting 
it suggested by M. Roussin has proved to be fallacious, and may lead to false decisions as to 
the presence of the phosphate. There can be no difficulty in detecting the adulteration by the 
U. S. P. tests. Bismuth subnitrate was called by the earlier chemists magistery of bismuth. 
It is incompatible with potassium iodide (slowly forming a brick-red bismuth iodide) and with 
alkaline bicarbonates. For examination of commercial bismuth subnitrate by Prof. Curtman, 
see A. J. P, 1896, 422, and Pharm. Era, 1896, 43. 
Medical Properties. The great insolubility of bismuth subnitrate has led to the be- 
lief that it is not absorbed in the gastro-intestinal tract, but the finding of it by Orfila in 
the spleen and liver, by Lewald in the milk, by Bergeret and Mayengon and other chemists in 
the urine, proves that the slow absorption of the drug does take place. The largest doses, 
however, given internally, never produce any general sensible effect upon the system, the rem- 
edy being employed solely for its soothing, sedative, feeble astringent influence upon mucous 
membranes. It is very useful in subacute gastritis, gastralgia, pyrosis, and allied stomachic dis- 
ease, in which affections it should be given before or just after meals; when given one to two 
hours after meals, the subnitrate escapes with the contents of the stomach into the intestines, 
and is very useful in conditions of irritation of the intestinal mucous membranes. It may be 
employed in diarrhoeas of irritation, and even in dysentery, but in diarrhoeas of relaxation it is 
of little service. Its use produces dark-green or blackish discoloration of the stools. Bis- 
muth subnitrate is also a very useful topical application in various mucous inflammations, other 
than gastro-intestinal; thus, it is used with advantage by injection (gr. v-xx to f gi of muci- 
lage) in the first stage of gonorrhoea, in leucorrhoea, in dysentery, and in rectal irritation, and by 
snuffing in coryza, etc. The dose of bismuth subnitrate is from five to forty grains (0-324 
to 2-6 Gm.), three or more times a day; the large dose being employed in diarrhoea. Even in 
much larger amounts than those mentioned the medicine is practically safe; the symptoms 
described by Orfila and other early toxicologists as produced by it having been undoubtedly 
due to irritant impurities which formerly existed in the drug. 
As has been shown by Theodore Kocher, even the insoluble preparations of bismuth are 
active antiseptics, and they were for a time much used in Germany in the treatment of wounds. 
It was claimed for them that they acted like iodoform and were not capable of producing 
poisonous symptoms. Further experience has shown, however, that this is incorrect; that 
when applied in large quantities to extensive wounded surfaces they are capable of yielding 
so much bismuth to absorption as to produce a poisoning, which is characterized by acute 
stomatitis, with a peculiar black discoloration of the mucous membrane, usually beginning 
upon the borders of the teeth, but spreading over the whole mouth, followed by an intestinal 
catarrh, with pain and diarrhoea: in severe cases desquamative nephritis, as shown by albumi- 
nous urine and epithelial tube-casts, may also occur. 
Br; 79*76. (BRO'MUM.) Br; 79‘8. 
BROMUM. U. S. Bromine. 
Bromine is an elementary body, possessing many analogies to chlorine and iodine. It was 
discovered in 1826 by M. Balard, of Montpellier, in the bittern of sea-salt works, in which it 
exists as a magnesium bromide. Since then it has been found in the waters of the ocean, 
in certain marine animals and vegetables, in various aquatic plants, as the water-cress, in 
numerous salt springs, and in the mineral kingdom. It has also been detected by M. M&ne in 
the coal-gas liquor of the Paris gas works. In the United States it was first obtained by 
Professor Silliman, who found it in the bittern of the salt works at Salina, in the State of New 
York. It was discovered in the salt wells near Freeport, Pa., by Dr. David Alter, and is now 
obtained in largest amount from the brines of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia. The 
Brominium, U. S. 1870; Bromum, P. G.; Brome, Fr.; Brom, Q.j Brorno, It. 276 
Bromum. 
PART I. 
chief works are located at Parkersburg and Mason City, W. Va., Pomeroy, Ohio, and Midland 
County, Mich. The annual production of bromine in the United States for the last few years 
has been as follows: 1895, 394,854 lbs., valued at $102,662; 1896, 550,285 lbs., \alued at 
$143,074; and 1897, 487,149 lbs., valued at $136,402. Of the output in the last-mentioned 
year, 132,200 lbs. were in the form of potassium bromide. The bromides contained in the 
mother-liquors of the salt wells are oxidized by manganese dioxide in AN est \ irginia and 
Ohio, while potassium chlorate is the favorite oxidizing agent in Michigan, because of the large 
proportion of calcium chloride in the liquor. 
Preparation. The original salt-liquor or brine is pumped out of the ground at 9° B., 
evaporated to about 15° in large iron pans, then allowed to settle, and is further evaporated in 
wooden tanks heated by steam pipes to the point of crystallization. These tanks, five in num- 
ber, are placed at different elevations, one above the other. Each day the liquor is run off 
from No. 1, the highest, to No. 2, next day to No. 3, and so on until it reaches No. 5, the 
crystallized salt being removed from each tank after draining off the liquor. The brine which 
reaches No. 5 is bittern, and consists chiefly of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and some alu- 
minum chlorides, with varying percentages of sodium and calcium bromides. 
The bittern marking 30° to 38° B. is evaporated to about 45° B. By this further evapo- 
ration an additional percentage of impure salt is removed, the liquor is then run into stone 
stills, materials for generation of chlorine added, and heat applied by means of steam until the 
bromine has been all eliminated and vaporized. It is condensed and collected in cooled receivers. 
(Proc. A. P. A., 1877, p. 448.) An improved bromine still is figured in AT. R., April, 1877 ; 
see also AT. R., 1883, 108; Amer. Drug., 1884, 121. The chief source of the bromine abroad 
is at Stassfurt in Germany, where the magnesium bromide remains as a residue in the 
working of the potassium salts. The bromine is extracted from the solution of bromide in a 
continuous process by the joint action of chlorine gas and steam. 
Bromine has also been obtained from sea-weeds by carbonizing them, lixiviating the carbo- 
naceous residue, and then separating the ingredients, among which are iodine and bromine. For 
details, see Chem. News (July 6, 1866, p. 2). More than two-thirds of the bromine of com- 
merce is used for the manufacture of bromides for medicinal use, and for photography; the 
remainder is used for aniline colors. 
Properties. Bromine is a volatile liquid, of a dark red color when viewed in mass, but 
hyacinth-red in thin layers. Its taste is very caustic, and its smell intensely strong and dis- 
agreeable, having some resemblance to that of chlorine* Its sp. gr. is very nearly 3 (2-99, 
U. S., 2-97 to 3-14, Br. (1885). At —24-5° C. (—12° F., Baumhauer,f —7-2° C., Philipp) 
it becomes a hard, brittle, crystalline solid, having a dark leaden color, and a lustre nearly 
metallic. It boils at about 63° C. (145-4° F.), forming a reddish vapor resembling that of 
nitrous acid, and of the sp. gr. 5-54. It evaporates readily, a single drop being sufficient to 
fill a large flask with its peculiar vapor. 
Bromine is sparingly soluble in water (in 30 parts at 15° C. (59° F.), U. S.), to which it 
communicates an orange color, more soluble in alcohol, and still more so in ether, chloroform, 
and carbon disulphide. By the aid, however, of potassium bromide, it may be dissolved to 
any desirable extent in water. Its alcoholic and ethereal solutions lose their color in a few 
days, and become acid from the generation of hydrobromic acid. It bleaches vegetable sub- 
stances like chlorine, destroys the color of indigo sulphate, and decomposes organic matters. 
Its combination with starch has a yellow color. It corrodes the skin and gives it a deep yellow 
stain. Bromine is intermediate in its affinities between chlorine and iodine, since its combi- 
nations are decomposed by chlorine, while, in its turn, it decomposes those of iodine. It forms 
acids which are analogous in properties and composition to the corresponding acids of chlorine 
and iodine. It combines also with chlorine, forming bromine chloride, which probably has the 
formula BrCl6. This is prepared by passing chlorine through bromine, and condensing the 
vapors at a low temperature. It is a reddish-yellow liquid, very volatile, soluble in water, with 
a penetrating odor and disagreeable taste. 
Commercial bromine sometimes contains as much as 6 or 8 per cent, of carbon tetrabromide, 
as ascertained by M. Poselger. He discovered the impurity by submitting some bromine to 
distillation, during the progress of which the boiling point rose to 120° C. (248° F.). The 
* Inhaled in the form of vapor it produces great irritation, and endangers asphyxia through spasm of the glottis. 
A case which had nearly proved fatal was apparently saved by throwing steam sufficiently cooled into the larynx. 
(G. P. Duffield, A. ./. P.\ 1868, p. 288.) 
f See A. J. P., Oct. 1872, p. 452. The higher degree usually given in chemical works is ascribed by Baumhauer 
to the presence of water in the bromine examined. Bromum. 
part r. 
277 
residuary liquid at this temperature was colorless, and when freed from a little bromine, proved 
to he carbon bromide, as an oily, aromatic liquid * Chlorine and iodine are frequently found 
in bromine, the former being more common in American and the latter in German bromine. 
The U. S. P. gives the following tests for determining the purity of bromine. “ If Bromine 
be added to an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, it should combine to form 
a permanently clear liquid, without the separation of oily drops, or the development of an odor 
resembling that of chloroform (absence of bromoform or other organic bromine compounds'). 
If an aqueous solution of Bromine be shaken with a slight excess of reduced iron until it be- 
comes nearly colorless, the filtered liquid, on the addition of a small amount of ferric chloride 
and of starch test-solution, should not assume a blue color (absence of iodine). If 1 C.c. of a 
saturated aqueous solution of Bromine be diluted with 9 C.c. of water, then mixed with 3 C.c. 
of ammonium carbonate test-solution, and 5 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solu- 
tion, and the whole actively shaken, the filtered liquid, when supersaturated with nitric acid, 
should not become more than opalescent, nor separate a flocculent precipitate within three min- 
utes (absence of more than 3 per cent, of chlorine) ; on exposure to air or heat it is completely 
volatilized.” U. S. 
In testing for bromine in mineral or saline waters, the water is evaporated in order to crys- 
tallize most of the salts. The solution, after having been filtered, is placed in a narrow tube, 
and a few drops of strong chlorine water are added. If this addition produce an orange 
color, bromine is present. The water examined, in order that the test may succeed, must be 
free from organic matter, and the chlorine not be added in excess. Bromine may be detected 
in marine vegetables by carbonizing them in a covered crucible, exhausting the charcoal, pre- 
viously pulverized, with boiling distilled water, precipitating any alkaline sulphide present in 
the solution by zinc sulphate, and then adding successively a few drops of nitric acid and a 
portion of ether, shaking the whole together. If bromine be present it will be set free and 
dissolve in the ether, to which it will communicate an orange color. (Dupasquier.) According 
to Reynoso, a more delicate test is furnished by hydrogen peroxide, which liberates bromine 
from its compounds without reacting on it when free. The mode of proceeding is as follows. 
Put a piece of barium peroxide in a test-tube, and add successively distilled water, pure hydro- 
chloric acid, and ether. The materials are here present for generating hydrogen peroxide ; and 
so soon as bubbles are seen to rise to the silrface, the substance suspected to contain bromine 
is added, and the whole shaken together. If a bromide be present, the hydrochloric acid will 
give rise to hydrobromic acid; and the hydrogen peroxide, acting on this, will set free the 
bromine, which will dissolve in the ether, and give it a yellow tint and the odor of bromine. 
Medical Properties. Bromine, from its analogy to iodine, was early tried as a remedy. 
It has been asserted that it acts like iodine as an alterative, and as a stimulant to the lymphatic 
system. It has been employed in bronchocele, scrofulous tumors and ulcers, secondary and ter- 
tiary syphilis, amenorrhvea, diphtheritic affections, chronic diseases of the skin, and hypertrophy of 
the ventricles. Magendie recommends it in cases in which iodine does not operate with suffi- 
cient activity or has lost its effect by habit, but at present it is very rarely used. About six drops 
(0-36 C.c.) of an aqueous solution containing one part of bromine to forty of distilled water 
may be taken several times a day in water. Locally in its concentrated state it is a very pow- 
erful and deep caustic. When used as a wash for ulcers, from ten to forty minims may be 
added to a pint of water. The use of bromine as a caustic in hospital gangrene was proposed 
by Dr. Goldsmith during the war of the rebellion, and became universal in the army hospitals. 
Applied pure by means of a glass rod, it destroyed the diseased tissues more rapidly and thor- 
oughly than did even strong nitric acid. Of the compounds of bromine, the potassium, am- 
monium, iron, and mercury bromides have been chiefly used. Some of them have been found 
to exercise a remarkable influence in allaying nervous irritation, and are now much employed 
for that purpose. See these titles respectively in the different parts of this work.f Bro- 
* It is stated by T. L. Phipson that he has found in commercial bromine, accounted pure, a notable amount of 
cyanogen, and that it may be detected as follows. Take of iron filings and bromine, of each, half an ounce ; add to 
the filings 2 or 2-5 ounces of water; introduce the bromine very gradually, stirring steadily ; filter rapidly while 
warm from the reaction ; and put the filtered liquid in a partially closed bottle. In the course of some hours a de- 
posit of iron ferricyanide (Berlin blue) will have formed, and may be collected on a filter. In the course of two 
days the whole of the cyanogen will be deposited. In the samples of bromine thus examined he had found from 
0'5 to 1 per cent, of cyanogen. (Chem. New*, 1873, p. 51.) 
f Iodine bromide in aqueous solution is sometimes employed, which is made by rubbing 10 parts of iodine with' 
40 parts of distilled water, introducing into a flask, adding 20 parts of bromine, and shaking until the iodine is dis- 
solved. 530 parts of distilled water are added, and the whole filtered. 20 parts contain 1 part of iodine terbromide. 
A solution containing 15 per cent, is sometimes found in commerce. 278 
Bromum.—Bi yonia. 
PART I. 
mine chloride has been used in cancer by Landolfi, of Naples, both externally as a caustic and 
internally. But a committee of the French Academy reported decidedly against it. 
Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, of Louisville, Ky., proposes the following as a convenient formula 
for a solution of bromine. Dissolve 160 grains of potassium bromide in two fluidounces of 
water, add one troyounce of bromine, and, stirring diligently, pour in sufficient water to make 
the solution measure four fluidounces. The solution should be kept in accurately stopped 
bottles. This is a suitable preparation for application to hospital gangrene, and may be diluted 
to any desirable extent with water. (A. J. P., 1863, p. 202.) 
Bromine, in an overdose, acts as a corrosive poison. A case of poisoning by this substance, 
which proved fatal in seven hours and a half, is related by Dr. J. R. Snell. The amount swal- 
lowed was about an ounce, and the symptoms generally were those produced by the irritant 
poisons: such as violent inflammation of the lips, mouth, tongue, and oesophagus, with inces- 
sant burning pain, followed, in two hours and a half, by prostration, ending in death. (New 
York Journ. of Med., Sept. 1850.) The best antidote, according to Mr. Alfred Smee, is 
ammonia, given largely diluted and mixed with sweet oil. 
Bromine is extensively used in tho manufacture of bromides, in photography, and in the 
manufacture of coal-tar colors. 
BRYONIA. U.S. Bryonia. [Bryony.] 
(BBY-O'NI-A.) 
“ The root of Bryonia alba, and of Bryonia dioica Linn6 (nat. ord. Cucurbitaceae).” XJ. S. 
Bryone couleuvree, Fr.g Zaunriibe, Gichtriibe, O. 
Bryonia alba, or white bryony, is a perennial, climbing, herbaceous plant, growing in thickets 
and hedges in different parts of Europe. It bears rough, heart-shaped, five-lobed leaves, small 
yellow monoecious flowers, arranged in racemes, and roundish black berries about the size of a 
pea. Another species, called B. dioica, with dioecious flowers and red berries, bears so close a 
resemblance in character and properties to the preceding that it is considered by some botanists 
merely a variety. The roots of both plants are gathered for use. When fresh they are 
spindle-shaped, sometimes branched, a foot or two in length, as thick as the arm, or even 
thicker, externally yellowish gray and circularly wrinkled, within white, succulent, and fleshy, 
of a nauseous odor, which is lost in great measure by drying, and of a bitter, acrid, very dis- 
agreeable taste. The peasants are said sometimes to hollow out the top of the root, and to 
employ the juice which collects in the cavity as a drastic purge. (Merat and De Lens.) The 
berries are also purgative, and are used in dyeing. B. americana, Lam., and B. africana, 
Thunb., are respectively used in the West Indies ana Africa as liydragogue cathartics in dropsy. 
The berries of the European Black Bryony, Tamus communis, are said to be an irritant poison, 
and M. Coutagne has found that their tincture causes in animals paralysis and convulsions. 
(Rep. de Pharm., Nov. 1884.) 
Properties. As kept in the shops, the root is in circular transverse slices, externally 
yellowish gray and longitudinally wrinkled, internally of a whitish color, becoming darker by 
age, concentrically striated, light, brittle, and readily pulverizable, yielding a whitish powder. 
It is officially described as follows. “ In transverse sections about 5 Cm. in diameter, the 
bark gray-brown, rough, thin, the central portion whitish or grayish, with numerous, small, 
projecting wood-bundles arranged in circles and radiating lines; fracture short; inodorous; 
taste disagreeably bitter.” U. S. Besides a peculiar glucoside called bryonin, the root contains 
a resin, to which the name of bryoresin has been given. It yields its active properties to 
water. Bryonin, C34H48O0, may be obtained by exhausting the coarsely pulverized root in 
the cold with water containing 3 per cent, of hydrochloric acid. This acid aqueous liquid 
is then treated with tannin until no further precipitate occurs, the precipitate treated first 
with water containing HC1 and then with distilled water, dried, pulverized, and dissolved 
in 90 per cent, alcohol; the solution is filtered, decomposed with zinc oxide, and the result- 
ing mass exhausted with cold distilled water. This on evaporation yields impure bryonin, 
which is purified by dissolving it in water containing hydrochloric acid and dialyzing it. 
It is white, amorphous, very bitter, soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether and 
chloroform. It is dextrogyre and precipitates tannin and ammoniacal lead acetate. The root 
thus exhausted with water and dried, when treated with 90 per cent, alcohol, yields the bryo- 
resin. This is soft at 15° C., red, amorphous, soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, glacial 
acetic acid, and alkalies. Bryonin, boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, yields a glucose and a 
yellowish, amorphous resin, bryogenin. This latter is soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether. PART I. 
Bryonia. —Buchu. 
279 
(Masson, Joum. de Pharm. et de Chim., 1893, 300 ; see also report of investigation by C. F. 
Heller, A. J. P., 1887, 68.) 
Medical Properties. Bryony is an active hydragogue cathartic, in large doses sometimes 
emetic, and disposed, if too largely administered, to occasion inflammation of the alimentary 
mucous membrane. It appears also to have direct relations with the nervous system, and it 
has in a number of cases produced serious or even fatal poisoning. Vomiting and purging 
have been commonly present, but in some cases there has been no diarrhoea. Giddiness, de- 
lirium, and dilated pupils, coupled with fall of the bodily temperature, imperceptible pulse, 
cold perspiration, and other manifestations of collapse, are the usual symptoms. Eighty minims 
of the homoeopathic tincture caused very serious but not fatal poisoning. (For cases see P. J. 
Tr., 1858, p. 542 ; Lancet, May 9,1868 ; Brit. Med. Joum., 1883, ii. 1067 ; Ther. Gaz., ii. 35 ; 
also Woodman and Tidy.') The recent root is highly irritant, and is said, when bruised and 
applied to the skin, to be capable of producing vesication. The medicine was well known to the 
ancients, and has been employed by modern physicians as a hydragogue cathartic in dropsy, but 
is now superseded by jalap. Dose of powdered root, from a scruple to a drachm (1-3-3-9 6m.).* 
(See Tinctura Bryonise.') 
BUCHU. U.S. (Br.) Buchu. 
(Bb'£HU.) 
“ The leaves of Barosma betulina (Thunberg), Bartling et Wendland, and Barosma crenulata 
(Linne), Hooker (nat. ord. Rutaceae).” XJ. S. “ The dried leaves of Barosma betulina, Bart, 
and Wendl.” Br. 
Buchu Folia, Br.; Folia Bucco, Folia Diosmae, s. Barosmae; Feuilles de Bucco (Booko, Buchu), Fr.; Bucku- 
blatter, Buccoblatter, G. 
The leaves of the official and other Barosmas (so named from fiapus, heavy, and oaprj, odor), 
and of some Agathosmas, are collected by the Hottentots, who value them on account of their 
odor, and, under the name of boolcoo or buchu, rub them, in the state of powder, upon their 
greasy bodies. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-cleft or five-parted. Disk lining the bottom of the calyx, generally with 
a short scarcely prominent rim. Petals five, with short claws. Filaments ten ; the five opposite 
the petals sterile, petaloid ; the other five longer, subulate. Style as long as the petals. Stigma 
minute, five-lobed. Fruit composed of five cocci, covered with granular dots at the back. 
These plants are small shrubs, with opposite leaves and peduncled flowers. Lindley. 
The official species are all erect, slender shrubs with opposite leaves, dotted with conspicuous 
pellucid oil glands, smooth, angular, purplish branches, often of a purplish color, white flowers, 
and a fruit of five erect carpels. They are chiefly distinguished by their leaves. 
Barosma crenata. Lindley, Flor. Med. p. 213.—Diosma crenata. De Cand. Prodrom. i. 
714.—Barosma crenulata. Hooker. B. & T. 46. The leaves are opposite, ovate or obovate, 
acute, serrated and glandular at the edge, coriaceous, and full of small pellucid dots on the 
under surface. The flowers are white or of a reddish tint, and stand solitarily at the end of 
short, lateral leafy shoots.f 
B. serratifolia. Willd. Sp. Plant, p. 257 ; Lind. Flor. Med. p. 213 ; B. & T. 47. The leaves 
are linear lanceolate, equally narrowed towards either end, three-nerved, with a truncate apex, 
which is always furnished with an oil-cell, and a sharply serrulate margin. Their length is 
from an inch to an inch and a half; their width one-fifth of an inch. 
B. betxdina. Bartling. The leaves of this species are cuneate-obovate, apex recurved, with 
their margin sharply denticulate by spreading teeth. They are from one-half to three-quarters 
of an inch long, by three-tenths to five-tenths of an inch wide. 
Properties. Buchu leaves are officially described as follows. “About 15 Mm. long, 
roundish-obovate with a rather wedge-shaped base, or varying between oval and obovate, obtuse, 
crenate or serrate, with a gland at the base of each tooth, dull yellowish-green, thickish, 
pellucid-punctate ; odor and taste strongly aromatic, somewhat mint-like, pungent and bitterish.” 
* Prof. Petresco asserts that Bryonia alba is physiologically different from Bryonia dioica; that it contains a 
glucoside, brein, which is a powerful stimulant to the arterioles, rendering the drug a valuable remedy in the treat- 
ment of po8t-parttim hemorrhage and other metrorrhagias. 
t C. J. S. Thompson has found that the leaves of B. serratifolia yield only 3’45 per cent, of resin and 1 per cent, of 
volatile oil, whilst those of B. crenulata yield 3-75 per cent, of resin and 1*6 per cent, of volatile oil, and those of 
B. betulina give 4'25 per cent, of resin and 1'45 per cent, of volatile oil: so that B. serratifolia would seem to bo 
the least active of the official species. (P. J. Tr., xxi. 1890.) 280 
Buchu. 
PAET I. 
XT. S. “ The transverse section exhibits an epidermis whose cells contain yellow sphero-crys- 
tals ; the inner walls of these cells are thick and rich in mucilage. Odor and taste strong and 
characteristic.” Br. The leaves of B. crenata constitute the short buchu or round buchu, whilst 
those of B. serratifolia are the long buchu of commerce. The leaves of B. crenulata are at 
present comparatively infrequent in commerce, the parcels usually consisting of those of one of 
the other species almost unmixed. The species can be recognized by the characters already 
given The leaves of the Empleurum serrulatum sometimes occur mixed with buchu leaves, 
occasionally constituting the bulk of the parcel. They are to be distinguished by their acrid 
taste and peculiar odor and by being longer and narrower than any buchu leaf, with a sharp- 
pointed apex, parallel sides, and coarse denticulation. Further, according to Holmes, when 
the leaf of a Barosma is held up to the light the lateral veins appear straighter, longer, and 
more strongly developed than in the leaves of the Empleurum * 
Fliickiger obtained from B. betulina 1*56 per cent, of volatile oil, which had the odor of 
peppermint rather than of buchu, and deviated the plane of polarization considerably to the 
left. On exposure to cold it furnished a camphor, which, after re-solution in alcohol, crys- 
tallized in needle-shaped forms. After repeated purification in this manner, the crystals of 
Barosma camphor, or diosphenol, have a peppermint odor ; they fuse at 85° C. and begin to 
sublime at 110° C. After fusion they again solidify only at 50° C. Submitted to elementary 
analysis, the crystals yielded 74-08 per cent, of carbon and from 9 to 10 per cent, of hydrogen. 
Barosma camphor is abundantly soluble in carbon disulphide. The crude oil from which the 
camphor had been separated had a boiling point of about 200° C., quickly rising to 210° C. or 
even higher. The oil which distilled between these temperatures, rectified over sodium, gave 
approximately the formula C10HleO. (Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 109.) Prof. Spica ex- 
amined B. crenata and found the volatile oil to differ from that obtained by Prof. Fliickiger 
from B. betulina,; the stearopten was similar to diosphenol, but upon analysis gave the figures 
Ci0HieO2, and hence is regarded by Prof. Spica as an oxycamphor. The elaeopten was a 
greenish-yellow oil, having a pleasant odor and a pungent, peppermint-like taste ; by fractioning, 
it was separated into a portion isomeric with borneol, resembling thymol in smell and taste, 
and having the composition C8H120, to which the name of dioscamphor was given. A sub- 
stance extracted by alcohol from the residue after the removal of the oil Prof. Spica named 
diosmin. (P. J. Tr., 1885, p. 106.) The results of Spica were confirmed by Shimoyama 
(Amer. Joum. Phar., 1888, p. 624), who made several simple derivatives of diosphenol, and then 
prepared from it, by prolonged digestion with alcoholic potash, diolic acid, -f- H20, 
forming white crystalline needles, melting at 96°-97° C., and a compound to which ne gives the 
name diolalcohol. Wayne’s experiments (A. J. P., 1876, p. 19) appear to indicate that the 
oil also contains a substance capable of being converted into salicylic acid. Prof. J. M. 
Maisch believes that buchu leaves do not contain salicylic acid, although the stearopten of the 
oil gives a blackish color with ferric chloride. (A. J. P., July, 1881.) The yield of ash varies, 
according to the researches of H. W. Jones (P. J. Tr., ix. 673), from 4-69 to 4-40 in B. betu- 
lina, 4-32 to 5-39 in B. crenulata, 5-03 to 5.22 in B. serratifolia; the ash itself was remark- 
able as containing a great deal of manganese. The short-leaved buchu was found by Mr. P. W. 
Bedford to yield an average of 1-21 per cent, of volatile oil; while the long-leaved, though 
more highly valued in the market, gave only 0-66 per cent., showing its great inferiority in 
strength. (Proc. A. P. A., 1863, p. 211.) 
Medical Properties. The Hottentots have long used buchu in a variety of diseases. 
From these rude practitioners the remedy was borrowed by the resident English and Dutch 
physicians, by whose recommendation it was employed in Europe, and has come into general 
use. Its activity depends upon the volatile oil, which is eliminated by the kidneys. Under its 
action there is no marked increase in the amount of the urine, hence the remedy is of no value 
in dropsies ; but the oil affects very decidedly the mucous membrane of the genito-urinary tract. 
The remedy is very useful in diseases of the urinary organs, such as gravel, chronic catarrh of the 
bladder, morbid irritation of the bladder and urethra, diseases of the prostate, and retention or 
incontinence of urine from a loss of tone in the parts concerned in its evacuation. It should 
be given when the inflammation is not severe, but not when it is in that condition of chronicity 
requiring oil of turpentine, tincture of cantharides, or other more stimulant diuretics. The best 
preparation is the fluid extract; dose, a fluidrachm (3-7 C.c.) three or four times a day. 
* John C. Umney (P. J. Tr., March, 1895) finds that these leaves contain 0-64 per cent, of a peculiar volatile oil. 
There is no reason to believe that they possess the therapeutical properties of buchu. Butyl-Chloral Hydras.—Caffeina. 
281 
PAET I. 
BUTYL-CHLORAL HYDRAS. Br. Butyl-Chloral Hydrate. 
C4 H5 Ch o, H2 O. (BU'TYL-eHLO'RAL HY'DRXS.) 
“ Butyl-Chloral Hydrate, or trichlorbutylidene glycol, CIIg.CHCl.CCl2.CH(0H)2, is a crys- 
talline hydrate obtained by the addition of water to the liquid butyl-chloral produced by the 
action of chlorine gas on aldehyde.” Br. 
Hydrous Butyl Chloral; Croton Chloral Hydrate, wrongly so called, Br.; Chloral butylicum; Butyl chloralhydrate; 
Hydrate de chloral butylique, Fr.; Butylchloralhydrat, G. 
This substance was discovered by Kramer and Pinner, of Berlin, during an examination of 
the accumulated by-products of the chloral factory of Schering. It was named croton-chloral 
hydrate because it was believed to bear a relationship to crotonic acid, the peculiar acid of 
croton oil; this was subsequently disproved by Pinner, who showed that it belonged to the 
butyl series. (Ber. d. Chern. Ges., vii. 1321,1561.) It is made by passing dry chlorine through 
aldehyde cooled to —10° C. (14° F.), in an apparatus similar to that used in making chloral. 
Fractional distillation is resorted to, and the product boiling between 163° C. (325-4° F.) and 
165° C. (329° F.) is reserved; this is butyl-chloral, a colorless oily liquid. The necessary 
amount of water is added, and butyl-chloral hydrate is obtained. 
Properties. Butyl-chloral hydrate occurs in the form of crystalline, micaceous scales of 
a pungent odor, sparingly soluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol, hot water, and glycerin, 
but insoluble, or nearly so, in chloroform, a property which may be employed to separate it from 
ordinary chloral hydrate. When treated with caustic alkalies it is converted into formic acid, 
potassium chloride, and allylene dichloride, C3H4C12. The British Pharmacopoeia describes it 
as “ In pearly white, trimetric laminae, having a pungent but not acrid odor, and an acrid nau- 
seous taste. It fuses at about 172° F. (77-8° C.) to a transparent liquid, which, in cooling, 
commences to solidify at about 160° F. (71-1° C.). Soluble in about 50 parts of water, and in 
its own weight of glycerin or of alcohol (90 per cent.) ; it slowly dissolves in 20 parts of chlo- 
roform. The aqueous solution is neutral or but slightly acid to litmus. It does not yield 
chloroform when heated with solution of potassium hydroxide or with milk of lime (absence of 
chloral hydrate.” 
Medical Properties and Uses. Butyl-chloral was proposed by Liebreich, in 1870, as a 
remedy for the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia. He states that a drachm (3-88 Gm.) of it 
causes deep sleep, accompanied by anaesthesia of the head, with complete loss of irritability of 
the eyeball and of the trigeminal nerve, the circulation being kept up with great tenacity, and 
death, if the dose have been large enough, resulting from the arrest of respiration. These state- 
ments of Liebreich were contradicted by the research of J. von Mering and of H. W. Schmidt, 
who found that no anaesthesia was produced unless sufficient doses were given to cause complete 
narcosis, and that the general course of the symptoms caused by the croton-chloral was exactly 
parallel to that of those produced by the chloral hydrate. Nevertheless a number of observers 
have used croton-chloral with asserted good results in the treatment of tic-douloureux. The relief 
obtained is, unfortunately, only temporary and palliative. The drug has been commonly ad- 
ministered in doses of from 5 to 20 grains (0-324 to 1-29 Gm.) in syrup. The safer plan is to 
give 5 grains (0-324 Gm.) every half-hour until 30 grains (1-94 Gm.) have been taken or 
relief afforded. The original formula of Liebreich was—Butyl Chloral 5 to 10 parts ; Glycerin 
20 parts; Distilled Water 130 parts. Dose, half a fluidounce, followed in five minutes by a 
second dose, ten minutes later by a third dose, unless relief is afforded. It is not sure that such 
medication would be safe. Dose of British Pharmacopoeia, from five to twenty grains (0-324 to 
1-3 Gm.). For experiments in making dispensing solutions of butyl-chloral, see Proc. A. P. A., 
1894, 578. 
CAFFEINA. U. S., Br. Caffeine. [Theine.] 
C8 Hio N4 02. H2 O ; 211*68. (CXF-FE-I'NA.) C8 Hi0 N4 02. H20; 212. 
“ A feebly basic, proximate principle, obtained from the dried leaves of Thea sinensis, Linne 
(nat. ord. Ternstroemiaceae), or from the dried seeds of CofFea arabica, Linne (nat. ord. Bubi- 
aceae), and found also in other plants.” * U. S.. “ An alkaloid, C8H10N402,HaO, usually 
* The United States Pharmacopoeia allows caffeine to be prepared from either one of the ordinary commercial 
sources, but because tea-leaves contain a much larger percentage of the alkaloid than does the coffee berry, and are 
frequently thrown into commerce in a damaged condition, unlit for use as a beverage, commercial caffeine is almost 
always prepared from them. If the assertion of Dr. Thomas J. Mays, that theine, though chemically identical with 
caffeine, is physiologically different, be confirmed, it will become necessary to recognize theine as an official alka- 
loid, and direct that caffeine be prepared from coffee. The argument that tea and coffee differ in their gross effects 
on the human body, and that therefore the alkaloids cannot be identical, has no force, because coffee contains an 
active empyreumatic oil, developed during the process of roasting. How far the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Mays 282 
Caffeina. 
PART r. 
obtained from the dried leaves of Camellia Thea, Link, or the dried seeds of Coffea arabica, 
Linn. Crystallized from aqueous solution, it contains one molecule of water.” Br. 
Caffeia, Theina, Guaranina. 
Caffeine ( Caffeia) was first discovered by Runge, and afterwards by Pelletier and Caventou 
and Robiquet. Strecker first proved it to be methyl-theobromine by making it from theo- 
bromine synthetically.* (Ann. Chem. Pharm., 118, 170.) It may be obtained in the following 
manner. Exhaust bruised coffee by two successive portions of boiling water, unite the infu- 
sions, add lead acetate in order to precipitate various principles accompanying the caffeine, 
filter, decompose the excess of lead acetate in the filtered liquor by hydrogen sulphide, con- 
centrate by evaporation, and neutralize with ammonia. The caffeine is deposited in crystals 
upon cooling, and may be purified by redissolving in water, treating with animal charcoal, and 
evaporating. H. Leuchsenring obtains caffeine by availing himself of its property of sub- 
liming unchanged by heat. He precipitates a concentrated decoction of coffee by a weak 
solution of lead acetate, filters, evaporates to dryness, mixes the residue with sand, and sub- 
limes as in Mohr’s process for procuring benzoic acid. (A. J. P., xxxii. 25.) Still another 
method, proposed by Vogel, is to treat coffee, ground to powder, with benzin, which dissolves 
the caffeine, and an oily substance, to separate the benzin by distillation, to treat the residue with 
boiling water, which dissolves the caffeine, and deposits it in a crystalline form, after filtration 
and concentration. (Journ. de Pharm,., 3e ser., xxxv. 436.) Paul and Cownley’s process for 
estimating the caffeine in coffee is to mix finely powdered coffee with moist lime, and exhaust 
with alcohol by hot repercolation. The alcohol is evaporated off, and the residue mixed with 
water and a few drops of diluted sulphuric acid ; the mixture is filtered, and the filtrate and 
washings, when cool, treated with chloroform to wash out the alkaloid ; the chloroformic solution 
is evaporated in a tared capsule, and the residue weighed as caffeine. (P. J. Tr., 1887, p. 565. 
For another method, by E. D. Smith, see Pharm. Era, 1887, 17 ; see also A. J. P., 1892, 
468, and 1893, 338 ; Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 1893, 545 ; Apoth. Zeit., 1893, 132 ; Chem. 
and Drug., 1893, 210 ; Pharm. Era, 1897, 391.) 
Caffeine is prepared on a considerable scale from damaged tea. The tea is exhausted with 
boiling water, the decoction boiled with litharge or lead acetate, and the filtered solution 
evaporated until the alkaloid crystallizes out on cooling. The product can be purified by re- 
sublimation or by crystallization from hot water. (Allen, Commerc. Org. Anal., 2d ed., vol. iii., 
part ii., 474.) 
Properties. Caffeine is a feeble base, capable of forming definite compounds with mineral 
acids but not with organic acids ; the latter, however, increase its solubility in water and other 
liquids. (See Caffeina Citrata.') Caffeine is in “ fleecy masses of long, flexible, white crystals, pos- 
sessing a silky lustre, without odor, having a bitter taste, and permanent in the air. Soluble, at 
15° C. (59° F.), in 80 parts of water, 33 parts of alcohol, 555 parts of ether, or 7 parts of chloro- 
form. Also soluble in about 2 parts of boiling water, and very soluble in boiling alcohol. When 
heated to 100° C. (212° F.), Caffeine loses its water of crystallization, and at 229° C. (444-2° 
F.) it melts, forming a colorless liquid. When ignited, Caffeine is completely volatilized with- 
out charring or leaving a residue. Caffeine is neutral to litmus paper. On dissolving a small 
quantity of Caffeine in concentrated sulphuric acid, and adding a minute fragment of potas- 
sium dichromate to the liquid, the latter will acquire a yellowish-green color, which gradually 
becomes green. If a small quantity of Caffeine be dissolved in about 1 C.c. of hydrochloric 
acid, a little potassium chlorate added, the whole evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, and 
the capsule then inverted over a vessel containing a few drops of ammonia water, the residue 
by experiments upon frogs must be accepted still remains a matter of opinion. We think, however, that further phys- 
iological studies of the three alkaloids theme, caffeine, and guaranine are necessary before their physiological diver- 
sity can be considered established. Dunston and Shepheard (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1893, 195) reviewed the question of 
the identity of caffeine and theine with great care, and established the complete chemical identity of the two by a 
study of a number of derivatives. The clinical results obtained by Dr. Mays (Med. News, vol. xlviii.) are sufficient 
to warrant the trial of theine as a local anaesthetic injected in a dose of a third of a grain over painful nerves. 
* In an examination of 25 varieties of coffee, Prof. Dragendorff found a variation in the amount of caffeine of 
from 0'6 to 2'2 per cent. The most important varieties were as follows: 
Brown Preang 
Finest Mocha 
First native Ceylon 
Second “ “ 
1-54 
per cent 
ft 
Yellow Menado 
Third “ “ 
1-59 
u 
Finest plantation Jamaica . . , 
Costa Rica 
ft 
First Surinam 
AVost Indian 
u 
Pear! plantation Ceylon 
Rio 
u 
Yellow Java 
Jamaica 
ft 
Gray Java 
Santos 
u Caffeina. 
PART I. 
283 
will acquire a rich purple color, which is destroyed by alkalies. Caffeine should dissolve in 
strong sulphuric or nitric acid without producing a color (absence of organic impurities). Its 
aqueous solution should not be precipitated by mercuric potassium iodide test-solution (absence 
of other alkaloids).” U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ Soluble in 80 parts of 
cold water, the solution having a faintly bitter taste and being neutral to litmus. Easily soluble 
in boiling water, alcohol (90 per cent.), or chloroform ; sparingly soluble in ether. It dissolves 
without color in sulphuric and nitric acids. At 212° F. (100° C.) the crystals lose 8-49 per 
cent, of their weight, and at a higher temperature melt and volatilize without decomposition. 
Treated with a crystal of potassium chlorate and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and the mix- 
ture evaporated to dryness in a porcelain dish, a reddish residue results, which becomes purple 
when moistened with solution of ammonia. In an aqueous solution of the alkaloid, tannic acid 
gives a white precipitate soluble in excess of the reagent, but no precipitate is caused by 
solution of potassium iodide containing mercuric iodide (distinction from other official alka- 
loids).” It is precipitated from its aqueous solution by no reagent except tannic acid and 
solution of potassio-mercuric iodide. When this solution, made by saturating potassium iodide 
with mercuric oxide, is added to a solution of caffeine, a precipitate is produced, which soon 
takes the form of white, shining, acicular crystals. This reaction is proposed as a test of 
caffeine by Prof. Dellfs; for though the same solution will precipitate the other alkaloids, the 
product is always amorphous. (Chem Gaz., Feb. 15, 1855.) Tanret proposes to increase the 
solubility of caffeine by adding definite proportions of sodium benzoate, cinnamate, or salicylate, 
which form with it double salts rich in alkaloid (45‘8, 58-9, and 61 per cent, respectively). 
These are well adapted for hypodermic administration, as they are all freely soluble in water. 
The proportions recommended are as follows: caffeine-sodium benzoate (caffeine, 244, sodium ben- 
zoate, 288); caffeine-sodium cinnamate (caffeine, 244, sodium cinnamate, 170); caffeine-sodium 
salicylate (caffeine, 244, sodium salicylate, 160). {U Union Pharm., xxxvii. 394.) Caffeine is 
remarkable for containing a larger proportion of nitrogen than does almost any other proxi- 
mate vegetable principle, in this respect equalling some of the highly animalized products. 
Medical Properties and Uses. There have been a few cases of poisoning by caffeine; 
a drachm of citrated caffeine swallowed by an adult was followed by burning at the throat, 
giddiness, faintness, nausea, tremor of the extremities, abdominal pain, mental distress, great 
cardiac oppression, and finally collapse. Consciousness was not impaired, and there was no 
headache until the patient began to recover. A decoction of 8 ounces of freshly roasted coffee, 
taken for the purpose of producing abortion, caused pronounced choreic tremors, great rest- 
lessness, quickened respiration, and rapid pulse, with very strong, even violent, heart-beats. In 
doses of 3 to 5 grains caffeine produces in the healthy individual a peculiar wakefulness, with 
stimulation of the cerebrum, and some increase of the urinary secretion and force of the pulse. 
There is usually marked increase of the mental activity and of the capability for sustaining 
mental work. Abont two hours after the ingestion of 12 grains by Dr. Pratt, there were intense 
physical restlessness and mental anxiety, with obstinate sleeplessness, active and persistent think- 
ing, general muscular tremulousness, and frequent urination. 
Given in large dose to the lower animals, caffeine * produces hurried respiration, restlessness, 
slightly lowered followed by markedly elevated temperature, tetanic and clonic convulsions, 
progressive paralysis, and finally death from paralytic arrest of respiration. The cause of the 
convulsions in mammals is not determined, but in the frog they are of spinal origin, for both 
Pratt and Le Blond have found that section of the cord does not arrest them below the point 
of section, whilst destruction of the cord (Pratt and Leven) prevents their development. It 
would appear, therefore, that caffeine acts upon the frog as a stimulant to the motor side of 
the spinal cord, and it is probable that the physical restlessness and tremulousness produced in 
man are largely of spinal origin. Upon the motor nerves caffeine has no effect, but there is 
some reason for suspecting that it exerts a very feeble influence upon the sensory nerves. Upon 
the muscles caffeine acts as a powerful poison; when an isolated piece of the gastrocnemius of 
the frog is thrown into a one-per-cent., or even weaker, solution of the citrate of caffeine, it 
becomes contracted and stiff, and unable to respond to the galvanic current in from two to 
* Caffeine Derivatives. Professor W. Filehne (Archiv f. Anat. und Physiol. (Physiolog. Ahtheil.), 1886, abstract 
Therap. Gaz., 1886) has made an investigation of the physiological action of certain derivatives and decomposition 
products of caffeine,—namely, hydroxy-caffeine, diethoxy-hydroxy-caffeine, ethoxy-caffeine, caffeidine, caffuric acid, 
nypo-caffeine, caffoline, guarineine, uric acid. Believing that the introduction into the caffeine molecule of an atom 
which is depressing to the heart would modify physiologically the action of the molecule, J. W. Pickering has made 
studies with chloro-caffeine (chlorotrirnethylxanthine), and finds that, whilst it is a powerful diuretic and a cerebral 
stimulant, it has very little influence upon the heart itself. (Journ. f. Physiol., 1895; Journ. Chem. Soc., 1895.) 284 
Caffeina.—Caffeina Citrata. 
PART I. 
three minutes. It has been abundantly proved that it is the muscle-fibre which is affected, 
and it seems to be established that the paralysis is preceded by a period of excitement, during 
which the contractility of the muscle is increased both in its sensitiveness to stimuli and in its 
power. The action of caffeine upon the circulation is distinct, as has been shown by Leven, 
Binz, and other observers. The alkaloid produces in the mammal elevation of the arterial 
pressure, which is at least in part due to a direct action upon the heart; caffeine in small dose 
reinforcing the isolated frog’s heart, and giving to its contractions more amplitude and more 
energy. Prof. Reichert found that even after destruction of the vaso-motor centres in the 
medulla oblongata, caffeine still elevates the arterial pressure. He believes that this rise of the 
arterial pressure, which must be independent of the vaso-motor centres, is due to a direct action 
of the caffeine upon the muscle-fibres in the vessel-walls. Direct proof of this, however, 
seems to be wanting, and it remains uncertain whether the rise of pressure is due entirely or 
only in part to the cardiac stimulation. In advanced stages of caffeine poisoning the arterial 
pressure falls, both the heart and the vaso-motor system being depressed or paralyzed. The 
pulse-rate is usually but not always increased by caffeine ; sometimes it is distinctly slowed ; 
these results are probably due to some influence exerted upon the pneumogastric system. 
One of the most constant symptoms produced in man by overdoses of caffeine is excessive 
diuresis, and experiments made upon the lower animals show that caffeine acts as a diuretic not 
only by influencing the circulation, but also by directly affecting the secreting cells of the kid- 
ney or the nerves which dominate those cells, the probabilities being in favor of the first of 
these theories of action. According to Prof. Schroeder, not only the water but also the solids 
of the urine are increased. 
The question whether caffeine has an influence upon tissue-changes and the consequent 
nitrogenous elimination cannot be considered as distinctly answered, though the most probable 
conclusion is that the action of caffeine upon urea elimination and upon general nutrition is 
not direct or pronounced. Whilst the therapeutic dose of caffeine is broken up in the body 
with the formation of methylxanthine, which escapes with the urine, the toxic dose is at least 
in part eliminated by the kidney unchanged. 
Caffeine is a valuable remedy in practical medicine as a cerebral and cardiac stimulant and 
as a diuretic. In undue somnolence, in nervous headache, in narcotism, also, at times, when the 
exigencies of life require excessively prolonged wakefulness, caffeine may be used as the most 
powerful agent known for producing wakefulness. In a series of experiments, Dr. J. Hughes 
Bennett found that within narrow limits there is a direct physical antagonism between caffeine 
and morphine. Coffee and caffeine in narcotic poisoning are of value as a means of keeping the 
patient awake, and of stimulating the respiratory centres. 
As a cardiac stimulant, caffeine may be used in any form of heart-failure; the indications 
for its use are those which call for the employment of digitalis. It is superior to digitalis in 
never disagreeing with the stomach, in having no distinctive cumulative tendency, and in the 
promptness of its action. It is pronouncedly inferior to digitalis in the power and certainty of 
its action, and in the permanence of its influence once asserted. As a diuretic it is superior; 
it is very valuable in the treatment of cardiac dropsies, and is often useful in chronic Bright's 
disease when there is no irritation of the kidneys. 
On account of its tendency to produce wakefulness, it is usually better to mass the doses early 
in the day, at least six hours being left between the last dose and the ordinary time for sleep. 
From eight to fifteen grains may be given in the course of a day in severe cases. If tried, it 
would probably prove a useful drug in cases of sudden collapse from various causes. The or- 
dinary salts of it are, however, not available for hypodermic use, because they are decomposed 
in the presence of water. The double benzoate of sodium and caffeine has been proposed as 
moderately stable and free from irritant properties: the following formula has also been com- 
mended by M. Tanret for hypodermic use : Sodii salicyl., 31 gr.; Caffeinse, 40 gr. ; Aquae des- 
tillatae, 60 gr. For internal administration the soluble preparation known as citrated caffeine 
is usually preferred. Dose, from 3 to 8 grains (0-194 to 0-51 6m.). 
CAFFEINA CITRATA. U. S. (Br.) Citrated Caffeine. 
(CXF-FE-I'NA CI-TRA'TA.) 
“ An unstable compound, C8H10N402,C6H807, prepared from Caffeine and Citric Acid.” Br. 
Caffeines Citras, Br., Caffeine Citrate. 
“ Caffeine, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Citric Acid, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce 
av., 334 grains] ; Distilled Water, hot, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 PART I. 
Caffeina Citrata.—Caffeina Citrata Effervescens. 
285 
minims]. Dissolve the Citric Acid in the hot Distilled Water, add the Caffeine, and evaporate 
the resulting solution, on a water-bath, to dryness, constantly stirring towards the end of the 
operation. Reduce the product to a fine powder, and transfer it to well-closed bottles.” U. S. 
“ Caffeine, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Citric Acid, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 20 grammes; 
Distilled Water, 2 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 40 cubic centimetres. Dissolve the Citric Acid 
in the Distilled Water; stir the Caffeine into the heated solution; evaporate to dryness on a 
water-bath, constantly stirring towards the end of the operation ; reduce to a fine powder.” Br. 
This is a new preparation of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia ; although defined as a weak com- 
pound of caffeine and citric acid, it is not regarded by chemists as a chemical salt, but as a 
mechanical mixture of the two substances composing it. The British Pharmacopoeia gives 
the following as its chemical formula : C8H,0N402,H3C6H607. It is officially described as “ a 
white powder, odorless, having a purely acid taste and an acid reaction. One part of Citrated 
Caffeine forms a clear, syrupy solution with about 3 parts of water.* Upon dilution with water, 
this yields a white precipitate (caffeine), which redissolves when about 25 parts of water have 
been added. It is also soluble in a mixture of 2 volumes of chloroform and 1 volume of 
alcohol.” U. S. The Br. Pharm. describes it as “ A white inodorous powder with an acid and 
faintly bitter taste and an acid reaction on litmus. It is soluble in 32 parts of water, and also 
in a mixture of 2 parts of chloroform with one part of alcohol (90 per cent.). With 3 parts 
of water it forms a clear syrupy solution, but more water dissociates the salt and affords a white 
precipitate of caffeine which redissolves when excess of water is added. Heated in the air, 
the salt is charred and then burnt, leaving a mere trace of ash. It affords the reactions men- 
tioned under ‘ Caffeina,’ and also those characteristic of citrates.” 
Medical Properties and Uses. Citrated caffeine is possessed of the physiological and 
therapeutical properties of caffeine. The dose is from three to eight grains (0-194 to 0-51 Gm.). 
CAFFEINA CITRATA EFFERVESCENS. U. S. (Br.) Effervescent 
Citrated Caffeine. 
(CXF-FE-I'NA CI-TRA'TA EF-FER-VES'CEN§.) 
Caffe in 93 Citras Effervescens, Br, Effervescent Caffeine Citrate. 
“ Caffeine, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Citric Acid, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Sodium 
Bicarbonate, three hundred and thirty grammes [or 11 ounces av., 279 grains] ; Tartaric Acid, 
three hundred grammes [or 10 ounces av., 254-7 grains] ; Sugar, in very fine powder, three hun- 
dred and fifty grammes [or 12 ounces av., 151 grains] ; Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. To make 
one thousand grammes [or about 35 ounces av.]. Triturate the solid ingredients, separately 
well dried, to a fine, uniform powder. Mix this with Alcohol to a soft paste and rub it through 
a No. 6 tinned-iron sieve or enamelled colander. Then dry it, and reduce it to a coarse, gran- 
ular powder. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles.” U S. 
“ Sodium Bicarbonate, in powder, 51 ounces (Imperial) or 510 grammes; Tartaric Acid, in 
powder, 27 ounces (Imp.) or 270 grammes; Citric Acid, in powder, 18 ounces (Imp.) or 180 
grammes; Refined Sugar, in powder, 14 ounces (Imp.) or 140 grammes; Caffeine Citrate, 4 
ounces (Imp.) or 40 grammes. Mix the Caffeine Citrate, Tartaric Acid, and Citric Acid ; with 
this product thoroughly incorporate the mixed Sodium Bicarbonate and Refined Sugar; place 
in a dish or pan of suitable form heated to between 200° and 220° F. (93-3° and i04-4° C.). 
When the mixture, by aid of careful manipulation, has assumed a granular character, separate 
it into granules of uniform and convenient size by means of suitable sieves. Dry the granules 
at a temperature not exceeding 130° F. (54-4° C.). The product should weigh about 100 
ounces (or 1000 grammes).” Br. 
This effervescent granulated salt contains 1 per cent, of caffeine. The methods of granula- 
tion are not identical in the above processes ; alcohol is used in the U. S. P. to give a pasty con- 
sistence to the ingredients before granulating. In the British process no alcohol is used ; this 
effects a saving in the expense of manufacturing, while the use of heat with skilful manipula- 
tion has been found to produce equally good results. Samples of effervescent citrated caffeine 
have been found in the market very deficient in caffeine ; the sweetening is sometimes effected 
by the use of saccharin instead of sugar. The powder affords an agreeable method of admin- 
istering citrated caffeine. The dose is a teaspoonful in water, to be taken during effervescence. 
* M. A. Harper examined a number of commercial samples of citrated caffeine, and found them all fairly to 
represent the official preparation. He reports, however, that the official test for solubility in water should be altered 
slightly, and the words “ when gently warmed” be inserted, because a sample made strictly according to the U. S. P. 
would not conform to the test without warming. ( West. Drug., 1897, 253.) 286 
Calamus. 
PART I. 
CALAMUS. U. S. Calamus. [Sweet Flag.] 
(cXl'a-mus.) 
*•' The rhizome of Acorus Calamus, Linne (nat. ord. Aroideae).” U. IS. 
Rhizoma Calami, P.G.; Radix Calami Aromatici, Radix Acori; Acore vrai, Acore odorant, Fr.; Kalmuswurzel, 
G.; Calamo aromatico, It., Sp. 
Gen. Gh. Spadix cylindrical, covered with florets. Corolla six-petalled, naked. Style none. 
Capsule three-celled. Willd. 
Acorus Calamus. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 199 ; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 63; B. & T. 279. The 
sweet flag, or calamus, has a perennial, horizontal, jointed, somewhat compressed root (rhizome), 
from half an inch to an inch thick, sometimes several feet in length, sending off numerous 
round and yellowish or whitish radicles from its base, and bunches of brown fibres resembling 
coarse hair from its joints, internally white and spongy, externally whitish with a tinge of 
green, variegated with triangular stains of light brown and rose color. The leaves are all 
radical, sheathing at the base, long, sword-shaped, smooth, green above, but, near their origin 
from the root, of a red color, variegated with green and white. The scape or flower-stem 
resembles the leaves, but is longer, and from one side, near the middle of its length, sends out 
a cylindrical spadix, tapering at each end, about two inches in length, and crowded with green- 
ish-yellow flowers. These are without calyx, and have six small, concave, membranous, trun- 
cated petals. The fruit is an oblong capsule, divided into three cells, and containing numerous 
oval seeds* 
This is an indigenous plant, growing throughout the United States, in low, wet, swampy 
places, and along the sides of ditches and streams, and flowering in May and June. It is also 
a native of Europe and Western Asia; and a variety is found in India. The European plant 
differs slightly from the American. The leaves as well as the root have an aromatic odor; but 
the latter only is employed. It should be collected late in the autumn, or in the spring. After 
removal from the ground, the rhizomes are washed, freed from their fibres, and dried with a 
moderate heat. By drying they lose nearly one-half their diameter, but are improved in odor 
and taste. 
Properties. The roots, as found in commerce, are “ in sections of various lengths, unpeeled, 
about 2 Cm. broad, subcylindrical, longitudinally wrinkled; on the upper surface marked with 
leaf-scars forming triangles, and on the lower surface with the circular scars of the rootlets in 
wavy lines; externally reddish-brown, somewhat annulate from remnants of leaf-sheaths ; in- 
ternally whitish, of a spongy texture, breaking with a short, corky fracture, showing numerous 
oil-cells and scattered wood-bundles, the latter crowded within the subcircular endoderm. It 
has an aromatic odor, and a strongly bitter taste.” U. S. Their texture is light and spongy, 
their color internally whitish or yellowish white, and their fracture short and rough. A variety 
imported from Germany consists exclusively of the interior portion of the root. The pieces 
are usually long, slender, irregularly quadrangular, and of a grayish-white color. 
The odor of calamus is strong and fragrant; its taste warm, bitterish, pungent, and aromatic. 
Its active principles are taken up by boiling water. From 100 parts of the fresh root of the 
European plant, Trommsdorff obtained 0-1 of volatile oil, 2-3 of soft resin, 3-3 of extractive 
with a little potassium chloride, 5-5 of gum with some potassium phosphate, 1-6 of starch 
analogous to inulin, 21-5 of lignin, and 65-7 of water. Sixteen ounces of the dried root afforded 
to Neumann about two scruples of volatile oil. The oil is at first yellow, but ultimately becomes 
red, and has the smell and taste of calamus. Kurbatow (Annal. d. Chemie, vol. 173, p. 4) 
examined oil of calamus, and found that the portion boiling below 170° C. (338° F.) yielded 
after treatment with sodium a terpene, C1OII10, having sp. gr. -8793 at 0° C. (32° F.), and 
having a boiling point of 158° C. (316-4° F.). According to Schimmel’s Report (April, 1895), 
all oils of calamus having a lower rotary power than -f- 10° and those which do not yield 
clear solutions with any proportion of 90 per cent, alcohol should be rejected. The extractive 
matter has an acrid and sweetish taste. H. Thomas obtained from calamus rhizomes a bitter 
principle, which he named acorin, in the form of a clear, thick, yellow liquid, having a neutral 
reaction, aromatic odor, and bitter, aromatic taste. It is a glucoside, having the formula 
C36HeoOe, splitting into oil of calamus and sugar; insoluble in water, but readily soluble in 
absolute alcohol, methylic alcohol, and chloroform. By oxidation acoretin, a neutral resin, is 
* Japanese Calamus. A root not to be distinguished from European calamus root has entered commerce from 
Japan. It yields five per cent, of a highly aromatic essential oil, having a specific gravity of 0-991 at 16° C.; one 
part dissolving in 500 parts of fifty per cent, spirit. It boils at 210° to 290° C., yielding at the lower temperature 
an oil with a characteristic calamus odor, and at the higher temperature one with a peculiar sesquiterpene odor. PART I. 
Calamus.—Calcii Bromidum. 
287 
formed, and from the extract remaining after the acorin is removed Thomas obtained an 
alkaloid which he named calamine; this is crystalline, insoluble in water and ether, but solu- 
ble in alcohol, chloroform, and acetone. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1886, 465 ; P. J. Tr., 1886,1085.) 
Calamus is sometimes attacked by worms, and deteriorates by keeping. The India variety is 
more slender than the European, and has a stronger and more pleasant flavor. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Calamus is a feeble aromatic, which may be used with 
advantage in pain or uneasiness of the stomach or bowels arising from flatulence, and as an 
adjuvant to tonic or purgative medicines. It was probably known to the ancients, and is sup- 
posed to have been the axopov of the Greeks; but the calamus aromaticus of Dioscorides was 
a different product, having been derived, according to Dr. Royle, from a species of Andropogon. 
The medicine is at present not much used. The dose in substance is from a scruple to a drachm 
(1-3—3-9 Gm.). An infusion, made in the proportion of an ounce of the root to a pint of 
boiling water, is sometimes given in the dose of a wineglassful (60 C.c.) or more. (See Ex- 
traction Calami Fluidum.') 
CALCIUM. Calcium. 
Ca; 39.91. (CiL'CI-UM.) Ca; 40. 
This is the metal characteristic of lime, and, consequently, of all calcareous substances. It 
was obtained by Dr. Matthiessen, in 1855, in masses of the size of a pea, by the electrolysis 
of calcium chloride with a Bunsen battery. It is a pale yellow metal, remarkably glittering 
when freshly filed. Its fracture is jagged, becoming granular. It is malleable and very 
ductile. In a dry air it remains unaltered, but it soon tarnishes in a moist one. It melts at 
a red heat, and afterwards burns with splendor, forming lime, or calcium oxide. (Chem. Gaz., 
June 15, 1855.) 
Calcium is a very abundant element in nature, existing in the mineral kingdom chiefly as a 
carbonate, in the form of limestone, marble, chalk, and calcareous spar; and as a phosphate 
and carbonate in the bones and shells of animals. 
CALCII BROMIDUM. U. S. Calcium Bromide. 
CaBrq 199*43. (CXL'CI-I BRO'MI-DUM.) CaBr2; 199-6. 
Calcium Bromatum, Bromure de Calcium, Bromure de Chaux, Fr.; Brom Calcium,"6*. 
“ Calcium Bromide should be preserved in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. It is prepared by 
M. Boedecker by first forming a sulphur bromide, by the addition of 20 parts of the flowers 
of sulphur to 240 parts of bromine; this is added to a milk of lime containing 140 parts of 
fresh lime. Calcium bromide and sulphate are formed and are readily separated. (Journ. de 
Pharm., 4e ser., viii. 463.) Mr. Jas. R. Mercein puts five ounces of bromine and two and a 
half pints of water in a half-gallon specie jar, passes a stream of hydrogen sulphide through 
the bromine until it is all taken up, filters, drives off excess of hydrogen sulphide by heat, distils 
the solution of hydrobromic acid thus obtained until four-fifths have passed over, saturates 
this with excess of precipitated calcium carbonate, filters, and evaporates. (A. J. P., xliv. 100.) 
Mr. Macdonald (ibid., 1873) employs the following method. Dissolve 4 ounces of ammonium 
bromide in a pint of water. Put into a flask and bring to the boiling point. Keep boiling, and 
add milk of lime (made from pure calcined lime) in small quantities, until ammoniacal vapors 
cease to be evolved. The operator can easily tell when this point has been reached, by the 
sense of smell. Filter the solution, evaporate to a syrupy consistency, remove from the fire, 
and stir until cold. Tasilly prepares calcium oxybromide by adding three parts of calcium oxide 
in small portions to a solution of one hundred parts of calcium bromide in seventy-five parts 
of hot water; acicular crystals of calcium oxybromide, CaBr23CaO,16H20, are deposited on 
cooling the filtered solution. 
Properties. “ A white, granular salt, odorless, of a sharp, saline taste, and very deliques- 
cent. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0 7 part of water, and in 1 part of alcohol; much more 
soluble at a boiling temperature. At 680° C. (1256° F.) the salt fuses, and at a higher tem- 
perature it is partly decomposed, with loss of bromine. The salt is neutral to litmus paper. 
The aqueous solution (1 in 20) of the salt yields, with ammonium oxalate test-solution, a white 
precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. If to 5 C.c. of the aque- 
ous solution a few drops of chloroform he added and then 1 C.c. of chlorine water, bromine 
will be liberated, and, on agitating the mixture, will dissolve in the chloroform with a yellow 
or brownish-yellow color.” U S. 
Tests. “If 1 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in 20 C.c. of water, it should form a clear, 288 
Calcii Bromidum.—Calcii Carbonas Praecipitatus. 
PART I. 
colorless solution, leaving no residue (absence of insoluble impurities). If to 5 C.c. of this 
aqueous solution, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, an equal volume of hydrogen sul- 
phide test-solution be added, neither coloration nor turbidity should be perceptible (absence of 
arsenic, lead, etc.). The addition of ammonium sulphide test-solution to the aqueous solution 
should not produce any color or turbidity (absence of iron, aluminum, etc.). If 5 C.c. of the 
aqueous solution (1 in 20), slightly acidulated with acetic acid, be completely precipitated with 
ammonium oxalate test-solution, the filtrate should, on evaporation, leave not more than a trace 
of fixed residue (limit of magnesium and alkalies). If diluted sulphuric acid be dropped upon 
the salt, the latter should not at once assume a yellow color (absence of bromate). If to 5 C.c. 
of the aqueous solution (1 in 20) a few drops of starch test-solution be added, and then chlo- 
rine water, drop by drop, no blue color should appear (absence of iodide). No turbidity should 
be produced, if 0-2 C.c. of barium chloride test-solution be added to 5 C.c. of the aqueous so- 
lution (absence of sulphate). If 1 Gm. of the salt be mixed with 0-5 Gm. of iron filings and 
0-5 Gm. of powdered zinc, and heated in a test-tube with 5 C.c. of sodium hydrate test-solu- 
tion, no ammoniacal vapors should be evolved (absence of nitrate or nitrite). If 0‘25 Gm. of 
the well-dried salt be dissolved in 10 C.c. of water and 2 drops of potassium chromate test- 
solution added, it should require 25 C.c. of silver, nitrate decinormal volumetric solution to pro- 
duce a permanent red color (corresponding to 99-7 per cent, of the pure salt, a greater amount 
indicating presence of chloride, a smaller amount other impurities).” U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Calcium bromide was proposed by Dr. Hammond, in 
1871, as a substitute for the corresponding salt of potash. It has failed to gain much sup- 
port from the medical profession, but is sometimes employed as an adjuvant in epilepsy and 
hysteria. Its action upon the lower animals has been partially investigated by Guttmann 
(.Phila. Med. Times, iv. 361), who finds that it is a sedative to the nerve-centres, but lacks the 
depressant cardiac action of potassium bromide. Dose, from fifteen to thirty grains (0-97—1.95 
Gm.). 
CALCII CARBONAS PRiECIPITATUS. U.S., Br. Precipitated Calcium 
Carbonate. Precipitated Chalk. 
CaCOs; 99*76. (cAl'CI-I CAR'BO-NXs Ca CO3; 100. 
“ The precipitate, CaC03, obtained by the interaction of calcium chloride and sodium car- 
bonate.” Br. 
Calcaria Carbonica Praecipitata, P.G.; Carbonas Calcicus Praecipitatus, Creta Praecipitata; Carbonate de Chaux 
pr6cipit6, Craie precipitee, F>\; Pracipitirter kohlensauer Kalk, G. 
A formula for this preparation is found in the Pharmacopoeia of 1870.* 
The processes do not essentially differ. In each a mutual interchange of principles takes 
place, resulting in the production of sodium chloride which remains in solution, and calcium 
carbonate which is deposited, CaCl2 -f- Na2C03 = CaC03 -f- 2NaCl. Any peculiar advantage of 
the preparation must depend on the minute division of its particles. According to Dr. Bridges, 
this effect is best obtained by employing the solutions at the boiling temperature, a precaution 
which is observed in most processes now. (A. J. P., xvi. 163.) When properly made, it is “ a 
fine, white powder, without odor or taste, and permanent in the air. Nearly insoluble in water ; 
the solubility is increased by the presence of ammonium salts, and especially by carbonic acid ; 
alkaline hydrates diminish it. Insoluble in alcohol. In diluted acetic, hydrochloric, or nitric 
acid, it is completely soluble, with effervescence. When heated to redness with access of air, 
the salt loses carbon dioxide, and a residue of calcium oxide remains. For applying tests 
of identity and of purity, boil 6 Gm. of Calcium Carbonate with a mixture of 50 C.c. of di- 
luted acetic acid and 50 C.c. of water, allow the liquid to cool, and filter. In this solution, 
ammonium oxalate test-solution produces a white precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but solu- 
ble in hydrochloric acid. If from 20 C.c. of this solution the calcium be completely precipi- 
tated by a slight excess of ammonium oxalate test-solution, the filtrate should, on evaporation, 
leave only a trace of fixed residue (limit of magnesium and alkalies). If 10 C.c. of the solu- 
tion be slightly acidulated with acetic acid, no immediate turbidity should be produced by the 
addition of 0-5 C.c. of barium chloride test-solution (limit of sulphate). If to 10 C.c. of the 
* “Take of Solution of Chloride of Calcium five, pints and a half; Carbonate of Sodium seventy-two troyounces; 
Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Carbonate of Sodium in six pints of Distilled Water. Heat this 
solution and the Solution of Chloride of Calcium, separately, to the boiling point, and mix them. After the precipi- 
tate has subsided, separate it from the supernatant liquid by decantation, and wash it with boiling Distilled Water 
until the washings cease to be affected by a solution of nitrate of silver. Lastly, dry the precipitate on bibulous 
paper." 17. & 1870. 289 
PART I. 
Calcii Carbonas Prsecipitatus.—Calcii Chloridum. 
solution, slightly acidulated with nitric acid, 0-1 C.c. of silver nitrate volumetric solution be 
added, and the precipitate, if any, removed by filtration, the filtrate should remain perfectly 
clear upon addition of more silver nitrate volumetric solution (limit of chloride). Addition of 
ammonia water should not produce any turbidity in the solution (absence of iron, aluminum, 
phosphate, etc.). If to the solution, slightly acidulated with acetic acid, an equal volume of 
hydrogen sulphide test-solution be added, neither color nor turbidity should be produced (ab- 
sence of arsenic, lead, etc.). If 1 Gm. of the salt be agitated with 50 C.c. of water, the filtrate 
should not show an alkaline reaction with litmus paper, and, on evaporation, should not leave 
more than a trace of residue (limit of soluble impurities)." U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. For ordinary use, it probably has no such superiority 
over prepared chalk as to counterbalance its greater expensiveness, but it is preferred by some 
in the preparation of tooth-powders. Dose, from 10 to 40 grains (0-65-2-6 Gm.) or more. 
CALCII CHLORIDUM. U. S., Br. Calcium Chloride. 
CaCI2; 110*65. (CAL'CI-i CHLO'BI-DUM.) Ca Cl2; 110-8. 
“ Calcium Chloride, rendered anhydrous by .fusion at the lowest possible temperature. It 
should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. “ The salt, CaCl2,2H20, formed by neutral- 
izing hydrochloric acid with calcium carbonate, carefully desiccated at a temperature not 
exceeding 392° F. (200° C.).” Br. 
Calcaria Muriatica, Chloridum Calcicum; Muriate of Lime, Hydrochlorate of Lime; Chlorure de Calcium, 
Hydrochlorate de Chaux, Fr.; Chlorcalcium, Salzsaures Kalk, G. 
Calcium chloride consists of chlorine united with calcium, the metallic radical of lime. It 
may he readily formed by saturating hydrochloric acid with chalk or marble, evaporating to 
dryness, and heating to redness. The hydrochloric acid, by reacting with the lime, forms cal- 
cium chloride and water, the latter of which is dissipated at a red heat, CaC03 -J- 2HC1 = 
CaCl2 -j- C02 -j- H20. The Br. Pharm. (1885), after neutralizing the acid with calcium car- 
bonate, adds a little solution of chlorinated lime and slaked lime, filters, evaporates till the 
chloride becomes solid, and, instead of igniting the residue, dries it at about 204-4° C. (400° 
F.). Its composition, according to the Br. Pharm., is CaCl2,2HaO. 
Properties. Calcium chloride is in “ white, slightly translucent, hard fragments, odorless, 
having a sharp, saline taste, and very deliquescent. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 1-5 parts 
of water, and in 8 parts of alcohol; in 1-5 parts of boiling alcohol, and very freely in boiling 
water; insoluble in ether. Below a red heat the salt fuses, and, on cooling, solidifies without 
change in composition ; but at a higher temperature, especially if kept in fusion for some time, 
a portion is decomposed and calcium oxide formed. When perfectly pure, the salt dissolves 
in water without residue, and the solution is strictly neutral to litmus paper. When the salt 
is overheated in fusing, the solution has an alkaline reaction, and a small residue is left, which 
is soluble in hydrochloric acid. The aqueous solution (1 in 20) yields, with ammonium oxalate 
test-solution, a white precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. 
With silver nitrate test-solution it yields a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. The 
aqueous solution (1 in 20) should remain clear upon addition of ammonia water (absence of 
iron, aluminum, etc.), or of barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate). If from 20 
C.c. of the solution the calcium be completely precipitated by ammonium oxalate test-solution, 
the filtrate should, on evaporation, leave not more than a trace of fixed residue (limit of mag- 
nesium and alkalies'). If 5 C.c. of the aqueous solution, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, be 
mixed with an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide test-solution, neither color nor turbidity 
should appear (absence of arsenic, lead, etc.). No turbidity should be produced by the addi- 
tion of 0-5 C.c. of potassium dichromate test-solution to 5 C.c. of the aqueous solution (ab- 
sence of barium)." U. S. “ In dry, white, very deliquescent masses, soluble in an equal 
weight of water and in 3 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.). It affords the reactions characteristic 
of calcium and of chlorides. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for iron, 
aluminium, or carbonates, and only the slightest reactions with the tests for magnesium. It 
evolves no chlorine or hypochlorous acid on the addition of hydrochloric acid (absence of 
hypochlorite).” Br. On account of its avidity for water, the fused salt is used for drying 
gases. The crystallized salt is also very deliquescent, and has the form of colorless, trans- 
parent, striated, six-sided prisms. The crystals, on exposure to heat, first dissolve in their 
water of crystallization, and, after this has evaporated, undergo igneous fusion. With ice or 
snow they form a powerful frigorific mixture. Calcium chloride exists in the water of the 
ocean and of many springs. It is usually associated with common salt and magnesium chlo- 290 
Calcii Hydras.—Calcii Hypophosphis. 
PART I. 
ride, from which it is separated with difficulty. When crystallized it contains six molecules 
of water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. According to A. E. Wright (Brit. Med. Journ., 1891), 
calcium chloride when given internally increases the coagulability of the blood, and is probably 
a useful remedy in hsemophilia. Good results have been also claimed from it in urticaria, in 
arthritis, and in rachitis. According to Stefani (Archiv. Ital. de Biolog., xxii., 1894), it has 
the property of conserving and re-establishing nervous excitability, and should be useful in 
conditions of mental depression. It may be given in doses of five grains (0-32 Gm.) three 
times a day, increasing if necessary to twenty grains (1-3 Gm.), in dilute solution.* 
CALCII HYDRAS. Br. Calcium Hydroxide. Slaked Lime. 
(cXl'ci-I hy'drXs.) 
“ Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(HO)a, recently prepared by the interaction of water and calcium 
oxide.” Br. 
Calcis Hydras; Hydrate of Lime. 
The British Pharmacopoeia no longer gives a detailed process for slaked lime. The process 
of the Br. Pharm. (1885) is as follows: “Take of Lime two pounds [avoirdupois]; Distilled 
Water one pint [Imperial measure]. Place the Lime in a metal pot, pour the water upon it, 
and when vapor ceases to be disengaged cover the pot with its lid and set it aside to cool. 
When the temperature has fallen to that of the atmosphere, put the slaked lime on an iron- 
wire sieve, and by gentle agitation cause the fine powder to pass through the sieve, rejecting 
what is left. Put the powder into a well-stoppered bottle, and keep it excluded as much 
as possible from the air. Slaked lime should be recently prepared.” Calcium hydroxide 
“affords the reactions characteristic of calcium. Strongly heated it loses nearly one-fourth of 
its weight of water. It should yield only the slightest characteristic reactions with the tests 
for iron, aluminium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonates, chlorides, phosphates, sul- 
phates, or silica.” Br. 
For an account of the physical and medical properties of slaked lime, see Calx. 
CALCII HYPOPHOSPHIS. U. S., Br. Calcium Hypophosphite. 
Ca (PH2 02)2? 169*67. (ClL'Cl-i hy-po-phOs'phis.) Ca H* (P02)2; 1T0. 
Calcis Hypophosphis; Hypophosphite of Lime; Calcaria Hypophosphorosa, Hypophosphis Calcicus; Hypophos- 
phite de Chaux, Fr.; Unterphosphorigsaurer Kalk, G. 
“ Calcium Hypophosphite, Ca(PH202)2, is obtained by the interaction of phosphorus, cal- 
cium hydroxide, and water.” Br. 
Attention has been called to the hypophosphites as a class of salts, in consequence of their 
recommendation by Dr. Churchill, of Paris, in the treatment of phthisis, in which they are 
thought to be useful by furnishing phosphorus to the tissues. One of the first papers on their 
mode of preparation and qualities was communicated by Prof. Procter. (See A. J. P, xxx. 118.) 
Hypophosphorous acid consists of one atom of phosphorus, two of oxygen, and three of 
hydrogen, of which latter, however, only one is replaceable by metal. It is, therefore, a mono- 
basic acid. It has a strong affinity for oxygen, and acts as a powerful deoxidizing or reducing 
agent, which property it is supposed to owe to the presence of the unreplaceable hydrogen 
atoms, sometimes termed “ aldeliydic” hydrogen. When heated, it is resolved into hydrogen 
phosphide and phosphoric acid. Its salts are generally soluble in water and deliquescent, and 
many of them are soluble in alcohol. They are converted into phosphates by heat, with the 
escape of hydrogen phosphide; and some of them are explosive. 
Calcium, hypophosphite has attracted most attention, and would meet the views of those who 
wish to supply calcium phosphate to the system, as the hypophosphorous acid is converted into 
the phosphoric by its deoxidizing power. To prepare it Prof. Procter gave the following 
formula. Slake 4 pounds (avoirdupois) of lime with a gallon of water, add it, in a deep boiler, 
to 4 gallons of boiling water, and mix thoroughly. To the mixture add a pound (av.) of 
phosphorus, and continue the boiling, adding hot water from time to time to keep up the 
measure, until the combination is complete, and phosphuretted hydrogen is no longer evolved. 
It is necessary that provision should be made for the escape of the gas, which takes fire spon- 
taneously in contact with the air. There are formed in the liquid calcium phosphate and 
hypophosphite, the phosphorus having become oxidized at the expense of the water, the 
* Liquor Calcii Cliloridi was official in U. S. Pharm. 1870. A convenient method of making this preparation 
is to dissolve 228 grains of fused calcium chloride in l fluidounce of distilled water, and filter if necessary. Calcii Hypophosphis. 
PART 1. 
291 
hydrogen of which has escaped in combination with another portion of phosphorus, which is 
therefore lost. The liquid is filtered to separate the insoluble phosphate and residuary lime, 
then concentrated, and refiltered to separate the calcium carbonate formed by the action of the 
air on a little lime held in solution, and lastly evaporated till a pellicle appears; after which the 
salt may be allowed to crystallize by setting the liquid aside, or may be obtained in the granular 
form by continuing the heat, and stirring. The salt should be introduced into bottles. The 
British Pharmacopoeia has practically adopted this process, but any uncombined lime remaining 
in the solution is separated by passing carbonic acid gas through it. 
Calcium hypophosphite is in “ colorless, transparent, monoclinic prisms, or small, lustrous scales, 
or a white, crystalline powder, odorless, having a nauseous, bitter taste, and permanent in the 
air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 6-8 parts of water, and in 6 parts of boiling water; insol- 
uble in alcohol. When heated in a test-tube, the salt decrepitates, and above 300° C. (572° F.) 
it begins to decompose, giving off- water, and emitting inflammable gases (hydrogen and hydro- 
gen phosphide), and leaving a residue of calcium pyrophosphate and metaphosphate, with some 
red phosphorus. The aqueous solution (1 in 20) is neutral to litmus paper, and yields, with 
ammonium oxalate test-solution, a white precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in 
hydrochloric acid. The aqueous solution, slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, yields, with 
silver nitrate test-solution, a precipitate which is white at first, but rapidly turns brown and 
black by separation of metallic silver. With copper sulphate test-solution, on gentle heating, 
a reddish-brown precipitate of copper hydride is formed. When the aqueous solution is added, 
drop by drop, to mercuric chloride test-solution, at first a white precipitate of mercurous chlo- 
ride is formed, which, as soon as the hypophosphite solution is added in excess, turns gray from 
reduction to metallic mercury. If 1 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in 20 C.c. of water, no insol- 
uble residue should be left (absence of phosphate, sulphate, and other insoluble impurities'). In 
this solution no precipitate should be produced by the addition of lead acetate test-solution 
(absence of soluble phosphate) ; nor, after acidulating with hydrochloric acid, by barium chlo- 
ride test-solution (absence of soluble sulphate) ; nor by an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide 
test-solution (absence of arsenic, etc.). On adding to 5 C.c. of the solution (1 in 20) 1 C.c., 
each, of ammonium chloride test-solution and ammonia water, and 3 C.c. of ammonium car- 
bonate test-solution, applying a gentle heat for a few minutes, and then filtering, not more than 
a very slight turbidity should be produced upon adding to the filtrate a few drops of sodium 
phosphate test-solution (limit of magnesium). If 0-1 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in 10 C.c. 
of water, then mixed with 10 C.c. of sulphuric acid and 50 C.c. of potassium permanganate 
decinormal volumetric solution, and the mixture boiled for fifteen minutes, it should require 
not more than 3 C.c. of oxalic acid decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the red color 
(corresponding to at least 99-G8 per cent, of the pure salt).” U. S. “Soluble in 8 parts of 
cold water; insoluble in cold alcohol (90 per cent.). Heated to redness the crystals ignite, 
evolving spontaneously inflammable hydrogen phosphide and hydrogen, and leave a reddish- 
colored residue. It affords the reactions characteristic of calcium. Its aqueous solution 
yields with test-solution of mercuric chloride a white precipitate turning gray. 0-25 gramme 
boiled for ten minutes with a solution of 06 gramme of potassium permanganate should yield, 
on filtration, a nearly colorless solution. The salt should yield no characteristic reaction with 
the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, iron, aluminium, magnesium, sodium, or potassium, and 
only the slightest reactions with the tests for chlorides or sulphates. It should afford little or 
no precipitate with solution of lead acetate (limit of phosphates and phosphites).” Br. The 
solubility of calcium hypophosphite is increased by the addition of hypophosphorous acid. 
For a method of purifying alkaline hypophosphites, see Journ. de Pharm. d' Anvers, 1879, 57 ; 
N. R., 1879, 142. 
As the soluble salts of mercury, copper, and silver are reduced by the hypophosphites, they 
are of course incompatible with it in prescriptions. With calcium hypophosphite all the solu- 
ble sulphates and carbonates produce precipitates. As the hypophosphites are insoluble in 
cod-liver oil, they should be dissolved in syrup before being added to the oil. (See Syrupus 
Calcii Hypophosphitis.) W. A. H. Naylor considers the presence of sulphites in commercial 
hypophosphites to be the source of the disagreeable odor of sulphuretted hydrogen sometimes 
found in the compound syrup of hypophosphites. (P. J. Tr., 1895, 144.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Calcium hypophosphite has been with the other hypo- 
phosphites strongly recommended in chronic phthisis, and is still much used ; but the weight 
of testimony appears to be opposed to the first favorable impressions ; and, though some cases 
may have seemed to be benefited, yet great care must be taken not to allow a reliance on the 292 
Calcii Phosphas Prsecipitatus. 
PART I. 
hypophosphites to interfere with the use of remedies known to be efficient, as cod-liver oil, and 
supporting measures generally. The remedy has also been highly recommended in scrofulous 
diseases and in cases of defective nutrition of the nerve-centres ; but in most of these latter 
cases some direct preparation of phosphorus is probably superior, as it is not proved and not 
probable that the hypophosphites can yield up their phosphorus to the nerve-centres. Dose, 
from ten to thirty grains (065—1-95 Gm.), three times a day. (See Syrupus Hypophosphitum.) 
CALCII PHOSPHAS PR.ECIPITATUS. U. S. (Br.) Precipitated 
Calcium Phosphate. 
Caj (POi)j; 309*33. (CXL'CI-I PHOS'PHXs Ca3(P04)2; 310. 
“ Calcium Phosphate may be prepared by dissolving bone ash in dilute hydrochloric acid, 
adding the liquid to dilute solution of ammonia, washing the precipitate with cold water, and 
drying the washed precipitate at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.); or by the 
interaction of calcium chloride and sodium phosphate.” Br. 
Caloii Phosphas, Dr., Calcis Phosphas (1885), Calcium Phosphate; Phosphate of Calcium; Calcaria Phos- 
phorica, P. G.; Phosphas Calcicus Prmcipitatus; Precipitated Phosphate of Lime; Phosphate de Chaux hydrate, 
Fr.; Phosphorsaure Kalkerde, G. 
A formula for this preparation was given in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870.* It has 
been very properly retained in the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias. There is, however, no 
necessity of retaining the word “ prascipitatus” in the U. S. title, as it is never seen in com- 
merce except as a precipitate. One of its more recent uses is to replace magnesium carbonate 
and absorbent cotton in the process for medicated waters. 
The hydrochloric acid dissolves the calcium phosphate of the bones, and lets it fall, on the, 
addition of ammonia, in a state of minute division. The ablution is intended to free it from 
adhering ammonium chloride. The salt thus obtained is, for the sake of distinction, called 
bone calcium phosphate. It is “ a light, white, amorphous powder, odorless and tasteless, and 
permanent in the air. Almost insoluble in cold water; partly decomposed by boiling water, 
which dissolves out an acid salt; almost insoluble in acetic acid, except when freshly pre- 
cipitated ; easily soluble in hydrochloric or nitric acid; insoluble in alcohol. At an intense, 
white heat the salt fuses without decomposition. When moistened with silver nitrate test- 
solution, a yellow color is assumed by the salt either before or after ignition (distinction from 
add caldum phosphate, which, after ignition, when moistened with silver nitrate, remains 
white). For applying tests of identity and purity, shake 2 Grin, of the salt with 20 C.c. of 
water and add nitric acid, drop by drop, until solution is effected; then add water to make the 
liquid measure 40 C.c. No effervescence should occur on adding the acid (absence of car- 
bonate). From a portion of this solution the salt is precipitated unchanged by a slight excess 
of ammonia water. From another portion ammonium molybdate test-solution precipitates 
yellow ammonium phosphomolybdate ; the reaction is accelerated by a gentle heat. If to 5 
C.c. of the solution, acidulated with nitric acid, 0-5 C.c. of silver nitrate test-solution be added, 
not more than a slight turbidity should result (limit of chloride). The clear solution should 
not be rendered turbid by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate) ; nor by potassium 
sulphate test-solution (barium) ; nor by an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide test-solution 
(arsenic, lead, etc.) ; nor should it be colored blue by potassium ferrocyanide test-solution (iron). 
If 5 C.c. of the solution be mixed with 1 C.c. of sodium acetate test-solution, and then with 
ammonium oxalate test-solution, until the calcium is completely precipitated, the filtrate should 
not be rendered very turbid by adding ammonia water in slight excess (limit of magnesium).'' 
U. S. “Soluble in diluted hydrochloric acid or diluted nitric acid; such a solution continues 
clear when a dilute solution of sodium acetate is added in excess (absence of calcium oxalate). 
It affords the reactions characteristic of calcium and of phosphates. Of the recently dried 
powder, 1 gramme dissolved in diluted hydrochloric acid yields, when added to a very slight 
excess of diluted solution of ammonia, a white precipitate weighing when washed with cold 
* “Take of Bone, calcined to whiteness, and in fine powder, four troy ounces ; Muriatic Acid eight troyounces ; 
Water of Ammonia twelve fluid ounces, or a sufficient quantity ; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Macerate the 
Bone in the Acid, diluted with a pint of Distilled Water, until it is dissolved, and filter the solution. Add another 
Sint of Distilled Water, and then, gradually, Water of Ammonia, until the liquid acquires an alkaline reaction. 
lix the precipitate obtained, while yet in the state of magma, with twice its bulk of boiling Distilled Water, and 
pour the whole upon a strainer. Wash the precipitate with boiling Distilled Water until the washings cease to be 
affected by a solution of nitrate of silver, acidulated with nitric acid. Lastly, dry the precipitate with a gentle 
heat.” U. S. For description of an apparatus for preparing calcium phosphate on a large scale, see Journ. dc 
Phartn., Sept. 1, 1875, 193. PART I. 
Calcii Phosphas Prsecipitatus.—Calcii Sulphas Exsiccatus. 
293 
water and dried at 212° F. (100° C.) not less than 0-95 gramme. It should yield no charac- 
teristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, iron, aluminium, magnesium, carbon- 
ates, or silica, and only the slightest reactions with those for chlorides.” Br. Joly and Sorel 
record ( Compt.-Rend., 1894, 738) the precipitation of tricalcium phosphate by adding crystals 
of hydrated bicalcium phosphate to boiling water; the acid liquid remaining contains mono- 
calcium phosphate. 
Medical Uses. In the form of burnt hartshorn, calcium phosphate formerly enjoyed a 
brief popularity in the treatment of rickets and mollities ossium, in which its use seemed to be 
indicated upon obvious chemical grounds. In 1851, Benecke suggested that, as it is essential 
in animals as well as plants to the formation of cells, it might be found useful in certain path- 
ological states of the system characterized by defective nutrition, such as the scrofulous affec- 
tions, and from that time its use has gradually become more frequent, and, in connection with 
other phosphates, as those of iron, sodium, and potassium, it has acquired no little reputation 
in different forms of scrofula, mollities ossium, rickets, and even chronic phthisis. It is also 
thought to have proved useful by hastening the union of fractured bones ; and M. Alphonse 
Milne-Edwards is said to have shown, by experiments upon dogs and rabbits, that in these ani- 
mals the callus in fractured bones forms more quickly under its use than without it. (Med. 
Times and Gaz., May, 1856, p. 489.) Though insoluble in water, it is probably in general dis- 
solved by the gastric liquids, in consequence of the acid present in them ; but it is best admin- 
istered in acid solution, and is at present very extensively used dissolved in lactic acid and 
emulsified with cod-liver oil. The dose is from ten to thirty grains (0-65-1-95 Gm.). (See 
Syrupus Calcii Lactophosphatis ; also Pulvis Antimonialis.') 
CALCII SULPHAS EXSICCATUS. U. S. Dried Calcium Sulphate. 
[Dried Gypsum. Plaster of Paris.] 
(cXl'ci-I sul'phXs £x-sic-ca'tus.) 
“ A powder containing about 95 per cent., by weight, of Calcium Sulphate [CaS04 = 135-73], 
and about 5 per cent, of Water; prepared from the purer varieties of Native Gypsum [CaS04 
-f-2HaO = 171-65], by carefully heating until about three-fourths of the water has been 
expelled. Dried Calcium Sulphate should be kept in well-closed vessels, carefully protected 
from moisture.” U. S. 
Sulphate of Calcium; Calcis Sulphas; Sulphate of Lime; Gypsum. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) dismissed calcium sulphate (dried), hut inserted calcium 
sulphate in the articles employed in chemical testing in the Appendix. The native sulphate 
is best known as gypsum, and in its massive variety as alabaster. Gypsum is an abun- 
dant natural product, the quantity mined in the United- States in 1896 having been 195,553 
short tons, valued at $583,136; and in 1897, 223,061 short tons, valued at $711,952. It 
is officially described “ as a fine white powder, without odor or taste. From moist air it 
attracts water, becomes granular, and then loses the property of hardening with water. When 
mixed with half of its weight of water, Dried Calcium Sulphate forms a smooth, cohesive 
paste, which rapidly hardens. It is soluble in about 410 parts of water, at 15° C. (59° F.) ; 
in 388 parts, at 38° C. (100-4° F.) ; and in 476 parts, at 100° C. (212° F.). In alcohol it is 
insoluble. It readily dissolves in diluted nitric or hydrochloric acid, also in saturated solutions 
of potassium nitrate, sodium hyposulphite, and of various ammonium salts. When heated 
above 204° C. (399-2° F.), Dried Calcium Sulphate becomes anhydrous and loses the property 
of forming a paste with water and hardening rapidly. Its saturated solution in water should 
be neutral to litmus ]5aper. It forms white precipitates with barium chloride test-solution, 
with ammonium oxalate test-solution, and with alcohol. No effervescence should occur on the 
addition of diluted acids to Dried Calcium Sulphate (absence of carbonate')." U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Gypsum is used by surgeons for mechanical purposes, 
and not at all in internal medicine. It is so slightly soluble in water that it may be considered 
for ordinary purposes insoluble. The solubility of the crystallized sulphate with 2 molecules 
of water (native gypsum) is, according to Curtman, at 15° C., 1 to 390 ; at 38° C., 1 to 368; 
and at 100° C., 1 to 451. The fact has been well established that its solubility varies with 
the temperature, but, like that of sodium sulphate, very unequally. Thus, according to M. 
Poggiale, it is greatest at 35° C. (95° F.), and above or below that temperature gradually 
diminishes, so that at 100° C. (212° F.), or the boiling point of water, it is very nearly the 
same as at 5° C. (41° F.), not far from the freezing point. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., v. 86.) 294 
Calcii Sulphas Kxsiccaius.—Calendula. 
PART I. 
The other point is that, when deprived of its water by heat, and reduced to the state of a white 
powder, it rapidly absorbs water added to it, and, from the state of semi-liquid paste into which 
it is brought with that fluid, hardens without great change of bulk. It is this property 
which fits plaster of Paris so well for all kinds of moulding; and to this also it owes its pecu- 
liar adaptability to the purpose of a splint. To prepare it for use, the gypsum must first be 
deprived of the greater part of its water by exposure to a heat of 100° C. (212° F.), or from 
that to 121-1° C. (250° F.). It loses both its molecules of water of crystallization at a 
temperature of about 170° C. (338° F.), and is then known as burnt gypsum. If heated 
above 204° C. (399-2° F.) it becomes dead-burnt, and does not take up water readily and 
does not harden. When dehydrated, it is reduced to fine powder, and kept in air-tight ves- 
sels for use. As thus prepared, if mixed with two parts of water, it forms a semi-liquid 
cream-like mass, which becomes solid and hard in fifteen or twenty minutes, the temperature 
rising during the process, as in the slaking of lime. The hydrated gypsum expands in solidi- 
fying, hence its advantages in preparing casts,—the expansion causes it to fill accurately all 
interstices. According to Mr. T. E. Stark, a medical officer in the British army, flannel is the 
best material for bandages to be used with gypsum. It should be cut into strips an inch and 
a half broad and two or three yards long, which should first be spread on a table and rubbed 
well with the powdered gypsum on both sides, and always in the direction of the thread. 
The bandages should then be rolled up loosely, and kept for use in air-tight cases. Thus 
applied, the bandages, first thoroughly wetted, should be rolled round the limb, overlapping at 
the edges, so as to make a uniform covering. After application, it should be left to harden, 
which generally happens in fifteen or twenty minutes. A simpler method of using the gypsum 
for this purpose is, after the application of the bandages, to paint the whole thoroughly and 
carefully with the milk of gypsum, which will solidify, and enclose the part in a firm case. 
CALENDULA. U. S. Calendula. [Marigold.] 
(CA-LEN'DU-LA.) 
“ The florets of Calendula officinalis, Linne (nat. ord. Composite).” U. S. 
Fleurs de Tous les mois, Souci, Fr.; Ringelblume, G. 
Gen. Ch. Flower-head heterogamous, rayed, with the female flowers of the ray fertile, in 
one or two rows, the hermaphrodite of the disk sterile. Involucre broad, with linear, acumi- 
nate, subequal, often scarious bracts in one or two rows. Receptacle flat, naked. Corolla of 
female flowers ligulate, with the lamina entire or three-dentate. Hermaphrodite flowers, regu- 
lar, tubular, with an enlarged limb shortly five-cut at the apex. Anthers sagittate, with the 
auricles setaceous-mucronate or caudate. Style of the hermaphrodite flower undivided. Ache- 
nia hare; those of the ray incurved, 2-3-serrate, heteromorphous usually upon the back, or 
everywhere muricate; the outer often elongate, linear, sometimes empty; the intermediate 
broader, often alate; the interior shorter, more incurved; those of the disk thin, smooth, 
empty. (Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum, ii. 454.) 
Calendula officinalis. L. The common marigold of the gardens is too well known to need 
description, other than that of the Pharmacopoeia. 
Properties. “ Florets about 12 Mm. long, linear and strap-shaped, delicately veined in a 
longitudinal direction, yellow or orange-colored, three-toothed above, the short hairy tube en- 
closing the remnants of a filiform style terminating in two elongated branches; odor slight 
and somewhat heavy; taste somewhat bitter and faintly saline.” TJ. S. The odor is much 
stronger in the fresh than in the dry herb, and on exposure to the sun the yellow color fades 
into whitish. Among its constituents is a peculiar principle, called calendulin, discovered by 
Geiger most abundantly in the flowers, and considered by Berzelius a£ analogous to bassorin, 
though soluble in alcohol. French or African Marigold, so called, is very frequently substi- 
tuted for the official drug. It is the Tagetes patula L. and T. erecta Lin., both of Mexico. 
The flowers are readily distinguished by the scales of the involucre being united to form a tube, 
and by the slender, flattish achenes being crowned with a few chaffy or awned scales. The 
broadly strap-shaped ray-florets are toothed, and of a light or deep orange color sometimes 
striped with red. 
Medical Properties and Uses. In the days of therapeutic darkness calendula was 
thought to be antispasmodic, sudorific, deobstruent, and emmenagogue, and was given in low 
forms of fever, scrofula, jaundice, amenorrhoea, etc. Both the leaves and the flowers were used; 
but the latter were preferred, and were usually administered in the recent state in the form of 
tea. An extract was also prepared, and employed in cancerous and other ulcers, sick stomach, PART I. 
Calumba. 
295 
etc. The tincture has been used to a considerable extent as an embrocation in sprains, bruises, 
etc., and probably is of as much value as simple alcohol. 
CALUMBA. U. S. (Br.) Calumba. [Columbo] 
(CA-LUM'BA.) 
u The root of Jateorhiza palmata (Lamarck), Miers (nat. ord. Menispermaceae).” U. S. 
“ The dried transversely cut slices of the root of Jateorhiza Columba, Miers.” Br. 
Calumbas Radix, Br., Calumba Root; Radix Colombo, P. G.; Radix Columbo'; Colomba, U. S. 1850 ; Colombo, 
Fr.: Columbowurzel, G.; Columba, It.; Raiz de Columbo, Sp.; Kalumbo, Port.; Calumb, Mozambique. 
The columbo plant was long but imperfectly known. Flowering specimens of a plant gath- 
ered by Commerson, about the year 1770, in the garden of M. Poivre in the Isle of France, 
and sent to Europe with that botanist’s collection, were examined by Lamarck, and described 
under the name of Menispermum palmatum. But its original locality was unknown, and it 
was only conjectured to be the source of columbo. In the year 1805, M. Forten, while engaged 
in purchasing the drug in Mozambique, obtained possession of a living offset of the root, which, 
being taken to Madras and planted in the garden of Dr. Anderson, produced a male plant, 
which was figured and described by Dr. Berry. From the drawing thus made, the plant was 
referred to the natural family of the Menispermaceae; but, as the female flowers were want- 
ing, some difficulty was experienced in fixing its precise botanical position. De Candolle, who 
probably had the opportunity of examining Commerson’s specimens, gave its generic and spe- 
cific character, but confessed that he was not acquainted with the structure of the female 
flower and fruit. This desideratum, however, was supplied by ample drawings sent to Eng- 
land by Mr. Telfair, of Mauritius, made from plants which were propagated from roots ob- 
tained by Captain Owen in 1825, while prosecuting his survey of the eastern coast of Africa, 
The plant was first placed in the genus Cocculus, which was separated by De Candolle from 
Menispermum. Subsequently, J. Miers established a new genus, which has been received by 
botanists, giving to it the name of Jateorhiza. Miers also separated his plant specifically from 
C. palmatus of De Candolle, describing it under the name of Jateorhiza columba. This species 
is now recognized by the Br. Pharmacopoeia, and was formerly also acknowledged by the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia. But the very careful researches of Mr. Hanbury (Pharmacographia, 2d ed., 
p. 23) led him to consider the specific differences as unimportant and inconstant, with which 
view the botanists of the U. S. 1890 revision coincided. The differences are that in J. palmata 
“ the lobes at the base of the leaf overlap, and the male inflorescence is nearly glabrous; while 
in J. columba the basal lobes are rounded, but do not overlap, and the male inflorescence is 
setose-hispid.” The plants are probably only varieties of one species, and it is almost certain 
that columbo is derived from each of them. 
Gen. Ch. Sepals 6, in two rows, somewhat unequal, thin. Petals 6, shorter than the sepals. 
Male flowers: Stamens 6, free, with the apex recurved-clavate. Anthers unilocular, with the 
apex extrorse, dehiscent by a transverse cleft. Female flowers: Carpels 3, with lacerate, reflex 
stigmata. Drupe ovoid, with a subterminal cicatrix of the style. Putamen somewhat concave 
in its inner face. Seed meniscoid ; albumen fleshy, ruminate ; embryo somewhat curved. 
Cotyledons laterally bivaricate.” (Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plantarum, i. 34.) 
“ The plants of this genus, natives of intertropical Africa, are all climbers, distinguished by 
a very peculiar habit, having very large deeply-lobed leaves, upon very long petioles, and clothed 
with long strigose hairs ; their inflorescence is in long slender racemes ; the fruit is a drupe con- 
taining a putamen covered with a dense hairy coating embedded in the fleshy mesoderm.” 
Cocculus palmatus. De Cand. Syst. Veg. i. 523; Woodv. Med. Bot., 3d ed., v. 21; Hooker, 
Curtis's Bot. Mag., Nos. 2970, 2971.—Jateorhiza palmata. Miers, Annals and Mag. of Nat. 
Hist., Feb. 1864, p. 183. B. & T. 13. This is a climbing plant, with a perennial root con- 
sisting of several fasciculated, fusiform, somewhat curved, and descending tubers, as thick as 
an infant’s arm. The stems, of which one or two proceed from the same root, are twining, 
simple in the male plant, branched in the female, round, hairy, and about as thick as the little 
finger. The leaves, which stand on rounded, glandular, hairy footstalks, are alternate, distant, 
cordate, with three, five, or seven entire, acuminate, wavy, somewhat hairy lobes, and as many 
nerves, each running into one of the lobes. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, and 
arranged in solitary axillary racemes, which in the male plant are compound, in the female 
simple, and in both shorter than the leaves. 
Jateorhiza columba. Miers. Br. Pharm.— Cocculus palmatus. Wallich, non De Cand.— 
Menispermum calumba. Boxb. Flor. Ind. This species is characterized by “ rounded, angularly 
striate, roughly pilose branches; broadly orbicular, sinuously lobed leaves, with rounded sinuses; 296 
Calumba. 
PART I. 
the lobes being 5 in number, broadly ovate, acute, mucronately acuminate ; the basal deeply 
divaricate and hence broadly cordate; 7 to 9 nerved, opaque above, on both sides furnished 
with short, adpressed, somewhat curved, reddish hairs, beneath, pale, strongly reticulate with 
prominent nerves and veins; the petiole somewhat slender, striate, tortuous, and roughly glan- 
dular ; the racemes axillary, solitary or many; the rachis greatly elongated, striate, bristly, 
with elongated, smooth, divaricate, almost capillary, subflexuous, few-flowered branches; the 
flowers sessile, and almost without bracts.” (Miers.) 
Both of these so-called species are natives of Mozambique, on the southeastern coast of 
Africa, where they grow wild in great abundance in the thick forests extending from the sea 
many miles into the interior. They are not cultivated. The root 
is dug up in March, when dry weather prevails. From the base 
of the root numerous fusiform offsets proceed, less fibrous and 
woody than the parent stock. These offsets are separated and 
cut into transverse slices, which are dried in the shade. The old 
root is rejected. 
Columbo is a staple export of the Portuguese from their do- 
minions in the southeast of Africa. It is taken to India, and 
thence distributed. It was formerly supposed to be a product 
of Ceylon, and to have derived its name from Colombo, a city of that island, from which it 
was thought to be exported. It is possible that, when the Portuguese were in possession of 
Ceylon, Colombo may have been the entrepot for the drug brought from Africa, and thus have 
given origin to its name. Some, however, consider a more probable derivation to be from the 
word calumb, which is said to be the Mozambique name for the root. 
Properties. “ In nearly circular disks, 3 to 6 Cm. in diameter, externally greenish-brown 
and wrinkled, internally yellowish or grayish-yellow, depressed in the centre, with a few inter- 
rupted circles of projecting wood-bundles, distinctly radiate in the outer portion; fracture 
short, mealy; odor slight; taste mucilaginous, slightly aromatic, very bitter.” V. S. Along 
with the disks are sometimes a few cylindrical pieces an inch or two in length. The cortical 
portion is thick, of a bright yellow, slightly greenish color internally, but covered with a 
brownish, wrinkled epidermis. The interior or medullary portion, which is readily distinguish- 
able from the cortical, is light, spongy, yellowish, usually more or less shrunk, so that the pieces 
are thinnest in the centre; and is often marked with concentric circles and radiating lines. 
Those pieces are to be preferred which have the brightest color, are most compact and uniform, 
and least worm-eaten. “ The cork is brownish and wrinkled, the cortex thick, marked with 
radiating lines, and separated by a dark line from the wood, in which the vessels are arranged 
in narrow radially elongated groups. The parenchymatous tissue is largely developed, and 
contains numerous starch grains, mostly simple with eccentric hilum.” Br. The odor of 
columbo is slightly aromatic. The taste is very bitter, that of the cortical much more so than 
that of the central portion, which is somewhat mucilaginous. The root is easily pulverized. 
The powder is greenish, becoming browner with age, and deepening when moistened. As it 
attracts moisture from the air, and is apt to undergo decomposition, it should be prepared in 
small quantities. 
M. Blanche analyzed columbo in 1811, and found it to contain a nitrogenous substance, 
probably albumen, in large quantity, a bitter yellow substance not precipitated by metallic 
salts, and one-third of its weight of starch. He obtained also a small proportion of volatile 
oil, salts of lime and potassa, ferric oxide, and silica. Wittstock, of Berlin, afterwards isolated 
a principle, which he called columbin. This crystallizes in beautiful transparent quadrilateral 
prisms of the formula C21H2207, is without smell, and is extremely bitter. It is but very 
slightly soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol, ether,' or chloroform, and imparts to these 
fluids a strongly bitter taste. It is more soluble in boiling alcohol, which deposits it upon 
cooling. The best solvent is dilute acetic acid. It is taken up by alkaline solutions, from 
which it is precipitated by acids. It has neither acid nor alkaline properties, and its alcoholic 
and acetic solutions are not affected by the metallic salts, or by the infusion of galls. It is 
obtained by exhausting columbo by means of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-835, distilling off three- 
quarters of the alcohol, allowing the residue to stand for some days till crystals are deposited, 
and lastly treating these crystals with alcohol and animal charcoal. The mother-waters still 
contain a considerable quantity of columbin, which may be separated by evaporating with 
coarsely-powdered glass to dryness, exhausting the residue with ether, distilling off the ether, 
treating the residue with boiling acetic acid, and evaporating the solution to crystallization. 
Magnified starch granules of co- 
lumbo root. PART 1. 
Calumba. 
297 
From the researches of Dr. Bodeeker it appears that another bitter principle exists in co- 
lumbo, which corresponds in composition and chemical relations with berbedne, the active 
principle of Berberis vulgaris, and is assumed to be identical with that substance. It was ob- 
tained by exhausting columbo with alcohol of 0-889, distilling off the alcohol, allowing the 
residual liquor to stand for three days so as to deposit the columbin, evaporating the super- 
natant liquid together with the aqueous washings of the columbin to dryness, exhausting the 
residue with boiling alcohol of 0-863, treating the solution thus obtained as the former one, 
submitting the residue to the action of the boiling water, filtering, and adding hydrochloric 
acid, collecting the precipitate thus formed on a filter, drying it with bibulous paper, and finally, 
in order to separate adhering acid, dissolving it in alcohol, and precipitating with ether. The 
result was an imperfectly crystalline, bright yellow powder, of a disagreeable, bitter taste, sup- 
posed to be berberine hydrochlorate. It is stated that berberine is present in columbo in much 
larger proportion than columbin, and, being freely soluble in hot water and alcohol, while co- 
lumbin is but slightly so, is probably more largely extracted in the ordinary liquid preparations 
of the root. (A. J. P., xx. 322.) A third constituent, columbic add, was also discovered by 
Bodeeker. It is yellow, amorphous, nearly insoluble in cold water, but dissolving in alcohol 
and in alkaline solutions. It tastes somewhat less bitter than columbin. Bodeeker surmises 
that it may exist in combination with the berberine, and has pointed out a connection between 
the three bitter principles of columbo. If we suppose a molecule of ammonia, NH3, to be 
added to two molecules of columbin, C21H2207, the complex molecule thus resulting will con- 
tain the elements of berberine, C20H17N04, columbic add, C22H2407, and water, 3HaO. (Phar- 
macographia, p. 25.) 
P. E. Alessandri isolated columbine, which he considers an alkaloid, by the following process. 
An infusion of columbo is made with a 3 per cent, solution of oxalic acid; the yellow bitter 
liquid is neutralized with ammonia and evaporated to one-third its bulk; it is, when cooled, 
treated with ether, separated, and the ethereal solution on evaporation yields pure white calum- 
bine. (L’ Orosi, v. 1 ; P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 995.) Alessandri obtains berberine from columbo by 
neutralizing a cold infusion, made with diluted oxalic acid (3 per cent.), with baryta; the pre- 
cipitate which is produced is separated. The liquid is heated, allowed to stand for twenty-four 
hours to allow the barium oxalate to deposit, filtered, and then a current of carbonic acid is 
passed through to remove baryta. It is then treated by shaking the ammoniacal liquid with 
ether as in Alessandri’s process for calumbine (see above), and, after the ethereal layer is sep- 
arated, the aqueous liquid is evaporated to dryness. Berberine is obtained from the extract 
by treating the latter with alcohol, the berberine being purified by washing with ether. Ca- 
lumbic acid may be obtained from the precipitate produced by the addition of baryta to the 
oxalic acid infusion. (L’ Orosi, v. 1; P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 995.) Bocchiola ( Year-Book of Phar- 
macy, 1891, p. 162) states that the older roots contain more of the active principles than the 
younger ones. He found that the inner and the outer portions of columbo also vary in their con- 
stituents ; thus, in the woody or inner part he found the following percentages : calumbine 1.90, 
berberine 0-72, ether extract 0-80, alcoholic extract 3-86, diluted alcoholic extract 17-80, ash 
6. In the cortical or outer part be found calumbine 1-42, berberine 1-43, ether extract 0-70, 
alcoholic extract 3-89, diluted alcoholic extract 17-96, ash 5. Hilger obtained from columbo 
columbin, columbic acid, and berberine in a pure condition. He assigns to columbin the 
formula C21H2407, and to columbic acid C31H2206. (Zeitschr. Oest. Apoth. Ver., 1896, No. 1, 
8-14.) 
There can be little doubt that both columbin and berberine contribute to the remedial effects 
of columbo. The virtues of the root are extracted by boiling water and by alcohol. Precipi- 
tates are produced with the infusion and tincture by infusion of galls, and by solutions of lead 
acetate and subacetate, but the bitterness is not affected. 
Adulterations. It is said that the root of white bryony, tinged yellow with the tincture 
of columbo, has sometimes been fraudulently substituted for the genuine root; but the adul- 
teration is too gross to deceive those acquainted with the characters of either of these drugs. 
American columbo, which is the root of Frasera waited, is said to have been sold in some 
parts of Europe for the genuine. Independently of the sensible differences between the two 
roots (see Frasera), M. Stolze, of Halle, states that, while the tincture of columbo remains 
unaffected by ferric sulphate or sesquichloride, and gives a dirty-gray precipitate with tinc- 
ture of galls, the tincture of frasera acquires a dark green color with the former reagent, and 
is not affected by the latter. (Duncan.) Under the name of columbo wood, or false columbo, 
the wood of Cosdnium fenestratum, a plant of the family of Menispermaceae, growing in Ceylon, 298 
Calumba.—Calx. 
PART I. 
has been imported into England and offered for sale in the drug market. (P. J. Tr., x. 321, 
xii. 185.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Columbo is among the most useful of the mild tonics. 
Without astringency, with very little stimulating power, and generally acceptable to the stomach, 
it answers admirably as a remedy in simple dyspepsia, and in the debility of convalescence, es- 
pecially when the alimentary canal is left enfeebled. Hence it is often prescribed in the de- 
clining stages of remittent fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, cholera morbus, and cholera infantum. 
The absence of irritating properties renders it also an appropriate tonic in the hectic fever of 
phthisis and kindred affections. It has been highly recommended in vomiting unconnected 
with inflammation of the stomach, as in the sickness of pregnant women. It is frequently 
administered in combination with other tonics, aromatics, mild cathartics, and antacids. A 
favorite remedy of Dr. Geo. B. Wood for the permanent cure of a disposition to the accumu- 
lation of flatus in the bowels was an infusion made with half an ounce of columbo, half an 
ounce of ginger, a drachm of senna, and a pint of boiling water, and given in the dose of a 
wineglassful three times a day. Columbo is much used by the natives of Mozambique in dys- 
entery and other diseases. {Berry.) It was first introduced to the notice of the profession in 
Europe by Frangois Redi, in the year 1685. It is most commonly prescribed in the state of 
infusion. (See Infusum Calumbse ; also Extractum Calumbse Fluidum, and Tinctura Calumbse.') 
The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains (0-65-1-95 Gm.), and may be repeated 
three or four times a day. 
CALX. U. S., Br. Lime. 
CaO; 55*87. (CALX.) Ca, 0; 56. 
“ Lime prepared by burning white marble, oyster-shells, or the purest varieties of natural cal- 
cium carbonate. It should be kept in well-closed vessels, in a dry place.” U. S. “ Calcium 
oxide, CaO; obtained by calcining chalk, limestone, or marble.” Br. 
Calcaria Usta, P.O.; Calcaria, Calx Viva, Calx Usta, Oxydum Calcicum; Burned Lime; Quicklime; Chaux, 
Chaux vive, Fr.; Kalk, Gebrannter Kalk, G.; Calce, It.; Cal viva, Sp. 
Lime, which is ranked among the alkaline earths, is a very important pharmaceutical agent, 
and forms the principal ingredient in several standard preparations. It is a very abundant 
natural production. It is never found free, but mostly combined with acids; as with carbonic 
acid in chalk, marble, calcareous spar, limestone, and shells ; with sulphuric acid in the differ- 
ent kinds of gypsum ; with phosphoric acid in the bones of animals ; and with silica in a great 
variety of minerals. 
Preparation. Lime is prepared by calcining, by a strong heat, some form of the native 
carbonate. The carbonic acid is thus expelled, and the lime remains. When the lime is in- 
tended for nice chemical operations, it should be obtained from pure white marble or oyster- 
shells. For the purpose of the arts it is procured from common limestone, by calcining it in 
kilns of peculiar construction. When obtained in this way it is generally impure, being of a 
grayish color, and containing alumina, silica, ferric oxide, and occasionally a little magnesia and 
manganese oxide. 
The official lime of the United States and British Pharmacopoeias is the lime of commerce, 
and therefore impure. It may be obtained purer by exposing pure white marble, broken into 
small fragments, in a covered crucible, to a full red heat for three hours, or till the residuum, 
when slaked and suspended in water, no longer effervesces on the addition of hydrochloric acid. 
Properties. Lime is in “ hard, white, or grayish-white masses, which, in contact with air, 
gradually attract moisture and carbon dioxide, and fall to a white powder ; odorless ; of a sharp, 
caustic taste. Soluble in about 750 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in about 1300 parts 
of boiling water ; insoluble in alcohol. Soluble in diluted acetic, hydrochloric, or nitric acid. 
When sprinkled with about half its weight of water, lime becomes heated, and is gradually 
converted into a white powder (calcium hydrate or slaked lime). When this is mixed with 
about 3 or 4 parts of water, it forms a uniform smooth magma (milk of lime). Even at .the 
highest degree of heat, lime remains unaltered and does not fuse. Its aqueous solution gives 
an intensely alkaline reaction with litmus paper. Its solution in diluted acetic acid gives, with 
ammonium oxalate test-solution, a white precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in 
hydrochloric acid. If 1 part of lime be slaked and then thoroughly mixed with 50 parts of 
water, and the greater portion of the milky liquid decanted, no hard, gritty particles should be 
found in the residue, nor should the addition of hydrochloric acid to this residue cause much 
effervescence (limit of carbonate), nor leave more than a slight, insoluble residue. If the 
decanted portion be dissolved in acetic acid and filtered, if necessary, a portion of the filtrate PART I. 
Calx.—Calx Chlorata. 
299 
should not be rendered turbid by potassium dichromate test-solution (absence of barium'). In 
another portion of the filtrate, the addition of ammonia water should not produce more than a 
slight turbidity (limit of aluminum, etc.).” U. S. 
Lime is calcium oxide, and consists of one atom of calcium 40, and one of oxygen 16. Its 
sp. gr. is 3-08, whilst the hydrate has the sp. gr. 2-078. (Filhol.) Its solubility in water is 
greatly increased by the addition of sugar or glycerin. (See Syrupus Calcis.) It is distinguished 
from the other alkaline earths by forming a very deliquescent salt (calcium chloride) by reaction 
with hydrochloric acid, and a sparingly soluble one with sulphuric acid. All acids, acidulous, 
ammoniacal, and metallic salts, borates, alkaline carbonates, and astringent vegetable infusions 
are incompatible with it. 
Medical Properties. Lime acts externally as an escharotic, and was formerly applied 
to ill-conditioned ulcers. The lime ointment of Spender is made by incorporating four parts of 
washed slaked lime with one part of fresh lard and three parts of olive oil, previously warmed 
together. Mixed with potassa, lime forms Potassa cum Calce. As an internal remedy, it is 
always administered in solution. (See Idquor Calcis; also Syrupus Calcis.) 
CALX CHLORATA. U. S. (Br.) Chlorinated Lime. 
(CiLX jshlo-ra'ta.) 
“ A compound resulting from the action of chlorine upon calcium hydrate, and containing 
not less than 35 per cent, of available chlorine. This preparation is often improperly called 
1 Chloride of Lime.’ Chlorinated Lime should be kept in well-closed vessels, in a cool and dry 
place.” U. S. “ A product obtained by exposing slaked lime to the action of chlorine gas 
until absorption ceases.” Br. 
Calx Chlorinata, Br.; Chlorinated Lime; Hypochlorite of Lime or Calcium, Oxymuriate of Lime or Calcium, 
Bleaching Powder; Calcaria Chlorata, P.G.; Chloris Calcicus, Chloruretum Calcis, Calcis Chloridum, Calcii Hypo- 
chloris, Lat.; Chlorure de Chaux, Poudre de Tennant ou de Knox, Fr.; Chlorkalk, Bleichkalk, G.; Cloruro di Calce, It. 
This compound, originally prepared as a bleaching agent in 1798 by Tennant, of Glasgow, 
is now enormously used both in the arts and in medicine. 
The following is an outline of the process for making chlorinated lime on the large scale. 
A rectangular chamber is constructed, generally of silicious sandstone, the joints being secured 
by a cement of pitch, rosin, and dry gypsum. At one end it is furnished with an air-tight 
door, and on each side with a glass window, to enable the operator to inspect the process during 
its progress. The slaked or hydrated lime is sifted, and placed on wooden trays eight or ten feet 
long, two feet broad, and one inch deep. These are piled within the chamber to a height of 
five or six feet on cross-bars, by which they are kept about an inch asunder, in order to favor 
the circulation of the gas over the lime. The chlorine is generated in a leaden vessel nearly 
spherical, the lower portion of which is surrounded with an iron case, leaving an interstice two 
inches wide, intended to receive the steam for the purpose of producing the requisite heat. In 
the leaden vessel are five apertures. The first is in the centre of the top, and receives a tube 
which descends nearly to the bottom, and through which a vertical stirrer passes, intended to 
mix the materials, and furnished at the lower end with horizontal cross-bars of iron, or of 
wood sheathed with lead. The second is for the introduction of the common salt and man- 
ganese. The third admits a siphon-shaped funnel, through which the sulphuric acid is intro- 
duced. The fourth is connected with a pipe to lead off the chlorine. The fifth, which is near 
the bottom, receives a discharge-pipe passing through the iron case and intended for drawing 
off the residuum of the operation. The pipe leading off the chlorine terminates, under water, 
in a leaden chest or cylinder, where the gas is washed from hydrochloric acid. From this inter- 
mediate vessel the chlorine finally passes, by means of a pretty large leaden pipe, through the 
ceiling of the chamber containing the lime. The process of impregnation generally lasts four 
days, this time being necessary to form a good bleaching powder. If it be hastened, heat will 
be generated, which will favor the production of calcium chloride, with a proportional dimi- 
nution of chlorinated lime. 
The proportions of the materials generally adopted are 10 cwt. of common salt, mixed with 
from 10 to 14 cwt. of manganese dioxide: to which are added, in successive portions, from 12 
to 14 cwt. of strong sulphuric acid, diluted before being used until its sp. gr. is about 1-65, 
which is accomplished by adding about one-third of its weight of water. In factories in which 
sulphuric acid is also made, the acid intended for this process is brought to the sp. gr. 1-65 
only, whereby the expense of further concentration is saved. 
Several electrolytic processes for the decomposition of sodium and potassium chlorides have Calx Chlorata. 
PART I. 
300 
been brought to public attention within the last year or two, whereby caustic alkali on the one 
hand and chlorine on the other hand are produced. Of course the chlorine, if produced on a 
large scale, would be converted into bleaching powder for convenience of handling. 
The importation of “bleaching powder” into the United States for the year 1895 was 
100,456,774 lbs., valued at $1,644,835; in 1896, 104,053,877 lbs., valued at $1,579,358; for 
1897, 99,274,138 lbs., valued at $1,375,560. 
Properties. Chlorinated lime is “ a white, or grayish-white, granular powder, exhaling 
the odor of hypochlorous acid, having a repulsive, saline taste, and becoming moist and grad- 
ually decomposing on exposure to air. In water or in alcohol it is only partially soluble. The 
aqueous solution first colors red litmus paper blue, and then bleaches it. If the salt be dis- 
solved in diluted acetic acid, an abundance of chlorine gas is evolved, and only a trifling resi- 
due left undissolved. From this solution ammonium oxalate test-solution throws down a white 
precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid.” U. S. When perfectly 
saturated with chlorine it dissolves almost entirely in water. When exposed to heat, it gives 
off- oxygen and some chlorine, and is converted into calcium chloride. It is incompatible with 
the mineral acids, carbonic acids, and the alkaline carbonates. The acids evolve chlorine copi- 
ously, and the alkaline carbonates cause a precipitate of calcium carbonate. (See Liquor Sodse 
Chloratse.y* 
Chlorinated lime is an oxidizing agent, the oxygen being derived from water, the hydrogen 
of which unites with the chlorine to form hydrochloric acid. It has a powerful action on 
organic matter, converting sugar, starch, cotton, linen, and similar substances into formic 
acid, which unites with the lime. ( W. Bastick.) It also acts energetically on the volatile oils, 
including oil of turpentine, producing chloroform. (Joum. de Pharm., Mars, 1855.) 
Composition. The composition of bleaching powder is represented by the formula CaOCla, 
and it was formerly supposed to be a direct compound of lime with chlorine. This view, 
however, is not consistent with its reactions, for when distilled with dilute nitric acid it readily 
yields a distillate of aqueous hypochlorous acid, and when treated with water it is resolved into 
calcium chloride and hypochlorite, the latter of which may be separated in crystals by exposing 
the filtered solution to a freezing mixture, or by evaporating it in a vacuum over oil of vitriol 
and leaving the dense frozen mass to thaw upon a filter. A solution of calcium chloride mixed 
with hypochlorite then passes through, and feathery crystals remain on the filter, very unstable, 
but consisting, when recently prepared, of hydrated calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)24H20. 
These results seem at first sight to show that the bleaching powder is a mixture of calcium 
chloride and hypochlorite, formed according to the equation 2CaO -f- Cl4 = CaCl2 -f- Ca(C10)2; 
but if this were its true constitution, the powder when digested with alcohol ought to yield a 
solution of calcium chloride containing half the chlorine of the original compound, which is 
not the case. Its constitution is, therefore, better represented by the formula Ca j sug- 
gested by Dr. Odling, this molecule being decomposed by water into chloride and hypochlorite 
in the manner just explained, and yielding with dilute nitric acid or sulphuric acid a distillate 
containing hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids, CaCl(OCl) -(- 2HNOs = Ca(N03)2 -f- HC1 -j- 
HCIO. (Lunge and Schaeppi, A. J. R, 1881; Lunge and Naef, Ber. d. Chem.. (res., 1883.)f 
Lunge and Bachofen (Zeitschr. f. Angew. Chem., 1893, 326) have determined the specific gravi- 
ties of chlorinated lime solutions at 15° C. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 579.) 
Impurities and Tests. Chlorinated lime may contain a great excess of lime, from 
imperfect impregnation with the gas. This defect will be shown by the large proportion insol- 
uble in water. If it contain much calcium chloride, it will be quite moist, which is always a 
sign of inferior quality. When long and insecurely kept, it deteriorates from the gradual 
formation of calcium chloride and calcium carbonate. Several methods have been proposed 
* Chlorinated lime is constantly becoming weaker on exposure, giving off chlorine or hypochlorous acid, probably 
through the influence of the atmospheric carbonic acid, which sets them free by combining with the lime. But it 
would seem that, even when closely confined, it sometimes at least gives off gaseous matter, as we have an account 
of a well-stopped bottle containing it having been broken by a violent explosion, without any peculiar exposure to 
heat. (See A. /. P., 1861, p. 72.) JV1. Barreswil has found that the subjection of chlorinated "lime to strong pressure 
greatly diminishes the tendency to decomposition. It is rendered in this way as hard as a stone, and may be kept 
long without undergoing change. (Chem. News, No. 58, p. 33.) 
f According to Lunge’s investigations, the best temperature for the absorption of chlorine by calcium hydrate 
is 40°-45° C.; from pure calcium hydrate a bleaching powder of 43 per cent, active chlorine can be produced, in 
which case allowance for 4 per cent, of moisture in the hydrate is made; strong mineral acids, when not used in 
excess, liberate only hypochlorous acid; dry carbon dioxide at normal temperature does not set free any chlorine, 
but at moderately elevated temperature drives off almost all the chlorine. PART I. 
Calx Chlorata. 
301 
for determining its bleaching power, which depends solely on the proportion of loosely-com- 
bined chlorine. Walter proposed to add a solution of the bleaching powder to a standard 
solution of indigo sulphate, in order to ascertain its decolorizing power; but the objection to 
this test is that the indigo of commerce is very variable in its amount of coloring matter. The 
oxidation of an arsenous acid solution is largely used in practice. Lunge (Ber. der Chem. Ges.t 
1886, p. 869) has also proposed to use hydrogen peroxide (H202) solution for the valuation of 
bleaching powder. The two solutions both liberate oxygen in exactly equal amount. This is 
measured in a nitrometer. According to Wittstein and Claude, the test of ferrous sulphate 
which was formerly official is not reliable. The U. S. P. volumetric method, which is based 
upon that of the British Pharmacopoeia, is preferred. “ If 0-35 (0-354) Gm. of Chlorinated 
Lime be thoroughly triturated with 50 C.c. of water and carefully transferred, together with 
the washings, into a flask, and then 0-8 Gm. of potassium iodide and 5 C.c. of diluted hydro- 
chloric acid added, the reddish-brown liquid, mixed towards the end of the titration with a 
few drops of starch test-solution, should require, for complete decoloration, not less than 35 C.c. 
of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution (each C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, 
of available chlorine).” TJ. S. 
The following is the test given in the British Pharmacopoeia : “ 0-5 gramme of Chlorinated 
Lime, mixed with 1-5 grammes of potassium iodide dissolved in 200 cubic centimetres of water, 
produces, when acidulated with 6 cubic centimetres of hydrochloric add, a reddish solution, 
which requires for the discharge of its color at least 46-8 cubic centimetres of the volumetric 
solution of sodium thiosulphate, corresponding to 33 per cent, of available chlorine.” In this 
process iodine is separated by the chlorine in equivalent quantity, and imparts color to the 
liquid, which is removed by the sodium hyposulphite, by forming colorless compounds with the 
iodine; and the quantity required for this purpose measures the quantity of iodine, and conse- 
quently that of the chlorine, present in the chlorinated solution. (See Sodii Hyposulphis.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Chlorinated lime, externally applied, is a desiccant 
and disinfectant, and has been used with advantage in solution, as an application to ill-condi- 
tioned ulcers, burns, chilblains, and cutaneous eruptions, especially itch; as a gargle in putrid 
sore throat; and as a wash for the mouth to disinfect the breath, and for ulcerated gums. In- 
ternally, it is stimulant and alterative. It has been used to some extent internally, in ady- 
namic dysentery, typhus fever, and various other low diseases: it may be considered as thera- 
peutically equivalent to chlorine. The dose internally is from three to six grains (0-2-0-4 Gm.), 
dissolved in one or two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.) of water, filtered and sweetened with syrup. 
It should never be given in pills. As it occurs of variable quality, and must be used in solution 
more or less dilute, according to the particular purpose to which it is to be applied, it is impos- 
sible to give any very precise directions for its strength as an external remedy. From one 
to four drachms of the powder added to a pint of water, and the solution filtered, will form a 
liquid within the limits of strength ordinarily required. For the cure of itch, M. Derheims 
has recommended a much stronger solution—three ounces of the chloride to a pint of water, 
the solution being filtered, and applied several times a day as a lotion, or constantly by wet 
cloths. When applied to ulcers, their surface may be covered with lint dipped in the solution. 
When used as an ointment to be rubbed upon scrofulous enlargements of the lymphatic glands, 
this may be made of a drachm of the chloride to an ounce of lard. Chlorinated lime is less 
eligible for some purposes than the solution of chlorinated soda. (See Liquor Sodse Ghloratse.) 
Chlorine gas is a very active germicide, and, as chlorinated lime affords the best practical 
method of using it for ordinary disinfecting purposes, it seems proper to discuss the subject at 
this place. It has been proved by the concurrent results of numerous experimenters that 
chlorine, if present in the proportion of one part in one hundred in the atmosphere of a room, 
is able to destroy disease-germs, provided that the air and the objects are moist, and that the 
exposure continues for upwards of one hour. In the case of any infected room or confined 
space, as the hold of a ship, it seems to us, however, that the endeavor should be to have a 
larger proportion of the chlorine gas present for several hours, and, if it can be readily accom- 
plished, steam should also be allowed to enter with the gas, so as to make sure that all parts 
shall be thoroughly moistened. The importance of this is shown by the experiments of Fischer 
and Proskauer, who found that dry anthrax spores maintained their integrity for one hour when 
exposed to the action of a dry chlorine atmosphere containing about forty-five per cent, of 
chlorine, whereas moistened spores were killed by an hour’s exposure to a moist atmosphere 
containing four per cent, of chlorine. Dr. Sternberg found that six hours’ exposure of vaccine 
lint upon ivory points to a moist atmosphere containing one ,part of chlorine in one hundred 302 
Calx Chlorata.—Calx Sulphurata. 
PART I. 
was sufficient to destroy the infective power of the lint. Chlorine is not only germicidal, but 
it also has the power of decomposing sulphuretted hydrogen compounds, and thereby deodor- 
izing. In all these employments of chlorine it must be remembered that it is not possible for 
human beings to breathe a chlorinated air, and that the apartment must be, therefore, empty, 
and also as hermetically sealed as possible to prevent the escape of the gas. The experiments 
of Dr. Duggan show that the hypochlorites as derived from chlorinated lime are very active 
germicides, one part to four hundred being capable of destroying moist germs in two minutes, 
and six parts to ten thousand killing the spores of the anthrax-bacillus in six hours. A half 
of one per cent, of the hypochlorites in solution is said to be sufficient to destroy spores 
almost instantly. Ordinary bleaching powder contains from twenty-five to forty per cent, of 
available chlorine ; one part of the powder to one hundred of water is strong enough for 
ordinary purposes. The odor and taste of this solution are such that it can scarcely be con- 
sidered a dangerous poison, and it has been affirmed, although with doubtful correctness, that 
such solution will not injure clothing, bedding, etc. The cost of bleaching powder for use in 
small quantities is so small that even a saturated solution may be prepared for use in the sick- 
room at a nominal cost. For the destruction of disease-germs in urine, fecal discharges, sputa, 
etc., a saturated solution of bleaching powder appears to be in all respects the best disinfectant 
known. As it is important to destroy the germs as soon as possible, this solution should be 
put into the receptacle to be used by the patient before the discharges are ejected into them. 
As the chlorinated solution attacks metals, the spit-cups, etc., should be of china or glass. 
In consequence of its powers as a disinfectant, chlorinated lime is a very important com- 
pound in its application to medical police. It may be used with advantage for preserving 
bodies from exhaling an unpleasant odor, before interment, in the summer season. In juridical 
exhumations its use is indispensable, as it effectually removes the disgusting and insupportable 
fetor of the corpse. The mode in which it is applied, in these cases, is to envelop the body 
with a sheet completely wet with a solution made by adding about a pound of the powder to 
a bucketful of water. This solution may also be employed for disinfecting dissecting-rooms, 
privies, common sewers, docks, and other places with offensive effluvia. 
Chlorinated lime acts exclusively by its chlorine, which, being loosely combined, is disengaged 
by the slightest affinities. It should, therefore, be carefully kept from contact with the air and 
organic substances, which cause rapid loss of chlorine, and the modern method of putting it 
up for ordinary use in hermetically sealed pasteboard boxes is a great convenience. Mr. R. C. 
Bicknell examined commercial chlorinated lime put up in these boxes for available chlorine; 
he found the top layers usually deficient in strength, but in the interior from 30 to 35 per cent, 
of chlorine. Some of the packages assaying 30 per cent, of chlorine were more than a year 
old. (A. J. P., 1886, p. 593.) All acids, even carbonic, disengage it; and, as this acid is a 
product of animal and vegetable decomposition, noxious effluvia furnish the means, to a certain 
extent, of their own disinfection. But the stronger acids disengage the chlorine far more 
readily, and among these sulphuric acid is the most convenient. Accordingly, the powder 
may be dissolved in a very dilute solution of this acid; or a small quantity of the acid may 
be added to an aqueous solution ready formed, if a more copious evolution of chlorine be de- 
sired than that which takes place from the mere action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. 
Chlorinated lime may be advantageously applied to the purpose of purifying offensive water, 
a property which makes it invaluable on long voyages. When used for this purpose, from one 
to two ounces of the chloride may be mixed with about sixty-five gallons of the water. The 
water must afterwards be exposed for some time to the air, and allowed to settle, before it is fit 
to drink. 
CALX SULPHURATA. U. S., Br. Sulphurated Lime. 
[Crude Calcium Sulphide.] 
(CALX SUL-PHU-KA'TA.) 
“ A mixture containing at least 60 per cent, of Calcium Monosulphide [CaS = 71,69], 
together with unchanged Calcium Sulphate [CaSCh = 135-73], and Carbon, in varying pro- 
portions.” US. “A mixture containing not much less than 50 per cent, of calcium sul- 
phide, CaS, with calcium sulphate and carbon. It may be prepared by reducing native calcium 
sulphate by means of carbon.” Br. 
Calcii Sulphidum; Sulphide of Calcium. 
“ Dried Calcium Sulphate, in fine powder, seventy grammes [or 2 oz. av., 205 grains] ; Char- 
coal, in fine powder, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Starch, two grammes [or 31 grains]. Mix 
them thoroughly, pack the mixture lightly into a crucible, cover this loosely, and heat it to PART I. 
Calx Sulphur ata.— Cam hogia. 
303 
bright redness, until the contents have lost their black color. Allow the crucible to cool, reduce 
the product to powder, and at once transfer it to small, glass-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 abandoned the former process of preparing this substance, 
and adopted the British process (1885) with some modifications. The present British Pharma- 
copoeia (1898) does not give a detailed process. 
By decomposing a mixture of seven parts of calcium sulphate and one part of charcoal, 
heated in a crucible to a red heat, carbonic oxide is formed, which combines with the oxy- 
gen of calcium sulphate, and calcium sulphide is produced, CaS04 -f- 4CO = CaS -f- 4C02. 
A less convenient method is to pass hydrogen sulphide over red-hot lime, although if the lime 
be pure a better product is insured. This preparation, which was introduced into both Phar- 
macopoeias, is of doubtful utility, particularly in the form in which it is produced. The amount 
of calcium sulphide present must vary considerably according to circumstances. The medicinal 
activity is alone measured by the quantity of sulphide in the finished preparation, calcium sul- 
phate, the other constituent, being inert. It is to be regretted that a method of purification 
was not appended. 
Properties. Sulphurated lime is “ a pale gray powder, exhaling a faint odor of hydrogen 
sulphide, having a nauseous, alkaline taste, and gradually decomposed by exposure to air. Very 
slightly soluble in cold water, more readily in boiling water, which partially decomposes it; in- 
soluble in alcohol. Sulphurated lime is decomposed by diluted acetic acid, and converted into 
calcium acetate and hydrogen sulphide gas which escapes, while a residue of calcium sulphate 
remains. The filtrate from this yields, with ammonium oxalate test-solution, a white precipi- 
tate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid.” IT. S. 
Test. “ If 1 Gm. of Sulphurated Lime be gradually added to a boiling solution of 2-08 
Gm. of cupric sulphate in 50 C.c. of water, the mixture digested on a water-bath for fifteen 
minutes, and filtered when cold, no color should be imparted to the filtrate by 1 drop of potas- 
sium ferrocyanide test-solution (presence of at least 60 per cent, of pure Calcium Monosul- 
phide).” U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia describes it as “A grayish-white powder with a 
smell of hydrogen sulphide. If 0*8 gramme be mixed with a cold solution of 1-4 grammes of 
copper sulphate in 50 cubic centimetres of water, and, after the addition of a little hydrochloric 
acid, the mixture be well stirred and heated to a temperature approaching that of ebullition 
until all action has ceased, and then filtered, the filtrate should give no red color with solution 
of potassium ferrocyanide (presence of a due proportion of sulphide).” 
Calcium sulphydrate, or calcium hydrosulphide, Ca(SH2), is formed when hydrogen sulphide 
is passed into milk of lime as long as it is absorbed. It is in the form of a paste of a greenish- 
gray color, and exhales a strong odor of hydrogen sulphide. 
Medical Properties. It is used as a depilatory, and is applied in a layer on the part which 
is to be deprived of hair. At the end of fifteen minutes it is removed with a wet sponge, 
which at the same time detaches the hairs. On account of this preparation giving out hydro- 
gen sulphide, it should not be applied near the mouth or nose. An impure aqueous solu- 
tion of calcium sulphide, necessarily containing calcium hyposulphite from the manner of 
its preparation, is used with great success, in Belgium, in itch, the cure of which it effects in 
a few hours. It is made by boiling together one part of sublimed sulphur, two of lime, and 
ten of water. The liquid is allowed to cool, and the clear part poured off and kept in well- 
stopped bottles. For an explanation of the reaction which takes place, see Sulphur Prsecipita- 
tum. The patient, after having been well washed with soap and tepid water in a bath, is rubbed 
over with the liquid, which is allowed to dry on the skin for a quarter of an hour. A second 
bath is then taken, which completes the cure. The preparation, when it dries, leaves on the skin 
a thin layer of the sulphur compound, which destroys the itch insect and its eggs. 
Calcium sulphide has been strongly recommended by Ringer, Duhring, and other authorities 
as a remedy for furuncular eruptions, and it has also been used successfully in acne. It is given 
in doses of from one-tenth to one-half grain (0-00648—0-0324 Gm.). 
CAMBOGIA. U. S., Br. Gamboge. 
(ClM-BO'gi-A.) 
“ A gum-resin obtained from Garcinia Hanburii, Hooker Alius (nat. ord. Guttiferse).”' U. S. 
“ A gum-resin obtained from Garcinia Hanburii, Hook, f.” Br. 
Gambogia, Pharm. 1870; Gomme gutte, Fr.; Giumnigutt, G.; Gumma-gotta, It.; Gutta gamba, Sp. 
Several plants belonging to the natural family of Guttiferse, growing in the equatorial re- 
gions, yield on incision a yellow opaque juice, which hardens on exposure and bears a close 304 
Cambogia. 
PART I. 
resemblance to gamboge; but it is only from a particular tree, growing in Siam, that the offi- 
cial gum-resin is procured.* Formerly the United States and all the British Pharmacopoeias 
ascribed it to Stalagmitis cambogioides. Both the genus and the species were established by 
Murray, of Gottingen, in 1788, from dried specimens belonging to Konig, procured in Ceylon; 
and, from information derived from the same source, it was conjectured by Murray that the tree 
yielded not only the gamboge of Ceylon, but also that collected in Siam. On this authority 
the British Colleges made the references alluded to. But it was ascertained by Dr. Graham, 
of Edinburgh, that there is no such plant as Stalagmitis cambogioides; the description of 
Murray having been drawn up from accidentally conjoined specimens of two trees belonging 
to different genera, one being the Xanthochymus ovalifolius of Roxburgh, and the other the 
Hebradendron cambogioides of Graham. By several botanists the gum-resin has been ascribed 
to Garcinia cambogia, also a tree of Ceylon belonging to the Guttiferae and yielding a yel- 
lowish concrete juice; but a specimen of this juice, sent to Edinburgh, was found by Dr. 
Christison to differ from gamboge both in composition and appearance, being of a pale lemon- 
yellow color. Thus it appears that neither of these references is correct; and, besides, the fact 
seems to have been overlooked that commercial gamboge is never obtained from Ceylon, but 
exclusively from Siam and Cochin-China. A gum-resin from Ceylon having been found similar 
in composition to the gamboge of commerce, and the tree which produced it having been re- 
ferred by Dr. Graham to a new genus and named by him Hebradendron cambogioides, the 
Edinburgh College, in the last edition of its Pharmacopoeia, was induced to adopt this Ceylon 
gamboge as official, and to recognize the name proposed by Dr. Graham for the tree producing 
it. But, as this variety is never found in western commerce, and exists only in cabinets, or in 
the bazaars of India, it scarcely merited a place in an official catalogue; moreover, the genus 
Hebradendron is not acknowledged by botanists. The II. cambogioides is the Garcinia picto- 
ria of Roxburgh (Flor. Ind., ii. 627), which Sir Joseph Hooker considers to be a variety of 
the G. morella (Desrous.) ; though Beddome keeps it distinct on account of its having the 
fertile flower bearing “ the staminodes in bundles, and the stigma very small and 4-lobed.” 
Several years since, Dr. Christison received from Singapore specimens of the gamboge plant cul- 
tivated in that island, and derived from Siam, which proved to be a Garcinia, differing from 
the G. elliptica of Wallich chiefly in having its male flower upon pedicels. Subsequently 
Mr. Hanbury obtained from the same source numerous specimens of the same plant, and 
was enabled to confirm the statement of Dr. Christison; but he also found that the plant ap- 
proached very near to the Garcinia morella of Desrousseaux, from which it could be distin- 
guished only by its pedicellate flowers. These specimens were afterwards submitted to the 
inspection of Mr. Thwaites iu Ceylon, who is perfectly familiar with the Garcinias of that 
island, and were pronounced by him to belong to a variety of G. morella, scarcely differing 
from the Ceylon plant, except in having pedicelled instead of sessile flowers; for these two 
varieties the names of G. morella, var. sessile, and G. morella, var. pedicellata, were proposed. 
Sir Joseph Hooker, however, determined (Journ. Linn. Soc., xiv. 485) that the var. pedicellata 
is a distinct species, differing from G. morella in having not only its flowers pedicellate, but 
also its leaves more ovate and much larger, and its fruit larger: he very properly gave it the 
specific name of Hanburii to commemorate the contributions of the late Mr. Hanbury to 
pharmaceutical science, and his connection with the history of the present plant. According 
to the researches of Beckett, G. Hanburii is confined to the islands and sea-coast of the Gulf 
of Siam, where it is known as “ Ton Rong,” and where it grows to the height of fifty feet, 
with a diameter of twelve inches. 
Gamboge is said to be procured in Siam by breaking off the leaves and shoots of the tree; 
the juice, which is contained in ducts or latex vessels in the bark, issues in drops, and, being 
received in suitable vessels, gradually thickens, and at length becomes solid. Dr. Jamie, of 
Singapore, states that incising the trunk and larger branches is often practised. The juice is 
frequently received into the hollow joints of the bamboo, and the water expelled by mild con- 
tinuous heat. In this way the so-called pipe gamboge is formed, the contraction during drying 
causing the cylinders to be hollow. According to Beckett, Siam gamboge is obtained only 
from trees of not less than ten years of age and during the rainy months, from June to Octo- 
ber, by cutting long, spiral grooves into the bark and collecting in hollow bamboos the sap 
which trickles down in a viscous stream. (Kew Bulletin, 1895.) 
The name gummi gutta, by which gamboge is generally known on the continent of Europe, 
* According to observations of Messrs. Baildon and Jamie, gamboge is obtained exclusively from the province of 
Cambodia, the plant not being found in any other part of Siam nor in Cochin-China. (Journ. de Ph., Juillet, 1874.) PART I. 
Cambogia. 
305 
probably originated from the circumstance that the juice escapes from the plant by drops. 
The official title was undoubtedly derived from the province of Cambodia, in which the gum- 
resin is collected. Gamboge was first brought to Europe by the Dutch, about the middle of the 
seventeenth century. We import it from Canton and Calcutta, whither it is carried by the native 
or resident merchants. There is no difference in the appearance or character of the drug as 
brought from these two ports,—an evidence that it is originally derived from the same place. 
Varieties. The best gamboge is in cylindrical rolls, from one to three inches in diameter, 
sometimes hollow in the centre, sometimes flattened, often folded double, or agglutinated in 
masses so that the original form is not always easily distinguishable. The pieces sometimes 
appear as if rolled, but are in general striated longitudinally from the impression made by the 
inner surface of the bamboo. They are externally of a dull orange color, which is occasionally 
displaced by greenish stains, or concealed by the bright yellow powder of the drug, slightly 
adhering to the surface. In this form the drug is sometimes called pipe gamboge. Another 
variety is imported under the name of cake or lump gamboge. It is in irregular masses of two 
or three pounds or more, often mixed with sticks and other impurities, containing many air- 
cells, less dense, less uniform in texture, and less brittle than thevformer variety, and breaking 
with a dull and splintery instead of a shining and conchoidal fracture. The worst specimens 
of this variety, as well as of the cylindrical, are sometimes called by the druggists coarse gam- 
boge. They differ, however, from the preceding only in containing a greater amount of im- 
purities. Indeed, it would appear from the experiments of Christison tbat all the commercial 
varieties of this drug have a common origin, and that cake or lump gamboge differs from the 
cylindrical only in the circumstance that the latter is the pure concrete juice, while to the 
former farinaceous matter and other impurities have been added for the purpose of adultera- 
tion. The inferior kinds of gamboge may be known by their greater hardness and coarser 
fracture; by the brownish or grayish color of their broken surface, which is often marked with 
black spots ; by their obvious impurities; and by the green color which their decoction, after 
having been cooled, gives with tincture of iodine (starch). When pure, the gum-resin is com- 
pletely dissolved by the successive action of ether and water,* so that the amount of residue 
left by any specimen treated in the manner just spoken of indicates approximately the measure 
of the adulteration. 
Properties. The official description is as follows. “ In cylindrical pieces, sometimes hol- 
low in the centre, 2 to 5 Cm. in diameter, longitudinally striate on the surface ; fracture flattish- 
conchoidal, of a waxy lustre, orange-red ; in powder bright yellow ; inodorous ; taste very 
acrid; the powder sternutatory. Gamboge is partly soluble in alcohol and in ether. When 
triturated with water, it yields a yellow emulsion, and forms with solution of potassium or 
sodium hydrate an orange-red solution, from which, on the addition of hydrochloric acid, a 
yellow resin is precipitated. Boiled with water, Gamboge yields a liquid which, after cooling, 
does not become green with iodine test-solution (absence of starch').” U. S. From the bril- 
liancy of its color, gamboge is highly esteemed as a pigment. It has no smell, and little taste, 
but, after remaining a short time in the mouth, produces an acrid sensation in the fauces. Its 
sp. gr. is 1*221, and its chemical formula is given as C20H2404. “ When solution of iodine is 
added to a cooled aqueous decoction, the color should not become distinctly green (absence of 
more than a trace of starch). When incinerated it should not yield more than 3 per cent, of 
ash.” Br. It is a gum-resin, without volatile oil. Christison has shown that the proportion 
of gum and resin varies in different specimens even of the purest drug. In one experiment, 
out of 100-8 parts he obtained 74-2 of resin, 21-8 of gum, and 4-8 of water. The gum is quite 
soluble in water, and of the variety denominated arabin. Fliickiger, however, says that the 
gum is not identical with gum arabic, as its solution does not redden litmus, and is not precipi- 
tated by neutral lead acetate, nor by ferric chloride, nor by sodium silicate or biborate. By 
fusing purified gamboge resin with potash, Hlasiwetz and Barth (4«u. Ch. und Pharm., 138, 
61) obtained acetic and other acids of the same series, together with phloroglucin, C6H3(0H)3, 
* Ceylon gamboge, derived from the Hebradendron cambogioides of Graham (Cambogia gutta, Linn., Garcinia 
morella, De Cand., G. pictoria, Roxb.), is procured by incisions, or by cutting away a portion of the bark, and 
scraping off the juice which exudes. The specimens sent to Dr. Christison were in flattish or round masses, eight 
or nine inches in diameter, apparently composed of aggregated irregular tears, with cavities which are lined with a 
grayish and brownish powdery incrustation. It resembled coarse gamboge, and was identical in composition. In 
Ceylon it is used as a pigment and purgative. (Christison.) New Caledonian Gamboge, derived from Garcinia Col- 
lina (Vieil), is described by Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen as very similar in its appearance and reactions to ordinary 
gamboge; its color is, however, deep orange. A white crystalline compound, which when heated beyond 235° C. 
produced pyrocatechin, was found in it, and marked the point of difference between it and other varieties of gam- 
boge. (Rep. de Pharm., 1893, 193.) 306 
Cambogia.—Camphora. 
PART I. 
pyrotartaric acid, C6II804, and isovitinic acid, C6H3,CH3(C00H)2. Sassarini found gamboge 
to contain the following constituents. 1. Gum analogous to arabin. 2. Volatile oil, consisting 
of terpene and a camphor. 3. Isovitinic and acetic acids. 4. A phenol ester. 5. Itesin. 6. 
Methyl alcohol and some higher homologues. 7. A liquid having a fruity odor resembling 
aldehyde or acetone. He believes phlorogluein found by others to be a decomposition product. 
(Ann. di Chim. Farm., 1897.) Gamboge is readily and entirely diffusible in water, form- 
ing a yellow opaque emulsion, from which the resin is very slowly deposited. It yields its 
resinous ingredient to alcohol, forming a golden-yellow tincture, which is rendered opaque and 
bright yellow by the addition of water. Its solution in ammoniated alcohol is not disturbed 
by water. Ether dissolves about four-fifths of it, taking up only the resin. It is wholly taken 
up by alkaline solutions, from which it is partially precipitated by the acids. The strong acids 
dissolve it; the solution when diluted deposits a yellow sediment. The color, acrimony, and 
medicinal power of gamboge are thought to reside in the resin. Prof. Ilirschsohn gives a 
method for detecting gamboge in mixtures in Pharm. Zeit. f. Russl., xxiv. (A. J. P., 1885.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Gamboge is a powerful, drastic, hydragogue cathartic, 
so very apt to produce nausea and vomiting and much griping when given in the full dose that 
it is almost never employed except in combination with other cathartics. In large quantities 
it is capable of causing fatal effects, and death has resulted from a drachm. The full dose is 
from two to six grains Gm.), which in cases of taenia has been raised to ten or fifteen 
grains. It may be given in pill or emulsion, or dissolved in an alkaline solution. In the dose 
of five grains the resin is said to produce copious watery stools, with little or no uneasiness. 
If this be the case, it is probable that, as it exists in the gum-resin, its purgative property is 
somewhat modified by the other ingredients. 
CAMPHORA. U. S., Br. Camphor. 
CioHieO; 151*66. (CiM'PHO-RA.) Ci0Hi6O; 152. 
“ A stearopten (having the nature of a ketone) obtained from Cinnamomum Camphora 
(Linne), Nees et Ebermaier (nat. ord. Laurineae), and purified by sublimation. Camphor 
should be kept in well-closed vessels, in a cool place.” U. S. “ A white crystalline substance 
obtained from Cinnamomum Camphora, Nees and Eberrn., purified by sublimation.” Br. 
Camphre, Fr.; Kamplier, Kampfer, G.; Canfora, It.; Alcaofor, Sp. 
The name of camphor has been applied to various concrete, white, odorous, volatile products, 
found in different aromatic plants, and resulting probably from chemical change in their volatile 
oil. But commercial camphor is derived exclusively from two plants, the Camphora ojficinarum 
of Nees or Laurus camphora of Linnaeus, and the Dryobalanops camphora; the former of 
which yields our official camphor, the latter a product much valued in the East, but unknown 
in the commerce of this country and of Europe. 
Gen. Ch. For characters of genus Cinnamon, see Cinnamomum. The genus Camphora as 
separated by Nees departs from the characters there given, in the segments of the perianth 
being completely deciduous, and falling off completely, leaving the berry resting upon the some- 
what enlarged cup-shaped or disk-shaped, entire, or slightly serrate base or tube. 
Camphora offtcinarum. Nees, Laurin. 88 ; Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. ii. 29, pi. xxiv.—Laurus 
camphora. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 478.— Cinnamomum camphora, B. & T. 222. The camphor- 
tree is an evergreen which sometimes attains great size* having the aspect of the linden, with 
a trunk straight below, but divided above into many branches, which are covered with a smooth, 
greenish bark. Its leaves, which stand alternately upon long footstalks, are ovate-lanceolate, 
entire, smooth and shining, ribbed, of a bright yellowish-green color on their upper surface, 
paler on the under, and two or three inches in length. The flowers are small, white, pedicelled, 
and collected in clusters, which are supported by long axillary peduncles. The fruit is a red 
berry, resembling that of the cinnamon. The camphor-tree is a native of China, Japan, and 
adjacent portions of eastern Asia, but grows very well in India, and is capable of cultivation 
in California, Florida, and other portions of the United States not subject to severe frosts. 
(See circular of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, prepared by Lyster H. Dewey.) Its 
growth is, however, so extremely slow that it is hardly probable that American capitalists will 
undertake its cultivation.f 
* A tree seen by Kampfer, in Japan, in 1691, with a trunk 36 feet in circumference, was in the year 1826 described 
by Siebold as having a circumference of 50 feet. 
f Within a few years the price of camphor has enormously risen. This has been stated to be due to the fact that, 
whilst in the government forests of southern Japan a certain amount of discretion is employed in the cutting of Camphora. 
PART I. 
307 
The leaves have when bruised the odor of camphor, which is diffused through all parts of 
the plant, and is obtained from the root, trunk, and branches by sublimation. The process is 
not precisely the same in all places. The following is said to be the one pursued in Japan.* 
The parts mentioned, particularly the roots and smaller branches, are cut into chips, which are 
placed with a little water in large iron vessels, surmounted by earthen capitals furnished with 
a lining of rice-straw. A moderate heat is then applied, and the camphor, volatilized by the 
steam, rises into the capital, where it is condensed upon the straw. In China the comminuted 
plant is said to be first boiled with water until the camphor adheres to the stick used in stirring, 
when the strained liquor is allowed to cool, and the camphor which concretes, being alternated 
with layers of earth, is submitted to sublimation. In the island of Formosa, where the cam- 
phor-tree abounds, the chips are heated in a rough still. This is usually composed of a furnace 
surmounted with a trough or similar rude vessel, which is protected by clay. In this reservoir 
the chips are placed, with water upon them, and a perforated board luted upon the top ; on this 
are set earthen pots. A fire having been lighted, steam rises through the chips and carries the 
camphor with it to deposit it in the pots. The crude camphor is taken to the towns in baskets 
and then put into large vats, with holes in the bottom; through which an oil escapes called 
camphor-oil, much used by the Chinese for medical purposes. It is said that of recent years 
hydraulic pressure is largely substituted for drainage, and that the camphor, thus drained, is 
packed in bags and exported. (P. J. Tr., Dec. 1863, p. 280.) 
Commercial History. Camphor, in the crude state, is brought to this country chiefly 
from Canton. It comes also from Batavia, Singapore, Calcutta, and frequently from London. 
All of it is probably derived originally from China and Japan. Two commercial varieties are 
found in the market. The cheapest and most abundant is the Chinese camphor, most of which 
is produced in the island of Formosa and thence taken to Canton. It comes in chests lined 
with lead, each containing about 130 pounds. It is in small grains or granular masses, of a 
dirty-white color, and frequently mixed with impurities. It has occurred in commerce adul- 
terated with ammonium chloride. The other variety is variously called Japan, Dutch, or 
tub camphor, the first name being derived from the place of its origin, the second from the 
people through whom it was introduced into commerce, and the third from the recipient in 
which it is often contained. It has usually come from Batavia, to which port it was taken 
from Japan. Like the former variety, it is in grains or granular masses ; but the grains are 
larger and of a pinkish color, and there are fewer impurities, so that it yields a larger product 
when refined. Within the last few years camphor has been increasingly produced on the 
Chinese mainland, the tree being, it is said, extensively cultivated in Kwang-Si. In Fukien 
the camphor is stated to be obtained to a trifling extent from wild trees. 
Crude camphor, as brought from the East, is never found in the shop of the apothecary. 
It must be refined before it can be used for medicinal purposes. The process for refining 
camphor was first practised in Europe by the Venetians, who probably derived it from the 
Chinese. It was afterwards transferred to the Dutch, who long enjoyed a monopoly of this 
business; and it is only within a few years that the process has been generally known. It is 
now practised largely in this country, and the camphor refined in our domestic establishments 
is equal to any formerly imported. Crude camphor is mixed with about one-fiftieth of quick- 
lime, and exposed, in an iron vessel placed in a sand-bath, to a gradually increasing heat, by 
which it is melted, and ultimately converted into vapor, which condenses in a suitable recipient.f 
plants, the private forests, which yield four-fifths of the national product, are becoming exhausted by wanton de- 
struction. In Formosa camphor distilling has been carried on in the most recklessly extravagant and wasteful manner. 
It would seem, however, that the increase of price is not due so much to decrease of supply as to increase of demand, 
through the growing use of camphor in the arts (especially in the manufacture of celluloid), as is shown by the fol- 
lowing official report of the total Japanese export during twelve years. 1880, 20,220 piculs; 1881, 21,344 piculs; 1882, 
31,610 piculs; 1883, 35.660 piculs; 1884, 29,900 piculs; 1885, 22,207 piculs; 1886, 34,952 piculs; 1887, 48,164 piculs; 
1888, 28,394 piculs; 1889, 41,115 piculs; 1890, 37,161 piculs; 1891, 38,504 piculs. 
* For detailed description, see P. J. Tr., xv. 167; also Proc. A. P. A., 1884, 132. 
fWe are informed that the process is conducted in the following manner in some of the laboratories of Philadelphia. 
The vessels in which the camphor is put are of cast iron, circular, from 12 to 15 inches or more in diameter, and 
4 inches deep, with perpendicular sides, and a ledge at top, on which the cover rests. This consists of sheet iron, 
with a hole through the centre about an inch in diameter, over which a small hollow cone of sheet iron is placed 
loosely. The crude camphor mixed with the lime, the object of which is said to be to combine with the moisture 
present, which interferes with the due solidification of the camphor vapor, is placed in the iron vessels described, of 
which from 20 to 50 are arranged in a long sand-bath. Heat is then applied until the camphor melts, after which it 
is kept as nearly uniform as possible, so that the vaporation may take place regularly, without violent ebullition. 
The vapor condenses on the lower surface of the lid; and care is taken, by the occasional removal of the iron cone, 
and clearing of the opening by means of a knife, to allow the escape of any accidental excess of the vapor. 308 
Camphora. 
PART I. 
Refined in this manner, it is usually in the form of large circular cakes, one or two inches 
thick, slightly convex on one side and concave on the other, and perforated in the centre. 
Camphor can also be made artificially by the oxidation of camphene, C10H16, with chromic acid 
mixture. Camphene is obtained from either pinenehydrochloride (so-called artificial camphor) 
or from bornyl chloride by treatment with alcoholic potash, and is a solid crystalline mass, 
fusing at 49° C. The importations of camphor for the past few years have been: for 1895, 
1,500,739 lbs., valued at $284,968; for 1896, 945,629 lbs., valued at $328,457; for 1897, 
1,469,601 lbs., valued at $332,748. 
Properties. “ White, translucent masses, of a tough consistence and a crystalline struc- 
ture, readily pulverizable in the presence of a little alcohol, ether, or chloroform ; having a 
penetrating, characteristic odor, and a pungently aromatic taste. Specific gravity, 0-995 at 
15° C. (59° F.). Very sparingly soluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloro- 
form, carbon disulphide, benzin, and in fixed and volatile oils. When Camphor is triturated, 
in about molecular proportions, with menthol, thymol, phenol, or chloral hydrate, liquefaction 
ensues. It melts at 175° C. (347° F.), boils at 204° C. (399-2° F.), and is inflammable, 
burning with a luminous, smoky flame. On exposure to the air it evaporates more or less 
rapidly at ordinary temperatures, and, when moderately heated, it sublimes without leaving a 
residue.” U. S. Camphor has a peculiar, strong, penetrating, fragrant odor, and a bitter, 
pungent taste, with a slight sense of coolness. It is beautifully white and pellucid, somewhat 
unctuous to the touch, brittle, and yet possessed of a tenacity which renders its reduction to 
a fine powder very difficult, unless its cohesion be overcome by the addition of a minute pro- 
portion of alcohol, ether, chloroform, glycerin, essential or fatty oil, or other volatile liquid for 
which it has an affinity. It may be obtained in powder by pulverizing with an equal weight of 
sugar, by precipitating the tincture with water, or by grating and afterwards sifting it,* or, better 
yet, by sublimation. The fracture of camphor is shining, and its texture crystalline. Its sp. 
gr. varies from 0-9857 to 0-996. When thrown in small fragments upon water, it assumes 
singular circulatory movements, which cease upon the addition of a drop of oil; and this property 
has been applied to the detection of grease in liquids, a very small proportion of which is suf- 
ficient to prevent the movements. Its volatility is so great that, even at ordinary temperatures, 
it is wholly dissipated if left exposed to the air. When it is confined in bottles, the vapor 
condenses on the inner surface, and, in large bottles partially filled, sometimes forms, after 
long standing, large and beautiful crystals. It melts at 175° C. (347° F.), boils at 204° C. 
(399-2° F.), and, in close vessels, sublimes unchanged. When allowed to concrete slowly from 
the state of vapor, it assumes the form of hexagonal plates. It is not altered by air and light. 
It readily takes fire, burning with a brilliant flame, with much smoke, and without residue. 
Water triturated with camphor dissolves, according to Berzelius, not more than 1000th part; 
which, however, is sufficient to impart a decided odor and taste to the solvent. By the inter- 
vention of sugar or magnesia a much larger proportion is dissolved. (See Aqua Camphor as.) 
Carbonic acid increases the solvent power of water, as also does the spirit of nitrous ether. 
Ordinary alcohol will take up 75 per cent, of its weight of camphor, which is precipitated 
upon the addition of water. Berzelius states that 100 parts of alcohol, of the sp. gr. 0-806, 
dissolve 120 parts at 10° C. (50° F.). It is soluble without change in ether, the volatile and 
fixed oils, strong acetic acid, and diluted mineral acids, and is extremely soluble in chloroform. 
“ It is soluble in about 700 parts of water, in about 1 part of alcohol (90 per cent.), in one- 
quarter part of chloroform, and in 4 parts of olive oil; very soluble in ether." Br. Nitric 
acid on prolonged boiling with camphor oxidizes it into camphoric acid, C10H1604,f and cam- 
* But the powder thus formed is apt to aggregate on keeping. To obviate this it is recommended to rub it up 
with a minute proportion of magnesium carbonate, from 10 to 20 grains to the ounce; or, as suggested by the late 
Mr. Henry F. Fish, of New York, to pour an alcoholic solution of camphor into water in which magnesium carbonate 
is suspended, the proportion employed being 16 ounces of camphor to a drachm of the carbonate suspended in 
a gallon of water. The powder is allowed to settle on a filter. (A. J. P., Nov. 1870, 506.) Another method of 
accomplishing the same object, proposed by Mr. John C. Lowd, is to sublime camphor from a retort into a large 
chamber, and collect the powder. (Ibid., March, 1872, 112.) 
A still better plan is to dissolve camphor in one and a half parts of alcohol, and pour this solution with stirring 
into four parts of water. Collect the precipitate, wash with water, and dry. By noting the quantity of camphor 
used, the amount left dissolved in the diluted alcohol can be calculated, and this solution used in making tincture. 
f Camphoric acid occurs in small, white, acicular or scaly crystals, free from odor, of a feebly acid taste, sparingly 
soluble in cold, freely in hot, water, also in alcohol, ether, and fatty oils, and having a melting point of about 176° F. 
It is made by boiling camphor or campholic acid with concentrated nitric acid, and Maissen states that the best 
results are obtained by using a mixture of camphor and borneol, produced by the action of sodium on camphor. 
Camphoric acid appears to be a valuable remedy, of distinct power in checking the colliquative sweats of phthisis 
and perhaps of other diseases, and having a special relation with the mucous membranes. It has been highly com- PART I. 
Camphora. 
309 
phoronic add, C9H1206. Schwanert’s camphresinic add, C10H14012, is, according to Kachler, 
a mixture of these two. Sulphuric acid in the proportion of ten parts to one gives, when 
heated with camphor, an oil isomeric with camphor, boiling at 200° C. (392° F.), and yielding 
a solid camphor when distilled repeatedly over solid caustic potash. Sulphuric acid in the pro- 
portion of four to one gives with camphor, according to Chautard, a volatile product which he 
calls camphrene, and to which Schwanert gives the formula C9H140. Kachler (Ann. Ch. und 
Pharm., 164, p. 90) considers, however, that camphrene is only phorone (a condensation product 
of acetone) with slight impurities. Alcoholic potash solution heated with camphor gives a 
derivative called campholic add, C10H18Oa, a white solid, fusing at 95° C. (203° F.), and boiling 
at 250° C. (482° F.). Resins unite with it, forming a soft tenacious mass, in which the odor 
of the camphor is sometimes almost extinguished, and frequently diminished ; and a similar 
softening effect results when it is triturated with the concrete oils* Exposed to a strong heat, 
in close vessels, camphor is resolved into carbonic acid gas and hydrocarbons, among which 
cymol is especially to be recognized. 
Camphor, C10HleO, and borneol, C10H180,f are classified together as belonging to the group 
mended both internally and locally in bronchitis and phthisis. As a local application, the 1 percent, solution is said 
to act most happily in ordinary sore throat and in laryngitis ; but in the clinic of Professor Mosler, inhalations of 
camphoric acid solution tailed to achieve good in bronchitis and in pulmonary tuberculosis. In chronic cystitis the 
bladder may be washed out twice a day with a half of 1 per cent, solution, an ounce or so of the solution being left 
in the bladder, and the strength of the solution increased as necessary. In pyelitis, as well as in cystitis, the drug 
should be given by the mouth. Warman claims great value for the remedy in chronic gonorrhoea. Fiirbringer found 
it to be useful as an intestinal disinfectant, and it would seem to be a valuable remedy in the treatment of diarrhoea. 
It appears to be rapidly absorbed and as rapidly eliminated, as it may be found in the urine from two to five hours 
after its ingestion. (Bohland.) When used locally it can generally be given internally with advantage at the same 
time. Dose, 10 to 30 grains (0*650 to l-95 Gin.), three times a day, in capsule. In the case of night-sweats the large 
dose may be given at bedtime, or, when the sweats come on towards morning, in the middle of the night, 
y CHOH 
Oxycamphor, CsHu \ | , is a white crystalline powder, slightly soluble in cold water (2 per cent.), but freely 
\ CO 
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and oils. It has been used as a remedy in dyspnoea in doses of from eight to 
sixteen grains (0*5 to 1 6m.). (Deutsch Med. Woch., 1897, No. 27.) 
* As this property of camphor may have a bearing, injuriously or otherwise, on pharmaceutical processes, it is 
desirable that the operator, as well as the prescribe!-, should be aware of the degree of effect produced by different 
resinous substances which may be mixed with it. M. Planche has found that mixtures formed by triturating pow- 
dered camphor with powdered dragon’s blood, guaiac, asafetida, and galbanum assume, and preserve indefinitely, the 
pilular consistence; with benzoin, tolu, ammoniac, and mastic, though at first of a pilular consistence, afterwards 
become soft by exposure to the air; with sagapenum and anime, assume a permanently semi-liquid form; with oli- 
banum, opopanax, gamboge, euphorbium, bdellium, myrrh, and amber, remain pulverulent, though somewhat grumous; 
and with tacamahac, resin of jalap, sandarac, and resinoid matter of cinchona, preserve the form of powder in- 
definitely. The same experimenter observed that camphor loses its odor entirely when mixed with asafetida, gal- 
banum, sagapenum, anim.6, and tolu ; retains a feeble odor with dragon’s blood, olibanum, mastic, benzoin, opopanax, 
tacamahac, guaiac, and ammoniac ; while with the other resinous substances above mentioned, it either has its odor 
increased, or retains it without material change. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 226.) 
In mixing camphor with other substances in the form of powder, it is best to first pulverize the camphor with the 
aid of a little alcohol, then to pulverize the other substances together, and lastly to mix the two powders gently; 
much rubbing with the pestle having the effect of consolidating the granules of the camphor. {Procter.) 
f Sumatra Camphor. Borneo Camphor. Dryobalanops Camphor. Baros Camphor. Borneol. This camphor 
is produced in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, by Dryobalanops camphora, or D. aromatica. This tree is very 
large, often exceeding one hundred feet in height, with a trunk six or seven feet in diameter, and ranks among the 
tallest and largest trees in India.* It is found in Sumatra and Borneo, and is abundant on the northwest coast 
of the former island. The camphor exists in concrete masses, which occupy longitudinal cavities or fissures in the 
heart of the tree, from a foot to a foot and a half long, at certain distances apart. The younger trees are generally 
less productive than the old. The only method of ascertaining whether a tree contains camphor is by incision. A 
party proceed through the forest, wounding the trees, till they find one which will answer their purpose; and hun- 
dreds may be examined before this object is attained. When discovered, the tree is felled and cut into logs, which 
are then split, and the camphor removed by means of sharp-pointed instruments. It is stated that the masses are 
sometimes as thick as a man’s arm; and that the product of a middling-sized tree is nearly eleven pounds; of a 
large one, double that quantity. The trees which have been wounded and left standing often produce camphor seven 
or eight years afterwards. Mrs. Ida Pfeiffer states, in her Second Journey round the World (Am. ed., p. 183), that 
the camphor is also found in a concrete state under the bark, and is swept down with long brooms. The whole tree 
is pervaded more or less by the camphor or the oil. The wood retains a fragrant smell, and, being on this account 
less liable to the attacks of insects, is highly esteemed for carpenter-work. 
Borneo camphor resembles in appearance ordinary camphor, but has, according to Christison, a specific gravity 
of 1*009, and sinks in water. Its odor is also distinctly different from that of camphor. It usually pulverizes with- 
out the addition of alcohol, is less volatile than ordinary camphor, and does not crystallize in the interior of the 
bottles in which it is kept. It fuses at 206° C. and boils at 212° C.; is dextrogyrate; has a formula of CioHn(OH); 
* For a particular description of this tree, see a paper by Dr. W. H. De Vriese, of Leyden, in the A. J. P. (xxiv. 329) 
taken from Hooker’s Journal of Botany. In this paper it is stated on the authority of Dr. Junghuhn, who witnessed the 
process of collection, that the camphor is deposited in very small quantities in minute fissures between the fibres, from 
which it is scraped off by small splinters of wood, or by the nail; and the thickest and oldest trees seldom yield more than 
two ounces. This account as to the productiveness of the tree differs greatly from that of Colebrook, as stated in the note 
above. Camphora. 
PART I. 
310 
called in general camphors, which occur with the terpenes or essential oils, C10Hie, and are to 
be considered as oxidation products of these latter. 
Borneol is an alcohol, yielding compound ethers when heated to about 200° C. (392° F.) 
with organic acids. It is a secondary alcohol, and therefore contains the group CH.OH linked 
to a more complex group. Secondary alcohols by oxidation yield ketones, by the change of the 
CH.OII group to CO. Common camphor bears this relation to borneol, and is therefore con- 
sidered as a ketone, although not capable of being formed directly from borneol. The action 
of metallic sodium, however, upon common camphor, C10HleO, yields borheol, C,0H180. 
Genuine camphor is said to be sometimes adulterated with the artificial, which may be de- 
tected by the action of ammonia upon its alcoholic solution, causing a flocculent precipitate, 
which does not redissolve, and the quantity of which is proportionate to that of the artificial 
product in any mixture of the two. (A. J. P., xxxiv. 189.) As a means of distinguishing 
from the artificial camphor resulting from the reaction between the oil of turpentine and hy- 
drochloric acid, Mr. J. W. Bailey recommends that a drop of alcohol, holding a little of the 
camphor to be tested in solution, be allowed to evaporate on the slide of a microscope. The 
crystals then formed produce with polarized light beautiful colors, if of natural camphor, but 
not if of the artificial. (Neues Repertorium, xvi. 763, 1867.)* 
and by the action of boiling nitric acid is converted into common camphor. It does not reach European commerce, 
being largely consumed in the Batta provinces, especially in funeral rites; and any that is exported is bought up at 
enormous prices for China, where it is especially preferred for embalming purposes on account of its being less vola- 
tile than the ordinary drug. 
Borneo camphor is also produced in Johore, a province of the Malay peninsula, where it is sold in four qualities. 
The first is composed of transparent crystals, generally a quarter of an inch and upwards in length; the second of 
brown crystals, inferior in size; the third of powdery coherent and slightly colored grayish crystals, which resemble 
Japanese camphor; the fourth quality is brownish, pulverulent, and looks like sea-shore sand. (See P.J. Tr., xvii.) 
Ngai camphor is yielded by the Blamea balsamifera, which occurs in India, China, Formosa, etc. The crude 
drug is known to the Chinese as ngai-fiu, and when refined in Canton as ngai-p’ien. About ten thousand pounds 
annually are exported from Canton. The refined camphor in appearance, odor, hardness, specific gravity, and vola- 
tility agrees almost precisely with Borneo camphor. According to Plowman, it has the chemical composition of Bor- 
neo camphor, but differs from it in its alcoholic solution being lsevogyrate, and in being converted by boiling nitric 
acid into a substance thought to be identical with the stearopten of Chrysanthemum parthenium Pers. 
The physiological action of Borneo and Ngai camphor and of artificial horneol has been studied by R. Stock- 
man (Journ. of Physiol., 1888), who finds that the action of the three substances is practically identical and closely 
resembles that of true camphor. He finds that these substances act as stimulants to the heart, but that when the 
dose is sufficiently large there occurs a fall of blood-pressure, apparently due to dilatation of the vessels; that in 
poisoning the respiration is always very much slowed, apparently by a centric action; that the convulsions which 
the drug produces are due to an influence upon the cerebral cortex; and that there is a lessening of the functional 
activity of the spinal cord and of the motor nerves. 
* Oil op Camphor. Two substances occur in commerce under the name of oil of camphor: the one derived from 
the Camphora officinarum, known as the Formosa or Japanese Oil of Camphor, and formerly official under the name 
of Oleum camphorce in the U. S. P.; the other the product of Bryobalanops camphora, the East India oil of cam- 
phor, not occurring in American and European commerce. The commercial oil of camphor, as found in our markets, 
is a colorless fluid or of a light yellowish-brown color, having a strong odor precisely like that of camphor, a 
bitterish camphorous taste, and a specific gravity, according to Prof. Procter, of 0'940. As described by M. Lal- 
lemand, the oil of the Camphora officinarum is very fluid, scarcely colored, and of a strong smell of camphor. It acts 
strongly on polarized light, and is dextrogyrate. It has been considered to be simply a mixture of camphor, CioHieO, 
and a hydrocarbon, CtoHj6, but is in reality much more complex. Yoshida (A. J. P., 1886, p. 99) separated it into 
five portions, as follows: 0-2 per cent, boiling below 145° C.; 7 per cent, of a hydrocarbon boiling at 166° C.; 20 
per cent, of a hydrocarbon boiling at 172°-173° C.; 22’8 per cent, of camphor, boiling point 205° C.; 50 per cent, 
of an oxygenated oil boiling at 212°-213° C. The hydrocarbon boiling at 156° C., Yoshida determined to be tere- 
binthene, CioHje, which differs in physical respects, however, from the terebinthene of oil of turpentine. The hydro- 
carbon boiling at 172°-173° C. he found to have a pleasant lemon odor, and, he thinks, is identical with the citrene 
of lemon oil. To the oxygenated oil, which constitutes half of the crude oil, he gives the formula CioHieO,H2O, and 
calls it camphorogenol. Schimmel & Co., of Leipsic, have, since 1885, extracted safrol commercially from the 
Japanese oil of camphor, and they give a different account of its composition. They state (Bericht von Schimmel 
& Co., April, 1888) that it contains camphor, safrol, eugenol, a sesquiterpene, C15II24, and possibly terpinol. They do 
not consider Yoshida’s camphorogenol to be a distinct substance. 
Within the last few years there has appeared in the American and English markets in considerable quantity an 
oil of camphor produced in Japan. It is imported in tin cans, and varies in tint from the colorless transparency 
of water, through pale straw, and yellow, to deep black. The specific gravity varies from 0-898 in the colorless oil to 
0'990 in the very dark. The oil seems to vary greatly in the amount of camphor it contains, much of it having 
nearly all the solid principle removed before exportation. The odor is distinctly camphoraceous, with a pecu- 
liarity that suggests the odor of sassafras. It is said by Mr. Peter MacEwan to differ from the Formosa oil in its 
behavior towards nitric acid. If half a drachm of the acid be allowed to act upon half a drachm of Japanese oil, 
and then diluted with half a drachm of water, a crimson color will be produced. The Formosa oil so treated yields a 
milky color with a scarcely perceptible green shade; hydrochloric acid gives with each oil a salmon color, more 
marked, however, with the Japanese oil. For further details, see P. J. Tr., vols. xv., xvi., and Journ. Chem. Soc., 
Oct. 1885. The oil is said to be used in Japan for the preparation of Chinese ink and varnishes, and for burning. 
As a diluent for artists’ colors it is useful because its capacity for dissolving resins is greater than that of oil of 
turpentine and similar liquids. 
The Formosa camphor oil industry, owing to onerous trade restrictions, has decreased greatly (Journ. Soc. Chem. Camphorci. 
PAET I. 
311 
Medical Properties and Uses. Camphor does not seem to have been known to the 
ancient Greeks and Romans. Europe probably derived it from the Arabians, by whom it was 
employed as a refrigerant. The local action of camphor is that of an irritant, with probably 
a benumbing influence upon the peripheral nerves of the mucous membrane. It is readily 
absorbed, and is finally eliminated from the kidneys, chiefly in the form of campho-glycuronic 
acid. When taken in moderate dose it produces in health a feeling of warmth in the stomach, 
some increase in the frequency, the force, and the fulness of the pulse, and a slight mental 
exhilaration. According to the older authorities, it may also cause distinct sexual excitement 
with voluptuous dreams, but such observation can rarely be corroborated, and in clinical medi- 
cine the drug has been used in full dose to a considerable extent as an antaphrodisiac and 
sexual sedative. After larger doses there are lassitude, decrease in the frequency of the pulse, 
and giddiness, preceded it may be by a short period of excitement. The symptoms produced 
by poisonous doses are: faintness, headache, vertigo, confusion of ideas, burning pain in the 
stomach, delirium, violent convulsions, insensibility, general paralysis; a pulse generally small, 
but sometimes accelerated and sometimes lowered in number; a skin cool, pale, or livid, 
generally bedewed with sweat. Sudden unconsciousness, with or without convulsions, has been 
in some instances the first manifestation of the action of the poison, and of course in any 
individual case many of the symptoms detailed above may be wanting. So far as we know, 
there are on record only three fatal cases of poisoning. 
The chief influences of the therapeutic dose of camphor are exerted upon the nervous sys- 
tem, and the drug has been largely used as an antispasmodic and stimulant in various diseases 
of a typhoid character, when there is a frequent irritated pulse, a dry skin, and much nervous 
derangement, indicated by restlessness, watchfulness, tremors, subsultus, and low muttering 
delirium. In the United States, however, it is at present not much used in serious disease, 
but is very extensively employed in various functional nervous disorders, such as hysteria, dys- 
menorrhcea, general nervousness, and even in nymphomania. It is much used in serous diarrhoea, 
in flatulence, spasmodic colic, etc., as a local stimulant to the alimentary canal. In some of 
these cases much advantage may be derived from combining it with opium. 
In Germany camphor is used to a considerable extent as a cardiac and general stimulant, 
not only in adynamic fevers but also when there is acute cardiac failure, and recent experi- 
ments show that the drug has a decided influence upon the circulation, indicating that in small 
doses it directly stimulates the heart and also widens the blood-paths by acting upon the vaso- 
motor centre, and that in toxic doses it depresses both the heart and the arteries. 
Camphor is much used locally as an anodyne, dissolved in alcohol, oil, or acetic acid, and 
frequently combined with laudanum. In rheumatic and gouty affections, and various internal 
spasmodic and inflammatory complaints, it often yields relief in this way. It is stated that 
the ardor urinse of gonorrhoea may be alleviated by injecting an oleaginous solution of 
camphor into the urethra, and the tenesmus from ascarides and dysentery by enemata of 
the same solution. Twenty or thirty grains of camphor, added to a poultice, and applied 
to the perineum, allay the chordee which is a painful attendant upon gonorrhoea. Its vapor 
has been inhaled into the lungs with benefit in asthma and spasmodic cough ; and a lump of it 
held to the nose is said to relieve coryza. It has been employed for the same purpose, and for 
nervous headache, in the form of powder snuffed up the nostrils. It enters into the composition 
of certain tooth-powders. 
Camphor is frequently given in the form of pill, and when the dose is not large, in spite of 
its slow solubility and irritant properties, the drug is well tolerated. When, however, it is 
desired to give very large doses or to have a prompt effect, a liquid preparation is preferable. 
Ind., 1887, 391), while that of Japan has increased enormously. In 1885 the exportation from Japan was 225,200 
kilos, in 1886, 537,700 kilos, and in 1887 much more; but on account of the failure of price the Japanese have con- 
sumed most of the oil they produce, the importation into the United States in 1892 having decreased to but a little 
more than one-fourth of what it formerly was. 
The oil of camphor has properties similar to those of camphor, but more stimulant, and is especially applicable to 
affections of the stomach and bowels in which an anodyne and stimulant impression is indicated, as flatulent colic 
and spasmodic cholera. It may also be used externally, as a rubefacient and anodyne liniment, diluted with soap 
liniment, or olive oil, in local rheumatism and neuralgic pains, bruises, sprains, etc. The dose is two or three drops 
(0-12 to 0-18 C.c.). 
The Dryobalanops oil of camphor is said to be found in trees too young to produce camphor, and is supposed to 
constitute the first stage in the development of this substance, as it occupies the cavities in the trunk which are 
afterwards filled with the camphor. The chief constituent of it is a peculiar volatile oil, which is termed borneene, 
is isomeric with oil of turpentine, C10H16, and holds in solution borneol and resin. By fractional distillation this oil 
may be separated into two portions, the one more volatile than the other, but not differing in composition. 312 
Camphor a.—Camphor a Monobromata. 
PAET I. 
The Aqua Camphorse of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is an excellent but feeble preparation. The 
Spiritus Camphorae may be given in milk or even in water, although under the latter circum- 
stances it is apt to adhere to the sides of the vessel or of the spoon. An excellent method of 
administration is afforded by an emulsion made by rubbing up the camphor with mucilage of 
acacia and water. As camphor is freely soluble in chloroform, when it is desired to give the 
two remedies together the camphor may be dissolved in the chloroform and administered in 
milk or in emulsion. Oleum camphoratum of the German Pharmacopoeia is made by dis- 
solving one part of camphor in nine parts of olive oil, and is much used in Germany hypoder- 
mically as a cardiac stimulant in collapse. According to Schilling, as much as thirty grains of 
the camphor may be thus administered without disagreeable results. The medium dose of 
camphor is from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.) ; but, to meet various indications, it may 
be diminished to a single grain (0-065 Gm.) or increased to a scruple (1-3 Gm.). There is 
no known antidote to camphor, and in poisoning by it, after evacuation of the stomach and 
bowels, the symptoms must be met as they arise. 
CAMPHORA MONOBROMATA. U. S. Monobromated Camphor. 
CioHisBrO; 230*42. (CiM'PHO-RA MON-O-BRd-MA'TA.) Ci0 Hi5 Br O; 2.30-8. 
Bromated Camphor, Brominated Camphor, Brom-camphor; Cainphre monobromfi, Fr.; Monobrom Camphor, G. 
This substance was discovered in 1861 by Th. Swarts, who prepared it by heating bi- 
bromide of camphor in a sealed tube to 100° C. It may also be made by heating for three 
hours in a sealed tube, with the water-bath, bromine and camphor in the proper chemical 
proportions. The crystalline mass is washed with water, recrystallized from alcohol after 
treatment with animal charcoal, washed with an alcoholic solution of potassa, then with much 
water, and finally recrystallized from a mixture of alcohol and ether. It is very easy to pre- 
pare the monobromide on a small scale in this way. There is, however, at all times a very 
great pressure upon the inside of the tube, and the attempt to practise the method upon a 
large scale is very apt to result in shattering the tubes. This has led to numerous experiments 
as to the best method of preparing it. For methods of preparing bromocamphor and allied 
products, see Chem. News, 1896, 208. Prof. Maisch (A. J. P., 1872, 339) introduces 4 oz. 
of bromine gradually into a retort in which 13 oz. of camphor have been previously placed. In 
15 or 20 minutes a brisk reaction will commence. When this subsides, 8 or 9 oz. more of bro- 
mine are to be poured in, in four portions, waiting after each addition until the reaction ceases. 
The liquid in the retort is now to be heated to about 132° C. (270° F.), then cooled, and suffi- 
cient petroleum benzin added to dissolve the crystalline mass. The crystals which are formed 
on cooling may be purified by recrystallization from benzin or hot alcohol. Various modifica- 
tions of this process have been proposed. Prof. J. U. Lloyd (A. J. P., April, 1875) directs 
the addition of water to the camphor and bromine in the retort, and boils the mixture for two 
hours, or until all the water is evaporated. Then the contents are poured into a dish and 
treated with warm alcohol, and allowed to crystallize, the mother-liquor being drained off and 
recrystallized from hot alcohol. C. C. Keller (Schweiz. Wochensch. f. Pharm., 1880, p. 50) uses 
chloroform (instead of water, as proposed by Prof. Lloyd) with the camphor and bromine, and 
washes the crystals with absolute alcohol, crystallizing them finally from an ethereal solution. 
300 parts of camphor yield 340 parts of monobromated camphor* 
Properties. “ Colorless, prismatic needles or scales, having a mild, camphoraceous odor 
and taste, permanent in the air, unaffected by light, and neutral to litmus paper. Almost in- 
soluble in water; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, hot benzin, and fixed and volatile 
oils ; slightly soluble in glycerin. It is also soluble, without decomposition, in cold, concen- 
trated sulplmric acid, from which it separates again unaltered, when the solution is poured into 
water. It melts at 76° C. (168-8° F.), and sublimes at a slightly higher temperature. At 
274° C. (525-2° F.) it boils without decomposition, and is finally volatilized without leaving a 
residue.” XJ. S. 
Medical Properties. Monobromated camphor was first proposed as a medicine by Pro- 
fessor Deneffe, and has been used as a nervous sedative in delirium tremens, hysteria, convulsive 
irritation of teething, sleeplessness, etc. According to the experiments of Dr. Bourneville (Le 
Progres Medical, 1874) and of Dr. Lawson (The Practitioner, Aug. 1874), it produces in 
* Chlorinated Camphor (C10H15CI.O), the counterpart of monobromated camphor, has been studied physiologically 
by F. Perrenot under the name of Chlorure de Camphre {These, Lyon, 1886). He finds that it is not poisonous, but 
has distinct antiseptic properties, and recommends it as a substitute for iodoform and other antiseptics when ulcer- 
ated surfaces need a stimulant dressing. Cannabis Indica. 
PART I. 
313 
mammals muscular weakness, passing into paralysis, very decided progressive reduction of 
temperature, decrease in the respiration rate, sleep passing into stupor, and finally death. Dr. 
Bourneville states that the vessels of the ear and eyelids in the rabbit are contracted. Its 
therapeutic action resembles, but is not identical with, that of other bromides; in the experi- 
ence of Dr. H. C. Wood, it has seemed to be of especial value in spermatorrhoea. It is not 
safe to give it too freely, as in some cases its ingestiop has been followed by epileptiform con- 
vulsions. The dose of it is 5 grains (0-33 Gm.),* given in pill or emulsion, and repeated every 
hour for 2 or 3 doses if necessary. The emulsion may be made by dissolving it in six times 
its weight of expressed oil of almonds, and then forming an emulsion with gum and water in 
the usual manner. 
CANNABIS INDICA. U. S., Br. Indian Cannabis. [Indian Hemp.] 
(cXn'na-bis in'di ca.) 
“ The flowering tops of the female plant of Cannabis sativa, Linne (nat. ord. Urticaceae), 
grown in the East Indies.” U S. “ The dried flowering or fruiting tops of the female plant 
of Cannabis sativa, Linn., grown in India; from which the resin has not been removed.” Br. 
Hemp, Indian Hemp; Herba Cannabis Indicae; Chanvre Indien, Fr.; Indischer Hanf, G. 
Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-parted. Stamens five. Female. Calyx one-leaved, rolled up. 
Styles two. Bindley. 
Cannabis sativa. Linn. Sp. Plant. 1457 ; Griffith, Med. Bot. p. 572; B. & T. 231. Hemp 
is an annual plant, from four to eight feet or more in height, with an erect, branching, angular 
stem. The leaves are alternate or opposite, on long, lax footstalks, roughish, and digitate, with 
linear-lanceolate, serrated segments. The stipules are subulate. The flowers are axillary ; the 
male in long, branched, drooping racemes ; the female in erect, simple spikes. The stamens 
are five, with long pendulous anthers; the pistils two, with long, filiform, glandular stigmas. 
The fruit is ovate and one-seeded. The whole plant is covered with a fine pubescence, scarcely 
visible to the naked eye, and somewhat viscid to the touch. The hemp plant of India, from 
which the drug is derived, has been considered by some as a distinct species, and named Can- 
nabis indica; hut the most observant botanists, upon comparing it with our cultivated plant, 
have been unable to discover any specific difference. It is now, therefore, regarded merely as 
a variety, and is distinguished by the epithet indica. Dr. Pereira states that in the female plant 
the flowers are somewhat more crowded than in the common hemp, but that the male plants 
in the two varieties are in all respects the same. 
C. sativa is a native of the Caucasus, Persia, and the hilly regions in the north of India. It 
is cultivated in many parts of Europe and Asia, and largely in our Western States. It is from 
the Indian variety exclusively that the medicine was formerly obtained; the heat of the cli- 
mate in Hindostan apparently favoring the development of its active principle.f Dr. H. C. 
Wood, having obtained a parcel of the male plant of C. americana from Kentucky, made an 
alcoholic extract of the leaves and tops, and, upon trying it on the system, found it effective in 
less than a grain, and, having inadvertently taken too large a dose, experienced effects which 
left no doubt of the powers of the medicine, and of the identity of its influence with that of 
the Indian plant. How far the female tops might have the same effect is left uncertain ; but, 
if we are to judge from analogy with the Indian plant, they would be preferable to the male. 
(Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. xi. p.226.) The results obtained by Dr. Wood were so decisive 
that at the 1880 revision of our Pharmacopoeia the American plant was recognized ; but in 
1890 it was dropped. 
* Elixir of Monobromated Camphor is proposed by Munday (P.J. Tr., March 3,1877). Monobromated camphor 
3 parts, alcohol (90 per cent.) 120 parts, orange-flower water 80 parts, glycerin 100 parts. Mix the alcohol and 
glycerin; dissolve the monobromated camphor by the use of a gentle heat, and add the orange-flower water. It 
contains 1 per cent, of monobromated camphor. 
| On a visit to the botanical garden of Edinburgh, in the autumn of 1860, Dr. George B. Wood saw a full-grown 
specimen of Cannabis sativa, and was surprised to find that it was only about four feet high, had little or no odor, 
and was scarcely adhesive when handled. If this is the general character of the hemp plant in the north of Europe, 
it is not surprising that it should be destitute of the medicinal properties of the Indian plant. In Philadelphia the 
plant attains a height usually of six or eight feet, has a decided narcotic odor, and exudes so much of its peculiar 
resin as to be very adhesive to the fingers. On this occasion Dr. Christison informed Dr. Geo. B. Wood, from infor- 
mation he had received from India, that the plant there cultivated in the hot plains does not yield hashish satisfac- 
torily, but that this product is chiefly if not exclusively obtained from it in the hilly regions. He said, moreover, 
that the story of the natives running through the hemp-fields and collecting the resin on their clothing, from which 
it is afterwards scraped, is, if not quite untrue, at least apocryphal. He had been informed that the real mode of 
gathering it is to rub the hemp-tops between the hands, and, when the palms and fingers are sufficiently loaded with 
the resin, to scrape it oil'. It is possible, however, that different methods may be followed in different localities. 314 
Cannabvs Indica. 
PART I. 
The seeds, though not now official have been used in medicine. They are about the eighth 
of an inch long, roundish-ovate, somewhat compressed, of a shining ash-gray color, and of a 
disagreeable, oily, sweetish taste. They yield by expression about 20 per cent, of a fixed oil, 
which has the drying property, and is used in the arts. They contain also uncrystallizable 
sugar and albumen, and when rubbed with water form an emulsion, which may be used ad- 
vantageously in inflammations of the mucous membranes, though without narcotic properties. 
The seeds are much used as food for birds, as they are fond of them. They are generally be- 
lieved to be in no degree poisonous; but M. Michaud relates the case of a child in whom 
serious symptoms of narcotic poisoning occurred after taking a certain quantity of them. It 
is probable that some of the fruit eaten by the child was unripe, as in this state it would be 
more likely to partake of the peculiar qualities of the plant. (Annuaire de Therap., 1860.) 
In Hindostan, Persia, and other parts of the East, hemp has long been habitually employed 
as an intoxicating agent. The parts used are the tops of the plant, and a resinous product 
obtained from it. Ganja or gunjah is the tops of cultivated female plants, cut whilst unfertil- 
ized directly after flowering, and formed into bundles from two to four feet long by three 
inches in diameter. The utmost care is taken to prevent fertilization, it being affirmed that 
a single male plant will spoil a whole field. When hemp is cultivated in India for its fibre or 
seed, male and female plants are grown together. The hashish of the Arabs is essentially the 
same as gunjah. For a description of the method employed in India for the preparation of 
hasheesh or majoom, see Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 417. The name bang is given to a mixture 
of the larger leaves and capsules, without the stems, of wild plants, male and female. There 
is on the surface of the plant a resinous exudation, to which it owes its clammy feel. Men 
clothed in leather run through the hemp-fields, brushing forcibly against the plants, and thus 
separating the resin, which is subsequently scraped from their dress and formed into balls. 
These balls and also masses formed out of resin mechanically separated from gunjah bundles 
are called churrus. In these different states of preparation the hemp is smoked like tobacco, 
with which it is said to be frequently mixed. Momea or mimea is a hemp preparation said to 
be made in Thibet with human fat. An infusion or decoction of the plant is also sometimes 
used as an exhilarating drink. From gunjah the Messrs. Smith, of Edinburgh, obtained a 
purer resin by the following process. Bruised gunjah is digested, first in successive portions of 
warm water, till the expressed liquid comes away colorless; and afterwards for two days, with 
a moderate heat, in a solution of sodium carbonate, containing one part of the salt for two of 
the dried herb. It is then expressed, washed, dried, and exhausted by percolation with alcohol. 
The tincture, after being agitated with milk of lime containing one part of the earth for twelve 
of the gunjah used, is filtered ; the lime is precipitated by sulphuric acid ; the filtered liquor 
is agitated with animal charcoal, and again filtered; most of the alcohol is distilled off, and to 
the residue twice its weight of water is added; the liquor is then allowed to evaporate grad- 
ually ; and, finally, the resin is washed with fresh water until it ceases to impart a sour or 
bitter taste to the liquid, and is then dried in thin layers. Thus obtained, it retains the odor 
and taste of the gunjah, which yields from 6 to 7 per cent, of it. 
Properties. Fresh hemp has a peculiar narcotic odor, which is said to be capable of pro- 
ducing vertigo, headache, and a species of intoxication. It is much less in the dried tops, which 
have a feeble bitterish taste. According to Dr. Royle, churrus is when pure of a blackish-gray, 
blackish-green, or dirty olive color, of a fragrant and narcotic odor, and a slightly warm, 
bitterish, and acrid taste. The Indian hemp is officially described as “ branching, compressed, 
brittle, about 5 Cm. or more long, with a few digitate leaves, having linear-lanceolate leaflets, 
and numerous, sheathing, pointed bracts, each containing two small, pistillate flowers, some- 
times with the nearly ripe fruit, the whole more or less agglutinated with a resinous exuda- 
tion. It has a brownish-green color, a peculiar, narcotic odor, and a slightly acrid taste.” 
U. S. “ The fruit is one-seeded and supported by an ovate-lanceolate bract. Both leaves and 
bracts bear external oleo-resin glands and one-celled curved hairs, the bases of which are en- 
larged and contain cystoliths.” Br. For a histological description of the leaf by Dr. A. R. 
L. Dohme, see Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 569. Schlesinger found in the leaves a bitter substance, 
chlorophyll, green resinous extractive, coloring matter, gummy extract, extractive, albumen, 
lignin, and salts. The plant also contains volatile oil in very small proportion, which probably 
has narcotic properties. The resin obtained by T. & H. Smith, of Edinburgh, in 1846, has 
been thought to be the active principle, and has received the name of cannabin. It is neutral, 
soluble in alcohol and ether, and separable from the alcoholic solution by water as a white 
precipitate. Martino (Ar. Rep. Pharm., 4, 529) obtained a resin fusing at 68° C. (154-4° PART I. 
Oannabis Indica. 
315 
F.), easily soluble in alcohol, ether, and volatile oils, difficultly soluble in aqueous alkalies and 
acids. By oxidation with nitric acid a product is formed, oxycannabin, C20H20tI207, which, 
after purification, is white and crystalline. Preobraschensky (Pharm. Zeit. f. Russl., 1876, 
7U5) believes that cannabis indica contains the alkaloid nicotine; and this may sometimes be 
found in some samples of hasheesh intended for smoking, which contain tobacco as an ad- 
mixture. From the effects on the system of the exhalations from fresh hemp, it was a very 
probable supposition that the plant owed its medical properties, in part at least, to a volatile 
principle. By repeated distillation of the same portion of water from relatively large quanti- 
ties of hemp renewed at each distillation, M. J. Personne obtained a volatile oil, of a stupefying 
odor, and an action on the system such as to dispose him to think that it was the active principle 
of the plant. As the water distilled was strongly alkaline, he supposed that this volatile prin- 
ciple might be a new alkaloid; but the alkaline reaction was found to depend on ammonia; 
and the liquid obtained proved to be a volatile oil, lighter than water, of a deep amber color, a 
strong smell of hemp, and composed of two distinct oils, one colorless, with the formula C18H20, 
the other a hydride of the first, C18H22, which was solid, and separates from alcohol in plate- 
like crystals. For the former M. Personne proposes the name of cannabene. It is affirmed 
that when this is inhaled, or taken into the stomach, a singular excitement is felt throughout 
the system, followed by a depression, sometimes amounting to syncope, with hallucinations 
which are generally disagreeable, but an action on the whole slighter and more fugitive than 
that of the resin. Siebold and Bradbury (Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1881), by the process 
for nicotine, obtained cannabinine in the form of a varnish-like dry mass, which they assert 
is an alkaloid. Dr. Matthew Hay believes that there are several alkaloids in cannabis indica, 
and he has obtained one, tetano-cannabene, whose existence is made very doubtful by the 
researches of Warden and Waddell (Indian Med. Gazette, xix.) and of Jahns (P. J. Tr., 1883). 
Henry F. Smith has also found an alkaloid corresponding to that described by Siebold and 
Bradbury. He obtained a yellowish-green, transparent, varnish-like mass, which had a strong, 
peculiar odor, resembling that of coniine, and formed a crystalline sulphate. (A. J. P., 1891, 
387.)* Cannabine tannate is now an article of commerce and made by Merck ; it is asserted 
by Dr. Dornmiiller to have soporific effects, but Dr. H. C. Wood has found it to be physiologi- 
cally inert. Bombelon prepares pure cannabine by decomposing the tannate with zinc oxide 
and extracting the cannabine as a greenish-brown, non-adhesive powder, which he asserts is 
more reliable than the tannate. (Amer. Drug., 1884, 132.) Cannabindon, C8H120, is a dark 
red syrupy liquid obtained by Robert (Chem. Zeit., 1894, 741) from Cannabis Indica; it is 
soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils; it is affirmed to be narcotic in doses of from half a grain 
to two grains (0-03 to 0-1 Gm.). Marino-Zuco and Yignolo (Gazetta Clinica Italiana, 1895, 
Part I., 262) have obtained an alkaloidal substance which forms a colorless deliquescent 
crystalline hydrochloride, having a powerful cardiac depressant effect. It is supposed, how- 
ever, to represent a decomposition product of the original plant principle. As a result of a 
reinvestigation of charas (churrus) from Indian hemp, Wood, Spivey, and Easterfield (Journ. 
Chem. Soc., vol. lxix. 539) have found the following principles: 1, a terpene, boiling between 
150° and 180° C.; 2, a sesqui-terpene, boiling at 258°-259° C. ; 3, a crystalline paraffin of 
probable formula C29H0O, melting at 63-5° C. ; and 4, a red oil, boiling at 265°-270° C. under 
a pressure of 20 Mm., to which they give the name cannabinol, and the formula C18H2402. 
This latter constituent they consider the only active ingredient. It is probably the same 
substance as the dark red syrup of Robert, mentioned above under the name cannabindon. 
The authors found that cannabinol readily underwent superficial oxidation, at the same time 
losing its toxic activity. 
Medical Properties. Extract of hemp is a powerful narcotic, causing exhilaration, in- 
toxication, delirious hallucinations, and, in its subsequent action, drowsiness and stupor, with 
little effect upon the circulation. It is asserted also to act as a decided aphrodisiac, to increase 
the appetite, and occasionally to induce the cataleptic state. In overdoses it may produce 
poisonous effects. In morbid states of the system it has been found to cause sleep, to allay 
spasm, to compose nervous disquietude, and to relieve pain. In these respects it resembles 
opium ; but it differs from that narcotic in not diminishing the appetite, checking the secre- 
tions, or constipating the bowels. It is much less certain in its effects, but may sometimes be 
preferably employed, when opium is contra-indicated by its nauseating or constipating effects, 
* Dr. I. Roux (Arch. d. Pharm., 1887) has experimented upon extracts made by treating purified extract of hemp 
with petroleum benzin and ether. The ether extract produced insignificant results. The petroleum extract was 
excitant and convulsivant. The alcoholic extract was a feeble narcotic. 316 
Cannabis Indica.— Cantharis. 
PART I. 
or its disposition to produce headache, and to check the bronchial secretion. The complaints 
in which it has been specially recommended are neuralgia, gout, rheumatism, tetanus, hydro- 
phobia, epidemic cholera, convulsions, chorea, hysteria, mental depression, delirium tremens, in- 
sanity, and uterine hemorrhage. Dr. Alexander Christison, of Edinburgh, affirms that it has 
the property of hastening and increasing the contractions of the uterus in delivery, and has 
employed it with advantage for this purpose. It acts very quickly, and without anaesthetic 
effect. It appears, however, to exert this influence only in a certain proportion of cases. (Ed. 
Month. Journ. of Med. Sci., xiii. 117 ; xv. 124.) The strength of the extract varies much as 
found in commerce, and therefore no definite dose can be fixed. When it is of good quality, 
half a grain or a grain (0-03-0-065 Gm.) will affect the system, whilst some apparently good 
extracts are practically inert. The proper plan is to begin with one-quarter grain (0-016 Gm.), 
repeated at intervals of two, three, or four hours, and gradually increased until its influence is 
felt, and the strength of the parcel employed is thus ascertained. Afterwards the dose should 
be regulated by the ascertained strength; but, should a new parcel be employed, the same 
caution must be observed as to the commencing dose. A tincture is prepared by dissolving an 
ounce of the extract in a pint (Imp. meas.) of alcohol. A dose of this, equivalent to a grain 
of the extract, is about twenty minims (1-25 C.c.), or forty drops. According to Mr. C. R. 
Marshall (London Lancet, i., 1897 ; also Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc., Oct. 1898), upon dogs and 
cats cannabinol acts as a powerful hypnotic, producing also ataxia and other evidences of action 
upon the nerve-centres. Its influence upon the circulation was found to be very feeble, though 
excessive doses reduced the pulse-rate. In man, doses of from one and a half to two grains 
of cannabinol produced very active intoxication, with symptoms similar to those caused by can- 
nabis indica. The inertness of much of the commercial extract Marshall believes to be due 
to the proneness of cannabinol to undergo oxidation. Of the terpenes of cannabis indica, 
Marshall took as high as eight minims without effect. 
CANTHARIS. U. S., Br. Cantharides. [Spanish Flies.] 
(cAn'tha-ris.) 
“ Cantharis vesicatoria, De Geer (class, Insecta; order, Coleoptera). Cantharides should 
be thoroughly dried at a temperature not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.), and kept in well-closed 
vessels.” U. S. “ The dried beetle, Cantharis vesicatoria, Latr.” Br. 
Cantharides, P.G.; Museae Hispanic®; Cantharides, Cantharide, Fr.; Spanische Fliege, Kantharide, Cantha- 
riden, G.; Cantarelie, It.; Cantaridas, Sp. 
The term Cantharis was employed by the ancient Greek writers to designate many coleop- 
terous insects or beetles. Linnaeus gave the title to a genus not including the official blistering 
insect, and placed this in the genus Meloe, which, however, has been since divided into several 
genera. Geoffrey made the Spanish fly (beetle) the prototype of a new genus, Cantharis, 
substituting Cicindela as the title of the Linnaean genus. Fabricius altered the arrangement 
of Geoffrey, and substituted Lytta for Cantharis as the generic name. The former was 
adopted by the London College, and at one time was in extensive use; but the latter, having 
been restored by Latreille, is now recognized in the British and U. S. Pharmacopoeias, and 
is universally employed. By this naturalist the vesicating insects were grouped in a small 
tribe, corresponding very nearly with the Linnaean genus Meloe, and distinguished by the title 
Cantharidae. This tribe he divided into eleven genera, among which is Cantharis. Two others 
of these genera, Meloe properly so called, and Mylabris, have been employed as vesicatories. 
Mylabris cichorii is thought to be one of the insects described by Pliny and Dioscorides under 
the name of cantharides, and is to this day employed in Italy, Greece, the Levant, and Egypt; 
and another species, M. pustulata, is used for the same purpose in China. Mr. W. R. Warner 
has found 500 parts of M. cichorii to yield 2-13 parts of cantharidin, which somewhat exceeds 
the yield of Spanish flies (A. J. P., xxviii. 195) ; and R. Wolff has obtained by ethereal ex- 
traction more than 4 parts of cantharidin in 500 of the Lytta aspersa of Buenos Avres. The 
M. cichorii has been recently imported to some extent under the name of Chinese blistering fly. 
It is black, with the powder blackish gray and free from shining particles; it yielded to Prof. 
Maisch (Proc. Amer. Pharm., 1872) 1-016 per cent., and to L. Fahnestock 1-25 per cent., of 
cantharidin (A. J. P., 1879). For further account of non-official blistering flies, see page 312. 
Cantharis. Class Insecta. Order Coleoptera. Linn.—Family Trachelides. Tribe Cantha- 
ridrn. Latreille. 
Gen. Ch. Tarsi entire ; nails bifid ; head not produced into a rostrum ; elytra flexible, cover- 
ing the whole abdomen, linear, semicylindric; wings perfect; maxillae with two membranous 
lacinise, the external one acute within, subuncinate; antennae longer than the head and thorax, PART I. 
Cantharis. 
317 
rectilinear; first joint largest, the second transverse, very short; maxillary palpi larger at tip. 
(Say.) 
Cantharis vesicatoria. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect., ii. p. 220. This beetle is from six to 
ten lines in length, by two or three in breadth, and of a beautiful, shining, golden-green color. 
The head is large and heart-shaped, bearing two thread-like, black, jointed feelers; the thorax 
short and quadrilateral; the wing-sheaths long and flexible, covering brownish membranous 
wings. When alive, the Spanish flies have a strong, penetrating, fetid odor, compared to that 
of mice, by which swarms of them may be detected at a considerable distance. They attach 
themselves preferably to certain trees and shrubs, such as the white poplar, privet, ash, elder, 
and lilac, upon the leaves of which they feed. They abound most in Spain, Italy, and the 
south of France, but are found also in all the temperate parts of Europe, and in the west of 
Asia. According to the researches of Lichtenstein, the eggs are laid by the female in the 
latter part of June in small cylindrical holes made in the ground. A week later the larvae 
hatch out. They are a millimeter long, with two long caudal threads, and of a brown color. 
After many efforts, M. Lichtenstein succeeded in getting them to feed on the honey contained 
in the stomach of bees. In a few days they changed into milk-white larvae, and about a month 
after this buried themselves in the ground, to assume the chrysalis stage and to hatch out the 
following spring as perfected beetles. In the wild state the larvae are said to mount up flowers 
and attach themselves to bees or other hymenopterous insects; carried by the bee to the hive, 
the larvae feed upon the young bees and the honey and bee-bread stored up for use. The 
beetles usually make their appearance in swarms upon the trees in May and June, when they 
are collected. The time preferred for the purpose is in the morning, at sunrise, when they are 
torpid from the cold of the night, and easily let go their hold. Persons with their faces pro- 
tected by masks, and their hands with gloves, shake the trees, or beat them with poles; and 
the insects are received as they fall upon linen cloths spread underneath. They are then 
plunged into vinegar diluted with water, or exposed in sieves to the vapor of boiling vinegar, 
and, having been thus deprived of life, are dried either in the sun, or in apartments heated by 
stoves. This mode of killing the flies by the steam of vinegar is as ancient as the times of 
Dioscorides and Pliny. In some places they are gathered by smoking the trees with burning 
brimstone. It has been proposed by M. Lutrand to destroy them by the vapor of chloroform. 
When perfectly dry, they are introduced into casks or boxes lined with paper and carefully 
closed, so as to exclude as much as possible the atmospheric moisture. According to M. Neut- 
wich, the young fly has no vesicating power (A*. J. Tr., Nov. and Dec., 1870, p. 355) ; but this 
is denied by H. Beauregard. (Ibid., xv. 873.) 
Cantharides come chiefly from Spain, Italy, Sicily, and other parts of the Mediterranean. 
Considerable quantities are also brought from St. Petersburg, derived originally, in all proba- 
bility, from the southern provinces of Russia, where the insect is very abundant. The Rus- 
sian flies are most esteemed. They may be distinguished by their greater size, and their color 
approaching to that of copper. 
In the United States are several species of Cantharis, which have been employed as substi- 
tutes for C. vesicatoria and found equally efficient; but none of them are now recognized by 
our national Pharmacopoeia; even C. vittata, which was at one time official, having been dis- 
carded * 
* Blistering Flies not official. 1. Cantkaris vittata. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect. ; Durand, Journ. of the Phila. 
Coll, of Pharm., ii. 274, fig. 4. The potato fly * is rather smaller than C. vesicatoria, which it resembles in shape. 
Its length is about six lines. The head is light red, with dark spots upon the top; the feelers are black; the elytra 
or wing-cases are black, with a yellow longitudinal stripe in the centre, and with a yellow margin; the thorax is 
also black, with three yellow lines; and the abdomen and legs, which have the same color, are covered with a cinere- 
ous down. It inhabits chiefly the potato vine, and appears about the end of July or beginning of August, in some 
seasons very abundantly. It is found on the plant in the morning and evening, but during the heat of the day de- 
scends into the soil. The insects are collected by shaking them from the plant into hot water, and. are afterwards 
carefully dried in the sun. They are natives of the Middle and Southern States. This species of Cantharis was 
first described by Fabricius in the year 1781, and was introduced to the notice of the profession by Dr. Isaac Chap- 
man, of Bucks County, Pennsylvania, who found it equal if not superior to the Spanish fly as a vesicatory. The 
testimony of Dr. Chapman has been corroborated by that of many other practitioners. It may be applied to the 
same purposes, treated in the same manner, and given in the same dose as the foreign insect. Mr. W. R. Warner 
obtained 1*99 parts of cantharidin from 500 parts of this beetle, but by improved methods Mr. Fahnestock procured 
1J per cent, of the active principle. {A. J. P., xxviii. 195 ; li. 298.) According to the researches of Prof. Jos. Leidy, 
the vesicating principle resides in the blood, the eggs, and a peculiar fatty matter of certain accessory glands of the 
generative apparatus {Am. Jour, of Med. Sci., Jan. 1860, p. 60); whilst H. Beauregard {P. J. Tr., xv. 873) found 
* According to the researches of L. Dembinski, the Colorado potato-beetle, or “potato bug” (Doryphora decemlineata), 
contains no cantharidin. (A. J. P., 1877, p. 550.) 318 
Cantharis. 
PART I. 
Properties. “ About 25 Mm. long and 6 Mm. broad; flattish-cylindrical, with filiform 
antennae, black in the upper part, and with long wing-cases and ample membranous, trans- 
parent, brownish wings; elsewhere of a shining, coppery-green color. The powder is grayish- 
brown, and contains green, shining particles. Odor strong and disagreeable; taste slight, 
afterwards acrid.” U. S. Dried Spanish flies preserve the form and color, and, to a certain ex- 
tent, the disagreeable odor, of the living insect. They have an acrid, burning, and urinous taste. 
Their powder is of a grayish-brown color, interspersed with shining green particles, which are 
the fragments of the feet, head, and wing-cases. If kept perfectly dry, in well-stopped glass 
bottles, they retain their activity for a great length of time. A portion which had been pre- 
served by Van Swieten for thirty years, in a glass vessel, was found still to possess vesicating 
properties. But exposed to a damp air they quickly undergo putrefaction; and this change 
takes place more speedily in the powder. Hence the insects should either be kept whole, and 
powdered as they are wanted for use, or, if kept in powder, should be well dried immediately 
after pulverization, and preserved in air-tight vessels. They should never be purchased in 
powder, as, independently of the consideration just mentioned, they may in this state be more 
easily adulterated. But, however carefully managed, cantharides are apt to be attacked by 
mites, which feed on the interior soft parts of the body, reducing them to powder, while the 
hard exterior parts are not affected. An idea was at one time prevalent that the vesicating 
that the blood, the seminal vesieules of the male, the eggs, and all parts of the generative organs of the female are 
active. 
2. Cantharis cinerea. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phila. Coll, of Pharm., ii. 274, fig. 5. 
The ash-color cantharis closely resembles the preceding species in figure and size, but differs from it in color. The 
elytra and body are black, without the yellow stripes that characterize C. vittata, and are entirely covered with a 
short and dense ash-colored down, which conceals the proper color of the insect. The feelers are black, and the 
first and second joints are very large in the male. This species also inhabits the potato plant, and is occasionally 
found on other plants, as the English bean and wild indigo. It is a native of the Northern and Middle States. II- 
liger in 1801 discovered its vesicating properties; but Dr. Gorham was first to call public attention particularly to 
the subject, and to the fact of its equality in all respects with the potato fly, in a communication addressed, in the 
year 1808, to the Medical Society of Massachusetts. 
3. Cantharis marginata. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phila. Coll, of Pharm., ii. 274, fig. 
6. This is somewhat larger than C. vittata, and of a different shape. The elytra are black, with the suture and 
margin ash-colored. The head, thorax, and abdomen are black, but nearly covered with an ash-colored down; and 
on the upper part of the abdomen, under the wings, are two longitudinal lines of a bright clay color. The insect is 
usually found, in the latter part of summer, upon different species of Clematis, and frequents especially the lower 
branches which trail along the ground. Professor Woodhouse, of Philadelphia, first ascertained its vesicating prop- 
erties ; but it had previously been described by Fabricius as a native of the Cape of Good Hope. Dr. Harris, of 
Massachusetts, found it as efficient as any other species. 
4. Cantharis atrata. Latreille, Gen. Crust, et Insect.; Durand, Journ. of the Phila. Coll, of Pharm., ii. 274, fig. 7. 
The black cantharis is smaller than the indigenous species already described, but resembles C. marginata in figure. 
Its length is only four or five lines. It is distinguished by its size, and its uniform black color. It frequents more 
especially the different species of Aster and Solidago, though it is found also on Prunella vulgaris, Ambrosia trifida, 
and some other plants. Mr. Durand met with considerable numbers of this insect near Philadelphia, in the month 
of September; and they continued to appear till the middle of October. They are common in the Northern and 
Middle States, but are not confined exclusively to this country, being found also in Barbary. Drs. Oswood and 
Harris, of New England, satisfactorily ascertained their vesicating powers. They are probably identical with the 
insect noticed as vesicatory by Prof. Woodhouse, under the name of Meloe niger. 
5. Cantharis vulnerata. Harrison Allen, Medical Zoology, 1st ed., p. 150. Dr. Geo. H. Horn states that this is 
so abundant upon the Pacific coast that he has often seen bushels of it covering the ground. It has a black body, an 
orange-colored head, sometimes with a broad black stripe down the middle, and black wing-cases. Dr. Horn found 
it medicinally very active, as was also the less plentiful C. melcena. 
Several other species have been discovered in the United States, but not yet practically employed. Among these 
are G. ceneas, a native of Pennsylvania, discovered by Mr. Say; C. politus and C. aszeliamis, inhabiting the Southern 
States; C. nuttalli, a large and beautiful insect of Missouri, first noticed by Mr. Nuttall, and said to surpass the 
Spanish fly in magnitude and splendor; and C. albida, another large species, found by Mr. Say near the Rocky 
Mountains. Of these, C. nuttalli (Lytta nuttalli, Say, Am. Entomol., i. 9) bids fair, at some future period, to be an 
object of importance in the western section of this country. The head is of a deep greenish color, with a red spot 
in front; the thorax is of a golden green; the elytra red or golden purple and somewhat rugose on their outer surface, 
green and polished beneath; the feet black; the thighs blue or purplish. The exploring party under Colonel Long 
ascertained the vesicating powers of this insect. It was found in the plains of the Missouri, feeding on a scanty 
grass. In one spot it was so numerous as to be swept a way by bushels, in order that a place might be cleared for 
encamping. There are also a number of beetles found in the United States which are plentiful enough to be capable 
of affording a commercial article, and which are so closely allied to the genus Cantharis as to render it probable that 
they possess blistering properties. For an account of the more important, see Proc. A. P. A., 1876, p. 506. 
Mylabris bifasciata and M. lunata, said to be common South African beetles used by the natives for producing 
vesication, have appeared in the London market. They yielded to J. Oldham Braithwaite from D09 to D02 per cent, 
of cantharides. Meloe proscarabceus and M. majalis have been occasionally substituted for cantharides in Europe, 
and M. trianthemce is used in the upper provinces of Hindostan. Mr. J. 0. Braithwaite found the Mylabris bifasciata 
of the Cape of Good Hope extremely rich in cantharidin, whilst its co-dweller, M. lineata, contained but little. 
(P. J. Tr., xviii. 246.) Huechys sanguinea, or “ Chinese cantharides” of the London market, does not contain can- 
tharidin. (J. Moss, P. J. Tr., xvii. 845.) Epicauta gorhami is said to be used in Japan as a cantharidal beetle. 
(Pharm. Zcit., March, 1891.) PART i. 
Cantharis. 
319 
property of the insect was not injured by the worm, which was supposed to devour only the 
inactive portion. But this has been proved to be a mistake. M. Farines, an apothecary of 
Perpignan, has satisfactorily shown that, though the hard parts left by these mites possess some 
vesicating power, and the powder produced by them still more, yet the sound flies are much 
stronger than either. Camphor, which has been recommended as a preservative, does not 
prevent the destructive agency of the worm* It is stated by M. Farines that when the flies 
are destroyed by the vapor of pyroligneous acid, instead of common vinegar, they acquire an 
odor which contributes to their preservation. Cantharides will bear a very considerable heat 
without losing the brilliant color of their elytra; nor is this color extracted by water, alcohol, 
ether, or the oils; so that the powder might be deprived of all its active principle and yet 
retain the exterior characters unaltered. The wing-cases resist putrefaction for a long time, 
and the shining particles have been detected in the human stomach months after interment. 
So early as 1778, Thouvenel attempted to analyze cantharides, and the attempt was repeated 
by Dr. Beaupoil in 1803; but no very interesting or valuable result was obtained till 1810, 
when Bobiquet discovered in them a crystalline substance, which proved to be the vesicating 
principle of the insect and received the name of cantharidin. The constituents, according to 
Robiquet, are—1, a green oil, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and inert as a vesicatory; 
2, a black matter, soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, and inert; 3, a yellow viscid matter, 
soluble in water and alcohol, and without vesicating powers ; 4, cantharidin ; 5, a fatty matter, 
insoluble in alcohol; 6, calcium and magnesium phosphates, acetic acid, and, in the fresh insect, 
a small quantity of uric acid. Orfila afterwards discovered a volatile principle, upon which 
the fetid odor of the fly depends. It is separable by distillation with water. Prof. Dragen- 
dorff has found a volatile principle which acts on the system in the same manner as canthari- 
din. When powdered flies are moistened with water and distilled, the part which passes over, 
at or below 100° C. (212° F.), contains this principle. ( Chem. News, May 31,1867.) That the 
green coloring matter is chlorophyll seems to be shown by the experiments of Pocklington, who 
(P. J. Tr., [3] iii. p. 681) found that when cantharides was treated with alcohol, ether, and 
carbon disulphide, the solutions yielded absorption spectra agreeing with that of chlorophyll. 
Cantharidin exists in commercial cantharides to the extent of from 0-7 to 0-9 per cent. E. 
Dieterich prepares cantharidin by macerating 1000 parts of coarsely powdered cantharides in 
1500 parts of acetic ether mixed with 20 parts of sulphuric acid; after adding 40 parts of 
barium carbonate to neutralize the excess of sulphuric acid, the mixture is exhausted with 
acetic ether in an extraction apparatus, the liquid is distilled, and (he residue, consisting of 
cantharidin, resin, fat, etc., is set aside for eight days to allow the cantharidin to crystallize; 
200 parts of benzin (sp. gr. 0.740) are then added, gently heated in order to dissolve the fatty 
matter, the liquid filtered, and the cantharidin washed with benzin and recrystallized from its 
solution in 90 per cent, alcohol. If perfectly pure cantharidin is needed, the cantharidin may 
be dissolved in acetic ether and the solution passed through animal charcoal, filtered, and 
allowed to crystallize. (Journ. de Pliarm. et de Chim., 1893, 375.) 
Cantharidin is a white substance, in the form of crystalline scales, of a shining micaceous 
appearance, inodorous, tasteless, almost insoluble in water and in cold alcohol, but soluble in 
ether, chloroform, benzol, the oils, and in hot alcohol and acetic acid, which deposit it upon 
cooling.f It fuses at 210° C. (410° F.), is volatilizable by heat without decomposition, and 
* It appears from the experiments of M. Nivet that, though camphor does not preserve the entire fly from the 
attacks of the larvae of the Anthrenus, it actually destroys the mites of the Cantharis so often found in the powder, 
and may, therefore, be introduced with advantage, in small lumps, into bottles containing powdered cantharides. 
(Journ. de Pharm., xix. 604.) Ammonium carbonate has also been recommended as a preservative. Pereira has 
found that a few drops of strong acetic acid, added to the flies, are very effectual. Among the best means of pre- 
serving them, whether whole or in powder, is the application of the process of Apert, which consists in exposing 
them for half an hour, confined in glass bottles, to the heat of boiling water, which destroys the eggs of the insect, 
without impairing the virtues of the flies. (Ibid., xxii. 246.) Of course the access of water to the flies should be 
carefully avoided. Lutrand recommends chloroform as the best preservative that he has tried. (Journ. de Pharm., 
xviii. 214.) We have little doubt that exposure, in a confined vessel, to the vapor of carbolic acid, would be a perfect 
protection against all forms of insect life. 
f Cantharidin (solubility). The solubilities of cantharidin were examined with great care by Professor Procter, 
with the following results. It is insoluble in water. Cold alcohol dissolves it slightly, hot alcohol freely. It is 
more soluble in ether, which also dissolves it more freely hot than cold. Chloroform, cold or hot, is its best solvent; 
and acetone ranks next to it in this respect. Olive oil, at 250° F., dissolves one-twentieth of its weight, and oil of 
turpentine, boiling hot, one-seventieth; and both deposit the greater portion on cooling. The olive oil solution after 
deposition vesicates, the terebinthinate does not. Strong acetic, sulphuric, and nitric acids dissolve it, with the aid 
of heat, and deposit it unchanged on cooling. It is also dissolved by solutions of potassa and soda, and to a small 
extent by a strong solution of ammonia. (A. J. P., xxiv. 296.) Formic acid is said to be the best solvent. Some- 
what different results in relation to the solubility of cantharidin have been obtained by M. E. Rowan. Careful ex- 320 
Canthairis. 
PART I. 
its vapor condenses in acicular crystals. As determined by the experiments of Mr. Wm. A. 
Guy, the subliming heat of isolated cantharidin is 100° C. (212° F.), or the temperature of 
boiling water. (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1868, 373.) According to MM. Masing and Dragendorff, can- 
tharidin, with the composition C10H1204, is capable of combining with water, and thus becomes 
cantharidic acid, C10H140§, and in this state forms definite compounds with bases, such as 
K2CioH1205 and N«,C10HuO„ which are crystallizable. These may be obtained by heat- 
ing cantharidin with an alkaline solution. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Janv. 1868, 79.) 
Cantharidin itself has been found to combine like an acid with the salifiable and earthy bases, 
forming soluble compounds with potassium, sodium, and lithium hydrates, salts of very sparing 
solubility with baryta, strontia, and lime, and with magnesia a salt which, though feebly soluble 
in water (100 parts of water dissolving only 0-24 of the salt) (see P. J. Tr., March 13, 1880), 
is much more largely dissolved in cold than in hot water, and in cold than in hot alcohol. 
Cantharidin is therefore recognized as the lactone or inner anhydride of cantharidic acid. The 
potassium salt crystallizes with 3 molecules of water, and is soluble in 25 parts of water. 
On the addition of strong acids to this solution, cantharidic acid is not precipitated, as might 
be expected, but the lactone cantharidin. This potassium salt has been recommended by Lie- 
breich for use in subcutaneous injections in cases of phthisis, but is of very doubtful value. 
The most satisfactory test of cantharidin is its vesicating property. Notwithstanding the 
insolubility of this principle in water and cold alcohol, the decoction and tincture of cantha- 
rides have the medicinal properties of the insect; and Lewis ascertained that both the aqueous 
and alcoholic extracts act as effectually in exciting vesication as do the flies themselves, while 
the residue is in each case inert. Cantharidin consequently exists in the insect so combined 
with the yellow matter as to be rendered soluble in water and cold alcohol. If, as stated by 
E. Dieterich (1883), formic acid is present in the Spanish fly, it is probable that the solution 
of’ the cantharidin is due to its presence. H. G. Greenish calls attention to the fact that much 
loss of cantharidin takes place in making the various pharmaceutical preparations, through 
insufficient exhaustion by the use of the ordinary solvents. He obtained 0-822 per cent, of 
cantharidin from exhausted residues. Homolka records in Ber. d. Chem. Ges., xix. 1082, the 
results of an investigation of the'chemical decompositions of cantharidin. 
Adulterations. These are not common. Occasionally other insects, or even beads, are 
added, purposely, or through carelessness. These may be readily distinguished by their ap- 
pearance. Flies exhausted of their cantharidin are sometimes substituted for the genuine 
drug. They are worthless, and are to be distinguished by their lack of substance and their 
yielding a nearly colorless ethereal tincture. Pereira states that powdered flies are sometimes 
adulterated with euphorbium. According to the researches of Mr. Fahnestock (A. J. P., 
1879, p. 298), age destroys the activity of the drug without of necessity impairing its physical 
appearance. 
The percentage of cantharidin found in cantharides furnishes the best test of their virtues. 
Professor Procter succeeded, by means of chloroform, in isolating cantharidin with great facility. 
He treated the flies with chloroform by percolation, displacing the last portion by means of 
alcohol, and allowing the resulting solution to evaporate spontaneously. Cantharidin is thus 
obtained in crystals mixed with the green oil, the greater portion of which may be removed by 
bibulous paper. The residuary crystals are dissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol, which, 
by the spontaneous evaporation of the ether, yields the cantharidin nearly pure. M. Mortreux, 
having ascertained that the cantharidin is insoluble in carbon disulphide, proposed to use this 
fluid for removing the fatty matter associated with the cantharidin crystals obtained by the 
use of chloroform. He employed the same liquid in estimating the proportion of cantharidin, 
which he found to be about 20 centigrammes for 40 grammes of the flies, or half of one per 
cent. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 3e ser., xlvi. 33, 1864.) Wittstein obtains it by digesting 
coarsely-powdered flies repeatedly with water, straining through linen and expressing, allowing 
the liquid to settle for a day, separating the supernatant oil, adding a little wood charcoal, 
evaporating to dryness, treating the residue with ether so long as the solution affords a lami- 
nated substance on evaporation, evaporating the ethereal solution, treating the residue with 
cold alcohol of 80 per cent, for one day with frequent shaking, and finally drying the scales. 
(See A. J. P., xxviii.) Mr. Williams has obtained it by means of benzol. (Ibid., xxvi.) For 
a method of assaying cantharides and its official preparations by Prof. H. G. Greenish and 
Harold Wilson, see P. J. Tr., 1898, 255, or Amer. Drug., 1898, 224. 
amination with distilled water showed that, when agitated for eight days at ordinary temperatures with pure can- 
tharidin, it was capable of dissolving 0*0266 per cent, of that principle; boiling water dissolves 0*297 per cent.; 
boiling alcohol (99 Tralles) 2‘168 per cent. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1873, 409.) PART I. 
Cantharis. 
321 
Medical Properties and Uses. Internally administered, cantharides is a powerful 
irritant, with a peculiar direction to the urinary and genital organs. Genito-urinary irritation 
is ordinarily the first symptom produced by small doses of cantharides, and, if the dose have 
been large enough, it may amount to violent strangury, attended with excruciating pain, and 
the discharge of bloody urine. Toxic doses of Spanish fly produce obstinate and painful pria- 
pism, vomiting, bloody stools, severe pains in the whole abdominal region, excessive salivation 
with a fetid cadaverous breath, hurried respiration, a hard and frequent pulse, burning thirst, 
exceeding difficulty of deglutition, sometimes a dread of liquids, frightful convulsions, tetanus, 
delirium, and death. Orfila has known twenty-four grains of the powder to prove fatal. Dis- 
section reveals inflammation and ulceration of the mucous coat of the whole intestinal canal. 
According to M. Poumet, if the intestines be inflated, dried, cut into pieces, and examined in 
the sun between two pieces of glass, they will exhibit small shining yellow or green points, 
strongly contrasting with the matter around them. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iii. 167.) * The 
poisonous effects are to be counteracted by emetics, cathartics, and opiates by the stomach and 
rectum. From the experiments of Schroff it seems that oils somewhat accelerate the poisonous 
action, probably by dissolving the cantliaridin. (See A. J. P., xxviii. 365.) By experiments 
upon dogs, M. Thouery, a French apothecary, has satisfied himself that animal charcoal pos- 
sesses a real antidotal power. (Journ. de Pliarm., 1858, p. 65.) Cantharides have been long 
and beneficially used in medicine. Either these or other vesicating insects appear to have 
been given by Hippocrates in dropsy and amenorrhcea, in the latter of which complaints, when 
properly prescribed, they are a highly valuable remedy. They are also useful in obstinate 
gleet, leucorrhcea, and seminal weakness, and in paralytic incontinence of urine. They are used 
also in certain cutaneous eruptions, especially those of a scaly character, and in chronic eczema. 
Their unpleasant effects upon the urinary passages are best obviated by the free use of diluent 
drinks, and, when not consequent upon great abuse of the medicine, may almost always be 
relieved by an anodyne injection, composed of laudanum with a small quantity of mucilaginous 
fluid. The dose of Spanish flies is one or two grains (0-065-0T3 6m.) of the powder, which 
may be given twice a day, in the form of pill. The tincture, however, is more frequently 
employed. 
Externally applied, cantharides excites inflammation in the skin, which terminates in a co- 
pious secretion of serum under the cuticle. It may be employed either as a rubefacient, or to 
blister. In the former capacity it is seldom used, but as an epispastic it is preferred to all other 
substances. When blisters are allowed to stay on only long enough to irritate the skin, but 
not to blister, they are known as flying blisters. Used in this way, they are sometimes of 
service in neuralgias, applied directly over the seat of pain. Their chief value is, however, 
found in cases of severe internal irritation. It is of great importance that the practitioner 
clearly comprehend the distinct uses of the rubefacient and the blister. The rubefacient is 
to be employed as a revulsive when the internal irritation is severe but is not connected with 
pronounced organic change. The immediate impression of a rubefacient, acting as it does 
upon a much larger surface than does the blister, is greater than that of the blister, but the 
permanent revulsive action is much less. The blister is, therefore, to be used when the inter- 
nal disease is connected with inflammatory structural change. Thus, in a case of gastrodynia, 
a rubefacient is of much more service than a blister, whilst the blister is decidedly more effec- 
tive in peritonitis. In a general wide-spread congestion of the lung the rubefacient is to be pre- 
ferred to the blister, but in pneumonia the blister to the rubefacient. As, however, congestion 
of neighboring parts usually accompanies a localized inflammation, a rubefacient is sometimes 
to be employed as a temporary substitute for or adjuvant to a blister. The amount of serous 
discharge produced by blisters appears to be sometimes of service in almost directly evacuating 
local serous exudations. Thus, not rarely, repeated blistering affords the best treatment of 
a serous pleurisy. Possibly, however, even in these cases, the mister acts purely as a counter- 
irritant, as it certainly does in chronic rheumatism and other diseases of the joints. In all chronic 
joint inflammations the best results may often be obtained by a reblistering, extending, if neces- 
sary, over weeks and months. In some cases of skin disease blisters are capable of substi- 
tuting their own action for the original morbid disease, and they are still occasionally used for 
this purpose in tinea capitis, obstinate herpes, and other affections. The length of time that a 
blister should be applied varies with the individual and with the position of the disease. In 
* Cantharidin may be detected in the body after death from poisoning. M. Dragendorfif states that he has suc- 
ceeded in finding it in the dead body of a cat three months after it had been taken, and is convinced that it might 
be discovered in the human corpse six months after burial. (Journ. de Pharm., 1873, p. 443.) Cantharis.— Capsicum. 
PART I. 
322 
some constitutions they produce a poisonous impression, attended with frequent pulse, dryness 
of the mouth, subsultus tendinum, and even convulsion. Such symptoms are probably the re- 
sults of an intense peripheral nervous irritation acting upon very susceptible centres. Such is 
not, however, the case with the strangury which may follow absorption of the cantharidin, and 
which is always the result of the direct action of the cantharidin upon the genito-urinaiy tract. 
In order to avoid such genito-urinary irritation, and also as much as possible the pain at the 
seat of application, the blister should be left on only until it distinctly reddens the skin, when 
a flaxseed poultice may be applied, and in the course of two or three hours the blister is formed. 
The time necessary for such reddening of the skin is usually from four to six hours, if the 
cantharidin be active. (See Ceratum Cantharidis.) 
Prof. Liebreich strongly recommends hypodermic injections of cantharidin in the treatment 
of phthisis, but general clinical experience has not confirmed the value of the remedy. Lieb- 
reiclis cantharidal solution was made by heating 20 C.c. of water with 2 decigrammes of 
cantharidin and 4 of potassium hydrate until solution was obtained, then adding enough 
water to make one thousand cubic centimeters. The dose of the cantharidate was 0-0001 
increased to 0-0002 Gm., or even beyond. 
CAPSICUM. U. S. (Br.) Capsicum. [Cayenne Pepper. African Pepper.] 
(C&P'SI-OUM.) 
“The fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum, Blume (nat. ord. Solanacese).” U. S. “The dried 
ripe fruit of Capsicum minimum, Roxb.” Br. 
Capsici Fructus, Br., Capsicum Fruit; Cayenne Pepper, African Pepper; Fructus Capsici, P.G.; Piper His- 
panicum; Pod Pepper, E.; Capsique, Piment des Jardins, Piment rouge, Poivre de Cayenne, Poivre de GuinSe, 
Poivre d’Inde, Fr.; Spanischer Pfeifer, G.; Pepperone, It.; Pimiento, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla wheel-shaped. Berry without juice. Willd. 
Owing probably to its wide-spread cultivation, the genus Capsicum contains a large number 
of plant forms whose specific relations aflbrd a very difficult problem to the systematic botanist. 
The probability is that the entire genus was originally confined to the American tropics, al- 
though it has been cultivated since the time of Columbus in the temperate and tropical zones 
of almost the whole world. Its first appearance in literature seems to be in an epistle by Peter 
Martyn, dated September, 1493, speaking of its having been brought by Columbus. Neither 
in ancient Sanscrit, or Chinese, or Greek, or Latin, or Hebrew is there a name for it. In 1887 
Prof. Asa Gray expressed his belief that there are only two species in the genus, although in 
the last previous revision of the genus, in 1852, Dunal had recorded fifty species. After a 
very wide-spread and careful study of the subject, including the cultivation of every procurable 
variety and species for four years in the Missouri Botanical Garden, H. C. Irish has reached 
the conclusion that the dictum of Gray was correct, and that there are really only two species 
of the genus; one which is herbaceous and annual or biennial, one which is shrubby and 
perennial. 
The first of these is the one most extensively cultivated in Europe and in this country; it 
is the C. annuum, L. The second is in its varieties very largely grown in the tropical and 
subtropical latitudes, its fruit not ripening at all or only to a slight degree in the temperate 
zone. It is the species which was described under the name of C. frutescens, by Linnaeus, 
in 1737. By Irish it is divided into two varieties,— C. frutescens proper, which is characterized 
by its fruit being oblong, acuminate, and usually embraced by the calyx, and C. frutescens 
baccatum, which is characterized by its ovate or subround fruit, usually seated on the calyx. 
This variety is the C. baccatum of Linnaeus, 1767. In the first of these varieties are comprised 
the C. fastigiatum (Blume) and the C. minimum of Miller, which yield most of the Cayenne 
pepper produced in the tropics, although, especially in the West Indies and South America, 
C. baccatum is largely cultivated. It is even doubtful whether C. annuum should be con- 
sidered as a distinct species from C. frutescens, as in tropical climates varieties have been pro- 
duced which are perennial and somewhat woody. 
The British Pharmacopoeia seems to be in error in ascribing the original description of the 
Capsicum minimum to Roxbury, since his Flora Indica did not appear until 1832, whereas 
the species was described by Miller, in the Garden Dictionary, in 1771. 
Capsicum annuum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1052; B. & T. 189. The stem of the annual cap- 
sicum is thick, roundish, smooth, and branching ; rises two or three feet in height; and supports 
ovate, pointed, smooth, entire leaves, which are placed without regular order on long footstalks. 
The flowers are solitary, white, and stand on long peduncles at the axils of the leaves. The PAET I. 
Capsicum. 
323 
calyx is persistent, tubular, and five-cleft; the corolla, monopetalous and wheel-shaped, with the 
limb divided into five spreading, pointed, and plaited segments; the filaments, short, tapering, 
and furnished with oblong anthers; the germen, ovate, supporting a slender style which is 
longer than the filaments and terminates in a blunt stigma. The fruit is a pendulous, pod-like 
berry, of varying shape and size, light, smooth, and shining, of a bright scarlet, orange, or 
sometimes yellow color, with two or three cells, containing a dry, loose pulp, and numerous flat, 
kidney-shaped, whitish seeds. 
The following are the characteristics of the two varieties of the shrubby or perennial capsi- 
cum, as given by Irish : 
C. frutescens, Linn. “ Plants shrubby, perennial, two and a half to six feet high. Branches 
angular, often channelled, puberulent or pubescent, especially on the younger portions; usually 
greatly enlarged at the nodes, green or sometimes purplish striate, slightly purple at the nodes. 
Leaves broadly ovate, acuminate, three to six inches long, two or three and one-half inches wide, 
usually puffed or wrinkled, more or less pubescent, especially around the veins. Petioles 
medium, usually subciliate; peduncles slender, one to two inches long, often in pairs, usually 
longer than the fruit. Calyx usually cup-shaped, embracing base of the fruit; teeth short, 
corolla white or greenish white, spreading three-eighths to three-quarters inch, often with 
ocherous markings in the throat. Fruit red, ovate, obtuse or oblong acuminate, three-quarters 
to one and one-quarter inches long, one-quarter to three-quarters inch diameter.” 
C. frutescens baccatum, Linn. “ Plauts one to three feet high, under cultivation often six 
feet. Branches numerous, slender, fastigiate flexuose, usually quite densely purple, striate, 
scabrous, pubescent. Leaves ovate, acuminate, rather abruptly uarrowing into the petioles, 
solitary or in twos, more or less pubescent along the veins and sometimes on the surface. 
Petioles short, usually hairy, broadened at base. Peduncles solitary or in twos, extreme ax- 
illary vertical (giving a peculiar character to the fruit), slender. One to one and one-quarter 
inches long, smooth, or on young specimens subhairy. Calyx short, cyathiform, subhairy, 
subciliate. Corolla small, spreading about one-half inch, greenish white. Fruit ovate or 
subround, about one-quarter inch diameter. Unripe fruit sometimes changing from green to 
blackish spotted, finally ripening into a red or yellow.” 
C. annuum is chiefly grown in this country; its flowers appear in July and August, and the 
fruit ripens in October. The several varieties of it differ in the shape of the fruit. The most 
abundant is probably that with a large irregularly ovate berry, depressed at the extremity, which 
is much used in the green state for pickling. The variety most used in making Cayenne pepper 
is that with long, conical, generally pointed, recurved fruit, usually not thicker than the finger. 
Sometimes small, spherical, slightly compressed berries, not greatly exceeding a large cherry in 
size, are met with. The red or Cayenne pepper of commerce is obtained by grinding the pods 
of several so-called varieties of capsicum, and is of variable strength. A variety of capsicum, 
consisting of very small, conical, pointed, exceedingly pungent berries, less than an inch in 
length, is imported from Liberia. In England the fruit of C. annuum is frequently called 
chillies. The U. S. Pharm. describes the fruit of C. fastigiatum as follows: “ Oblong-conical, 
from 10 to 20 Mm. long, supported by a flattish, cup-shaped, five-toothed calyx, with a red, 
shining, membranous, and translucent pericarp, enclosing two cells, and containing flat, reni- 
form, yellowish seeds attached to a thick, central placenta. It has a peculiar odor, and an 
intensely hot taste.” The Br. Pharm. gives the characteristics of the fruit of C. minimum 
as “ Bull orange-red, oblong-conical, obtuse, two-celled fruits, from about one-half to three- 
quarters of an inch (twelve to twenty millimetres) in length and a quarter of an inch (six 
millimetres) in diameter; sometimes attached to a five-toothed inferior calyx, and a long, 
straight, slender peduncle. The pericarp is somewhat shrivelled, glabrous, translucent, and 
leathery, and contains from ten to twenty small flat seeds, either loose or attached to a thin 
reddish dissepiment.” 
Powdered capsicum is usually of a more or less bright red color, which fades upon exposure 
to light and ultimately disappears. The color of the Liberia or African pepper, in powder, is 
a light brownish yellow. The odor is peculiar and somewhat aromatic, stronger in the recent 
than in the dried fruit. The taste is bitterish, acrid, and burning, producing a fiery sensation 
in the mouth, which continues for a long time. The pungency appears to depend on a peculiar 
principle, which was obtained, though not in a perfectly isolated state, by Braconnot, and named 
capsicin. It is obtained as a thick yellowish-red liquid, but slightly soluble in water. When 
gently heated it becomes very fluid, and at a higher temperature is dissipated in fumes which 
are extremely irritating to the respiration. It is a mixed substance, consisting of resinous and 324 
Capsicum. 
PART I. 
fatty matters. In 1876, Thresh isolated a well-defined active principle, capsaicin, from the 
extract, which he obtained by exhausting Cayenne pepper with petroleum. From the red 
liquor dilute caustic alkali removes capsaicin, which is to be precipitated in minute crystals 
by passing carbonic acid through the alkaline solution. The crystals may be purified by re- 
crystallizing them from either alcohol, ether, benzin, glacial acetic acid, or hot carbon disulphide ; 
in petroleum capsaicin is but sparingly soluble, yet dissolves abundantly on addition of fatty 
oil. The latter being present in the pericarp is the reason 
capsaicin can be extracted by the above process. The 
crystals of capsaicin are colorless, and answer to the 
formula C8H1402; they melt at 59° C. (138-2° F.), and 
begin to volatilize at 115° C. (239° F.),but decomposition 
can be avoided only with great care. The vapors of cap- 
saicin are of the most dreadful acridity, and even the 
ordinary manipulation of that substance requires much 
precaution. Felletar (Joum. de Pharrn., Avril, 1870, p. 
347) first obtained from capsicum fruits a volatile alka- 
loid, which resembles coniine in odor, but is distinguished 
by the different shape of its hydrochlorate crystals. H. 
Pabst (1892) made a thorough investigation of the fruit 
of C. annuum. He does not think that an alkaloid exists 
originally in the fruit, but believes that the alkaloidal reactions are due to a decomposition 
product. He finds, besides capsaicin, a red coloring matter, and oleic, palmitic, and stearic 
acids. The red coloring matter, by saponification, was shown to be a cholesterin ester of the 
fatty acids. (A. J. P., 1892, 370.) Moerbitz (1898) isolated a pungent principle having a 
bitter taste, which he states is neither capsicin nor capsicol, and names capsicvtin. Red lead 
oxide is sometimes added to the powdered capsicum sold in Europe. It may be detected by 
digesting in diluted nitric acid, and precipitating the lead by sodium sulphate. Capsicum is 
said to be sometimes adulterated with colored sawdust; to be recognized by the microscope. 
It is often adulterated with inert vegetable substances. The British Pharmacopoeia requires 
that capsicum should yield on incineration not more than 6 per cent, of ash ; this test would 
detect the presence of most adulterants. The cut represents the characteristic cells of ground 
capsicum. It is occasionally attacked by insects. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cayenne pepper is a powerful local stimulant, pro- 
ducing when swallowed a sense of heat in the stomach, and a general glow over the body with- 
out any narcotic effect. It is much employed as a condiment, and proves highly useful in cor- 
recting the flatulent tendency of certain vegetables and aiding their digestion. Hence the 
advantage derived from it by the natives of tropical climates, who live chiefly on vegetable 
food. In the East Indies it has been used from time immemorial. From a passage in the 
works of Pliny, it appears to have been known to the Romans. As a medicine it is useful in 
cases of enfee led and languid stomach, and is occasionally prescribed in dyspepsia and atonic 
gout, particularly when attended with much flatulence, or occurring in persons of intemperate 
habits. It has also been given as a stimulant in palsy and certain lethargic affections. To 
quinine sulphate it forms an excellent addition in some cases of intermittents in which there 
is a great want of gastric susceptibility. Upon the same principle of rousing the suscepti- 
bility of the stomach, it may prove useful in low forms of fever, as an adjuvant to tonic or 
stimulant medicines. Its most important application, however, is to the treatment of malig- 
nant sore throat and scarlet fever, in which it is used both internally and as a gargle. The 
following formula was employed in malignant scarlatina, with great advantage, in the West 
Indies, where this application of the remedy originated. Two tablespoonfuls (31-1 Gm.) of the 
powdered pepper, with a teaspoonful (3-9 Gm.) of common salt, are infused for an hour in a 
pint of boiling liquid composed of equal parts of water and vinegar. This is strained, when 
cool, through a fine linen cloth, and given in the dose of a tablespoonful (15 C.c.) every half- 
hour. The same preparation is also used as a gargle. It is, however, only to the worst cases 
that the remedy is applied so energetically. In milder cases of scarlatina, with inflamed or 
ulcerated throat, much relief and positive advantage often follow the employment of the pep- 
per in a more diluted state. Capsicum has been advantageously used in sea-sickness, in the dose 
of a teaspoonful (3-9 Gm.), given in some convenient vehicle on the first occurrence of nausea. 
It is thought also to have been beneficial in hemorrhoidal affections. It has long been used as 
a stomachic stimulant in the enfeebled digestion of drunkards, and in delirium tremens. 
Fragments of tissue from powdered capsicum. PART I. 
Carbo. 
325 
Applied externally, Cayenne pepper is a powerful rubefacient, which has the advantage of 
acting speedily without endangering vesication. It may be applied in the form of cataplasm, 
or more conveniently and efficiently as a lotion, mixed with heated spirit. The powder or tinc- 
ture brought into contact with a relaxed uvula often acts very beneficially. The tincture has 
also been used advantageously in chilblain. The fluid extract and the ethereal extract (Ofeo- 
resina Capsid, U Si) are powerfully rubefacient. 
The dose of the powder is from five to ten grains (0-33—0-65 Gm.), which is most conve- 
niently given in the form of pill. Of an infusion prepared by adding two drachms to half a 
pint of boiling water, the dose is half a fluidounce (15 C.c.). A gargle may be prepared by 
infusing half a drachm of the powder in a pint of boiling water, or by adding half a fluid- 
ounce of the tincture to eight fluidounces of rose-water. 
CARBO. Carbon. 
C; 11*97. (CAR'BO.) C; 12. 
Pure Charcoal; Carbone, Fr.; Carbonio, It.; Kohlenstoff, G.; Carbon, Sp. 
Carbon is an element of great importance, and very extensively diffused in nature. It exists 
in large quantity in the mineral kingdom, and is the most abundant constituent of animal and 
vegetable matter. In the crystallized state it constitutes the diamond; and, more or less pure, 
it forms the substances called graphite, or black lead, plumbago, anthracite and bituminous 
coal, coke, animal charcoal, and vegetable charcoal. Combined with oxygen it forms carbon 
dioxide, or carbonic acid gas, which is a constituent of the atmosphere, and present in many 
natural waters, especially those which have an effervescing quality. United with oxygen and a 
base it forms the carbonates, among others calcium carbonate, which is one of the most abun- 
dant minerals. There are three allotropic conditions of carbon, represented respectively by the 
diamond, graphite, and charcoal. 
The diamond is found principally in India, in Brazil, and in South Africa. Several dia- 
monds have been found in the gold regions of Georgia and North Carolina. This gem is 
perfectly transparent, and the hardest and most brilliant substance in nature. Its sp. gr. is 
about 3-5. It is fixed and unalterable in the fire, provided air be excluded, but is combustible 
in air or oxygen, the product being the same as when charcoal is burned, namely, carbon dioxide. 
It has been made artificially at the temperature of the electric arc (2500° to 3000° C.) by 
Moissan. 
Next to diamond, graphite or plumbago is the purest natural form of carbon. Graphite is 
the substance of which black-lead crucibles and pencils are made. It is found in greatest 
purity in the mine of Borrowdale, in England, and in Ceylon, from which latter place most of 
the graphite of commerce is now obtained, but it also occurs very pure in this country, and 
in extensive deposits at Ticonderoga, N.Y., at Stourbridge, Mass., and in Canada. In physical 
characters it is utterly different from the diamond ; it crystallizes in hexagonal plates, is very 
soft and unctuous, of 2 to 2'5 sp. gr., and generally contains a little ash. It was formerly 
supposed to be a carbide of iron; but in very pure specimens it is nearly free from iron, which 
must, therefore, be deemed an accidental impurity. Anthracite, the purest variety of natural 
coal, occurs in different parts of the world, but particularly in the State of Pennsylvania. It 
contains from 90 to 95 per cent, of carbon, and several per cent, of ash. Bituminous coal is 
another variety, containing, besides the fixed or free carbon, some 10 to 15 per cent, of volatile 
hydrocarbons or gas-making material. When this is driven off by the process of charring, as 
in the manufacture of coal-gas, a kind of mineral charcoal, called coke, is obtained, very useful 
in the arts as a fuel. When peat is charred, it is converted into 'peat charcoal, which forms a 
cheap disinfectant and deodorizer, applicable to the purification of hospitals, dissecting-rooms, 
factories, privies, etc. 
Carbon may be obtained in a state approaching to purity by several processes. One method 
is to expose lamp-black to a full red heat in a close vessel. It may also be obtained, in a very 
pure state, by passing the vapor of volatile oils through an ignited porcelain tube, whereby 
the hydrogen and oxygen of the oil will be dissipated, and the charcoal left in the tube. The 
purest lamp-black is now made from natural gas in western Pennsylvania and in Ohio. This 
lamp-black is miscible with water, does not color ether, and is free from oily matter. 
Properties. Carbon, in its uncrystallized state, is an insoluble, infusible solid, generally 
of a black color, and without taste or smell. It burns when sufficiently heated, uniting with 
the oxygen of the air, and generating carbonic acid gas. Its sp. gr. in the solid state, apart 
from its pores when in mass, is 3-5; but with the air of the pores included, it is only 0-44. 326 
Carbo Aninialis. 
PART I. 
It is a very unalterable and indestructible substance, and has great power in resisting and cor- 
recting putrefaction in other bodies. When properly prepared, it possesses the property of 
absorbing the coloring and odorous principles of most liquids. (See Carbo Animalis.) Its 
other physical properties differ according to its source and peculiar state of aggregation. As 
a chemical element it enjoys a very extensive range of combination. It forms two compounds 
with oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas) and carbon monoxide (carbonous oxide). With 
hydrogen it forms a number of compounds, called hydrocarbons, of which the most interesting, 
excluding hypothetical radicals, are light carburetted hydrogen or marsh-gas, olefiant gas, the 
light and concrete oils of wine, the hydrocarbons constituting petroleum, and the various es- 
sential oils. With nitrogen it constitutes cyanogen, the compound radical of hydrocyanic or 
prussic acid; and united in minute proportion with iron it forms steel. 
CARBO ANIMALIS. U. S. Animal Charcoal. 
(CAR'BO XN-I-MA'lIs.) 
“ Charcoal prepared from bone.” U. S. 
Bone Black, Ivory Black; Charbon animal, Noir d’Os, Fr.; Thierische Kohle, Knochenkohle, Beinschwarz, 
Thierkohle, G.; Carbone animale, It.; Carbon animal, Sp. 
Animal charcoal was not retained in the British Pharmacopoeia (1898). 
The animal charcoal employed in pharmacy and the arts is usually obtained from bones, by 
subjecting them to a red heat in close vessels. The residue of the ignition is a black matter, 
which when reduced to powder forms bone-black, sometimes incorrectly called ivory-black. 
Ivory by carbonization will furnish a black which, on account of its fineness and intensely 
black color, is more esteemed than the ordinary bone-black; but it is much more expensive. 
In manufacturing bone-black, the bones, first boiled in water to separate the fat, are sub- 
jected to destructive distillation in iron cylinders connected with vessels which receive the 
ammoniacal liquor, called bone-spirit, together with a dark tarry liquid (bone-oil), this being a 
secondary product of the operation. When the distillate ceases to come over, the residue is 
charred bone, or bone-black. Bone consists of animal matter with calcium phosphate and car- 
bonate. In consequence of the decomposition of the animal matter involved in this destruc- 
tive distillation, the nitrogen and hydrogen, united as ammonia, and a part of the charcoal, in 
the form of carbonic acid gas, distil over; while the remainder of the charcoal is left in the 
cylinder, intermingled with the calcareous salts. M. Deiss, of Paris, proposes carbon disulphide 
as a solvent for the fat of bones, as it furnishes a larger and better product of fat, and renders 
the bones fitter for producing a good bone-black. This form of animal charcoal necessarily 
contains calcium phosphate and carbonate. 
Properties. “ Bull black, granular fragments, or a dull black powder, odorless, nearly 
tasteless, and insoluble in water or alcohol. When ignited, it leaves a grayish or yellowish- 
white ash, amounting to about 85 per cent, of the original weight of the portion taken, which 
should have been previously dried at 120°-125° C. (248°-257° F.) to a constant weight. The 
ash should be soluble in hydrochloric acid, with the aid of heat, leaving not more than a 
trifling residue. If 1 Gm. of Animal Charcoal be boiled for several minutes with a mixture 
of 3 C.c. of potassium hydrate test-solution and 5 C.c. of water, the filtrate should be colorless 
or nearly so (evidence of complete carbonization)." TJ. S. It is, however, more dense and less 
combustible than vegetable charcoal; from which, moreover, it may be distinguished by burn- 
ing a small portion of it on a red-hot iron, wrhen it will leave a residuum imperfectly acted on 
by sulphuric acid; whereas the ashes from vegetable charcoal readily dissolve in this acid, 
forming a bitterish solution. 
Animal charcoal by no means invariably possesses the decolorizing property, as this depends 
upon its peculiar state of aggregation. If a piece of pure animal matter is carbonized, it 
usually enters into fusion, and, from the gaseous matter which is extricated, becomes porous 
and cellular. The charcoal formed has generally a metallic lustre, and a color resembling that 
of black lead. It has, however, little or no decolorizing power, even though finely pulverized. 
The decolorizing power of vegetable charcoal was first noticed by Lowitz, of St. Petersburg; 
and that of animal charcoal by Figuier, of Montpellier, in 1811. In 1822 the subject was 
ably investigated by Bussy, Payen, and Desfosses. The power is generally communicated to 
charcoal by igniting it in close vessels, but not always. The kind of charcoal, for example, 
obtained from substances which undergo fusion during carbonization scarcely possesses the 
property, even though it may be afterwards finely pulverized. The property in question is PART I. 
Carbo Animalis. 
327 
possessed to a certain extent by wood charcoal,* but is developed in it in a much greater 
degree by burning it with some chemical substance, which may have the effect of reducing it 
to an extreme degree of fineness. The most powerful of all the charcoals for discharging 
colors are those obtained from certain animal matters, such as dried blood, hair, etc., by first 
carbonizing them in connection with potassium carbonate, and then washing the product 
with water. Charcoal thus prepared seems to be reduced to a state of extremely minute 
division, and is, therefore, very porous. The next most powerful decolorizing charcoal is bone- 
black., in which the separation of the carbonaceous particles is effected by the calcium phos- 
phate present in the bone. Vegetable substances also may be made to yield a good charcoal 
for destroying color, provided, before carbonization, they be well comminuted, and mixed with 
pumice stone, chalk, flint, or other similar substance in a pulverized state. 
In the manufacture of yellow prussiate of potash there is obtained a fine black sediment, 
which has a powerful decolorizing action; this is sometimes attributed to the organic nitrog- 
enous character of the material from which it is made. 
The following table, abridged from one drawn up by Bussy, denotes the relative decolorizing 
power of different charcoals : 
KINDS OF CHARCOAL. 
Decoloriz- 
ing power 
on Syrup. 
Decoloriz- 
ing power 
on Indigo. 
Bone-black ... 
1 
1 
Bone charcoal treated with an acid 
1-6 
1-8 
Lamp-black, not ignited 
3-3 
4 
Charcoal, from potassium acetate 
4-4 
5-6 
Blood ignited with calcium phosphate 
10 
12 
Lamp-black ignited with potassium carbonate 
10-6 
12*2 
Blood ignited with chalk 
11 
18 
White of egg ignited with potassium carbonate 
15-5 
34 
Glue ignited with potassium carbonate 
15-5 
36 
Bone charcoal, formed from bone deprived of calcium phosphate by an acid, and 
subsequently ignited with potassium carbonate 
20 
45 
Blood ignited with potassium carbonate 
20 
50 
In order to determine the commercial value of animal charcoal, M. Corenwinder has proposed 
to ascertain its power of absorbing lime from a solution of calcium saccharate of determinate 
strength. The value is in proportion to the absorbing power of the charcoal. A given weight 
of the charcoal to be tested is left in contact, for an hour, with a given volume of the solution 
of the saccharate, taken in excess. The liquid is then filtered, and a small measure of it 
saturated with dilute sulphuric acid of known strength. The less the acid necessary for this 
purpose, the greater the amount of lime absorbed, and the better the animal charcoal. ( Chem. 
Gaz., 1854 ; Scientific American, April 22,1876 ; Arch. d. Pharm., 1887 ; Proc. A. P. A., 1887.) 
Spent animal charcoal, which has been used by the sugar refiners, may have its decolorizing 
power restored by calcination, which destroys the organic matters that have become fixed in it; 
and it is stated that it may be submitted to this process twenty times before becoming unfit for 
use, although this depends upon the amount of calcium salts it takes up from the raw sugars, 
beet sugars using up the black faster than sugars from the cane. According to Pelouze, the same 
object may be accomplished by subjecting it to a weak solution of potassium or sodium car- 
bonate. In removing the coloring matter, the alkaline solution becomes yellow. After its 
action the animal charcoal must be carefully washed, first with boiling water, and afterwards 
with acidulated water. But a process devised by MM. Leplay and Cuisinier is probably more 
effectual. The charcoal, without being removed from the cylinders, is thoroughly washed, 
treated by steam to remove viscous substances, and then percolated successively, 1, by a weak 
alkaline solution, which removes salts and some coloring matters; 2, by weak hydrochloric 
acid, which, in removing a certain amount of salts of lime, liberates coloring matter; 3, again 
with a weak alkaline solution, to carry off the remaining coloring matter; and 4, lastly by a 
solution of calcium biphosphate, by which the decolorizing power of the charcoal is restored. 
* Dr. Stenhouse divides decolorizing charcoals into three classes. First, pure charcoals, which, being in a state 
of minute division, decolorize by their porosity alone. Second, those which, like aluminized charcoal and artificial 
bone-black, decolorize solely by the bases they contain, acting as mordants. Third, those which, like bone-black, 
decolorize partly by their mineral matter, and partly by their minutely-divided charcoal. (P. J. Tr., Jan. 1857.) Garbo Animalis.—Carlo Animalis Purificatus. 
PART I. 
328 
Animal charcoal is capable of taking the bitter principles from infusions and tinctures, and 
iodine from liquids which contain it in solution. Its power, however, of acting on solutions 
and chemical compounds is much more decided in its purified state, as shown by both Waring- 
ton and Weppen. (See Carbo Animalis Purificatus ; see, also, Ephemeris, 1885, p. 721.) 
Bone-black consists of about 90 per cent, of calcium phosphate and carbonate, and 10 per 
cent, of charcoal. 
Pharm. Uses. Animal charcoal is used in pharmacy for decolorizing vegetable principles, 
such as gallic acid, quinine, morphine, veratrine, etc., and in the arts, principally for clarifying 
syrups in sugar refining, for depriving spirits distilled from grain of the penetrating impurity, 
called fusel oil, which imparts to them an unpleasant smell and taste, as first distilled, and for 
the filtration of petroleum residuums in the manufacture of petrolatum and petroleum jellies. 
(See Petrolatum.) The manner in which it is used as a decolorizer is to mix it with the sub- 
stance to be decolorized, and to allow the mixture to stand for some time. The charcoal unites 
with the coloring matter, and the solution by filtration is obtained white and transparent. Its 
use, however, in decolorizing the organic alkalies and other vegetable principles no doubt causes 
a loss by absorption ; since it has been shown by the experiments of M. Lebourdais, mentioned 
under the head of purified animal charcoal, that several of these principles may be obtained by 
the sole action of charcoal. For most pharmaceutical operations, and for use as an antidote, 
animal charcoal must be purified by hydrochloric acid from calcium phosphate and carbonate. 
(See Carbo Animalis Purificatus.') Voile uses animal charcoal as an absorbent in a pill excip- 
ient for making creosote and croton oil pills. According to Guthe, a German chemist, bone 
charcoal, without purification, is to be preferred as a decolorizer in all cases in which the cal- 
careous salts exert no injurious effect. 
CARBO ANIMALIS PURIFICATUS. U. S. Purified Animal Charcoal. 
(CAE'BO An-i-ma'lIs PU-KI-FI-CA'TUS.) 
Charbon animal purifie, Fr.; Gereinigte Knochenkohle, G. 
“ Animal Charcoal, in No. 60 powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; 
Hydrochloric Acid, three hundred grammes [or 10 ounces av., 254 grains] ; Boiling Water, a 
sufficient quantity. Introduce the Animal Charcoal into a capacious flask, add two hundred 
grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] of Hydrochloric Acid, and one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounees, 183 minims] of Bailing Water, and connect the flask with an upright con- 
denser. By means of a sand-bath keep the mixture gently boiling during eight hours. Then 
add five hundred cubic centimeters [or 17£ fluidounees] of Boiling Water, transfer the mixture 
to a muslin strainer, and, when the liquid has run on, return the Charcoal to the flask. Add 
to it one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] * of Hydrochloric Acid and one hun- 
dred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounees, 183 minims] of Boiling Water, boil for two hours, again 
add five hundred cubic centimeters [or 17 \ fluidounees] of Boiling Water, transfer the whole 
to a plain filter, and, when the liquid has run off-, wash the residue with Boiling Water until 
the washings give only a faint cloudiness with silver nitrate test-solution. Dry the powder in a 
drying oven, and immediately transfer it to well-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
“ Take of Bone Black, in powder, sixteen ounces [avoirdupois] ; Hydrochloric Acid ten fluid- 
ounces; Distilled Water a sufficiency. Mix the Hydrochloric Acid with a pint of the Water, 
and add the Bone Black, stirring occasionally. Digest at a moderate temperature for two days, 
agitating from time to time; collect the undissolved charcoal on a calico filter, and wash with 
Distilled Water until what passes through gives scarcely any precipitate with nitrate of silver. 
Dry the charcoal, and then heat it to redness in a closely-covered crucible.” Br. 1885. 
Animal charcoal, as it is made by charring bones, necessarily contains bone-phosphate and 
calcium carbonate, the presence of which does no harm in some decolorizing operations; but 
in delicate chemical processes these salts may be dissolved or decomposed, and thus become a 
source of impurity. It is on this account that animal charcoal requires to be purified from its 
calcareous salts ; and this is accomplished by diluted hydrochloric acid, which dissolves the 
phosphate and decomposes the carbonate. According to Dr. Stenhouse, aluminized vegetable 
charcoal is equally efficacious with purified animal charcoal as a decolorizer. (See page 331.) 
Properties. Purified animal charcoal is “ a dull black powder, odorless, tasteless, and in- 
soluble in water, alcohol, or other solvents. If 2 Gm. of the powder be ignited at a red heat 
* The U. S. Pharmacopoeia 1890 (1st edition) is evidently in error in stating this quantity as 100 cubic centi 
meters; it should be 100 grammes, to correspond with the quantity previously given. PART I. 
Carbo Animalis Purificatus.—Ccirbo Ligni. 
329 
with free access of air in a broad, shallow porcelain or platinum dish, it should not leave a 
residue weighing more than 0-08 6m., or 4 per cent, of the original weight (limit of silicates 
and other fixed, inorganic matter). If 1 Cm. of the powder be boiled with a mixture of 3 C.c. 
of potassium hydrate test-solution and 5 C.c. of water during three minutes, the filtrate should 
be colorless (evidence of complete carbonization)." U. S. 
It has been shown by Mr. Robert Warington that bitter vegetable substances, including the 
organic alkalies, are removed from solution by passing through purified animal charcoal, 
especially when the action is assisted by heat. M. Weppen finds that a similar effect is pro- 
duced by it in removing resins from tinctures, tannic acid and bitter principles from astringent 
and bitter infusions, and certain metallic salts from their solutions. Purified animal charcoal, 
thus employed, has been resorted to by M. Lebourdais as an agent for obtaining the active 
principles of plants. A decoction or infusion of the plant is either boiled with or filtered 
through the charcoal, which takes up, more or less completely, the bitter and coloring princi- 
ples. The charcoal, after having been washed and dried, is treated with boiling alcohol, which 
dissolves the principles taken up. Finally, the alcohol is distilled off, and the principles are 
obtained in a separate state. In this way digitalin, ilicin, scillitin, columbin, colocynthin, 
arnicine, strychnine, quinine, and other principles have been obtained by M. Lebourdais. 
( Chem. Gaz., Nov. 15,1848.) In relation to the method of M. Lebourdais, see a paper by Mr. 
J. S. Cobb, in A. J. P., 1851. Dr. A. B. G-arrod has proposed purified animal charcoal as an 
antidote to vegetable and animal poisons, with which it appears to combine. According to his 
experiments, common bone-black has not one-fifth of the power possessed by the purified sub- 
stance, and vegetable charcoal and lamp-black are nearly or quite useless. The amount of the 
antidote proposed by Dr. Garrod is half an ounce for each grain of a vegetable organic alkali. 
Dr. Alfred Taylor deems the results of Dr. Garrod inconclusive. The late Professor B. H. 
Rand made some interesting observations in relation to the antidotal powers of purified 
animal charcoal, and proved that poisonous doses of the strongest vegetable poisons may be 
swallowed with impunity, if mixed with that substance. (Med. Exam., Sept. 1848.) As an 
antidote for phosphorus (see N. Y. Med. Record, 1874, p. 68) its value is very doubtful. 
In using animal charcoal for decolorizing active vegetable principles much loss is often 
incurred by the absorption of those principles by the charcoal. 
CARBO LIGNI. U. S., Br. Charcoal. 
(CAR'BO LIG'NI.) 
“ Charcoal prepared from soft wood, and very finely powdered. It should be kept in well- 
closed vessels.’' U S. “ The carbonaceous residue of wood charred by exposure to a red heat 
without access of air.” Br. 
Wood Charcoal, Vegetable Charcoal; Carbo Ligni Pulveratus, P. G.; Carbo Praeparatus, Carbo e Ligno; Charbon 
vegetal, Charbon de Bois, Fr.; Holzkohle, Praparirte Kohle, G.; Carbone di Legno, It.; Carbon de Lena, Sp. 
Preparation on the Large Scale. Billets of wood are piled in a conical form, and 
covered with earth and sod to prevent the free access of air; several holes being left at the 
bottom and one at the top of the pile, in order to produce a draught to commence the com- 
bustion. The wood is then kindled from the bottom. In a little while the hole at the top is 
closed, and, after the ignition is found to have pervaded the whole pile, those at the bottom 
are stopped also. The combustion taking place with a smothered flame, the volatile portions 
of the wood, consisting of hydrogen and oxygen, are dissipated, while the carbon is left; a 
portion of it, however, being lost by combustion. Wood, thus carbonized, yields not more than 
17 or 18 per cent, of charcoal. A better method is to char the wood in iron cylinders, when 
it yields from 22 to 23 parts in 100 of excellent charcoal; and, at the same time, the means 
are afforded for collecting the volatile products, consisting of pyroligneous acid, empyreumatic 
oil, and tar. This process for obtaining charcoal has been described under another head. (See 
Acidurn Aceticum.) A method of preparing charcoal by subjecting wood to overheated steam 
has been invented by M. Yiolette. When the temperature of steam is 300° C. (572° F.), the 
wood is converted into a peculiar charcoal, called red charcoal, which is intermediate in its 
qualities between wood and ordinary charcoal. When the temperature is lower, the carboni- 
zation is incomplete ; when higher, the product is black charcoal. The steam process yields a 
uniform charcoal for a given temperature, which may be easily regulated, and a product 
about double that obtained in closed cylinders. Charcoal contains carbon, approximately in 
proportion to the temperature at which it is formed ; varying from 65 per cent, when made at 
•250° C. (482° F.) to 80 per cent, when made at 400° C. (752° F.). The gaseous matter 330 
Carbo Ligni. 
PART I. 
present, on the other hand, decreases with the temperature of carbonization. Thus, for 
charcoal made at 300° C. (572° F.), it is one-third of its weight; at 350° C. (662° F.), 
one-fourth. 
Mr. E. C. C. Stanford has called attention to a variety of vegetable charcoal, obtained by 
charring a species of sea-weed, Laminaria digitata, gathered on the shores of the Hebrides, 
which, although, on account of the large proportion of calcium carbonate contained in it (20 
per cent.), unfit for use in refining sugar, possesses more of the deodorizing and decolorizing 
power than animal charcoal itself, which, with the exception referred to, it closely resembles in 
chemical composition. (P. J. Tr., 1867, 186.) 
Preparation for Medicinal Use. M. Belloc recommends charcoal for this purpose 
to be obtained from poplar shoots, cut at the time the sap rises, and deprived of their bark. 
The carbonization should be performed in cast-iron vessels at a red-white heat. The product 
is a light and brilliant charcoal, which must be purified by being macerated for three or four 
days in water, frequently renewed. It is then dried, powdered, and placed in bottles, which 
should be well stopped. The charcoal most esteemed in Philadelphia for medicinal purposes 
is that prepared by the Messrs. Dupont, near Wilmington, Delaware, for the manufacture of 
gunpowder. It is made from young willow shoots of two or three years’ growth. 
Properties. Charcoal is a black, shining, brittle, porous substance, tasteless and inodor- 
ous, and insoluble in water. It is a good conductor of electricity, but a bad one of heat. It 
possesses the remarkable property of absorbing many times its own bulk of certain gases. “ If 
1 6m. of Charcoal be boiled with a mixture of 3 C.c. of potassium hydrate test-solution and 5 
C.c. of water for several minutes, the filtrate should be colorless or nearly so (evidence of com- 
plete carbonization)." U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ A black powder 
without taste or odor, free from gritty matter. When burned at a high temperature with free 
access of air, it should not leave more than 7£ per cent, of ash.” When exposed to the air 
after ignition, charcoal increases rapidly in weight, absorbing from 12 to 14 per cent, of moist- 
ure. As ordinarily prepared, it contains the incombustible part of the wood, amounting to 
1 or 2 per cent., which is left as ashes when the charcoal is burned. This inorganic material 
may be removed by digesting the charcoal in diluted hydrochloric acid, and afterwards washing 
it thoroughly with boiling water. 
Medical Properties, etc. Powdered charcoal is disinfectant and absorbent. It is em- 
ployed with advantage in diarrhoea as an absorbent, and in dyspepsia with fetid breath and 
eructations. It is also useful, in the form of injection, in putrid discharges from the uterus. 
M. Belloc recommends it strongly in gastralgia, and especially pyrosis, in which, if it fails to 
remove the disease, it abates the pain, nausea, and vomiting; and his observations have been 
confirmed by a committee of the French Academy of Medicine. As a remedy in obstinate 
constipation, Dr. Daniel, of Savannah, speaks of it in high terms. He also found it useful in 
nausea and constipation of pregnancy. On the other hand, some practitioners have found char- 
coal to confine the bowels. Dr. Wilson, of New Zealand, speaks highly of it in the diarrhoea 
of measles, and in epidemic cholera. Dr. Newman recommends it as a dressing to wounds and 
ulcers. Mr. Wormald, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, has made a useful application of the 
disinfecting power of dry charcoal, in what he calls the charcoal quilt. This consists of two 
sheets of cotton wadding, quilted together in small segments, with a tolerably thick layer of 
powdered charcoal between them. The quilts, thus prepared, may be of any size, so as to fit 
a gangrenous sore or stump. Its use as an ingredient of poultices is noticed under Cataplasma 
Carbonis. Several of its varieties are used as tooth-powder. Those generally preferred are 
the charcoals of the cocoa-nut shell and of bread. It is said that charcoal proves useful in 
preserving the teeth by absorbing the acid sometimes morbidly present in the mucus of the 
mouth. The dose of charcoal varies from one to four teaspoonfuls (3-9-15 5 Gm.) or more. 
Dr. Daniel gave it in his case of constipation in doses of a tablespoonful (15-5 Gm.), repeated 
every half-hour. Charcoal biscuits have been prepared, containing 15 or 20 per cent, of char- 
coal in fine powder, whilst charcoal lozenges, either with charcoal alone or associated with bis- 
muth, have been employed with asserted good results in certain forms of gastric disturbances. 
For internal use charcoal is preferred by some in the granular form. Mr. W. Lascelles Scott 
employs the following method of preparing it. He prefers the wood of the box, willow, or 
linden, which, after being charred, should be allowed to cool out of contact with air, then 
boiled for some time in diluted hydrochloric acid, and afterwards, having been thoroughly 
washed with pure water, in a little weak ammonia. The fragments are again ignited, and then 
quickly powdered, and passed through a sieve of 80 or 100 apertures to the inch. Nine pounds PART I. 
Carbo Ligni.—Ccirbonei Disulphidum. 
331 
of this powder are mixed with one pound of pure sugar passed through a 30 sieve, and 4 
ounces of gum arabic in impalpable powder. The whole is then moistened with a few ounces 
of warm distilled water, to which have been added an ounce and a quarter of tincture of ben- 
zoin, and a little mucilage. The mass is now granulated on flat steam pans, in the usual man- 
ner, at a temperature of 101-6°—107-2° C. (215°—225° F.). When perfectly dry it is sifted, 
and secured in well-stopped bottles. ( Chem. Neivs, 1867, p. 204.) 
Dr. Stenhouse has devised a process for combining alumina with common vegetable char- 
coal, forming what he calls aluminized charcoal, which is an economical substitute for purified 
animal charcoal, and equally efficacious as a decolorizer. It is prepared by digesting finely- 
powdered charcoal with sufficient of the solution of aluminum sulphate to give an impregna- 
tion of 7’5 per cent, of alumina. The whole is evaporated to dryness, and ignited in a covered 
Hessian crucible, until the water and acid have been dissipated. Aluminized charcoal is per- 
fectly black, though thoroughly impregnated with anhydrous alumina, and only requires to be 
carefully pulverized to be ready for use. (P. J. Tr., 1857, p. 364.) On similar principles, Dr. 
Stenhouse prepares his artificial bone-black, by impregnating powdered wood charcoal with 7-5 
per cent, of calcium phosphate, by digesting it in a solution of this salt in hydrochloric acid, 
evaporating to dryness, and igniting in covered vessels. This charcoal decolorizes well, but 
can be used only for neutral solutions. 
Charcoal may act either as an oxidizer or as a deoxidizer, these contrary powers depending 
upon the temperature of the experiment; at the ordinary temperature, by its porosity, it facili- 
tates atmospheric oxidation of animal matter with which it is placed in contact, while, on the 
other hand, at a low red heat it deoxidizes or reduces many metallic oxides with the formation 
of carbon monoxide. Thus, the bodies of two dogs having been laid in an open box on a bed 
of charcoal a few inches deep, and covered by the same material, were kept by Mr. John 
Turnbull, of Glasgow, for six months in his laboratory, without emitting any perceptible 
effluvium; and when they were examined at the end of this time, scarcely anything remained 
but the bones. Dr. Stenhouse, who relates this experiment, has confirmed it by observations 
of his own, and believes that the animal matter thus treated undergoes putrefaction, though 
the products, by their rapid oxidation and absorption, are prevented from contaminating the 
air. He therefore considers charcoal not to be antiseptic, but the very opposite. It is said 
that water may be kept sweet at sea by the addition of a little powdered charcoal to each cask. 
CARBONEI DISULPHIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Carbon Disulphide. 
[Carbonei Bisulphidum, Pharm. 1880.] 
“ Carbon Disulphide should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, or in tin cans, in a cool place, 
remote from lights or fire.” U. S. “ Carbon Bisulphide, CS2, may be prepared by the com- 
bination of carbon and sulphur at a high temperature, the product being subsequently con- 
densed and purified.” Br. 
Carbonis Bisulphidum, Br., Carbon Bisulphide; Carboneum Sulfuratum, Alcohol Sulfuris, P. G.j Carbonii 
Bisulphidum; Carbon Sulphide; Sulfure de Carbone, Fr.; Sehwefelkohlenstoff, G. 
This compound, corresponding to carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas), C02, is prepared by the 
direct combination of carbon and sulphur at a moderate red heat. To effect this, charcoal is 
heated to redness in a vertical cylinder, while sulphur is admitted through a lateral tubulure 
near the bottom. As the sulphur melts and vaporizes, it combines with the carbon, and the 
carbon disulphide formed distils over through a series of condensing tubes, which, while they 
serve to collect the crude carbon disulphide, allow of the escape of the hydrogen sulphide 
formed at the same time. The crude product is then rectified, first over a solution of chlori- 
nated lime to break up any hydrogen sulphide gas remaining, and then repeatedly either over 
mercury, mercuric chloride, anhydrous cupric sulphate, or over a pure fatty oil, which with- 
draws from it all free sulphur and bad-smelling sulphur compounds. Obach experimented with 
potassium permanganate as a purifying agent, as was suggested by Allary. He finds it well 
adapted for use on a small scale in combination with mercury, sulphur, mercuric sulphate. 
(N. R., 1883.) The manufacture of carbon disulphide has within late years assumed large 
proportions. In the works of Deiss at Pantin, near Marseilles, France, 500 kilogrammes are 
turned out daily, and their annual production exceeds 1,200,000 kilogrammes. 
It is used in the arts for the extraction of oils from different oil-seeds, for the extraction of 
sulphur from some varieties of sulphur ores, for the cleansing of wool and recovering the fat, 
CS2; 75*93. (CAR-BO'NE-I DI-SUL'PHI-DUM.) C S2; 76. 332 
Carbonei Dimlphidum.—Cardamomum. 
PART I. 
as a solvent for caoutchouc in the manufacture of india-rubber goods, for the extraction of 
perfumes, and latterly on an enormous scale in France as a remedy against the phylloxera. 
Yon Lengyel describes a carbon sulphide having the composition C„S2. (Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 
1021.) 
Properties. “ A clear, colorless, highly refractive liquid, very diffusive, having a strong, 
characteristic, but not fetid odor, and a sharp, aromatic taste. Soluble in 535 parts of water 
at 15° C. (59° F.) ; very soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, fixed and volatile oils. Specific 
gravity, 1-268 to 1-269 at 15° C. (59° F.). Carbon Disulphide vaporizes rapidly at the ordinary 
temperature, is highly inflammable, boils at 46°-47° C. (114-80-116-6° F.), and, when ignited, 
burns with a blue flame, producing carbon and sulphur dioxide. It should not affect the color 
of blue litmus paper moistened with water (absence of sulphur dioxide'). A portion evaporated 
spontaneously in a glass vessel should leave no residue (absence of dissolved sulphur). Lead 
acetate test-solution agitated with it should not be blackened (absence of hydrogen sulphide)." 
U.S. 
Medical Properties. Carbon disulphide is a powerful poison, but is not used as an 
internal remedy. According to M. Delpech, the workmen exposed to the fumes of the disul- 
phide are affected with headache, vertigo, and over-excitement of the nervous system, as evinced 
by voluble talking, incoherent singing, or immoderate laughter, or sometimes by weeping; 
and a continuance of the exposure is apt to finally cause a state of cachexia, characterized by 
general weakness, loss of sexual appetite, dulness of sight and hearing, and impairment of 
memory. Later writers assert that these phenomena are hysterical, and that what the carbon 
disulphide does is to produce an hysterical neurosis. (See Annales de Hygiene, 1895, xxxiii.) 
The swallowing by a man of half an ounce of carbon disulphide was followed in half an hour 
by absolute unconsciousness, very rapid, feeble pulse, slow and stertorous respiration, cold and 
clammy surface of body, and insensitive conjunctiva, with mobile pupils. Two hours later, 
death occurred. The blood was found fluid, but there were no marked lesions of irritation in 
the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. (Lancet, July 17, 1886.) India-rubber workers, by 
whom the disulphide is largely used, are said to suffer frequently from paralytic symptoms. 
(.Lancet, Jan. 1886.) 
Externally, the disulphide has been used as a counter-irritant and local anaesthetic. In 
etdarged lymphatic glands, Dr. Turnbull has employed it with asserted good success. He applies 
it by means of a bottle with a proper-sized mouth, containing a fluidrachm of the disulphide, 
imbibed by a piece of sponge. The skin over the gland is first well moistened with water. He 
employed the vapor also with benefit in deafness, when dependent on want of nervous energy 
and a deficiency of wax. For this purpose, the bottle containing the disulphide is made with 
a neck to fit the meatus, and, being applied to the ear, is held there until considerable warmth 
is produced. The remedy has been used often with very good results, in a similar manner, in 
facial and other neuralgias and various local pains. It causes a good deal of smarting, but its 
disagreeable odor is the chief objection to it. M. Chiandi Bey finds that a solution of carbon 
disulphide (three parts per thousand) is a most energetic antiseptic, killing microbes and arrest- 
ing all fermentation; he proposes its use in zymotic diseases internally. (Compt.-Rendus, xcix.) 
In France the disulphide has been used in diarrhoea in 3-5 per cent, solution, of which the 
dose is two tablespoonfuls (30 C.c.) four or five times a day. 
CARDAMOMUM. U. S. (Br.) Cardamom. 
(CAR-DA-MO'MUM.) 
“ The fruit of Elettaria repens (Sonnerat), Baillon (nat. ord. Scitamineae).” XJ. S. “ The 
dried ripe seeds of Elettaria Cardamoinum, Maton. The seeds should be kept in their peri- 
carps and separated when required for use.” Br. 
Cardamomi Semina, Br.; Cardamoms; Fructus (Semen) Cardamomi Minoris, P. G.; Cardamomum Minus, Car- 
domomum Malabariam; Malabar Cardamoms; Cardamomes, Petit Cardamome, Fr.; Cardamomen, Kleine Carda- 
momen, G.; Cardamomo minore, It.; Cardamomo menor, Sp.; Ebil, Arab.; Kakelah seghar, Pert.; Capalaga, Malay ; 
Gujaratii elachi, Hindost. 
The subject of Cardamom has been involved in some confusion and uncertainty, both in its 
commercial and botanical relations. The name has been applied to the aromatic capsules of 
various Indian plants belonging to the family of Scitamineae. Three varieties have long been 
designated by the several titles of the lesser, middle, and larger,—cardamomum minus, medium, 
and majus ; but these terms have been used differently by different writers, so that their precise 
signification remains doubtful. To the late Dr. Pereira we are mainly indebted for the clearing Cardamomum,. 
333 
PART I. 
up of this confusion. It is well known that the lesser cardamom of most writers is the variety 
recognized by the Pharmacopoeias and generally kept in the shops. The other varieties, though 
circulating to a greater or less extent in European and Indian commerce, are little known in 
this country* The following remarks have reference exclusively to the genuine Maiabar, or 
official, cardamom. 
* 1. Ceylon Cardamom. This has been denominated variously cardamomum medium, cardamomum majus, and car- 
damomum longum, and is sometimes termed in English commerce wild cardamom. It is the large cardamom of 
Guibourt. In the East it is sometimes called grains of Paradise ; but it is not the product known with us by that 
name. (See below.) It is derived from a plant cultivated in Candy, in the island of Ceylon, and also growing 
wild in the forests of the interior, which was designated by Sir James Edward Smith Elletaria major, but is now 
generally acknowledged to be only a variety of the official plant. This plant was described by Pereira in P. J. Tr. 
(ii. 388). The fruit is a lanceolate-oblong, acutely triangular capsule, somewhat curved, about an inch and a half 
long and four lines broad, with flat and ribbed sides, tough and coriaceous, brownish or yellow ash-colored, having 
frequently at one end the long, cylindrical, three-lobed calyx, and at the other the fruit-stalk. It is three-celled, 
and contains angular, rugged, yellowish-red seeds, of a peculiar fragrant odor and spicy taste. Its effects are analo- 
gous to those of the official cardamom. 
2. Round Cardamom. This is probably the ’Anurov of Dioscorides and the Amomi uva of Pliny, and is believed 
to be the fruit of Amomum cardamomum (Willd.), growing in Sumatra, Java, and other East India islands. The 
capsules are usually smaller than a cherry, roundish or somewhat ovate, with three convex sides, more or less striated 
longitudinally, yellowish or brownish white, and sometimes reddish, with brown, angular, cuneiform, shrivelled seeds, 
which have a spicy cainphorous flavor. They are sometimes, though rarely, met with connected in their native 
clusters, constituting the amomum racemosum, or amome en grappes, of the French. They are similar in medicinal 
properties to the official, but are seldom used except in the southern parts of Europe. 
3. Java Cardamom. The plant producing this variety is supposed to be the Amomum maximum of Roxburgh, 
growing in Java and other Malay islands in the East. The capsules are oval, or oval-oblong, often somewhat ovate, 
from eight to fifteen lines long, and from four to eight broad, usually flattened on one side and convex on the other, 
sometimes curved, three-valved, and occasionally imperfectly three-lobed, of a dirty grayish-brown color, and coarse 
fibrous appearance. When soaked in water, they exhibit as their distinguishing character from nine to thirteen 
ragged membranous wings along their whole length, which distinguish them from all other varieties. The seeds 
have a feebly aromatic taste and smell. This variety of cardamom affords but a very small proportion of volatile 
oil, is altogether of inferior quality, and, when imported into London, is usually sent to the continent. 
4. Madagascar Cardamom. This is the Cardamomum majus of Geiger and some others, and is thought to be the 
fruit of Amomum angustifolium of Sonnerat, growing in marshy grounds in Madagascar. The capsule is ovate, 
pointed, flattened on one side, striated, with a broad circular scar at the bottom, surrounded by an elevated, notched, 
corrugated margin. The seeds have an aromatic flavor analogous to that of official cardamom. 
5. Bengal Cardamom. The fruit of Amomum subulatum, Eoxb., sometimes known by the name of Winged Bengal 
Cardamom. Morung elachi, or Buro elachi, is about an inch in length, obscurely three-sided, ovoid or somewhat 
obconic, with nine narrow, jagged ridges or wings (best seen after soaking in water) upon its distal end, which ter- 
minates in a truncate bristly nipple. The pericarp is coarsely striated, of a deep brown, splitting into three valves, 
disclosing a three-lobed mass of seeds, 60 to 80 in number, agglutinated by their viscid saccharine anthers. 
6. Nepal Cardamom is produced by an Amomum of undetermined species, and resembles the Bengal cardamom, 
except in having a long tubular calyx on its summit, and in being usually attached to a stalk. 
7. Grains of Paradise. Grana Paradisi. Under this name and that of Guinea grains, and Malegueta or Malla- 
guetta pepper, are found in commerce small seeds of a round or ovate form, often angular, and somewhat cuneiform, 
minutely rough, brown externally, white within, of a feebly aromatic odor when rubbed between the fingers, and of 
a strongly hot and peppery taste. Two kinds of them are known in the English market, one larger, plumper, and 
more warty, with a short conical projecting tuft of pale fibres on the umbilicus; the other smaller and smoother, and 
without the fibrous tuft. The latter are the most common. It is probable that one of the varieties is produced by 
Amomum grana paradisi of Sir J. E. Smith, and the other by Roscoe’s Amomum melegueta. (Pereira’s Mat. Med.t 
3d ed., p. 1134.) Dr. W. F. Daniell, who has published (P. J. Tr., xiv. 312 and 356) an elaborate paper on the 
Amoma of Western Africa, states that the true Mallaguetta pepper is obtained exclusively from varieties of the same 
species to which belong the Amomum grana paradisi of Afzelius and the A. melegueta of Roscoe; while the A. 
grana paradisi of Sir J. E. Smith is a different plant, and yields a different product. These grains are imported 
from Guinea, and other parts of the western coast of Africa. Similar grains are taken to England from Demerara, 
where they are obtained from a plant cultivated by the negroes, supposed to have been brought from Africa, and be- 
lieved by Dr. Pereira to be the Amomum melegueta of Roscoe. {Ibid., vi. 412.) At the international exhibition of 
1862, at London, Dr. Geo. B. Wood noticed a specimen of similar grains, under the name of grains of Paradise, sent 
from the island of Trinidad. Their effects on the system are analogous to those of pepper; but they are seldom used 
except in veterinary practice, and to give artificial strength to spirits, wine, beer, and vinegar. In the same journal 
(ii. 443), Dr. Pereira points out seven distinct scitamineous fruits to which the name of grains of Paradise has been 
applied by different authors. J. C. Thresh made a proximate analysis of the seeds, and found volatile oil, resin, 
tannin, starch, albuminoids, and an active principle in the form of a straw-colored, viscid, odorless fluid, pungent, 
but not so hot as capsaicin. {P. J. Tr., 1884, p. 297.) Fredk. Schwartz found in the seeds a reddish-brown acrid 
resin, and an oil having a burning aromatic taste, upon which the virtues probably depend. {A. J. P., 1886, 118; 
consult also Hanausek’s researches on grains of Paradise in Chem. Zeit., 1893, 1765.) 
Bastard Cardamom, the seeds of Amomum Xanthoides, resembles true cardamomum in appearance, but is of a 
dirty green color, and has a very biting camphor-like taste. Dr. B. Niederstadt gives the following as the results of 
analysis of the true (hulled) seed and of the bastard cardamom: 
True. 
Bastard. 
Water 
15-50 
Ether soluble extract 
4-04 
Ash 
7-50 
Starch and sugar 
24-00 
Cellular tissue, nitrogenous matters and extractive 
48-96 334 
Cardamomum. 
PART I. 
Linnaeus confounded, under the name of Amomum cardamomum, two different vegetables, 
—the genuine plant of Malabar, and another growing in Java. These were separated by 
Willdenow, who conferred on the former Sonnerat’s title of 
Amomum repens, while he retained the original name for the 
latter, though not the true cardamom plant. In the tenth 
volume of the Linnaean Transactions, 1811, Mr. White, a 
British army surgeon in India, published a very minute de- 
scription of the Malabar plant, which he had enjoyed frequent 
opportunities of examining in its native state. From this 
description Dr. Maton inferred that the plant, according to 
Roscoe’s arrangement of the Scitamineae, could not be con- 
sidered an Amomum; and, as he was unable to attach it to 
any other known genus, he proposed to construct a new one, 
with the name of Elettaria, derived from elettari or elatari, 
the Malabar name of this vegetable. Sir James Smith after- 
wards suggested the propriety of naming the new genus Ma- 
tonia, in honor of Dr. Maton ; and the latter title, having been 
adopted by Roscoe, obtained a place in former editions of the 
London and U. S. Pharmacopoeias. The celebrated Dr. Rox- 
burgh described the Malabar cardamom plant as an Alpinia, 
with the specific name cardamomum. As doubts were enter- 
tained of the necessity for the new genus proposed -by Maton, 
Roxburgh was followed in the London and U. S. Pharmaco- 
poeias, and the fruit was referred to Alpinia cardamomum. 
This decision, however, was revised in the later editions of the 
U. S. and British Pharmacopoeias. Roscoe arranged it with 
the abandoned genus Renealmia of Linnaeus, which he restored. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla with the tube filiform and the inner limb one-lipped. Anther naked. 
Capsule often berried, three-celled, three-valved. Seeds numerous, arillate. Blmne. 
Elettaria cardamomum. Maton ; B. & T. 267.—Alpinia cardamomum. Roxburgh.—Amo• 
mum repens. Sonnerat; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 9.—Renealmia cardamomum. Roscoe, Monan- 
drous Plants. Figured in Linn. Trans, x. 248, and Carson’s IUust. of Med. Bot. ii. 55. The 
cardamom plant has a tuberous horizontal root or rhizome, furnished with numerous fibres, and 
sending up from eight to twenty erect, simple, smooth, green and shining, perennial stems, 
which rise from six to twelve feet in height, and bear alternate sheathing leaves. These are 
from nine inches to two feet long, from one to five inches broad, elliptical-lanceolate, pointed, 
entire, smooth and dark green on the upper surface, glossy and pale sea-green beneath, with 
strong midribs, and short footstalks. The flower-stalk proceeds from the base of the stem, and 
lies upon the ground, with the flowers arranged in a panicle. The calyx is monophyllous, tubu- 
lar, and toothed at the margin; the corolla monophyllous and funnel-shaped, with the inferior 
border unilabiate, three-lobed, and spurred at the base. The fruit is a three-celled capsule, 
containing many seeds; during drying it is said to lose three-fourths of its weight. 
This valuable plant is a native of the mountains of Malabar, where it springs up spontane- 
ously in the forests after the removal of the undergrowth, and is very extensively cultivated by 
the natives. For a detailed account of culture, see A. J. P., 1877, 605; also P. J. Tr., 
1888. The plant begins to yield fruit at the end of the fourth year, and continues to bear for 
several years afterwards. The capsules when ripe are picked from the fruit-stems, dried over a 
gentle fire, and separated by rubbing with the hands from the footstalks and adhering calyces. 
Thus prepared, they are ovate-oblong, from three to ten lines long, from two to four thick, 
three-sided with rounded angles, obtusely pointed at both ends, longitudinally wrinkled, and 
of a yellowish-white color. The seeds which they contain are small, angular, irregular, rough 
as if embossed upon their surface, of a brown color, easily reduced to powder, and thus sepa- 
rable from the capsular covering, which, though slightly aromatic, is much less so than the 
seeds, and should be rejected when the medicine is administered. The seeds constitute about 
74 parts per cent, by weight. According to Pereira, three varieties are distinguished in com- 
merce : 1, the shorts, from three to six lines long, from two to three broad, browner and more 
coarsely ribbed and more highly esteemed than the others; 2, the long-longs, from seven lines 
to an inch in length by two or three lines in breadth, elongated, and somewhat acuminate; 
and 3, the short-longs, which are somewhat shorter and less pointed than the second variety. 
Cardamom seed. 1, perisperm; 2, en- 
dosperm ; 3, embryo; v, inner seed-coat; 
j, oil cells; s, seed-coat; t, outer seed- 
coat (After Berg.) PART I. 
Cardamomum.— Carum. 
335 
The odor of cardamom is tragrant, the taste warm, slightly pungent, and highly aromatic. 
“ Ovoid or oblong, from 10 to 15 Mm. long, obtusely triangular, rounded at the base, beaked, 
longitudinally striate ; of a pale buff color, three-celled, with a thin, leathery, nearly tasteless 
pericarp, and a central placenta. The seeds are about 4 Mm. long, reddish brown, angular, 
rugose, depressed at the hilum, surrounded by a thin, membranous arillus, and have an agree- 
able odor and a pungent, aromatic taste.” U. S. “ Inciner- 
ated they should not yield more than 4 per cent, of ash.” Br. 
Cardamom yields its virtues to water and alcohol, but more 
readily to the latter. The seeds contain 4-6 per cent, of vola- 
tile oil, 10-4 of fixed oil, 2-5 of a salt of potassium mixed 
with a coloring principle, 3-0 of starch, 1-8 of nitrogenous 
mucilage, 0-4 of yellow coloring matter, and 77’3 of ligneous 
fibre. (Trommsdorff.) The volatile oil is colorless, of an 
agreeable and very penetrating odor, and of a strong aromatic, 
burning, camphorous, and bitterish taste. It is dextrogyrate, 
and consists essentially of a terpene, C10II16, with small quan- 
tities of formic and acetic acids. From old specimens of oil 
Dumas and Peligot claim to have separated crystals of terpene 
hydrate, CloH2002 -}- H20, while Fliickiger has obtained a 
crystalline deposit from Ceylon oil which he considers iden- 
tical with common camphor. Weber (Ann. Ch.und Pharm., 
238, 98) speaks of finding a small amount of a crystalline 
non-volatile compound which fuses at 60°-61° C. Schimmel 
& Co. published in their semi-annual reports for April and 
October, 1897, some results of investigation of several vari- 
eties of cardamom oil. The terpenes of Ceylon oil they state 
to be terpinene and dipentene ; both Ceylon and Bengal car- 
damom contain cineol, C10H180 ; Malabar cardamom yields 
terpineol as well as cineol, while Siam cardamom yields a 
crystalline sediment composed of borneol and camphor in 
approximately equal proportions. The sp. gr. of the oil is 
between 0-92 and 0-94. It cannot be kept long without 
undergoing change, and finally, even though excluded from 
the air, loses its peculiar odor and taste. If ether be made 
to percolate through the powdered seeds, and the liquor ob- 
tained be deprived of the ether, a light greenish-brown fluid 
remains, consisting almost exclusively of the volatile and 
fixed oils. It has the odor of cardamom, and keeps better than the oil obtained by distillation. 
(A. J. P., xxi. 116.) The seeds should be powdered only when wanted for use, as they retain 
their aromatic properties best while in the capsule. 
Cardamoms are sometimes adulterated ; G. W. Kennedy has seen nearly 4 per cent, of 
orange seeds and unroasted grains of coffee mixed with the cardamoms. (A. J. P., 1872.) 
Solstein (1892) found that pure powdered cardamom yields 8-36 per cent, of ash; three com- 
mercial samples of powdered cardamom that he examined contained sodium carbonate. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cardamom is a warm and grateful aromatic, less heat- 
ing and stimulating than some others belonging to the class, and very useful as an adjuvant or 
corrective of cordial, tonic, and purgative medicines. Throughout the East Indies it is largely 
consumed as a condiment. It was known to the ancients, and derived its name from the Greek 
language. In this country it is employed chiefly as an ingredient in compound preparations. 
Cardamom fruit. A, section of seed; 
1, outer membrane; 2, diagonal cells ; 3, 
oil cells; 4, parenchyma; 5, palisade-like 
cells; 6, seed albumen; B, epidermis of 
seed, with hair; C, parenchyma of seed- 
coat. 
CARUM. U. S. (Br.) Caraway. 
(CA'RUM.) 
“ The fruit of Carum Carvi, Linne (nat. ord. Umbelliferae).” U. S. “ The dried fruit of 
Carum Carvi, Linn.” Br. 
Carui Fructus, Br., Caraway Fruit; Fructus Carvi, P. G.; Cumin des Pres, Carvi, Fr.; Carvi, It.; Gemeiner 
Kiimmel, Kiimmel, G.; Alcaravea, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Fruit ovate-oblong, striated. Involucre one-leafed. Petals keeled, inflexed-emar- 
ginate. Willd. 336 
Carum.—Caryophyllus. 
PART I. 
Carum carui. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1470; B. & T. 121. This plant is biennial and umbel- 
liferous, with a spindle-shaped, fleshy, whitish root, and an erect stem, about two feet in height, 
branching above, and furnished with doubly pinnate, deeply incised leaves, the segments of 
which are linear and pointed. The flowers are small and white, and in erect terminal umbels, 
which are accompanied with an involucre, consisting sometimes of three or four leaflets, some- 
times of one only, and are destitute of partial involucre. 
The caraway plant is a native of Europe, growing wild in meadows and pastures, and culti- 
vated in many places. It has been introduced into this country. The flowers appear in May 
and June, and the seeds, which are not perfected till the second 
year, ripen in August. The root, when improved by culture, re- 
sembles the parsnip, and is used as food in the north of Europe. 
The seeds are the part used in medicine. They are collected by 
cutting down the plant, and threshing it on a cloth. Our mar- 
kets are supplied partly from Europe, partly from our own gar- 
dens. The American seeds are usually rather smaller than the 
German. Under the name of Ajowan, the fruits of the Carum 
ajotvan, Bentham & Hooker (immi copticum, Linn.), are largely 
used in India. They are -fo to TV of an inch long, and resemble 
the fruits of common parsley, but are distinguished by their odor, and by their surface being 
very rough from numerous very minute tubercles. They contain about 4 per cent, of a volatile 
oil, which has the odor of the oil of thyme, and contains thymol: it may be used as an aro- 
matic carminative. (See Brit. Med. Journ., June 6, 1885.) 
Caraway seeds (half-fruits) are about two lines in length, slightly curved, with five longi- 
tudinal ridges, which are of a light yellowish color, while the intervening spaces are dark brown. 
“ Oblong, laterally compressed, about 4 or 5 Mm. long, usually separated into the two meri- 
carps, which are curved, narrower at both ends, brown, with five yellowish, filiform ribs, and 
with six oil-tubes.” U. S. “ When incinerated the Fruit should not yield more than 8 per 
cent, of ash.” Br. They have an agreeable aromatic smell, and a sweetish, warm, spicy taste. 
These properties depend on an essential oil, which they afford largely by distillation. (See 
Oleum Cari.) The residue is insipid. They yield their virtues readily to alcohol and more 
slowly to water. 
“ Drawn caraway seeds,” a term applied to such as have been recovered from the still residue 
after obtaining the volatile oil, are used to adulterate caraway ; the exhausted “ seeds” are 
much darker in color than are the genuine. (P. J. Tr., 1896, 150.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Caraway is a pleasant stomachic and carminative, oc- 
casionally used in flatulent colic, and as an adjuvant or corrective of other medicines. The 
dose in substance is from a scruple to a drachm (1-3—3-9 Gm.). An infusion may be prepared 
by adding two drachms of the seeds to a pint of boiling water. The volatile oil, however, is 
most employed. (See Oleum Cari.) The seeds are baked in cakes, to which they communicate 
an agreeable flavor, while they stimulate the digestive organs. 
Transverse section of caraway, show- 
ing oil-tubes. 
CARYOPHYLLUS. U. S. (Br.) Cloves. 
(CAR-Y-O-PHYL'LUS.) 
“ The unexpanded flowers of Eugenia aromatica (Linn6), O. Kuntze (nat. ord. Myrtaceae).” 
U. S. “ The dried flower-buds of Eugenia caryophyllata, Thunb.” Br. 
Caryophyllum, Br.; Caryophylli, P. 0.; Caryophylli Aromatici; Girofle, Clous aromatiques, Clous de Girofies, 
Fr.; Gewurznelken, Nagelein, G.; Garofani, It.; Clavos de Espicia, Sp.; Cravo da India, Portng.; Kruidnagel, 
Dutch ; Kerunfel, Arab. 
Gen. Ch. Tube of the calyx cylindrical; limb, four-parted. Petals four, adhering by their 
ends in a sort of calyptra. Stamens distinct, arranged in four parcels in a quadrangular fleshy 
hollow, near the teeth of the calyx. Ovary two-celled, with about twenty ovules in each cell. 
Berry one- or two-celled, one- or two-seeded. Seeds cylindrical or half-ovate. Cotyledons thick, 
fleshy, convex externally, sinuous in various ways internally. Bindley. De Cand. 
Eugenia caryophyllata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 965; B. & T. 112.— Caryophyllus aromaticus. 
Linn. Sp. Plant., 735 ; De Cand. Prodrom. iii. 262; Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 43, pi. 37. 
This small tree is one of the most elegant of those inhabiting the islands of India. It has a 
pyramidal form, is always green, and is adorned throughout the year with a succession of 
beautiful rosy flowers. The stem is of hard wood, and covered with a smooth, grayish bark. 
The leaves are about four inches in length by two in breadth, obovate-obloug, acuminate at PAET I. 
Caryophyllus. 
337 
both ends, entire, sinuated, with many parallel veins on each side of the midrib, supported on 
long footstalks, and opposite. They have a firm consistence and a shining green color, and 
when bruised are highly fragrant. The flowers are disposed in terminal corymbose panicles, 
and exhale a strong, penetrating, and grateful odor. 
The natural geographical range of the clove is extremely limited, being confined to the 
Molucca Islands. According to Fliickiger, cloves were known in western Europe as early as 
the sixth century, long before the discovgry of the Moluccas by the Portuguese. After the 
conquest of the Molucca Islands by the Dutch, the monopolizing policy of that commercial 
people led them to extirpate the trees in nearly all the islands except Amboyna and Ternate, 
which were under their immediate inspection. Not- 
withstanding their jealous vigilance, a French gov- 
ernor of the Isles of France and Bourbon, named 
Poivre, succeeded, in the year 1770, in obtaining plants 
from the Moluccas and introducing them into the 
colonies under his control. Five years afterwards the 
clove-tree was introduced into Cayenne and the West 
Indies, in 1803 into Sumatra, and in 1818 into Zanzibar. 
The latter place has, indeed, become the chief source of 
supply; the crop for 1889 was estimated at 13,000,000 
pounds, worth, at the place of growth, 10 cents a pound* 
The unexpanded flower-buds are the part of the plant 
employed under the ordinary name of cloves.f They 
are first gathered when the tree is about six years old. 
The fruit has similar aromatic properties, but much 
weaker. The buds are at first white, then become green, 
and then bright red, when they must be at once collected, which is done by hand-picking, or 
by beating the trees with bamboos and catching the falling buds. In the Moluccas they are 
said to be sometimes immersed in boiling water and afterwards exposed to smoke and artificial 
heat before being spread out in the sun. In Zanzibar, Cayenne, and the West Indies they 
are dried simply by solar heat. 
Cloves appear to have been unknown to the ancients. They were introduced into Europe 
by the Arabians, and were distributed by the Venetians. After the discovery of the southern 
passage to India, the trade in this spice passed into the hands of the Portuguese, but was 
subsequently wrested from them by the Dutch, by whom it was long monopolized. The United 
States derive much of their supply from the West Indies and Guiana; but the great sources 
of cloves have been recently the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, on the east coast of Africa. 
In 1872 the clove orchards in Zanzibar were nearly destroyed by a hurricane, but they have 
been replanted. J The Molucca cloves are said to be thicker, darker, heavier, more oily, and 
more highly aromatic than those cultivated elsewhere. They are known by the name of Am- 
boyna cloves. The Bencoolen cloves, from Sumatra, are deemed equal, if not superior, by the 
English druggists. Cloves have been frequently examined microscopically and chemically to 
detect adulterations ; the comparatively low price of this spice of late, however, has discouraged 
fraud of this kind. (See a paper by Prof. Kraemer, Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 159.) 
Properties. Cloves in shape resemble a nail with a round head with four spreading 
points beneath it. “ About 15 Mm. long, dark brown, consisting of a subcylindrical, solid and 
glandular calyx-tube, terminated by four teeth, and surmounted by a globular head, formed 
by four petals, which cover numerous curved stamens, and one style. Cloves emit oil, when 
scratched, and have a strong, aromatic odor, and a pungent, spicy taste.” U. S. “ Incinerated 
they should not yield more than 7 per cent, of ash.” Br. Their color is externally deep 
brown, internally reddish ; their odor strong and fragrant; their taste hot, pungent, aromatic, 
and very permanent. The best cloves are large, heavy, brittle, and exude a small quantity of 
oil on being pressed or scraped with the nail. When light, soft, wrinkled, pale, and of feeble 
taste and smell, they are inferior. Those from which the essential oil has been distilled are 
Transverse section of calyx-tube of clove. 
* Cloves from Cayenne, and from various West India islands, as Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Trinidad, have been 
for several years circulating in commerce. 
f The stems of the flowers also enter commerce. They possess the odor and taste of the cloves, and, as they are 
worth only about one-fifth the price of the cloves and are said nearly to equal them in strength, they are largely 
used in the manufacture of ground cloves, as well as of oil of cloves. The French call them griffes de girofles. 
| For detailed information as to method of growth, see P. J. Tr.} June, 1890. 338 
Caryophyllus.— Cascarilla. 
PART I. 
sometimes fraudulently mixed with the genuine. In powdered cloves this fraud appears to be 
extensively practised, and its detection is almost impossible. 
Trommsdorff obtained from 1000 parts of cloves 180 of volatile oil, 170 of a peculiar tan- 
nin* 130 of gum, 60 of resin, 280 of vegetable fibre, and 180 of water. M. Lodibert after- 
wards discovered a fixed oil, aromatic and of a green color, and a white resinous substance 
which crystallizes in fasciculi composed of very fine diverging silky needles, without taste or 
smell, soluble in ether and boiling alcohol, and exhibiting neither alkaline nor acid reaction. 
This substance, called by M. Bonastre caryophyllin, was found in the cloves of the Moluccas, 
of Bourbon, and of Barbadoes, but not in those of Cayenne, from which, however, it has since 
been procured. To obtain it, the ethereal extract of cloves is treated with water, and the white 
substance thrown down is separated by filtration, and treated repeatedly with ammonia to de- 
prive it of impurities. The most recent determination of its formula by Mylius (Ber. Chem. 
Ges., 1873, p. 1053) makes it C20H3202. Dr. Theod. Martius obtains it cheaply by exposing 
cloves, previously deprived as far as possible of oil by distillation with water, to distillation at 
a higher temperature, redistilling the brown liquid obtained until the distillate nearly ceases to 
have the taste or smell of cloves, and then purifying the residue by washing with water, and 
treating it with boiling alcohol and animal charcoal repeatedly, until the caryophyllin, which 
is deposited by the alcohol on cooling, is perfectly white. (See A. J. P., xxxii. 65.) M. Dumas 
has discovered another crystalline principle, which forms in the water distilled from cloves, and 
is gradually deposited. Like caryophyllin, it is soluble in alcohol and ether, but differs from 
that substance in becoming red when touched with nitric acid. M. Bonastre proposed for it 
the name of eugenin. (Journ. de Pharm., xx. 565.) It has the formula C10H1202, and is iso- 
meric with eugenol or eugenic acid, a constituent of oil of cloves. Water extracts the odor 
of cloves with comparatively little of their taste. All their sensible properties are imparted 
to alcohol; and the tincture when evaporated leaves an excessively fiery extract, which becomes 
insipid if deprived of the oil by distillation with water, while the oil which comes over is mild. 
Hence it has been inferred that the pungency of this aromatic depends on a union of the essen- 
tial oil with the resin. Caryophyllic acid, C20H3206, is obtained by gradually adding caryo- 
phyllin to fuming nitric acid, kept cool by immersing the vessel in water until crystals begin 
to separate ; these are purified by dissolving them in ammonia, precipitating with hydrochloric 
acid, and redissolving in alcohol and crystallizing. For an account of the oil, see Oleum Cary- 
ophylli. The infusion and oil of cloves are reddened by nitric acid, and rendered blue by 
tincture of ferric chloride; facts of some interest, as morphine gives the same reactions. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cloves are among the most stimulant of the aromatics, 
but, like others of this class, act less upon the system at large than on the part to which they 
are immediately applied. They are sometimes administered in substance or infusion to relieve 
nausea and vomiting, correct flatulence, and excite languid digestion; but their chief use is to 
assist or modify the action of other medicines. They enter into several official preparations. 
Their dose in substance is from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.). 
The French Codex directs a tincture of cloves to be prepared by digesting for six days, and 
afterwards filtering, a mixture of four ounces of powdered cloves and sixteen of alcohol of 31° 
Cartier. Three ounces to the pint of alcohol is a sufficiently near approximation. 
CASCARILLA. U. S., Br. Cascarilla. 
(CiS-CA-RIL'LA.) 
“ The bark of Croton Eluteria, Bennett (nat. ord. Euphorhiaceae).” U. S. “ The dried bark 
of Croton Eluteria.” Br. 
Casearillse Cortex, Br. (1885), Cascarilla Bark; Cortex Cascarillae, P. G.; Cortex Eluteriae, Cortex Thuris; Chacrille, 
Ecorce 61eutherienne, Cascarille, Fr.; Cascarillrinde, Cascarilla, Kaskarillrinde, G.; Cascariglia, It.; Cliacarilla, Sp. 
Gen. Oh. Male. Calyx cylindrical, five-toothed. Corolla five-petalled. Stamens ten to 
fifteen. Female. Calyx inany-leaved. Corolla none. Styles three, bifid. Capsule three- 
celled. Seed one. Willd. 
There has been much confusion in relation to the different species of Croton growing in the 
West Indies, and as to which of them the Cascarilla of commerce is to be ascribed. At present, 
however, it is generally admitted that this bark,f which is brought exclusively from the 
* Wm, L. Peabody (1895) found the percentage of tannin in cloves to range from 10 to 13 per cent., and that it 
has the same chemical composition as gallotannic acid. 
f Under the name of “ cascarilla,” also “ Quina morada,” the bark of the Pogonopug febrifugus is said to be used 
in the Argentine Republic as a substitute for true cinchona bark. There has been separated from it a blue fluores- 
cent substance, moradin, and an alkaloid, moradeine. (P. J. Tr., xx. 854.) PART I. 
Cascarilla. 
339 
Bahama Islands, is the "product of Groton eluteria; and, though it is probable that the proper 
C. cascarilla may at one time have yielded a portion of its bark to commerce, at present little 
or none is derived from that species. The London College committed the error, which it after- 
wards corrected, of recognizing C. cascarilla of Don as the source of it. This botanist mistook 
the Copalchi hark of Mexico, which is produced by Croton pseudo-china of Schiede, and 
somewhat resembles cascarilla, for the genuine bark, and hence proposed to transfer the specific 
name of Cascarilla to the Mexican plant.* 
Croton eluteria. Bennett, Journ. of the Linn. Soc. iv. 29; Daniell, P. J. Tr., 2d ser., iv. 
145, figured at p. 150 ; B. & T. 238.— Clutia eluteria. Woodv. Med. Bot. 3d ed., iv. 633, t. 
223. As described by Dr. W. F. Daniell, who resided in the Bahama Islands, this, though 
commonly a shrub from three to five feet high, sometimes appears in the form of a small tree 
with a stem from four to eight inches in diameter.f The stem is straight, and marked at 
intervals with white or grayish stains. The leaves are petiolate, from two to three inches in 
length by an inch or more in breadth, often somewhat cordate at the base, obtusely acuminate, 
pale or grayish green above, and densely covered beneath with shining silvery scales, appearing 
white at a distance. They are smaller and narrower in the plants of arborescent growth. 
The flowers, which have a delicious odor, are monoecious, small, white, petiolate, and closely 
set in simple terminal or axillary spikes. The shrub is a native of the Bahamas, scarce at 
present in the island of New Providence, but still abundant in Andros, Long, and Eleutheria 
islands, from the latter of which it derived its botanical title. Daniell calls the plant sweet- 
wood. The name of sea side balsam belongs to another species, C. halsamiferum of Linnaeus, 
which grows in the Bahamas and other West India islands, and owes its name to the exuda- 
tion of a balsamic juice from its young branches when wounded. 
Croton cascarilla. Bennett, Journ. of the Linn. Soc. iv. 30.— Clutia cascarilla. Linn. Sp. 
Plant, ed. 1, 1042.—Ricinoides elseagnifolia. Catesby, Hist. Carotin, ii. t. 46. As described 
by Daniell, this is a shrub of from four to six feet, much branched, with a pale grayish- 
green stem, without the white stains of the former species. The leaves are petiolate, long, 
narrow, lanceolate, tapering towards each end, pointed, with flat or somewhat undular margins, 
above smooth and green, beneath pale and very hairy. The flowers are monoecious, in simple 
terminal spikes, with small white petals tinged with yellow. They are very fragrant. The 
plant is a native of the Bahamas, and is said also to grow in Hayti. In the Bahamas it is 
much scarcer than formerly, and is said by Dr. Daniell to yield at present none of the cas- 
carilla of commerce, although much was formerly derived from it. This species seems to have 
been confounded by some with Croton lineare of Jacquin, which grows in the Bahamas and 
most of the West India islands, where it is known by the name of wild rosemary, owing prob- 
ably in part to its fragrant smell, but still more to its narrow linear leaves with reflected 
margins. 
Cascarilla is brought to this market from the West Indies, and chiefly, as we have been 
informed, from the Bahamas. It comes in bags or casks. We have observed it in commerce 
in two forms, so distinct as to merit the titles of varieties. In one, the bark is in rolled pieces 
of every size, from three or four inches in length and half an inch in diameter to the smallest 
fragments, covered externally with a dull whitish or grayish-white epidermis, which in many 
* Copalchi bark has been mistaken not only for cascarilla, but also for a variety of cinchona. Portions of it, 
having been taken to Europe, attracted the attention both of pharmacologists and physicians. Two kinds were 
noticed: one, in small slender quills, of an ash color, bearing some resemblance to a variety of pale cinchona, but 
having the flavor of cascarilla, and burning with a similar odor; the other in larger quills, with a thick cork-like 
epidermis, very bitter, and yielding an aromatic odor when burnt. The former is the product of Croton pseudo- 
china ; the latter is of unknown origin, but conjecturally referred to C. suberosum. Mr. J. E. Howard states that 
the quilled copalchi bark contains a bitter alkaloid, soluble in ether, and precipitable as a white hydrate from its 
acid solution. (P. J. Tr., xiv. 319.) Copalchi bark is an aromatic tonic, employed in Mexico in and 
capable of useful application in all cases requiring a mild aromatic bitter. Dr. Stark has employed it advantageously 
in feeble states of digestion with irritable bowels, and found it, in one or two cases, to exhibit antiperiodic properties. 
It may be given in infusion, made with half an ounce of the bark to a pint of water, in the dose of one or two 
fluidounces three times a day. (Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ., April, 1849, p. 410; see, also, P. J. Tr., 1886, p. 917.) 
f The plant referred to in very early editions of this work as having been seen by Dr. Wright in Jamaica, and 
called by him C. eluteria, is, according to Mr. Bennett, a distinct species, C. sloanei, which was confounded by 
Linnaeus with the genuine cascarilla plant, under the name of Clutia eluteria. The genuine plant was first described 
by him in his Hortus Cliff or tianus (pp. 486-7), from a specimen in Cliffort’s herbarium in the British Museum, and 
afterwards apparently confused with a Jamaica specimen sent to him by Patrick Brown, from the latter of which 
the description of his Clutia eluteria was drawn up, which is quite inapplicable to the original plant. It is the C. 
sloanei also that was described by Schwartz in his Flora Indice Occidentalis (p. 1183), under the name of Croton 
eluteria, and probablv the same that was figured by Dr. Carson in his Illust. of Med. Bot. ii. 34, pi. 78. (See 
P. J. Tr., 1859, pp. 132-3.) 340 
Cascarilla. 
PART I. 
portions is partially, sometimes wholly removed, leaving a dark brown surface, while the inner 
surface has a chocolate color, and the fracture is a reddish brown. The small pieces are some- 
times curled, but have a distinct abrupt edge as if broken from the branches. The second 
variety consists entirely of very small pieces, not more than an inch or two in length, very 
thin, without the white epidermis, not regularly quilled, but curved more or less in the direc- 
tion of their length, often having a small portion of woody fibre attached to their inner surface, 
and appearing precisely as if shaved by a 
knife from the stem or branches. Whether 
these two varieties are derived from distinct 
species, or differ only from the mode of col- 
lection, it is difficult to determine. A. W. 
Southall describes a bark (believed to belong 
to the genus Cascarilla, and obtained from 
Colombia) in P. J. Tr., 1894, 574. The 
official description of cascarilla is as follows: 
“ In quills or curved pieces about 2 Mm. 
thick, having a grayish, somewhat fissured, 
easily detached, corky layer, more or less 
coated with a white lichen, the uncoated sur- 
face being dull brown, and the inner surface 
smooth. It breaks with a short fracture, 
having a resinous and radially striate appear- 
ance. When burned, it emits a strong, aro- 
matic, somewhat musk-like odor; its taste 
is warm and very bitter.” U. S. “ Fracture 
short, and resinous; the transverse section 
exhibits under a lens dark reddish-brown 
bast traversed by thin whitish medullary 
rays, but no groups of sclerenchymatous 
cells.” Br. 
Properties. Cascarilla has an aromatic 
odor, rendered much more distinct by fric- 
tion, and a warm, spicy, bitter taste. It 
is brittle, breaking with a short fracture. 
When burnt it emits a pleasant odor, closely 
resembling that of musk, but weaker and 
more agreeable. This property serves to 
distinguish it from other barks. It was an- 
alyzed by Trommsdorff, and more recently 
by M. Duval, of Lisieux, in France. The 
constituents found by the latter were albu- 
men, a peculiar kind of tannin, a bitter crys- 
tallizable principle called cascarillin, a red 
coloring matter, fatty matter of a nauseous 
odor, wax, gum, volatile oil, resin, starch, pectic acid, potassium chloride, a salt of lime, and 
lignin. The oil, according to Trommsdorff, constitutes 1-6 per cent., is of a greenish-yellow 
color, has a penetrating odor analogous to that of the bark, and is of the sp. gr. 0-938. It is 
apparently a mixture of two oils, the first of which is a terpene boiling at 172° C. and of the 
sp. gr. 0-862, and the other a higher-boiling oxygenated constituent. Gladstone (Jahresb. der 
Pharm., 1872, 450) gives to the hydrocarbon of cascarilla oil the composition of oil of turpen- 
tine. To obtain cascarillin, M. Duval treated the powdered bark with water, added lead acetate 
to the solution, separated the lead by hydrogen sulphide, filtered, evaporated with the addi- 
tion of animal charcoal, filtered again, evaporated at a low temperature to a syrupy con- 
sistence, and, having allowed the semi liquid substance thus obtained to harden by cooling,, 
purified it by twice successively treating it, first with a little cool alcohol, to separate the 
coloring and fatty matters, and afterwards with boiling alcohol and animal charcoal. The 
last alcoholic solution was allowed to evaporate spontaneously. Thus obtained, cascarillin is 
white, crystalline, inodorous, bitter, very slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol and 
ether. (Journ. de Pharm,., 3e ser., viii. 96.) It melts at 205° C. (401° F.), is not volatile 
Figs, a, c, highly magnified sections, showing raphides and 
starch granules and a bast-cell; b, longitudinal section highly 
magnified, showing raphides and starch granules ; d, transverse 
section moderately magnified; e, longitudidal section. PART I. 
Cascanlla.—Cassia Fistula. 
341 
nor a glucoside. Its composition answers to the formula C12H1804. Dr. P. E. Alessandri 
regards cascarilline as an alkaloid, and obtains it economically by mixing powdered cascarilla 
with sufficient 3 per cent, aqueous solution of oxalic acid to cover it, shaking the mixture, and 
heating it to 140° F., then allowing it to cool, expressing the mixture and saturating the fil- 
tered liquor with ammonia, then evaporating at a low temperature to two-thirds of its bulk, 
allowing it to cool, and separating any deposit. The clear liquid is then shaken with ether; 
this takes up the cascarilline, which may be obtained through evaporation of the ethereal 
liquid. (L' Orosi, v. 1 ; P. J. Tr., 1882, 993.) It. A. Cripps was unable to obtain the alkaloid 
by Alessandri’s method, and suggests that the bitterness of the so-called cascarilline might be 
due to adherent resin. (/*. J. Tr., 1886, 1103.) Either alcohol or water will partially extract 
the active matters of cascarilla; but diluted alcohol is the proper menstruum. Naylor and 
Littlefield have reviewed the processes of Duval and Alessandri for preparing cascarilline, and 
find that Duval’s method gives the purer product. They find its melting point to be 203-5° C., 
and give it the formula C16H2406. (Year-Book of Pharm., 1896, 301.) W. A. H. Naylor 
subsequently found betaine. (P. J. Tr., 1898, 279.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. This bark is aromatic and tonic. It was known in 
Germany so early as the year 1690, and was much used as a substitute for Peruvian bark by 
those who were prejudiced against that febrifuge in the treatment of remittent and intermittent 
fevers. It has, however, lost its reputation, and is now employed only where a pleasant and 
gently stimulant tonic is desirable, as in dyspepsia, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, flatulent 
colic, and other cases of debility of the stomach or bowels. It is said to promote the flow of 
milk in the lower animals, and has been proposed with a view to the same effect in the human 
subject. It is sometimes advantageously combined with the more powerful bitters. It may 
be given in powder or in infusion. The dose of the former is from a scruple to half a drachm 
(1-3-1-95 6m.), which may be repeated several times a day. Prof. Procter published a formula 
for a fluid extract which contains the virtues of a troyounce of the bark in a fluidounce. 
(A. J. P., 1863, p. 113.) In consequence of its pleasant odor when burnt, some smokers mix 
it in small quantity with their tobacco; but it is said to occasion vertigo and intoxication. 
CASSIA FISTULA. U. S. (Br.) Cassia Fistula. [Purging Cassia.] 
(CXS'SI-A FIS'TU-LA.) 
“ The fruit of Cassia Fistula, Linn6 (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” U S. “ The pulp obtained 
from the pods of Cassia Fistula, Linn.” Br. 
Cassiae Pulpa, Br.; Cassia Pulp; Fructus Cassiae Fistula;; Casse officinale, Casse en Batons, Pulpe de Casse, 
Casse mondee, Casse, Fr.; Rohrenkassie, Purgiercassie, Fistelkassie, G.; Cassia, It.; Cana Fistula, Sp. 
Gen. Gh. Calyx five-leaved. Petals five. Anthers, three upper sterile, three lower beaked. 
wnid. 
The tree which yields the purging cassia is ranked by some botanists as a distinct genus, 
separated from the Cassia, and denominated Cathartocarpus. (See Lindley's Flor. Med., 262.) 
Cassia fistula. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 518; Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 24, pi. 26 ; B. & T. 
87.— Cathartocarpus fistula. Persoon, Synops. i. 459. This is a large tree, rising to the height 
of forty or fifty feet, with a trunk of hard, heavy wood, dividing towards the top into numerous 
spreading branches, and covered with a smooth ash-colored bark. The leaves are commonly 
composed of five or six pairs of opposite leaflets, which are ovate, pointed, undulated, smooth, 
of a pale green color, from three to five inches long, and supported upon short petioles. The 
flowers are large, of a golden yellow color, and arranged in long, pendent, axillary racemes. 
The fruit consists of long, cylindrical, woody, dark-brown, pendulous pods, which when agitated 
by the wind strike against each other and produce a sound that may be heard at a distance. 
This species of Cassia is a native of Upper Egypt and India, whence it is generally supposed 
to have been transplanted to other parts of the world. It is at present very extensively diffused 
through the tropical regions of the old and new continents, being found in Insular and Con- 
tinental India, Cochin-China, Egypt, Nubia, the West Indies, and the warmer parts of the con- 
tinent of America. The fruit is the official portion of the plant. It is imported from the East 
and West Indies, chiefly the latter, and from South America. 
Properties. Cassia pods are a foot or more in length, straight, or but slightly curved, 
cylindrical, less than an inch in diameter, with a woody shell, externally of a dark-brown color, 
and marked with three longitudinal shining bands, extending from one end to the other, two of 
which are in close proximity, appearing to constitute a single band, and the third is on the 
opposite side of the pod. These bands mark the place of junction of the valves of the legume, 342 
Cassia Fistula.—Castanea. 
PART I. 
and are represented as sometimes excavated in the form of furrows. There are also circular 
depressions at unequaf distances. The official description is as follows. “ Cylindrical, 40 to 60 
Cm. long, nearly 25 Mm. in diameter, blackish-brown, somewhat veined, the sutures smooth, 
forming two longitudinal bands ; indehiscent, internally divided transversely into numerous 
cells, each containing a reddish-brown, glossy, flattish-ovate seed imbedded in a blackish-brown 
sweet pulp ; odor resembling that of prunes.” U. S. The pods brought from the East Indies 
are smaller, smoother, have a blacker pulp, and are more esteemed than those from the West 
Indies. We have seen pods in the American market sold as cassia pods, which were an inch 
and a half in diameter, flattened on the sides, exceedingly rough on the outer surface, and 
marked by three longitudinal very elevated ridges, corresponding to the bands or furrows of 
the common cassia. The pulp was rather nauseous, but in other respects seemed to have the 
properties of the official purging cassia. They corresponded exactly with a specimen of the fruit 
of Cassia brasiliana brought from the West Indies, and were probably derived from that plant. 
The heaviest pods, and those which do not make a rattling noise when shaken, are to be pre- 
ferred, as they contain a larger portion of the pulp, which is the part employed. This should 
be black and shining and have a sweet taste. It is apt to become sour if long exposed to the 
air, or mouldy if kept in a damp place. The pulp is extracted from the pods by first bruising 
them, then boiling them in water, and afterwards evaporating the decoction ; or, when the pods 
are fresh, by opening them at the sutures and removing the pulp by a spatula. 
Cassia pulp has a slight rather sickly odor, and a sweet mucilaginous taste. From the 
analysis of M. Henry it appears to contain sugar, gum, a substance analogous to tannin, a 
coloring matter soluble in ether, traces of a principle resembling gluten, and a little water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cassia pulp is laxative, and may be advantageously 
given in small doses in cases of habitual costiveness. In quantities sufficient to purge, it occa- 
sions nausea, flatulence, and griping. In this country it is rarely prescribed, except as an ingre- 
dient in the official confection of senna, which is a pleasant and useful laxative preparation. 
The dose of the pulp as a laxative is one or two drachms (3-9-7‘8 Gm.), as a purge one or two 
ounces (31-1-62-2 Gm.). 
CASTANKA. U. S. Castanea. [Chestnut.] 
(C&S-TA'NE-A.) 
“ The leaves of Castanea dentata (Marshall), Sudworth (nat. ord. Cupuliferae), collected in 
September or October, while still green.” U. S. 
Folia CastaneaB; Feuilles de Chataignier, Feuilles de Marronnier, Chataigne, Fr.; Kastanie, Kastanienblatter, G.; 
Castagna, It.; Castana, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Male. Ament naked. Calyx none. Corolla five-petalled. Stamens ten to twenty. 
Female. Calyx five- or six-leaved, muricate. Corolla none. Germs three. Stigma pencil- 
formed. Nuts three, included in an echinated calyx. Willd. 
This is a very small genus, separated from the original Fagus of Linn., including only two or 
three recognized species; the Castanea vesca of Europe and North America, and C. pumila of 
the United States, which will be found described in Part II. of the present work. The Euro- 
pean and American chestnut-trees are often spoken of under the same botanical title; as no 
points of difference can be found between them which all botanists are willing to recognize as 
authorizing distinct specific designations. The late Dr. Geo. B. Wood, however, believed, for 
reasons given below, that they are distinct trees, differing in origin, and as much entitled to 
distinct names as the European and American white oaks, or indeed any other analogous species 
of the two continents. The general aspect of the two trees is such that the accustomed eye 
will at a glance recognize the difference. The specific difference of the American chestnut-tree 
from the European is denied by many botanists, notably the late Prof. Asa Gray. Recently, 
however, the trend of professional opinion seems to be towards the view which was held 
by Prof. Geo. B. Wood, that the two trees really represent distinct species. The general aspect 
of the two trees is certainly very diverse: in the European chestnut the main branches are 
horizontal, and the tree when mature has a very round and formal head ; whilst the American 
chestnut, with its slender, twiggy shoots, and its gnarled and twisted branches, is very irregular 
in its annual growth and in its ultimate form. The leaves of the European chestnut are more 
erect and less deeply serrate than those of the American, and usually have a rounded or heart- 
shaped base; whereas the base of the American leaf is commonly somewhat pointed. Again, 
the European leaf is commonly stellately tomentose on the under surface, at least when young. 
The much greater size and the somewhat peculiar shape of the fruit of the European, or, as it PART I. 
Castanea. 
343 
is commonly called in this country, the Spanish chestnut, are sufficient specific characters. 
Besides, the European tree does not lose its distinctive character under complete change of 
circumstances. Transplanted into North America, and propagated by the seed, it has retained, 
through a succession of generations, the original size of its fruit, which, had the tree been of 
the same species as the American, would have almost certainly more or less deteriorated. 
Castanea dentata.* Willd.; Michaux, A7. American Sylva, iii. 9.— Castanea americana. Per- 
soon. (See Merat and De Lens.') The American chestnut is, under favorable circumstances, 
one of our largest and most magnificent native trees. Michaux states that he had measured 
several trees the trunks of which at six feet from the ground were fifteen or sixteen feet in cir- 
cumference, and their stature equal to that of the loftiest trees of the forest. So great a size, 
however, is rare. Its leaves, which are the official portion, serve also at once to distinguish the 
tree. They are from four to ten inches long by about two in breadth, oblong-elliptical, sharp at 
the end, strongly and somewhat unequally serrated, with prominent parallel nerves beneath, of a 
brilliant color and firm consistence. The only leaves that are liable to be confounded with them 
are those of the chestnut-oak, which have a very similar form and structure, but are at once 
distinguishable by the rounded crenate projections on the edge, instead of the sharp serratures 
of the chestnut. The male flowers are whitish, and disposed on axillary peduncles, four or five 
inches long ; the fertile aments similarly disposed, but less conspicuous. The fruit is a spherical 
burr, an inch or two in diameter, and very prickly, containing two or three brown nuts, the 
appearance of which is too well known to require description here. When perfectly ripe, it 
opens and lets fall the seeds. The bark is very peculiar and characteristic in its appearance, 
with a longitudinal arrangement of its fibres. The wood is firm and elastic, though not com- 
pact, with a remarkable power of resisting decomposition from the weather, and therefore very 
valuable for posts and rails in fencing. It is not well fitted for fuel, in consequence of a great 
disposition to snap in the fire, and to throw off burning particles to a considerable distance. 
The chinquapin (C. pumila, Mill) is described in Part II. 
The American chestnut is spread largely through the eastern portions of the United States, 
from New Hampshire to the mountainous districts of Virginia, North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, and Tennessee, though rare in the maritime parts of Virginia and the other Southern 
States. The leaves should be collected after maturity, and before the autumnal decay. 
The European species is distributed in the south of Europe very much as the American is 
with us, preferring hilly regions, and abounding in Spain, the south and west of France, Swit- 
zerland, and Italy. It sometimes attains an enormous magnitude. Michaux describes one, 
growing at Sancerre in France, which at six feet from the ground is thirty feet in circumfer- 
ence, and six hundred years ago was known as the Great Chestnut. Though supposed to be 
more than one thousand years old, its trunk is perfectly sound, and its branches are annually 
loaded with fruit. Much larger than this is the celebrated chestnut of Mount Etna, of which 
the trunk is said to be one hundred and sixty feet in circumference, though hollow in the 
centre, so that the tree lives by its bark. (Merat and De Lens.) In Europe the young chestnut 
is much used for making hoops, for which it is preferred to all other wood on account of resist- 
ing the effects of air and moisture. For this purpose it is much cultivated in Europe, and cut 
when large enough. But the tree is still more valuable on account of its large nuts, which are 
much used as food, being a favorite on the table of the rich, and often the main dependence 
of the poor peasant, who considers himself well off when possessed of a few healthy chestnut- 
trees. Whole provinces are said to be supported by this fruit. Though cultivated in small 
numbers in this country, they, have not been so extensively introduced as they ought to be, 
chiefly, in all probability, from their difficulty of propagation. The inner bark of the chestnut 
has been vaunted in Europe as a remedy in dysentery. (Merat and De Lens.) 
Properties. The leaves, which have already been described, are so flexible and tenacious 
that it is difficult to powder them. In preparing them for the action of a solvent, they must 
be comminuted by cutting and bruising them in a mortar. They are not, therefore, well fitted 
for percolation. (Maisch.) They have little smell, and a slightly astringent and scarcely bit- 
terish taste, so that they are not offensive to children. They yield their virtues freely to water, 
and probably less so to alcohol. John B. Turner found in chestnut leaves chlorophyll, tannin, 
gallic acid, gum, and albumen. (A. J. P., 1879, p. 542.) In addition to these constituents, L. 
J. Steltzer found potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron carbonates, chlorides, and phos- 
phates, and a trace of resin and fat. (A. J. P., 1880, p. 294.) 
* Cnstanea veaca, var. americana, is the name given by Michaux to the American chestnut; but previous to his 
naming it, Marshall had described it in 1775 as Fagua caatanea dentata. 344 
Catechu. 
PAET I. 
Medical Uses. The only remedial use of the leaves, so far as we have learned, has been 
in the treatment of whooping-cough, as originally proposed by G. C. Close in 1862. Their 
effects on the system do not appear to have been carefully studied ; but their sensible properties 
do not indicate the possession of any extraordinary physiological power. The leaves may be 
administered in infusion or in fluid extract. Dr. Unzicker prepared an infusion with three or 
four drachms of the leaves and a pint of boiling water, and gave of it, well sweetened, as 
much as the child would drink. 
CATECHU. U. S., Br. Catechu. 
(ClT'E J3HU—kat'e-ku.) 
“ An extract prepared from the wood of Acacia Catechu (Linne fil.), Willdenow (nat. ord. 
Leguminosae).” U. S. “ An extract of the leaves and young shoots of Uncaria Gambier, 
Rftxb.” Br. 
Catechu Pallidum, Pale Catechu, Cutch, Terra Japonica, Catechu Nigrum ; Cachou, Fr.; Catechu, Katechu, Pegu 
Catechu, G.; Catecu, Catciu, Catto, It.; Catecu, Sp.; Cutt, Hindostanee. 
The British Pharmacopoeia has entirely rejected the proper catechu, which in the former 
edition was recognized under the inappropriate name of Catechu Nigrum, retaining by the 
name of Catechu a product which, though analogous to catechu, is entirely distinct, being de- 
rived from a different plant, and known commonly by a different name, that, namely, of gambir * 
We treat in the text of the proper catechu, and in a note of gambir among the catechus not 
recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
Acacia catechu. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1079; Carson, IUust. of Med. Bot. i. 32, pi. 24 ; B. 
& T. 95. According to Mr. Kerr, whose description has been followed by most subsequent 
writers, Acacia catechu is a small tree, seldom more than twelve feet in height, with a trunk 
one foot in diameter, dividing towards the top into many close branches, and covered with a 
thick, rough, brown bark. The leaves, which stand alternately upon the younger branches, are 
composed of from fifteen to thirty pairs of pinnae nearly two inches long, each of which is 
furnished with about forty pairs of linear leaflets, beset with short hairs. At the base of each 
pair of pinnae is a small gland upon the common footstalk. Two short recurved spines are 
attached to the stem at the base of each leaf. The flowers are in close spikes, which arise from 
the axils of the leaves, and are about four or five inches long. The fruit is a lanceolate, com- 
pressed, smooth, brown pod, with an undulated thin margin, and contains six or eight roundish 
flattened seeds, which when chewed emit a nauseous odor. 
This species of Acacia is a native of the East Indies, growing abundantly in various prov- 
inces of Ilindostan, and in the Burmese Empire. Pereira says that it is common in Jamaica. 
Like most others of the same genus, it abounds in astringent matter, which may be extracted 
by decoction. Catechu is an extract from the wood of the tree. 
This drug had been long known before its source was discovered. It was at first called terra 
Japonica, under the erroneous impression that it was an earthy substance derived from Japan. 
When ascertained by analysis to be of vegetable origin, it was generally considered by writers 
on the Materia Medica to be an extract of the betel nut, which is the fruit of a species of palm, 
denominated Areca catechu. Its true origin was made known by Mr. Kerr, assistant surgeon 
of the civil hospital in Bengal, who had an opportunity of examining the tree from which it 
was obtained, and observing the process of extraction. According to Mr. Kerr, the manufac- 
turer, having cut off the exterior white part of the wood, reduces the interior brown or reddish- 
colored portion into chips, which he then boils in water in unglazed earthen vessels till all the 
soluble matter is dissolved. The decoction thus obtained is evaporated first by artificial heat, 
and afterwards in the sun. till it has assumed a thick consistence, when it is spread out to dry 
upon a mat or cloth, being, while yet soft, divided by means of a string into square or quad- 
rangular pieces. The account subsequently given by Dr. Royle, of the preparation of the 
extract in Northern India, is essentially the same. The process, as he observed it, was com- 
pleted by the pouring of the extract into quadrangular earthen moulds. It is said that the 
unripe fruit and leaves are also sometimes submitted to decoction. Our countryman the Rev. 
Howard Malcom states, in his “ Travels in South-Eastern Asia,” that catechu is largely pre- 
pared from the wood of Acacia catechu near Prome, in Burmah. Two kinds, he observes, are 
* In a series of tests made with gambir and catechu, as they occur in the American markets, by Henry Trimble 
(A. P. A., 1888), gambir was found to be more uniform in its constitution, and to be superior in the amount of avail- 
able astringent principles; also to have the advantage of being more easily powdered. This is in accord with the 
studies of E. S. Keider {A. J. P., April, 1889), who finds that the catechu of the American market usually contains 
very small amounts of catechin and large amounts of impurities. PART I. 
Catechu. 
345 
prepared from the same tree; one black, which is preferred in China, and the other red, which 
is most esteemed in Bengal. At present, however, it would seem that three colors of catechu 
are prepared: the light-red or red, which is considered best and is especially employed in Bur- 
mah and India to chew with the betel nut; the dark-red and black, which are made especially 
for European and American markets, and which are apt to suffer adulteration en route in China. 
The name catechu in the native language signifies the juice of a tree, and appears to have 
been applied to astringent extracts obtained from various plants. According to the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia, however, the term is properly restricted to the extract of Acacia catechu; as 
it was not intended to recognize all the astringent products which are floating in Asiatic com- 
merce ; and those from other sources than the Acacia, though they may occasionally find 
their way into our shops, do so as an exception to the rule. A minute account of the 
diversified forms and exterior characters which official catechu presents as produced in dif- 
ferent localities would tend to perplex the reader rather than to serve any good practical pur- 
pose. These characters are, moreover, frequently changing, as the drug is procured from new 
sources, or as slight variations may occur in the mode of its preparation. Commerce is chiefly 
supplied with catechu from Bahar, Northern India, and Nepaul through Calcutta, from Canara 
through Bombay, and from the Burmese dominions. We derive it directly from Calcutta, or 
by orders from London, and it is sold in our markets without reference to its origin. It is fre- 
quently called cutch by the English traders, a name derived from the Hindostanee word cutt.* 
* In order not to embarrass the text unneoessarily, we have thrown together, in the form of a note, the following 
observations upon the varieties of catechu; those being first considered which are probably derived from Acacia 
catechu, and therefore recognized as official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
The following, so far as we have been able to distinguish them, are the varieties of official catechu to be found in 
the markets of Philadelphia. 
1. Plano-convex Catechu. Cake Catechu. This is in the form of circular cakes, flat on one side, convex on the 
other, and usually somewhat rounded at the edge, as if the soft extract had been placed in saucers, or vessels of a 
similar shape, to harden. As found in the retail shops, it is generally in fragments, most of which, however, exhibit 
some evidences of the original form. The cakes are of various sizes, from two or three to six inches or more in diam- 
eter, and weighing from a few ounces to nearly two pounds. Their exterior is usually smooth and dark brown; but 
we have seen a specimen in which the flat surface exhibited impressions as if produced by coarse matting. The color 
internally is always brown, sometimes of a light yellowish brown or chocolate color, but more frequently dark reddish 
brown, and sometimes almost black. The cakes are almost always more or less cellular in their interior; but in this 
respect great diversity exists. Sometimes they are very porous, so as almost to present a spongy appearance, some- 
times compact and nearly uniform; and this difference may be observed even in the same piece. The fracture is 
sometimes rough and dull, but in the more compact parts is usually smooth and somewhat shining ; and occasionally 
a piece split in one direction will exhibit a spongy fracture, while in another it will be shining and resinous, indi- 
cating the consolidation of the extract in layers. This variety of catechu is often of good quality. It is common 
at present in our market, but we have been unable to trace its origin accurately. There can be little doubt, from its 
internal character, that it comes from the East Indies, and is the product of A. catechu ; but no accounts that we 
have seen of the preparation of the drug, in particular geographical sites, indicate this particular shape; and it is 
not impossible that portions of it may be formed out of other varieties of catechu by a new solution and evaporation. 
2. Pegu Catechu. This is the product derived from the Burmese dominions, and named from that section of the 
country whence it is exported. It enters commerce, probably in general through Calcutta, in large masses, some- 
times of one cwt., consisting of layers of flat cakes, each wrapped in leaves, said to be those of the Nauclea hru- 
nonis. In this form, however, we do not see it in tbe shops, but almost always in angular, irregular fragments, in 
which portions of two layers sometimes cohere with leaves between them, indicating their origin. It is characterized 
by its compactness, shining fracture, and blackish-brown or dark port-wine color, so that when finally broken it bears 
considerable resemblance to kino. This is an excellent variety of catechu, and is not unfrequent in commerce. 
3. Catechu in Quadrangular Cakes. This is scarcely ever found in commerce in its complete form, and the frag- 
ments are often such that it would be impossible to infer from them the original shape of the cake. This is usually 
between two and three inches in length and breadth, and somewhat less in thickness, of a rusty-brown color exter- 
nally, and dark brown or brownish gray within, with a somewhat rough and dull fracture, but, when broken across 
the layers in which it is sometimes disposed, exhibiting a smoother and more shining surface. Guibourt speaks of 
the layers as being blackish externally and grayish within, and bearing some resemblance to the bark of a tree, a 
resemblance, however, which has not struck us in the specimens which have fallen under our notice. There is little 
doubt that this variety comes from the provinces of Bahar and Northern India, where the preparation of the drug 
was witnessed by Mr. Kerr and Dr. Royle, who both speak of it as being brought, when drying, into the quadran 
gular form. It has been called Bengal catechu, because exported from that province. 
Pale catechu, so far as the term is not applied to gambir, may be considered as belonging to this variety. A 
specimen with this name, which was sent from India to the London exhibition of 1862, and which Dr. G. B. Wood had 
an opportunity of examining, was in oblong rectangular pieces, or fragments of such pieces, about three and a half 
inches long by an inch and a half in breadth, of a dirty yellowish color within, and an earthy fracture, quite free 
from gloss, and bearing a much stronger resemblance to gambir than to ordinary catechu. 
4. Catechu in Balls. We have seen this in two forms—one consisting of globular balls about as large as an 
orange, very hard and heavy, of a ferruginous aspect externally, very rough when broken, and so full of sand as to 
be gritty under the teeth; the other in cakes, originally, in all probability, globular, and of about the same dimen- 
sions, but flattened and otherwise pressed out of shape before being perfectly dried, sometimes adhering two together, as 
happens with the lumps of Smyrna opium, and closely resembling in external and internal color, and in the character 
1. Official Catechu. U. S. 346 
Catechu. 
PART L 
Properties. Catechu, as it comes to us, is in masses of different shapes, some in balls 
more or less flattened, some in circular cakes, some saucer-shaped, others cubical or oblong, or 
quite irregular, and of every grade in size, from small angular pieces, which are evidently 
fragments of the original cakes, to lumps which weigh one or two pounds. The color is exter- 
of their fracture, the quadrangular variety last described. The former kind is rare, and the specimens we have seen 
had been twenty years in the shop, and had very much the appearance of a factitious product. The latter is in all 
probability the kind known formerly as the Bombay catech u ; as Dr. Hamilton, and, more recently, Major Mackin- 
tosh, in describing the mode of preparing catechu on the Malabar coast, of which Bombay is the entrepot, say that, 
while the extract is soft, it is shaped into balls about the size of an orange. 
1. Catechu, Br. Gambir. Terra Japonica. Pale Catechu. Many years ago, Dr. Campbell, a medical officer at 
Bencoolen, called attention to the astringent properties of an extract chewed by the Malays with pinang and siren 
(betel nut). This led to an increasing use of the article, until now thousands of tons are yearly shipped to Europe 
and America. The plant from which it is obtained, called by Mr. Hunter, who first minutely described it, Nauclea 
gambir, but by Roxburgh, De Candolle, and others, Uncaria gambir, is a climbing shrub of the natural order 
Rubiaceae of Jussieu, Cinchonaceaa of Lindley. (B. & T. 139.) It is a native of Malacca, Sumatra, Cochin-China, 
and other parts of Eastern Asia, and is largely cultivated in the islands of Bintang, Singapore, and Prince of Wales. 
The gambir is prepared by lopping off the leaves, shoots, and twigs of the plant, chopping them into pieces, and 
throwing them into an iron pot filled with boiling water. When the leaves are exhausted and the liquid sufficiently 
thick, it is poured into small wooden tubs, and so soon as sufficiently cool, a half-closed hand is plunged into the 
semi-fluid and a piece of light wood shaped like an elongated dice-box rapidly worked up and down in the hollow 
formed by the hand. The extract begins to thicken by a process which is compared to crystallization. The mass 
is finally turned out, and cut into cubes, which are put upon trays and smoke-dried. (See also P. J. Tr., 1892,1003.) 
Gambir is in cubes with sides about an inch square, is light and porous, so that it floats when thrown in water, 
is deep yellowish or reddish brown externally, but pale yellowish within, presents a dull earthy surface when 
broken, is inodorous, and has a strongly astringent, bitter and subsequently sweetish taste. It softens and swells up 
when heated, and leaves a minute proportion of ashes when burnt. It is partially soluble in cold water, and almost 
wholly so in boiling water, which deposits a portion upon cooling. Duhainel, Ecky, and Procter dissolved 87*5 per 
cent, of it in cold water by means of percolation. {A. J. P., xvi. 166.) Nees von Esenbeck found it to consist of 
from 36 to 40 per cent, of catechu-tannic acid, a peculiar principle called catechuin, catechin, or catechuic acid, 
gum or gummy extractive, a deposit like the cinclionic red, and 2'5 per cent, of lignin. Catechin, when perfectly 
pure, is snow-white, of a silky appearance, crystallizable in fine needles, melting at 217° C., unalterable in the 
air if dry, fusible by heat, very slightly soluble in cold water, with which it softens and swells up, soluble in boiling 
water, which deposits it on cooling, and soluble also in alcohol and ether. It very slightly reddens litmus paper, 
and, though coloring the solution of chloride of iron green, and producing with it a grayish green precipitate, dif- 
fers from tannic acid in not affecting a solution of gelatin. It bears considerable analogy to gallic acid in its 
relations to the metallic salts, but does not, according to Neubauer, bear the same relation to the tannic acid of 
catechu that gallic acid does to that of galls. On the contrary, instead of resulting from the oxidation of tannic 
acid, it is by heat converted into a substance analogous to tannin. (A. J. P., xxviii. 329 and 331; from Liebig's An- 
nalen, xcvi. 337.) The very great discordance of different authors as to its formula seems to be explained by some 
recent experiments of Etti (Liebig’s Ann., 186, p. 327), who shows that catechin, CigHisOs, readily gives at 100° C. 
(212° F.), or even when kept for some time over sulphuric acid, an anhydride, C38H34O15, and at 160° C. (320° F.) a 
second anhydride, C38H32O14, which, mixed in varying proportions, explain the varying results. Gautier (Bulletin, 
30, 567) finds three different catechins separable by their different solubility in water, all of them crystallizable. 
These are: a-catechin, C40H38O18 4- 2II2O, melting at from 204°-205° C., and present in gambir to the amount of 12 
per cent.; b-catechin, C47II38O16 + II2O, melting at from 176°-177° C., and present in gambir to the amount of 2 per 
cent.; and c-catechin, C40H38O16 + H2O, melting at 163° C., and present in gambir to the amount of 6'5 per cent. 
Good gambir should occur in a hard compact mass, breaking up, when the adhering mat is removed, into distinct 
cubes of a brownish-black color externally and a deep mahogany-red with an occasional streak of yellow internally. 
It should not steam when the mat is opened. From this quality it grades down to a stuff which has been prepared 
by mixing the material obtained by reboiling the exhausted leaves with various mixtures. This lowest grade is not 
in cubes, steams when opened, frequently shows large patches of black or dirty blue color, and often has a sour fetid 
smell; its color varies from black to light-brown color. The varieties between the two extremes are very great; 
sometimes gambir occurs in solid mass of fair quality ; sometimes the cubes are of extraordinary size, and of a color 
varying from a dirty white to very pale yellow. The finer varieties of gambir vary in physical characteristics; some- 
times it is in oblong instead of cubical pieces, without differing in other respects from the ordinary kind; sometimes 
in small circular cakes, or short cylindrical pieces, heavier than water, of a pale reddish-yellow color, moderately 
astringent, gritty under the teeth, and quite impure; sometimes in very small cubes, distinguishable by the black 
color they afford with tincture of iodine, indicating the admixture of sago or other amylaceous matter; and, finally, 
in circular cakes of the size of a small lozenge flat on one side and somewhat convex on the other, of a pale pink- 
ish yellowish-white color, and a chalky feel. This is most highly esteemed by the natives in India. {Pereira.) At 
the Edinburgh Forestry Exhibition in 1885 the Maharajah of Johore exhibited specimens labelled “gambir pro- 
duced in Johore.” The first quality, which was “ makan” (for eating), was in regular cubes, externally cassia- 
brown color, internally pale cinnamon brown, and yielded 32 per cent, of tannic acid; the second quality was in 
badly-formed cubes, externally brown and black, internally cinnamon, and yielded 30 per cent, of tannic acid; the 
third quality was in dull-brown, well-shaped cubes, internally pale brown, and yielded 19 per cent, of tannic acid. 
The oblong or parallelopiped gambir was of a uniform dull brown, very hard and strong, and yielded only 2 per 
cent, of tannic acid. Mr. MacEwan believes that the low percentage of tannin was due to the decoction not having 
been subjected to prolonged boiling, which favors the decomposition of catechin, with the formation of catechu- 
tannic acid. None of the finest varieties of gambir, such as are used by the natives for chewing, occur to any 
extent in American commerce. Prebble records his examination of a cube gambir of fine appearance which contained 
a large percentage of starch. {P. J. Tr., 1893, 21.) 
Enormous quantities of gambir are used both in Europe and America in tanning, calico-printing, and dyeing, 
2. Catechus not recognized in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. PART I. 
Catechu. 
347 
nally of a rusty brown more or less dark, internally varying from a pale reddish or yellowish 
brown to a dark liver color. In some specimens it is almost black, in others somewhat like 
the color of port wine, and in others again, though rarely, dull red like annatto. The extract 
has been distinguished into the pale and dark varieties ; but there does not appear to be suffi- 
cient ground for retaining this distinction, at least in relation to the proper catechu obtained 
from the wood of A. catechu. Catechu is inodorous, with an astringent and bitter taste, fol- 
lowed by a sense of sweetness. It is brittle, and breaks with a fracture which is rough in 
some specimens, in others uniform, resinous, and shining. That which is preferred in our 
market is of a dark color, easily broken into small angular fragments, with a smooth glossy 
surface, bearing some resemblance to kino. Catechu is often mixed with sand, sticks, and 
other impurities. The U. S. P. gives the following tests of purity. “ In irregular masses, con- 
taining fragments of leaves, dark brown, brittle, somewhat porous and glossy when freshly 
broken. It is nearly inodorous, and has a strongly astringent and sweetish taste. If a portion 
of Catechu be digested with 10 times its weight of alcohol, and the liquid filtered, the undis- 
solved matter, after being dried at 100° C. (212° F.), should not exceed 15 per cent, of the 
original weight. The tincture, diluted with 100 parts of water, acquires a green color on the 
addition of ferric chloride test-solution. If two parts of Catechu be boiled with 20 parts of 
water, a brownish-red, turbid liquid will be obtained which turns blue litmus paper red. Upon 
incineration, Catechu should not leave more than 6 per cent, of ash.” “Catechu should 
not afford any characteristic reaction with the tests for starch, and should not yield more 
than 5 per cent, of ash when incinerated.” Br. The proportion of tannic acid, which may 
be considered the efficient principle, varies from about 45 to 55 per cent, in catechu or 
cutch, and from 36 to 40 per cent, in gambir. The portion designated by Davy as extractive 
is said to contain, if it does not chiefly consist of, a principle discovered hy Buchner, and 
now called catechin, catechuin, or catechuic acid, to which Etti gives the formula C18H180g. 
To prepare pure catechin, Etti (loc. cit.) proceeds as follows. Catechu is dissolved in eight 
times its weight of boiling water, and the liquid, after being strained through a cloth, 
is left for some days until the insoluble catechin has subsided. The crude catechin is col- 
lected in a linen cloth and submitted to the action of a screw-press, then dissolved in a 
sufficient amount of dilute alcohol, and the filtered solution is shaken up with ether as long 
as any catechin is thereby dissolved; and after the ether has been removed by distillation 
the residue is taken up with distilled water, and the solution is left for a few days, when 
the catechin crystallizes out in an almost colorless state. After pressure in a cloth it is again 
dissolved in boiling water, when a yellowish-white body remains behind, which appears to be 
quercetin. The deep-red liquid remaining behind after the catechin has been dissolved out 
with ether contains catechu red, C3eH34015, which is evidently the first anhydride of catechin. 
The tannic acid is of the variety which precipitates iron of a greenish-black color, and differs 
from most of the other varieties in not yielding grape sugar when digested with dilute sul- 
phuric acid. It is not, therefore, a glucoside. It precipitates gelatin, but not tartar emetic 
and in other art processes requiring tannic acid. The finer grades are powerfully astringent, and may be used for 
the same medicinal purposes as the official catechu. 
2. Areca Catechu. This is obtained from the areca nut, or betel nut, which is the seed of Areca catechu, a palm 
cultivated in all parts of India. (See Part II.) It is prepared by boiling the nuts in water and evaporating the de- 
coction. There are two varieties: one of a black color, very astringent, mixed with paddy husks and other impuri- 
ties, and obtained by evaporating the first decoction; the other, yellowish brown, of an earthy fracture, and pure, 
resulting from the evaporation of a decoction of the nuts which had been submitted to the previous boiling. The 
first is called kassu, the other coury. (Heyne, Tracts, etc., on India.) They are prepared in Mysore, and Ainslie 
states that both varieties are sold in the bazaars of Lower India, and used for the same purpose as the official cate- 
chu by the native and European practitioners. They are also much used for chewing by the natives. But they are 
seldom exported, and it is uncertain whether they find their way into European or American commerce. Pereira 
thought he had identified the kassu with a variety of catechu derived from Ceylon, where he had been informed 
that an extract of the areca nut is prepared. It was in circular flat cakes, from two to three inches in diameter, 
scarcely an inch thick, covered on one side with paddy husks, and internally blackish brown and shining, like 
Pegu catechu. 
Guibourt and Pereira describe other varieties, which we have not met with, and which are probably rare. One 
of these is the Siam catechu, in conical masses shaped like a betel nut and weighing about a pound and a half. Its 
fracture is shining and liver-colored, like that of hepatic aloes; in other respects it resembles Pegu catechu. Another 
is the black mucilaginous catechu of Guibourt, in parallelopipeds an inch and a half in length by an inch in breadth. 
Internally it is black and shining, and its taste is mucilaginous and feebly astringent. A third is the dull reddish 
catechu of Guibourt, in somewhat flattened balls, weighing three or four ounces, of a dull reddish, wavy, and often 
marbled fracture. Many years since, an extract like this was brought to Philadelphia upon speculation by a mer- 
chant from Calcutta, but it is not now in the market. Lastly, there is a pale or whitish catechu, in small roundish 
or oval lumps, with an irregular surface, dark or blackish brown externally, very pale and dull internally, and of a 
bitter, astringent, and sweetish taste, with a smoky flavor. It is unknown in commerce. 348 
Catechu.—Caulophyllum. 
PART i. 
(Kane), and is not, like the tannic acid of galls, converted into gallic acid by exposure to the 
air. It may be distinguished by the name of catechu-tannic acid. Catechu is almost wholly solu- 
ble in a large quantity of water, to which it imparts a brown color. The extractive or cate- 
chuic acid is much less soluble than the astringent principle, which may be almost entirely 
separated from it by the frequent application of small quantities of cold water. Boiling water 
dissolves it much more readily than cold, and deposits it of a reddish-brown color upon cool- 
ing. Both principles are readily dissolved by alcohol or proof spirit, and also by ether. For 
the important reactions of catechu, see Acidum Tannicum. 
The importations of cutch or catechu and terra japonica or gambir for purposes of tanning 
and calico-printing are quite large, amounting in 1896 to 32,338,264 lbs., valued at $1,108,611, 
and in 1897 to 31,349,545 lbs., valued at $959,501. The total exports of gambir (common 
and cubes) from Singapore in 1897 amounted to 48,800 tons, of which 17,900 tons went to 
England, 17,500 tons to the United States, and 13,400 tons to the continent of Europe. M. de 
Meyer affirms that the best method of detecting adulteration of catechu is to treat the sus- 
pected drug with ether. Catechu of good quality, after repeated treatment with ether, loses 
53 per cent, of its weight, and the dried residue weighs only 47 per cent, of the catechu 
employed. If this be exceeded, the drug must be proportionately impure. (Jourti. de Pharm., 
Juin, 1870, 479.) A. Jossart (Journ. de Pharm. d'Anvers, 1881, 41) examined a catechu 
which was adulterated with from 60 to 65 per cent, of ferrous carbonate. For methods of 
assaying catechu and gambir, see Trimble’s The Tannins, 43 ; also Pharm. Rev., 1897, 27. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Catechu is a powerful astringent. The dark-colored 
is somewhat more powerful than the light, and is therefore usually preferred; but the light, 
being rather sweeter, is chosen by the Malays, Hindoos, and other East Indians, who consume 
vast quantities of this extract by chewing it, mixed with aromatics and a small proportion of 
lime, and wrapped in the leaf of the Piper Betel. Catechu may be advantageously used in 
most cases where astringents are indicated. The complaints to which it is best adapted are 
diarrhoea dependent on debility or relaxation of the intestinal mucous membrane, and passive 
hemorrhages, particularly from the uterus. A small piece held in the mouth and allowed 
slowly to dissolve is an excellent remedy in relaxation of the uvula and the irritation of the 
fauces and troublesome cough which depend upon it. Applied to spongy gums, in the state of 
powder, it sometimes proves useful; and it has been recommended as a dentifrice in combina- 
tion with powdered charcoal, Peruvian bark, myrrh, etc. Sprinkled upon the surface of indo- 
lent ulcers, it is occasionally beneficial, and it is much used in India for the same purpose, in the 
form of an ointment. An infusion of catechu may be used as an injection in obstinate gonor- 
rhoea, gleet, and leucorrhoea, and we have found it highly beneficial, when thrown up the nos- 
trils, in arresting epistaxis. The dose is from ten grains to half a drachm (0-65-1-95 Gm.), 
which should be frequently repeated, and is best given with sugar, gum arabic, and water.* 
CAULOPHYLLUM. U. S. Caulophyllum. [Blue Cohosh.] 
(CAU-LO-PHYL'LL'M.) 
w The rhizome and roots of Caulophyllum thalictroides (Linne),Michaux (nat. ord. Berberi- 
daceae).” US. 
Pappoose Root, Squaw Root, Blueberry Root. 
Gen. Ch. Sepals 6, with three small bractlets at the base, ovate-oblong. Petals 6, thick and 
gland-like, somewhat kidney-shaped or hooded bodies, with short claws much smaller than the 
sepals, one at the base of each of them. Stamens 6 ; anthers oblong. Pistil gibbous, style 
short. Stigma minute and unilateral. Ovary bursting soon after flowering by the pressure 
of the two erect, enlarging seeds and withering away. The spherical seeds naked on their 
thick seed-stalks, looking like drupes; the fleshy integument turning blue; albumen of the 
texture of horn. (Gray's Manual.) 
Caulophyllum thalictroides. Michaux.—Leontice thalictroides. Linn. This is an indigenous, 
perennial, herbaceous plant, with matted, knotty rhizomes, from which rises a single smooth 
stem, about two feet high, naked till near the summit, where it sends out a large triternately 
compound leaf, and ending in a small raceme or panicle of greenish-yellow flowers, at the base 
* Fluid Extract of Catechu. Prof. Procter suggested the following formula for a fluid extract of catechu based 
on the solvent power of glycerin over this extract. Eight troyonnces of pure catechu, in moderately coarse powder, 
are mixed in a mortar with four fluidounces of glycerin so as to form a paste, to which enough diluted alcohol is 
added to make a pint. The liquid is poured into a bottle, shaken occasionally for twenty-four hours, and then 
strained through muslin. Each fluidrachm represents thirty grains of catechu. (Proc. A. P. A., 1863, p. 241.) PART i. 
Caulophyllum.—Cera Flava. 
349 
of which is often a smaller biternate leaf. The whole plant when young, as well as the seeds, 
which are about as large as peas, is glaucous. It is the only known species of the genus. It is 
found in most parts of the United States, growing in moist rich woods. 
Properties. The root-stock is the only part used. It has a sweetish, pungent taste, and 
yields its virtues to water and alcohol. It is officially described as follows. “ Bhizome of 
horizontal growth, about 10 Cm. long, and about 6 to 10 Mm. thick, bent; on the upper side 
with broad, concave stem-scars and short, knotty branches; externally grayish-brown, inter- 
nally whitish, tough and woody. Roots numerous, matted, about 10 Cm. long, and 1 Mm. 
thick, rather tough ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweetish, slightly bitter and somewhat acrid.” U. S. 
Mayer found caulophyllum to contain saponin and a colorless alkaloid (A. J. P., 1863, 99), 
whilst A. E. Ebert subsequently obtained from it albumen, gum, starch, phosphoric acid, ex- 
tractive, two resins, coloring matter, and a body analogous to saponin. The caulopliylUn of 
the eclectics is made by pouring a concentrated alcoholic tincture into water and collecting, 
washing with ether, and drying the precipitate. Prof. J. U. Lloyd purified the substance which 
Ebert described as analogous to saponin, and for distinction terms it leontin. (See Drugs and 
Medicines of North America, vol. ii. 152.) He also obtained caulophylline, the alkaloid first 
announced by Mayer in 1863. Lloyd describes it as colorless, odorless, possessed of little 
taste, and dissolving freely in water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform. It crystallizes with dif- 
ficulty. The hydrochlorate has been obtained, however, in crystals. It has not been tested 
physiologically. (Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 115.) 
Medical Properties. Caulophyllum has been scarcely used at all by the general medical 
profession, although the so-called eclectic or homoeopathic practitioners claim for it peculiar 
valuable properties. It is said to be sedative, antispasmodic, and oxytocic, and to have the 
power when uterine inertia occurs during labor to cause the contractions to become very severe, 
without altering their general character as does ergot. It is also alleged to be capable of 
arresting threatened abortion, to be very efficacious in hysteria, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, 
menorrhagia, uterine subinvolution, etc.; also to be capable of originating uterine contractions 
and producing abortion. For a detailed description of the various more or less contradictory 
powers ascribed to it, the reader is referred to Lloyd’s Drugs and Medicines of North America, 
vol. ii. p. 155. It is given in decoction, infusion, or tincture, the first two being made in the 
proportion of an ounce to a pint of water, the last of four ounces to a pint of spirit. Dose 
of decoction or infusion, one or two fluidounces (30 or 60 C.c.); of tincture, one or two 
fluidrachms. Leontin has been used in doses of one drachm of the one per cent, solution. 
CERA ALBA. U.S., Br. White Wax. 
(CE'RA XL'BA.) 
“ Yellow wax bleached.” U. S. “ Yellow Beeswax which has been bleached by exposure to 
moisture, air, and light.” Br. 
White Beeswax; Cire blanche, Fr.; Weisses Wachs, G.; Cera bianca, It.; Cera blanca, Sp. 
CERA FLAVA. U. S., Br. Yellow Wax. 
(CE'RA FLA'VA.) 
“ A peculiar, concrete substance, prepared by Apis mellifica, Linne (class, Insecta; order, 
Hymenoptera).” U. S. “ Prepared from the honeycomb of the Hive Bee, Apis mellifica, 
Linn.” Br. 
Cera Citrina; Beeswax; Cire jaune, Fr.; Gelbes Wachs, G.; Cera gialla, It.; Cera amarilla, Sp. 
Wax is a product of the common bee, Apis mellifica of naturalists, which constructs with it 
the cells of the comb in which the honey and larvae are deposited. It was at one time doubted 
whether the insect elaborated the wax by its own organs, or merely gathered it from vegetables. 
The question was set at rest by Huber, who fed a swarm of bees exclusively on honey and 
water, and found that they formed a comb consisting of wax. This, therefore, is a proper 
secretion of the insect. It is produced in the form of scales under the rings of the belly. But 
wax also exists in plants, bearing in this, as in other respects, a close analogy to the fixed oils. 
It is, however, the product of the bee only that is recognized by the Pharmacopoeias* This is 
* China wax, called pe-la by the Chinese, resembles spermaceti in whiteness and crystalline appearance, but is 
distinguished by greater hardness and friability and a somewhat fibrous fracture. It melts at about 83° C. (181° F.), 
is very slightly soluble in alcohol or ether, is insoluble in cold oil of turpentine and rectified petroleum, but is dis- 
solved with the aid of heat, and very soluble in benzol. These solubilities distinguish it from spermaceti. (P. J. Tr., 
xiv. 9.) It was formerly supposed to be of vegetable origin, but has been ascertained to be the product of an insect Cera Flava. 
350 
PART I. 
directed in two forms : 1, that of yellow wax, procured immediately from the comb ; and, 2, that 
of white wax, prepared by bleaching the former. We shall consider these separately, and after- 
wards give an account of vegetable wax. 
1. Cera Flava, or Yellow Wax. This is obtained by slicing the comb taken from the hive, 
draining and afterwards expressing the honey, and melting the residue in boiling water, which 
is kept not for some time in order to allow the impurities to separate and either subside or be 
dissolved by the water. When the liquid cools the wax concretes, and, having been removed 
and again melted in boiling water, is strained and poured into pans or other suitable vessels. 
The labor-saving device is sometimes adopted of stretching a strainer of cheese-cloth upon a 
hoop and wedging the latter down into the hot mixture below the level of the water; as this 
cools, the melted wax slowly rises through the cloth, and thus a perfectly clean cake of wax is 
formed on top on cooling. It is usually brought to market in round flat cakes of considerable 
thickness. The druggists of Philadelphia are supplied chiefly from the Western States and 
North Carolina, especially the latter, and from Cuba and California. 
Properties. Yellow wax is “ a yellowish to brownish-yellow solid, having an agreeable, 
honey-like odor, and a faint, balsamic taste. Specific gravity, 0-955-0-967 at 15° C. (59° F.).* 
Melting point, 63°-64° C. (145-4°-147-2° F.). It is brittle when cold, and when broken pre- 
sents a dull, granular, not crystalline fracture. By the heat of the hand it becomes plastic. 
Yellow Wax is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in cold alcohol, but almost completely in 
boiling alcohol. It is completely soluble in ether, chloroform, and in fixed and volatile oils; 
partially soluble in cold benzol or carbon disulphide, and completely in these liquids at a tem- 
perature of 25° to 30° C. (77° to 86° F.). If 1 Gm. of Yellow Wax be boiled, for half an 
hour, with 35 C.c. of a 15-per-cent, aqueous solution of sodium hydrate, the volume being pre- 
served by the occasional addition of water, the Wax should separate, on cooling, without render- 
ing the liquid opaque, and no precipate should be produced in the filtered liquid by hydrochloric 
acid (absence of fats or fatty acids, Japan wax, resin) ; nor should the same reagent produce a 
precipitate in water which has been boiled with a portion of the Wax (absence of soap). If 
5 Gm. of Yellow Wax be heated in a flask, for fifteen minutes, with 25 C.c. of sulphuric acid, 
to 160° C. (320° F.), and the mixture then diluted with water, no solid, wax-like body should 
separate (absence of paraffin). If a portion of Yellow Wax be ignited on platinum, it should 
not emit the odor of acrolein (absence of tallow and other fats)." TJ. S. The British Pharm. 
states tliat yellow wax should be “ Firm, breaking with a granular fracture, yellowish, having 
an agreeable honey-like odor. Not unctuous to the touch. It should be readily and entirely 
soluble in hot oil of turpentine. It should not yield more than 3 per cent, to cold alcohol (90 
belonging to the genus Coccus, which fixes itself to the branches of a certain tree, and, investing them closely, 
becomes embedded in a waxy material, which is scraped off with the insects, and constitutes the crude wax. It is 
purified by melting and straining. (Hanbury, P. J. Tr., xii. 476.) The tree from which the wax is obtained is the 
Fraxinus chinensis of Roxburgh. (Ibid., Sept. 1, 1859.) 
Mr. T. T. Cooper, in his “ Travels of a Pioneer” in China, gives some interesting statements as to the production 
of this wax, which are the result of his own personal observations. It is chiefly the province of S’zchuan which is 
the seat of this industry, the cultivation of the China wax being a source of great wealth to this province, second 
only in importance to the silk-culture. The “ wax trees” are all cut down at the height of 8 feet, leaving no branches, 
the trunks being about as thick as a man’s thigh, and sending forth shoots in the spring. The insects are cultivated 
in a different province, that of Yunnan, whence vast quantities of the eggs are sent annually to S’zchuan, where 
they are received in little balls of the size of a pea. These are suspended, enclosed in young leaves, to the shoots of 
the tree in March. In about two months the larva; appear, and, feeding on the leaves, soon attain the size of small 
butterflies, which spread themselves in immense numbers over the branches, which are whitened by them so as to 
seem covered with feathery snow. The grub, as it advances to the chrysalis form, buries itself in a white secretion 
by which all the branches are coated an inch in thickness. These are then cut off near the stem and divided into 
small pieces, which are tied in bundles and put into large caldrons, where they are boiled in water till all the wax 
melts and rises to the surface. It is then skimmed off and run into moulds, where it hardens. In this form it 
is spread over the Empire, where it is used for candles and as medicine. (P. J. Tr., 1872; also vol. xv., 1885.) 
* The lower official specific gravity (0*955) is undoubtedly too low; it should be 0*960. Dieterich has modified 
Hager’s method of taking the specific gravity of wax, as follows. A piece of wax is heated on the edge of a 
colorless flame, so that drops of melted wax may fall into alcohol placed in a saucer. Having thus obtained 
about a dozen wax-pearls, they are allowed to dry thoroughly by letting them remain on blotting-paper for 
24 hours. Eight portions of diluted alcohol are prepared, of the following specific gravities respectively : 0*96<l, 
0*961, 0*962, 0*963, 0*964, 0*965, 0*966, 0*967, and the pearl is dropped into these liquids in turn. The 
specific gravity of the wax is of course the same as the specific gravity of that liquid in which the pearl remains floating 
indifferently in any part of the vessel. (See Remington’s Practice of Pharmacy, page 71, Lovi’s beads.) Dieterich 
examined hundreds of specimens annually, and found the wax to vary in sp. gr. from 0*963 to 0*966. He also deter- 
mined the specific gravities of the following substances used to adulterate wax: white wax, 0*973; cera japonica, 
Japan wax, 0*975 ; ceresin, half white, 0*920 ; ozokerite, crude, 0*952; rosin, common, 1*108 ; cacao butter, 0*980-0*981: 
pure rosin, 1*045; beef suet, 0*952—0*953; yellow wax, 0*963-0*964; ceresin, white, 0*918; ceresin, yellow, 0*922; 
spermaceti, 0*960 ; French rosin, 1*104-1*105; paraffin, med. hard, 0*913-0*914; stearin, A No. 1, 0*971-0*972; mutton 
suet, 0*961. (Arch. d. Pharm., 1882, p. 55.) PART I. 
Cera Flava. 
351 
per cent.), nor more than 50 per cent, to cold ether, and nothing to water or to boiling solution 
of sodium hydroxide, the two latter liquids after filtration neither being turbid nor yielding a 
precipitate on the addition of hydrochloric acid (absence of fatty acids, resin, and Japan wax). 
Specific gravity 0-960 to 0-970. Melts at 144-5° to 147° F. (62-5° to 63-9° C.) when tested 
in the following manner. Liquefy a small piece, and draw a little of the liquid Beeswax up 
into a capillary tube of not more than one millimetre in internal diameter; after it has been 
allowed to cool for three hours, fix a piece of the filled capillary tube to the bulb of a ther- 
mometer by thread; immerse the bulb and tube in a beaker of wrater, and heat the latter 
gradually on a water-bath; at the moment the opaque rod of Beeswax becomes transparent, 
note the temperature. The solidifying point is two to three degrees lower than the melting 
point. 5 grammes of the Beeswax, melted in and mixed 'with boiling alcohol (90 per cent.), 
should require for neutralization not less than 1-6 cubic centimetres of normal alcoholic volumetric 
solution of potassium hydroxide, using phenol-phthalein as an indicator. Upon the further 
addition of 20 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution, and well boiling for one hour under 
a reflux condenser, not less than 6-2 nor more than 6-8 cubic centimetres should be found to 
have combined with the Beeswax, as shown by the titration of the uncombined alkali with 
volumetric solution of sulphuric acid. If 5 grammes of Beeswax are heated for fifteen minutes 
with 25 grammes of sulphuric acid to 320° F. (160° C.) and the mixture diluted with water, 
no solid wax-like body should separate (absence of paraffin). Beeswax should not yield any 
characteristic reaction with the tests for starch.” 
Various adulterations have been practised, most of which may be readily detected. Meal, 
earth, and other insoluble substances are at the same time discovered and separated by melting 
and straining the wax. When the fracture is smooth and shining instead of being granular, 
the presence of resin may be suspected. This is dissolved by cold alcohol, while the wax is 
left untouched. Yellow wax is frequently adulterated with a mixture of paraffin and rosin; 
such wax is usually translucent on the edges. For other adulterating substances used, and the 
inodes of detecting them, see the remarks which follow on white wax. 
Yellow wax is used chiefly as an ingredient of plasters and cerates. 
! 2. Cera Alba, Bleached Yellow Wax, or White Wax. The color of yellow wax is discharged 
by exposing it, with an extended surface, to the combined influence of air, light, and moisture. 
The process of bleaching is carried on to a considerable extent in this country. The wax, 
previously melted, is made to fall in streams upon a revolving cylinder, kept constantly wet, 
upon which it concretes, forming thin ribbon-like layers. These, having been removed, are 
spread upon linen cloths stretched on frames and exposed to the air and light, care being taken 
to water and occasionally turn them. In a few days they are partially bleached ; but, to deprive 
the wax completely of color, it is necessary to repeat the whole process once, if not oftener. 
When sufficiently white, it is melted and cast into small circular cakes. The color may also be 
discharged by chlorine ; but the wax is said to be somewhat altered* White wax sometimes 
contains one or more free fatty acids, consequent probably upon the employment of alkalies in 
bleaching it, which render it an unfit ingredient in the unctuous preparations of certain salts. 
Of these acids it may be deprived by means of alcohol. 
Perfectly pure wax is white, shining, diaphanous in thin layers, inodorous, insipid, harder 
and less unctuous to the touch than the yellow, soft and ductile at 35° C. (95° F.) and fusible 
at 65° C. (149° F.), retaining its fluidity at a lower temperature. According to Saussure, its 
sp. gr. in the solid state is 0-966. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ a yellowish-white 
solid, somewhat translucent in thin layers, having a slightly rancid odor, and an insipid taste. 
Specific gravity, 0-965 to 0 975 f at 15° C. (59° F.). Melting point, about 65° C. (149° F.). 
In other respects White Wax has the characteristics of, and should respond to the reactions 
and tests given under, Yellow Wax (see Cera Flava')." By a great heat it is partly vol- 
atilized, partly decomposed ; and, when flame is applied to its vapor, it takes fire and burns 
with a clear bright light. It is insoluble in water, and in cold alcohol or ether, but is slightly 
* The following process for purifying wax by steam has been patented by M. Cassgrand, in France, and is said to 
have been employed advantageously. Wax melted by steam is passed along with the steam through a coiled tube or 
worm, is received into a double bottom heated by steam, where it is washed with water, and is then raised by a pump 
into another pan, also heated by steam, where it is again washed with water; the whole operation is repeated 
three or four times, the wax being allowed to rest for about four or five minutes in the upper pan after each operation, 
and, after the last one, an hour or two for the subsidence of impurities. The wax is then granulated by means of 
cold water, allowed to dry for two or three days, and then exposed to light and air. The whole process is completed 
in a few days. (See A. J. P., xxvi. 525.) 
| This official specific gravity (0*975) is undoubtedly too high. 0*960 to 0*965 should be the figures. 352 
Cera Flava. 
PART I. 
soluble in boiling alcohol and ether, which deposit it in a great measure upon cooling. The 
volatile and fixed oils dissolve it with facility, resin readily unites with it by fusion, and soaps 
are formed by the action of soda and potassa in solution. It is not affected by the acids 
at ordinary temperatures, but is converted into a black mass when boiled with concentrated 
sulphuric acid. Bleached wax contains, according to Lewy’s analysis, 80-2 per cent, of 
carbon, 13-4 of hydrogen, and 6-4 of oxygen. It is a mixture of three different substances, 
which may be separated from one another by alcohol,—viz.: 1, myricin, insoluble in boiling 
alcohol, and consisting chiefly of myricyl palmitate, CieH31(C30H610„),—that is, a com- 
pound of palmitic acid, C16H310.0H, and myricyl alcohol, ; 2, cerotic add, 
C27H6402 (formerly called cerin when obtained only in an impure state), which is dissolved by 
boiling alcohol, but crystallizes out on cooling; 3, cerolein, which remains dissolved in the cold 
alcoholic liquid. This latter is probably a mixture of fatty acids, as indicated by its acid reac- 
tion. Schwalb (Ann. d. Chem., 224, 225) found melissic acid and some unsaturated acids 
of the oleic series; also higher solid hydrocarbons of the saturated series, such as C27H56 and 
C31H64. Kebler states that the hydrocarbons in beeswax amount to from 12-72 to 13-78 per 
cent. (A. J. P., 1893, 587.) T. Marie believes that cerotic acid, as ordinarily obtained, is a 
mixture of two distinct acids. He gives C30II6002 as the formula for melissic acid and 
CjyjHgoOjj for pure cerotic acid. 
Wax has been variously adulterated. White lead sinks to the bottom of the vessel when the 
wax is melted. Starch, meal, and other insoluble substances remain behind when the wax is 
dissolved in oil of turpentine or benzin; and the starch is known by producing a blue color 
with iodine added to water in which the wax has been boiled. Water, which is said to be some- 
times fraudulently incorporated with it, by agitation when partially melted, is driven off by 
heat. Fatty substances render lime water turbid when agitated with it and allowed to stand. 
For the detection of stearin and stearic acid, M. Lebel dissolves the suspected wax in two parts 
of oil, beats the cerate thus formed with its weight of pure water, and then adds a few drops 
of solution of lead subacetate. If stearin be present, there will be an immediate decomposition, 
and the mixture will acquire an extraordinary solidity from the formation of lead stearate. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., xv.) Vogel proposes chloroform as a means of detecting the adultera- 
tion with fatty matters. That liquid dissolves only 25 per cent, of wax, but stearin and stearic 
acid completely. If, therefore, wax treated with 6 or 8 parts of chloroform loses more than 
one-quarter of its weight, it may be considered as impure. (Ibid., xvii.) Overbeck detects 
stearic acid by the abundant effervescence produced from the escape of carbonic acid when a 
small portion of the suspected wax is boiled in a solution composed of one part of sodium car- 
bonate and fifty of distilled water. (P. J. Tr., xi. 128.) Fehling detects stearic add and resin 
by boiling one part of the wax in twenty of alcohol, filtering the solution when cold, and then 
adding water. If either of these substances be present there will be a flocculent precipitate, 
whereas if the wax be pure there will scarcely be an observable turbidness. The natural fats, 
as tallow, suet, lard, etc., are not amenable to this test; but it may be applied by first saponi- 
fying them, and thus converting them into the fatty acids, as the stearic. But, as wax itself 
is somewhat liable to be affected, it is necessary to avoid too strong an alkaline solution, and 
too long boiling in the process. To obviate such a result, 30 grains of the wax are to be boiled 
with two or three fluidounces of water containing 6 grains of pure sodium hydrate, and the mass 
saturated with a very dilute acid, and heated. The wax is then to be separated, dried between 
folds of blotting-paper, and treated as above for stearic acid. (Neues Repert. filr Pharm., viii. 
78.) For the detection of rosin, cold alcohol is sufficient. It dissolves the rosin, and yields it 
on evaporation, attended with a very small portion of pure wax, which yields 2-4 per cent, to 
cold alcohol. (Ed. Davies, A. J. P., 1870, p. 537.) F. Jean states that a few drops of sulphuric 
acid added to the melted wax adulterated with rosin, cause a red color, or, if only 1 per cent, 
be present, a greenish tint. (A. J. P., 1881, p. 307.) To detect paraffin, which is another 
adulteration said to be frequent, Prof. Landolt, of Bonn, heats the wax with fuming sulphuric 
acid (Nordhausen), which destroys the wax, converting it into a black jelly-like mass, while the 
paraffin is left as a transparent layer on the surface. (See A. J. P., xxxiv. 35.) M. Lies 
Bodart detects the same impurity by a somewhat complex process, based on the etherification 
of the wax; the paraffin being left sufficiently pure to enable its proportion to be estimated. 
For the particulars of the process, the reader is referred to the Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 
(4e ser., iii. 287, 1866). A simpler method is that of M. Dullo, who treats the adulterated 
wax with ether. If this dissolves more than 50 per cent., the presence of paraffin is indicated. 
M. Payen resorts to the point of fusion as a means of detecting paraffin. This substance melts PART I. 
Cera Flava. 
353 
at a lower temperature than wax, and lowers the melting point of wax with which it is mixed. 
(Ibid., 4e sffi\, ii. 233.) White wax should not melt below 65° C. (149° F.) ; yellow not below 
62-5° C. (144’50 F.). (Dr.) Japan wax is said also to be largely employed for adulterating bees- 
wax ; so that sometimes but little of the product of the bee is to be found in the mixture. To 
detect Japan wax, M. Dullo boils together for a minute 10 Gm. (150 grains) of wax, 120 Gm. 
of water, and 1 of soda. If there be Japan wax present, a soap will immediately form, which 
will slowly solidify on cooling. Beeswax does not saponify under these circumstances. (Ibid., 
4e ser., i. 448.) Ceresin, a principle obtained from ozokerite (see Part II.), is also employed as 
an adulterant, and is manufactured largely for that purpose in Vienna. It is only native 
paraffin, and of course answers to the tests for that substance. There are other less precise 
methods of detecting adulterations. Thus, spermaceti and lard render wax softer and less 
cohesive, of a smoother and less granular fracture, and of a different odor when heated. The 
melting point and specific gravity are lowered by tallow, suet, and lard. Legrip's cereometer 
is based upon the altered specific gravity of wax when adulterated. Any one may apply this 
principle by making such a mixture of alcohol and water that pure wax will neither sink nor 
rise in it, but remain wherever placed. (See page 351.) Adulterated wax would either float 
or sink in this liquid. Pereira says that pure wax is yellowish white; and that the white wax 
in circular cakes always contains spermaceti, added to improve its color. The most valuable 
information, however, is obtained by the determination, according to Hubl’s process, of the 
three chemical constants,—viz., acid value, 20; ester value, 75; and saponification value, 95. 
In yellow wax the iodine value, 7'9 to 8-9, is also of use; in white wax the bleaching process 
has altered the bodies which absorb the iodine. (See also Chem. Zeit., 1893, 918; Proc. A. 
P. A., 1894, 957; Drug. Circ., 1898, 33; Amer. Drug., 1898, 97.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Wax has little effect upon the system. Under the 
impression that it sheathed the inflamed mucous membrane of the bowels, it was formerly 
prescribed in diarrhoea and dysentery; and it is mentioned by Dioscorides as a remedy in the 
latter complaint; but at the present time, we suppose, no one would think of employing wax 
for such purposes. Its sole use in modern medicine is in the formation of ointments, cerates, 
plasters, and suppositories, surgical dressings, etc., in which it acts mechanically, either giving 
stiffness or serving to protect from water. It is an ingredient in almost all the official cerates, 
which owe to it their general title. 
3. Vegetable Wax. Many vegetable products contain wax. It exists in the pollen of 
numerous plants, and forms the bloom or glaucous powder which covers certain fruits, and the 
coating of varnish with which leaves are sometimes supplied. In some plants it is so abundant 
as to be profitably extracted for use. Such is the Ceroxylon andicola, a lofty palm growing in 
the South American Andes. Upon the trunk of this tree, in the rings left by the fall of the 
leaves, is a coating of wax-like matter, about one-sixth of an inch thick, which is removed by 
the natives and employed in the manufacture of tapers. It contains, according to Vauquelin, 
two-thirds of a resinous substance and one-third of pure wax. Two kinds of wax are collected 
in Brazil, one called carnauba,* from the leaves of the Copernicus cerifera, a palm, which forms 
large forests in the province of Ceara, the other ocuba, from the fruit of a shrub of the 
* Carnauba Wax is collected by cutting out the leaf-buds, drying and beating them, and melting the powder thus 
detached in water. According to Nevil Story Maskelyne, it consists chiefly of melissyl-alcohol, C30H62O, which 
saponifies, another alcohol, C23H48O, and small quantities of resin and a substance melting at 150° C. (221° F.). 
Berard believes it to be composed of free cerotic acid and melissyl ether. H. Stiirke has stated as the result of an 
investigation that carnauba wax contains: a hydrocarbon, melting at 59° C.; an alcohol, C23H56.CH2OH, melting at 
76° C.; myricyl alcohol, CsoIIsi.OII, melting at 85’5° C.; a diatomic alcohol, C25H5o.(OH)2, melting at 103'5°-103'8° C.; 
an acid, C24H48O2, isomeric with lignocerotic acid, melting at 72'5° C.; an acid, C27II54O2, isomeric with cerotic acid, 
melting at 79° C.; and an acid, or rather the lactone (anhydride) of an acid, C19H38 j melting at 103‘5° C., 
from which an acid, Ci9H3s(COOH)2, melting at 90° C. has been prepared. (Schaedler, Technol. der Fet.te und Oele, 
2te Auf., p. 884.) It is hard, brittle, and buff-colored, yellow, or greenish, resembling the resins more than wax, and 
melts at 85° C. (185° F.), which is much higher than the fusing point of other kinds of vegetable wax. “ It takes a 
fine polish when rubbed with any soft material,” does not receive impressions from the finger at the natural temper- 
ature of the hand, and is adapted for polishing furniture, either alone or mixed with wax. 2,000,000 pounds of it 
are said to be annually produced in Brazil, where it is largely used, mixed with tallow, in making candles, etc. 
Under the name of Ocotilla wax, Mrs. Helen Abbott Michael described (A. J. P., Feb. 1885) a wax which she 
has obtained from the bark of the Fouquieria splendens, and believes to be a new variety. A wax which is said to 
be used, under the name of Arbol de la Cera, in Mexico not only for domestic purposes, but also as a remedy in 
diarrhoea and jaundice, is that obtained by boiling the fruit of the Myrica jalapensis in water. It is greenish or 
yellow, more brittle and unctuous than beeswax, has a feeble odor, a slightly bitter taste, and a density nearly equal 
to that of water, and melts at 43°; but on exposure the fusing point rises to 47‘5°. It is wholly soluble in boiling 
ether, insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in cold alcohol, and dissolves in twenty parts of boiling alcohol, depositing 
the greater part on cooling; alkalies saponify it readily. (A.J,. P., xv. 339, 1885.) 
23 Cera Flava.—Cerata. 
354 
PART I. 
province of Para. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e s6r., v. 154.)* A form of vegetable wax sometimes 
seen in this country is that derived from Myrica cerifera, and commonly called myrtle wax. 
The wax myrtle is an aromatic shrub, from one to twelve feet high, growing in the United 
States, from New England to Louisiana, and flourishing especially on the sea-coast. The fruit, 
which grows in clusters closely attached to the stems and branches, is small, globular, and 
covered with a whitish coat of wax, which may be separated for use. Other parts of the plant 
are said to possess medical virtues. The bark of the root is acrid and astringent, and in large 
doses emetic, and has been popularly employed in jaundice. The process for collecting the wax 
is simple. The berries are boiled in water, and the wax, melting and floating on the surface, 
is either skimmed off and strained, or allowed to concrete as the liquor cools, and then removed. 
To render it pure, it is again melted and strained, and cast into large cakes. It is collected in 
New Jersey, North Carolina, and New England, and particularly in Rhode Island. 
Myrtle wax is of a pale grayish-green color, somewhat diaphanous, more brittle and unctuous 
to the touch than beeswax, of a feeble odor, and a slightly bitterish taste. It is about as 
heavy as water, and melts, according to Dr. G. E. Moore, at from 46-6° C.—48-8° C. (116° F.- 
120° F.). It is insoluble in water, scarcely soluble in cold alcohol, soluble, excepting about 13 
per cent., in twenty parts of boiling alcohol, which deposits the greater portion on cooling, 
soluble also in boiling ether, and slightly so in oil of turpentine. It is readily saponifiable with 
the alkalies. By Dr. John it was found to found to consist, like beeswax, of cerin and myricin, 
containing 87 per cent, of the former and 13 of the latter; but a more accurate analysis by 
Dr. Moore gives as its constituents one part of palmitin and four of palmitic acid, with a little 
laurin or lauric acid. (Am. Journ. of Sci. and Arts, 1852, p. 319.) The green color and bitter- 
ness depend upon distinct principles, which may be separated by boiling with ether. On cooling, 
the wax is deposited colorless, while the ether remains green. The color is ascribed by Dr. 
Moore to chlorophyll. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This variety of wax has been popularly employed in 
the United States as a remedy for dysentery ; in which disease Dr. Fahnestock gave the pow- 
dered wax in doses of a teaspoonful (3-75 C.c.) frequently repeated, with alleged great advan- 
tage. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., ii. 313.) It is occasionally substituted by apothecaries for 
beeswax in the formation of plasters, and is used in the preparation of tapers and candles. It 
is somewhat fragrant when burning, but emits a less brilliant light than common lamp oil. 
CERATA. Cerates. 
(CE-RA'TA.) 
Carats, Cereot6s, Fr.; Cerate, Wachssalben, G. 
These are unctuous substances consisting of oil or lard, mixed with wax, spermaceti, or resin, 
to which various medicaments are frequently added. Their consistence, which is intermediate 
between that of ointments and that of plasters, is such that they may be spread at ordinary tem- 
peratures upon linen or leather, by means of a spatula, and do not melt or run when applied 
to the skin. In preparing them, care should always be taken to select the oil or lard perfectly 
free from rancidity. In reference to the wax, too, there would seem to be a choice, as experi- 
ence has shown that cerates made with yellow wax keep longer unchanged than those made 
with white or bleached wax, probably because there is in yellow wax some principle which cor- 
* Japanese Wax. A substance under this name has been imported into Europe in considerable quantities, either 
directly from Japan, or through the Chinese ports. It is obtained from the berries of the Rhus succedaneum of 
Linnaeus, and in small amount from the R. sylvestris and R. vernicifera, or lacquer plant. The partially dried 
berries are crushed, winnowed, steamed, placed in hemp cloth bags, steamed again, and pressed in a wooden wedge 
press. They yield about 15 per cent, of a coarse greenish tallowy mass. It has come in two forms, the one, as origi- 
nally distinguished by Mr. Hanbury, of circular cakes, about four inches in diameter, and an inch thick, flat on one 
side and somewhat convex on the other; the second, as brought directly from Japan, of large rectangular blocks, 
which are packed in chests. It bears a considerable resemblance to purified beeswax, but is not quite so white, 
having a slightly yellowish tint, is softer, more friable, and has a somewhat rancid smell and taste. Its melting 
point is below that of wax, varying from 49° C. (120° F.), as stated by Prof. Procter, to 52° C. (125° E.), and even 
55° C. (131° F.), as observed in different specimens by Mr. Hanbury. Meyer noticed a sample melting at 42° C. 
(107° F.). It is much more soluble in alcohol than is beeswax, is saponifiable with the alkalies, and is in the main 
a glyceride of palmitic acid with smaller amounts of the glycerides of stearic and arachidic acids. It has been 
employed in the preparation of candles, which yield as brilliant light as those made of common wax. It has been 
found useful in the preparation of cerates, etc. From Roucher’s experiments it appears that there are two melting 
points of this wax, one corresponding closely with Prof. Procter’s results, while the same wax rapidly heated to a 
point above that of fusion and then allowed to cool, if plunged into water at 42° C., melts into a transparent liquid; 
consequently melting at a point 12° C. below its freezing point in its ordinary state, which was 54° C.; the two 
temperatures being about equivalent in Fahrenheit’s scale to 107° and 129°. (P. J. Tr.y Aug. 1872.) PAKT I. 
Cerata.—Ceratum Cantharidis. 
355 
rects the tendency of fatty matters to become rancid. (F. Bringhurst, A. J. P., 1869, 59.) 
The liquefaction should be effected by a very gentle heat, which may be applied by means of 
a water-bath ; and during the refrigeration the mixture should be well stirred, and the portions 
which solidify on the sides of the vessel should be made to mix again with the liquid portion, 
until the whole assumes the proper consistence, or, as some prefer, the melted cerate is allowed 
to cool quickly without stirring. When a large quantity is prepared, the mortar or other vessel 
into which the mixture may be poured for cooling should be previously heated by means of 
boiling water. It has been proposed to substitute paraffin for wax in the preparation of the 
cerates, but the great tendency to produce granulation in the finished cerate has largely pre- 
vented its use. It is, we think, unfortunate that this class of preparations has been abandoned 
in the British Pharmacopoeia; the several cerates having been rejected, or transferred to the 
class of Ointments. Independently of the connection between the name and one of the char- 
acteristic constituents of the cerates, there is a ground of difference between them and the 
ointments in their consistence; that of the cerates being such as to render them especially 
suitable for spreading on linen, while that of ointments is peculiarly adapted to inunction* 
CERATUM. U.S. Cerate. 
(CE-RA'TUM.) 
Ceratum Adipis, U. S. 1860; Ceratum Simplex, U. S. 1850: C6rat simple, Fr.; Einfaches Cerat, Wacbssalbe, G. 
“ White Wax, three hundred grammes [or 10 ounces av., 255 grains] ; Lard, seven hundred 
grammes [or 24 ounces av., 303 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 
120 grains]. Melt them together, and stir the mixture constantly until it is cool.” U. S. 
In the preparation of this cerate, peculiar care should be taken that the oleaginous ingredient 
be entirely free from rancidity, and that the heat employed be not sufficient to produce the 
slightest decomposition ; for the value of the preparation depends on its perfect blandness. To 
avoid change, it should be put up in small jars, and covered closely with tin-foil so as to ex- 
clude the air. It is used for dressing blisters, wounds, etc., in all cases in which the object is 
to prevent the contact of air and preserve the moisture of the part and at the same time to 
avoid all irritation. It is sometimes improperly employed as the vehicle of substances to be 
applied by inunction. For this purpose lard should be used in winter, and simple ointment in 
summer, the cerate having too firm a consistence. George W. Sloan recommends simple cerate 
as a pill excipient for certain oxidizable substances and special uses. (Proc. A. P. A., 1884.) 
CERATUM CAMPHORS. U. S. Camphor Cerate. 
(CE-RA'TUM ClM'PHO-R^.) 
“ Camphor Liniment, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; White Wax, three 
hundred grammes [or 10 ounces av., 255 grains] ; Lard, six hundred grammes [or 21 ounces 
av., 72 grains], To make one thousand, grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt the 
White Wax and Lard with the aid of a gentle heat; then add the Camphor Liniment, and 
stir the mixture occasionally, until it has become cold.” U. S. 
The proportion of camphor has been greatly increased in this preparation by the U. S. P. 
1890 ; it now contains 2 per cent, of camphor, that of the U. S. P. 1880 contained only three- 
fifths of 1 per cent. This preparation was introduced in the U. S. P. 1880 primarily for use in 
making cerate of subacetate of lead by the extemporaneous process. It was subsequently found 
useful as a slightly stimulating dressing, hence the proportion of camphor has been increased. 
CERATUM CANTHARIDIS. U. S. (Br.) Cantharides Cerate. 
(CE-RA'TUM CAN-THAR'l-DIS.) 
Emplastrum Cantharidis, Br.; Cantharides Plaster; Emplastrum Cantharidum (Yesicatorium) Ordinarium, 
P. G.; Emplastrum Epispasticum, s. Vesicatorium, s. Yesicans; Emplatre de Cantharides, Empl&tre vfisicatoire, Fr.j 
Spanischfliegen Pflaster, Blasenpflaster, G. 
“ Cantharides, in No. 60 powder, three hundred and twenty grammes [or 11 ounces av., 126 
grains] ; Yellow Wax, one hundred and eighty grammes [or 6 ounces ay., 152 grains] ; Resin, 
one hundred and eighty grammes [or 6 ounces av., 152 grains] ; Lard, two hundred and twenty 
grammes [or 7 ounces av., 332 grains] ; Oil of Turpentine, one hundred and fifty cubic centi- 
* Dr. W. H. Mielcke (Pharm. Centralb., 1881, Nos. 20, 21) proposes a class of preparations, to which he has given 
the name “ Stearins,” “ Steatinum.” These are of about the consistence of cerates, of varied composition, and contain 
usually a considerable portion of tallow. The Steatinum Iodoformi offers a fair specimen of the class. “ Take of 
mutton tallow 18 parts, expressed oil of nutmeg 2 parts, iodoform, in fine powder, 1 part. Melt the tallow and add 
the other ingredients.” For other formulas, see A. J. P., 1881, p. 404. 356 
Ceratum Cantharidis. 
PART I. 
meters [or 5 fluidounces, 35 minims], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains]! Moisten the Cantharides with the Oil of Turpentine, and set the mixture aside, well 
covered, for forty-eight hours. Then add it to the Yellow Wax, Resin, and Lard, previously 
melted and strained through muslin, and keep the mixture in a liquid condition, by means of 
a water-bath, stirring occasionally, until its weight has been reduced to one thousand grammes 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Then remove it from the bath, and stir it occasionally until it 
is cool.” U.S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia directs of Cantharides, in powder, 3£ ounces (Imperial) or 
thirty-five grammes; Yellow Beeswax, Lard, and Resin, each, 2 ounces (Imp.) or twenty 
grammes; and Soap Plaster, \ ounce (Imp.) or five grammes; melts the Resin, Soap Plaster, 
Wax, and Lard together; then introduces the Cantharides, mixes the whole thoroughly, and 
continues to stir the mixture while cooling. (See Emplastrum Cantharidis.) 
This is the common well-known blistering plaster. As it can be readily spread without the aid 
of heat, it is properly a cerate, and is, therefore, correctly named in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
The process now official differs from that of previous Pharmacopoeias in the use of Oil of Tur- 
pentine; the previous maceration of the cantharides with this solvent has for its object the 
softening and extraction of the cantharidin; the present cerate is not so firm in consistence as 
that made by the U. S. P. 1880, for, although some of the oil of turpentine is evaporated by 
the heat employed, sufficient is still retained by the process to render the cerate softer. There 
can be no question of the advantage of retaining the cantharides in contact with hot liquefied 
fatty bodies to facilitate the extraction of the cantharidin. The cerate is essentially the same 
as prepared by the two processes; though the U. S. formula has a decided advantage over the 
British, in keeping the mixture of the flies and the other ingredients for some time at an ele- 
vated temperature, while in the latter they are allowed to cool after being mixed with the fatty 
matters. Care was formerly considered requisite, in making the cerate, not to injure the flies 
by heat. It was, therefore, recommended that they should not be added to the other ingre- 
dients until immediately before these begin to stiffen, after having been removed from the fire; 
and, though this direction has been omitted, no provision is made for the continued application 
of heat. From the experiments of Mr. Donovan (Dublin Med. Press, Aug. 1840), and those 
of Professor Procter (A. J. P., xiii. 302, and xxiv. 296), it may be inferred that the vesicating 
principle of Spanish flies is not injured or dissipated by a heat under 148-8° C. (300° F.), and 
that an elevated temperature, instead of being hurtful, is positively advantageous in the prepa- 
ration of the cerate. The cantharidin is thus more thoroughly dissolved by the oleaginous 
matter, and consequently brought more efficiently into contact with the skin, than when re- 
tained in the interior of the tissue of the fly. Another advantage, stated by Donovan, is that 
the moisture usually existing to a certain extent in all the ingredients of the cerate is thus 
dissipated, and the preparation is less apt to become mouldy, or otherwise to undergo decom- 
position. Instead, therefore, of waiting until the melted wax, resin, and lard begin to stiffen, 
it is better to add the powder before the vessel is removed from the fire. Mr. Donovan recom- 
mends that, as soon as the other ingredients are melted, the powdered flies should be added, 
and the mixture stirred until the heat is shown by a thermometer to have risen to 121-1° C. 
(250° F.), when the vessel is to be removed from the fire, and the mixture stirred constantly 
until cool. * At the heat mentioned, ebullition takes place in consequence of the escape of the 
moisture contained in the materials. In the cerate thus prepared, the active matter has been 
dissolved by the lard, and the powder may be separated, if deemed advisable, by straining the 
mixture before it solidifies. Care should be taken that the temperature be not so high as to 
decompose the ingredients; and it would be better to keep it within 100° C. (212° F.), by 
means of a water-bath, as in the U. S. process, than to incur any risk from its excess. Violent 
irritation and even vesication of the face of the operator are stated to have resulted from ex- 
posure to the vapors of the liquid, at a temperature of 121-1° C. (250° F.). (jP. J. Tr., ii. 391.) 
From an experiment, however, of Professor Procter, it appears that, though cantharidin begins 
to volatilize slightly at 121-1° C. (250° F.), and rapidly rises in vapor and sublimes at from 
205-5° C. to 211-1° C. (402° F. to 412° F.), yet it is not decomposed unless by increasing the 
heat considerably above the last-mentioned point. {A. J. P., xxiv. 296 and 298.) Dieterich 
states that the activity is greatly increased by the use of acid in the manufacture. Thus, for 
every 250 Gm. of powdered flies used he adds to the melted mass 1 Gm. sulphuric acid and 10 
Gm. alcohol (90 per cent.), keeps the mass for two hours at 70° C., and finally adds 2 Gm. 
barium carbonate rubbed up with 6 Gm. alcohol. (Phann. Cent., 1892, 425.) It is desirable 
that the flies should be very finely pulverized. Coarsely powdered cantharides should not be PAET I. 
Ceratum Cantharidis. 
357 
used, because of the imperfect and unequal distribution of the vesicating agent. Powdered 
euphorbium is said to be sometimes fraudulently added. 
The cerate will always raise a blister in ordinary conditions of the system, if the flies are 
good, and not injured in the preparation. It should be spread on soft leather, though linen or 
even paper will answer the purpose when that is not to be had. An elegant mode of preparing 
it for use is to spread a piece of leather, of a proper size, first with adhesive plaster, and after- 
wards with the cerate, leaving a margin of the former uncovered, in order that it may adhere 
to the skin. Heat is not requisite, and should not be employed in spreading the cerate. Some 
sprinkle powdered flies upon the surface of the plaster, press them lightly with a roller, and 
then shake off the portion which has not adhered; but, if the flies originally employed were 
good, this addition is superfluous. The habit of applying over the surface with a brush an 
ethereal tincture of cantharides, which leaves a thin coating of extract, renders the preparation 
more certain. 
Upon the application of the plaster, the skin should be moistened with warm vinegar or 
other liquid. In adults, when the full action of the flies is desired, and the object is to pro- 
duce a permanent effect, the application should be continued for eight hours, and on the scalp 
for twelve hours. In very delicate persons, however, or those subject to strangury, or upon 
parts of a loose texture, or when the object is merely to produce a blister to be healed as 
quickly as possible, the plaster should remain no longer than is necessary for the production 
of full redness of the skin, which generally occurs in five or six hours, or even in a shorter 
time. It should then be removed, and followed by a flaxseed poultice, or some other emollient 
dressing, under which the cuticle rises, and a full blister is usually produced. By this man- 
agement the patient will generally escape strangury, and the blister will very quickly heal after 
the discharge of the serum.* In young children, cantharides sometimes produce alarming 
and even fatal ulceration, if too long applied, and from two to four hours are usually sufficient 
for any desirable purpose. When the head, or other very hairy part, is to be blistered, an in- 
terval of ten or twelve hours should, if possible, be allowed between the shaving of the part 
and the application of the plaster, so that the abrasions may heal, and some impediment be 
offered to the absorption of the flies. After the blister has been formed, it should be opened 
at the most depending parts, and, the cuticle being allowed to remain, should be dressed with 
simple cerate; but, if it be desirable to maintain the discharge for a short time, resin cerate 
should be used, and the cuticle removed if it can be done without inconvenience. When it is 
wished that the blistered surface should heal as soon as possible, Goulard’s cerate should be 
freely applied. The effects of an issue may be obtained by employing savine ointment, or the 
ointment of Spanish flies, as a dressing. If much inflammation takes place in the blistered 
surface, it may be relieved by emollient poultices, weak lead water, or Goulard’s cerate. When 
there is an obstinate indisposition to heal, we have found nothing so effectual as zinc ointment 
with two to four grains of carbolic acid to the ounce. 
Various preparations of cantharides have been proposed and employed as substitutes for the 
cerate. They consist for the most part of cantharidin, more or less pure, either dissolved in 
olive oil and applied to the skin by means of a piece of paper saturated with it, or incorpo- 
rated with wax and spread in a very thin layer upon fine waxed cloth, silk, or paper, con- 
stituting blistering cloth, blistering paper, vesicating taffeta, etc. The advantages of these 
preparations are that they occupy less space, are more portable, and, being very pliable, are 
more easily adapted to irregularities of the surface. Absolutely pure cantharidin is expen- 
sive and not requisite,f as extracts of cantharides, made with ether, alcohol, or boiling 
* The late Dr. M. B. Smith, of Philadelphia, informed us that he had frequently employed uva ursi as a preventive 
of strangury from blisters, and had never found it to fail. He gave a small wineglassful of the decoction of uva ursi 
every hour, commencing two hours after the application of the blister. Camphor is sometimes incorporated with the 
blistering cerate to prevent strangury, though with doubtful effect. A plan proposed by M. Yee is to spread over 
the surface of the plaster, when ready for delivery, by means of the finger, a saturated solution of camphor in ether. 
The ether evaporates, leaving a thin coating of camphor uniformly diffused. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e sfir., viii. 68.) 
Guyot Dannecy believes camphor to be useless in this connection, and recommends dusting the blister with bicar- 
bonate of sodium and powdered cantharides in equal parts. The late Dr. Joseph Hartshorne, of Philadelphia, was 
in the habit, in cases where he apprehended strangury, of directing four grains of opium and twenty of camphor 
to be mixed with the cerate of a blister of large size, and experienced the happiest effects from the addition. 
f Dragendorff (A.J. P., 1872, p. 273) recommends sodium, cantharidate. M. E. Delpech (A. J. P., xlii. 240) pro- 
poses the use of potassium cantharidate in substance or solution. He prepares it by dissolving two parts of can- 
tharides in 150 parts of alcohol, and adding P6 parts of caustic potash dissolved in a very little water. The whole 
becomes a crystalline mass, from which the alcohol may be separated by pressure. See also It. Rother, Chicago 
Pharmacist, Nov. 1872. 358 
Ceratum Cantharidis.—Ceratum Plumbi Subacetatis. 
PART I. 
water, will answer every purpose. Henry and Guibourt give the following formula. Digest 
powdered cantharides in ether, distil off the ether, evaporate the residue by means of a salt- 
water bath, until ebullition ceases, melt the mass which remains with twice its weight of wax, 
and spread the mixture upon waxed cloth. The waxed cloth may be prepared by spreading 
upon linen or muslin a mixture composed of 8 parts of white wax, 4 of olive oil, and 1 of tur- 
pentine, melted together. An extract of cantharides of a buttery consistence, said to act very 
efficiently when applied by means of paper greased with it, is prepared by digesting 4 parts of 
flies with one part of strong acetic acid and 16 of alcohol, straining, filtering, and evaporating 
at a moderate heat.* A preparation which received the favorable report of a committee of the 
Society of Pharmacy, at Paris, is the following, proposed by M. Dubuisson. Four parts of a 
hydro-alcoholic extract of the flies, made by maceration, are mixed with an aqueous solution 
of one part of pure gelatin, so as to obtain a solution of suitable consistence, which is then ap- 
plied upon a piece of extended waxed cloth, care being taken that the brush should always 
have the same direction. When the first layer has dried, a second and a third are to be ap- 
plied in the same manner. The gelatin renders the cloth more adhesive and less deliquescent. 
The hydro-alcoholic extract is preferred to the alcoholic, because it contains less of the green 
oil, which does not readily mix with the other ingredients. The committee, however, preferred 
the aqueous extract, as cheaper and more active. This taffeta has been tried, and found to 
raise blisters in four hours. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., viii. 67.) For very speedy vesication, 
an infusion of the flies in strong acetic acid is sometimes employed. None of these prepara- 
tions are likely to supersede the cerate, but the demand for them has been met by introducing 
into the Pharmacopoeia Charta Cantharidis U. S. P. 1880 and Collodium Cantharidatum. 
CERATUM CETACEI. U. S. Spermaceti Cerate. 
(CE-RA'TUM CE-TA'CE-I.) 
Emplastrum Spermatis Ceti, Ceratum Labiale Album ; Cerat de Blanc de Baleine, Onguent blanc, Fr.; Wallrath- 
Cerat, G. 
11 Spermaceti, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; White Wax, three hundred 
and fifty grammes [or 12 ounces av., 151 grains] ; Olive Oil, five hundred and fifty grammes [or 
19 ounces av., 175 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. 
Melt together the Spermaceti and White Wax; then add the Olive Oil previously heated, and 
stir the mixture constantly until it is cool.” U. S. 
The direction to heat the oil before adding it to the other ingredients is important. If added 
cold, it is apt to produce an irregular congelation of the wax and spermaceti, and thus to render 
the preparation lumpy. The cerate is employed as a dressing for blisters, excoriated surfaces, 
and wounds, and as the basis of more active preparations. When the ingredients are pure and 
sweet, it is perfectly free from irritating properties. The present formula contains a little less 
spermaceti than that of the U. S. P. 1870. From experiments made by Mr. J. B. Barnes, it 
appears that this cerate keeps much better when made of unbleached materials than when 
prepared with olive oil and wax previously bleached. (P. J. Tr., 1861, p. 352.) 
CERATUM PLUMBI SUBACETATIS. U. S. (Br.) Cerate of Lead 
Subacetate. [Goulard’s Cerate.] 
Unguentum. Glyoerini Plumbi Subacetatis, Br.; Unguentum Plumbi Subacetatis Compositum; Compound 
Ointment of Subacetate of Lead ; Unguentum Plumbi, P. G.; Ceratum cum Subacetate Plumbico; C6rat de Saturne, 
Saturne de Goulard, Fr.; Bleisalbe, Bleicerat, G. |§ 
“ Solution of Lead Subacetate, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] ; Camphor 
Cerate, eight hundred grammes [or 28 ounces av., 96 grains], To make one thousand grammas 
(CE-RA'TUM PLUM'BI SUB-Xg-E-TA'TIS.) 
* Ceratum Extracti Cantharidis. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia formerly recognized the Cerate of the Extract of 
Cantharides, and gave for it the following formula: “ Cantharides, in No. 60 powder, thirty parts [or six ounces av.]; 
Resin, fifteen parts [or three ounces av.] ; Yellow Wax, thirty-five parts [or seven ounces av.] ; Lard, thirty-five parts 
[or seven ounces av.] ; Alcohol, a su fficient quantity. Moisten the Cantharides with eighteen parts [or four fluidounces] 
of Alcohol, and pack firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then gradually pour on Alcohol, until one hundred and 
eighty parts [or two and a half pints] of percolate are obtained, or until the Cantharides are exhausted. Distil off 
the Alcohol by means of a water-bath, transfer the residue to a tared capsule and evaporate it, on a water-bath, until 
it weighs fifteen parts [or three ounces av.]. Add to this the Resin, Wax, and Lard, previously melted together, and 
keep the whole at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) for fifteen minutes. Lastly, strain the mixture through muslin, 
and stir it constantly until cool.” U. S. This preparation was introduced in 1860 as a substitute for the older cerate, 
but has failed to sustain its alleged superiority, and has very properly been dismissed. PART I. 
Ceratum Plurnbi Subacetatis.—Cerii Oxalas. 
359 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Mix them thoroughly. This Cerate should be freshly prepared, 
when wanted.” U. S.* 
The British Pharmacopoeia makes an ointment by mixing glycerin of subacetate of lead 
with soft and hard paraffin together. (See Unguentum Glycerini Plurnbi Subacetatis; also 
Glycerini Plurnbi Subacetatis.) 
This cerate received the name by which it is commonly known from M. Goulard, by whom 
it was employed and recommended. It immediately begins to assume a yellowish color, and 
after a short time becomes so rancid as to be scarcely fit for use. Hence it should be prepared 
in small quantities at a time. The addition of a few drops of acetic acid prevents the yellow 
color from appearing, and there seems to be no objection to its use. The late Mr. Jacob Bell 
found it more satisfactory when made with yellow wax. (P. J. Tr., 1859, p. 459.) Eggenfels, 
a German pharmacist, recommends the following method of proceeding to prevent its change 
of color. The wax and oil are melted in a water-bath; the solution of lead subacetate, previ- 
ously heated, is added in small portions successively, and the mixture well stirred, and digested 
for some time; a partial saponification takes place, and an emulsion afterwards ; and the cerate 
retains its white color. (See A. J. P,, 1861, p. 408.) It is used chiefly in excoriations, burns, 
scalds, and chilblains, and in cutaneous eruptions. Wherever there is an acute active inflamma- 
tion of the skin it is a most efficient remedy. 
CERATUM RESINA. U. S. (Br.) Resin Cerate. [Basilicon Ointment.] 
(CE-RA-TUM RE-§i'NAl.) 
TTnguentum Resinae, Br.; Ointment of Resin, Unguentum Basilicum; C6rat de RSsine anglais, Fr.; Harzcerat, G. 
“ Resin, three hundred and fifty grammes [or 12 ounces av., 151 grains] ; Yellow Wax, one 
hundred and fifty grammes [or 5 ounces av., 127 grains] ; Lard, five hundred grammes [or 17 
ounces av., 278 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt 
them together at a moderate heat, strain the mixture through muslin, and allow it to cool 
without stirring. In cold weather use the following proportions : Resin three hundred, and fifty 
grammes [or 12 ounces av., 151 grains] ; Yellow Wax, one hundred and twenty grammes [or 4 
ounces av., 101 grains] ; Lard, five hundred and thirty grammes [or 18 ounces av., 305 grains].” 
u. s. 
“ Take of Resin, Yellow Beeswax, and Olive Oil, each, 8 ounces (Imperial) or 200 grammes ; 
Lard, 6 ounces (Imp.) or 150 grammes. Add the Lard and Olive Oil to the previously melted 
Resin and Beeswax ; strain ; stir until cold.” Br. 
The U. S. preparation does not differ greatly from that formerly official. An improvement 
has been made in the manipulation over that for the ointment official in 1870, in directing the 
ointment not to be stirred, a better consistence being secured by this change. The straining is 
directed in consequence of the impurities which resin often contains. A novelty has been in- 
troduced in an official process by the addition of a “ cold weather” formula. This seems to be 
of doubtful utility, individual susceptibility to the perception of heat and cold varying greatly: 
if an alternative formula were really desirable, “ cold weather” should be defined by a certain 
number of degrees of temperature, but the inquiry will naturally arise, if a “ cold weather” 
process is desirable in the Pharmacopoeia for any cerate, why was it not appended for each 
official cerate? The British process (1898) discards the simple ointment and almond oil 
previously used (1885), and substitutes lard and olive oil. It is difficult to explain the 
advantage of the use of any fixed oil whatever in this preparation, for if it be desirable to 
soften the consistence, the quantity of resin or wax can easily be diminished. Resin cerate, 
commonly called basilicon ointment, is much used as a gently stimulant application to blistered 
surfaces, indolent ulcers, burns, scalds, and chilblains. We have found no application more 
effectual in disposing the ulcers which follow burns to heal. 
CERII OXALAS. U. S., Br. Cerium Oxalate. [Cerous Oxalate.] 
Ce2 (C2 04)s. 9H2 O ; 704*78. (CE'RI-f Ox'A-lXs.) Ce2 (C204)s. + 9H2 0; 708. 
“ Cerium Oxalate, Ce2(C204)3,9H20, may be obtained by interaction of a soluble cerium salt 
and a soluble oxalate. It usually contains some lanthanum oxalate and didymiuin oxalate.” Br. 
Oxalate of Cerium; Cerium Oxalicum, Oxalas Cirieus; Oxalate de Cerium, Fr.; Oxalsaures Ceroxydul, Cerium 
Oxalat, G. 
* The British Pharmacopoeia of 1867 takes six fluidounces of the Solution of Subacetate of Lead, eight ounces 
[avoirdupois] of White Wax, a pint [Imperial measure] of Oil of Almonds, and sixty grains of Camphor. The wax 
and four-fifths of the oil are melted by means of a water-bath, and the solution of subacetate of lead added grad- 
ually, stirring as the mixture cools; the camphor, dissolved in the remaining fifth of the oil, is then added, and the 
whole mixed thoroughly. 360 
Cerii Oxalas. 
PART I. 
Cerium is a metal, which was discovered in 1803 by Berzelius and Hisinger, and about the 
same time by Klaproth, who, however, described it as an earth. By the two former chemists it 
was recognized as a metal, and named cerium in honor of the goddess Ceres. It was obtained 
from a Swedish mineral, formerly from its great weight called heavy stone of Bastnas (Bastnas 
Schwerstein), but now named cerite, after the metal extracted from it. Besides cerite, it has 
been found in several other minerals, as gadolinite, orthite, etc., in the north of Europe, a number 
of different minerals from Greenland, and allanite near Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania. It is not 
easy to obtain it pure in the metallic state, as its oxides and salts are difficult of reduction. 
Berzelius describes it as in the form of pulverulent masses, of a deep chocolate-brown, which 
exhibit, however, under the burnisher a metallic appearance and a dark-gray color. Hilde- 
brand and Norton have since prepared it in large quantity by the electrolysis of its chloride. 
It is a bad conductor of electricity. Heated in the air it takes fire before the point of ignition, 
and burns vividly, passing to the state of peroxide. At ordinary temperatures it is oxidized in 
a moist atmosphere, giving out a strong and disagreeable smell of hydrogen. In water, es- 
pecially when moderately heated, it rapidly oxidizes, with the evolution of hydrogen, and the 
water does not become alkaline. There are two cerium oxides formerly considered as the pro- 
toxide and sesquioxide. (According to more recent investigators, cerium forms a sesquioxide 
and a dioxide only, so that cerous oxalate, which is the official salt, is an oxalate of the sesqui- 
oxide, a fact recognized in the Pharmacopoeia of 1880.) Sulphur and phosphorus combine 
with it. Of its compounds two only have been introduced into medicine, the nitrate and the 
oxalate. 
Cerium oxalate may be obtained from cerite, and Prof. F. F. Mayer, of New York, gives a 
process for the purpose, of which the following is an outline. The mineral consists of cerium, 
lanthanum, and didymium silicates, with numerous other substances in smaller proportion, the 
cerium oxide constituting about 39 per cent, of the whole. The powdered mineral is made into 
a paste with sulphuric acid, and then heated over a lamp until the mass ceases to swell and no 
longer absorbs sulphuric acid very cautiously added. Upon the cooling of the mass, it is 
powdered, and exposed in a crucible to the heat of an anthracite fire until it assumes a pale 
brownish-red color. It is now lixiviated first with hot water and then with nitric acid, and the 
solution treated with hydrogen sulphide in order to get rid of various metals by precipitation. 
To the clear liquid some hydrochloric acid is first added, and then a solution of oxalic acid, the 
former of which holds in solution the calcium oxalate produced, the latter throws down cerium 
oxalates and oxalates of other metals. The precipitate, having been washed with warm water, 
is formed into a paste with a quantity of magnesium carbonate equal to half that of the 
mineral employed ; and the paste is dried on porous fire-brick, finely powdered, and calcined till 
it becomes of a cinnamon color. It now contains all of the cerium in the form of ceroso-ceric 
oxide. To separate this the mass is treated with an excess of nitric acid, the solution evaporated 
to get rid of the excess of acid, then diluted with warm water, and lastly poured into a vessel 
containing boiling water acidulated with a little more than half of one per cent, of sulphuric 
acid. A yellow precipitate of basic cerium sulphate is formed, while a little of the neutral 
sulphate, and all the lanthanum and didymium, remain dissolved. The precipitate is now dis- 
solved in stronger sulphuric acid, the solution digested with a few crystals of sodium hyposul- 
phite, in order to reduce the cerium ceroso-ceric oxide to cerous oxide, and the liquid, having 
been filtered, is treated with solution of oxalic acid, which causes a precipitate of cerium 
oxalate. This is washed with warm water, and dried. (A. J. P., 1860, p. 4.) 
Cerium oxalate is “ a white, granular powder, without odor or taste, and permanent in the 
air. Insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, or in solutions of potassium or sodium hydrate; solu- 
ble in diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. When heated to redness, it is decomposed, 
leaving a residue of reddish-yellow ceric oxide (a brown color would indicate the presence of 
didymium). On boiling the salt with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, white cerous 
hydrate is left as insoluble residue, while in the filtrate, supersaturated with acetic acid, calcium 
chloride test-solution will produce a white precipitate insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in 
hydrochloric acid. If the yellow residue, left after heating, be dissolved in concentrated sul- 
phuric acid, and a small crystal of strychnine added, a deep blue color will appear, which will 
rapidly change to purple and then to red. From the solution in diluted hydrochloric or sul- 
phuric acid, potassium hydrate test-solution precipitates white, cerous hydrate, which does not 
redissolve in an excess of the reagent, and gradually turns yellow in contact with air. Am- 
monium carbonate test-solution precipitates white, cerous carbonate, which is somewhat soluble 
in an excess of the reagent. If 0-1 Gm. of Cerium Oxalate be dissolved in 1 C.c. of sulphuric PAET I. 
Cerii Oxalas.—Cetaceum. 
361 
acid, and 2 C.c. of potassium sulphate test-solution be added, small, colorless crystals of cerium 
potassium sulphate will be deposited after some time. No effervescence should occur when 
the salt is dissolved in diluted hydrochloric acid (absence of carbonate) ; nor should the so- 
lution be colored or rendered turbid on the addition of an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide 
test-solution (absence of arsenic, etc.). On boiling the salt with potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution and filtering, no precipitate should be produced in the filtrate either by ammonium 
chloride test-solution (absence of aluminum), or by ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of 
zinc)." U. S. As usually seen in commerce it has a pinkish tinge, due to the presence of a 
trace of a compound of didymium. The British Pharmacopoeia states that it is “ An almost 
white granular powder, insoluble in water, decomposed at a dull red heat, yielding a reddish- 
brown powder which dissolves completely and without effervescence in boiling hydrochlcn'ic acid; 
the resulting solution gives with a saturated solution of potassium sulphate a white crystalline 
precipitate. When incinerated it loses 53 per cent, in weight. It should yield no characteristic 
reaction with the tests for arsenium, iron, aluminium, zinc, calcium, carbonates, or phosphates.” 
Medical Properties. Cerium oxalate is supposed' to act in a manner very similar to 
bismuth subnitrate. It was originally brought forward by Sir James Y. Simpson as a remedy 
in the vomiting of pregnancy, and has been extensively used in this affection, and also in gastric 
disturbances of various diseases, such as phthisis, uterine disorder, hysteria, dyspepsia, pyrosis, 
etc. To a less extent it has been used in intestinal inflammatory diseases. Prof. Simpson 
also considered it to be a good nervine tonic, and used it with asserted great advantage in chorea. 
The dose is a grain (0-065 Cm.), doubled if necessary, and repeated three times a day, or more 
frequently if a return of the vomiting should seem to require it. It may be given in pill or 
suspended in water. 
Cerium nitrate has also been employed, though not official. Prof. Simpson believed it to be 
a nervine tonic, and also useful in irritable dyspepsia and chronic vomiting. The dose is the 
same as that of the oxalate, though it would be prudent to begin with a smaller quantity, as, 
being a soluble salt, it might be more disposed to irritate in overdoses. 
CETACEUM. U. S., Br. Spermaceti. 
(CE-TA'CE-UM.) 
“ A peculiar, concrete, fatty substance, obtained from Physeter macrocephalus, Linne (class, 
Mammalia; order, Cetacea).” U. S. “ A concrete fatty substance, obtained, mixed with oil, 
from the head of the Sperm Whale, Physeter macrocephalus. It is separated from the oil by 
filtration and pressure, and afterwards purified.” Br. 
Ambre Blanc, Blanc de Baleine, Spermaceti, Cetine, Fr.j Wallrath, Spermacetis, G.; Spermaceti, It.; Esperma 
de Ballena, Sp. 
The spermaceti whale is from sixty to eighty feet long, with an enormous head, not less 
in its largest part than thirty feet in circumference, and constituting one-third of the whole 
length of the body. The upper part of the head is occupied by large cavities, separated by 
cartilaginous partitions, and containing an oily liquid, which, after the death of the animal, 
concretes into a white spongy mass consisting of spermaceti mixed with oil. This mass is 
removed, and the oil allowed to separate by draining. The crude spermaceti obtained from a 
whale of the ordinary size is more than sufficient to fill twelve large barrels. It still contains 
much oil and other impurities, from which it is freed by expression, washing with hot water, 
melting, straining, and repeated washing with a weak boiling potash lye. Common whale 
oil and the oil of other cetaceous animals contain small quantities of spermaceti, which they 
slowly deposit on standing.* 
Spermaceti is in white, pearly, semi-transparent masses ; of a neutral reaction ; of a crystalline 
foliaceous texture ; friable, soft, and somewhat unctuous to the touch ; slightly odorous ; insipid; 
of the sp. gr. 0-943; fusible at 44-5° C. (112° F.) (Bostock), 43-9° C. to 50° C. (111° F. to 
122° F.) (Br.) ; volatilizable at a high temperature without change, in vacuo, but partially de- 
composed if the air is admitted ; inflammable ; insoluble in water; soluble in small proportion 
in boiling alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine, but deposited as the liquids cool; and in the fixed 
oils; not affected by the mineral acids, except sulphuric, which decomposes and dissolves it; 
* According to W. Gilmour, sperm, oil should contain not less than 4 per cent, of cetin, and if much less be 
obtained by the following process, adulteration has been practised. Shake one part by weight of sulphuric acid 
(sp. gr. 1-84) with four parts of the oil; allow to stand 20 minutes, shaking twice; add 3 ounces of distilled water; 
shake this thoroughly, and allow to stand from 16 to 20 hours; dilute with 3 or 4 times its volume of distilled water; 
agitate thoroughly. On standing, the cetin floats upon the top, and can readily be skimmed off, washed, dried, and 
weighed. (P. J. Tr., vii. 328. See also Ghem. Zeit., 1893, 1453, and Amer. Druij., 1895, 105.) 362 
Cetaceum.—Cetraria. 
PART I. 
rendered yellowish and rancid by long exposure to hot air, but capable of being again purified by 
washing with a warm lye of potash. “ Specific gravity, about 0-945 at 15° C. (59° F.). It melts 
near 50° C. (122° F.), and congeals near 45° C. (113° F.). Insoluble in water, and nearly so ia 
cold alcohol; soluble in boiling alcohol; also in ether, chloroform* carbon disulphide, fixed and 
volatile oils; only slightly soluble in cold benzin. An alcoholic solution of Spermaceti is 
neutral to litmus paper. If 1 Gm. of Spermaceti be boiled with 1 Gm. of anhydrous sodium 
carbonate and 50 C.c. of alcohol, and the mixture cooled and filtered, the filtrate, upon being 
supersaturated with acetic acid, may become turbid, but should not afford a precipitate (absence 
of stearic acid)." U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia states that “ It is reducible to powder by 
the aid of a little alcohol (90 per cent.). It is insoluble in water, and nearly insoluble in cold 
alcohol (90 per cent.), but soluble in ether, chloroform, boiling alcohol (90 per cent.), and in 
fixed and volatile oils. Melting point 114-8° to 122° F. (46° to 50° C.) when tested by the 
method described under £ Cera Flava.’ 0-2 gramme dissolved, by the aid of a water-bath, in 
20 cubic centimetres of alcohol (90 per cent.), two drops of solution of’phenol-phthalein being 
added, should not require more than one drop of volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide to 
produce a permanent red color (limit of acidity). Boiled with alcohol (90 per cent.), and the 
mixture cooled and filtered, the filtrate should not afford a flocculent precipitate on the addi- 
tion of water (absence of stearic acid).” As found in commerce it is not chemically pure, 
containing a fixed oil, and often a peculiar coloring principle. From these it is separated by 
boiling in alcohol, which on cooling deposits it in crystalline scales. Thus purified, it does 
not melt under 49° C. (120° F.), is soluble in 40 parts of boiling alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-821 
(Thenard), and is harder, more shining, and less unctuous than ordinary spermaceti. Sper- 
maceti is a mixture of various fats. When recrystallized from alcohol as just described, the 
purified cetin is obtained, while the alcohol on evaporation deposits an oil (mechanically ad- 
mixed sperm oil), the cetinelaine of Berzelius, which saponified yields cetinelaic acid, an acid 
resembling but distinct from oleic acid. The cetin which crystallizes out of the alcohol is 
essentially cetyl palmitate, C16H33(C16II3102),—that is, a compound of cetyl alcohol (ethal of 
Chevreul), C16II33.0H, and palmitic acid, C16H3202. According to Heintz, however, there are 
small amounts of other fats with the cetin ; fats containing the acids stearic, C18H3602, myristic, 
C14II2802, and lauro-stearic, C12II2402, and the alcohol radicals corresponding to these acids. 
L. F. Kebler, after examining about twenty samples of spermaceti, found that commercial 
specimens have a melting point of from 42° to 47° C., a specific gravity ranging from 0 905 to 
0-945 at 15° C., and saponification numbers from 125-8 to 134-6. He believes that the official 
requirements are those for cetin, and not spermaceti. (A. J. P., 1896, 7, and 1897, 104.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Spermaceti has been given as a demulcent in irrita- 
tions of the mucous membranes; but it has no remedial properties. It may be reduced to 
powder by the addition of a little alcohol or almond oil, or by melting it at a very low beat, 
pouring into a warm mortar, and agitating it until perfectly cold; an emulsion may be con- 
veniently made by mixing the spermaceti first with half its weight of olive oil, then with 
powdered gum arabic, and lastly with water gradually added. It enters into many ointments 
and cerates. 
CETRARIA. U. S. Cetraria. [Iceland Moss.] 
(CE-TRA'RI-A.) 
“ Cetraria islandica (Linn6), Acharius (class, Lichenes).” f U. S. 
Iceland Lichen ; Lichen Islandicus, P. G.; Mousse d’Islande, Lichen d’Islande, Fr.; Islandisches Moos, Islan- 
disches Fleclite, Lungenmoos, G.: Lichene islandico, It.; Liquen islandico, Sp.; Iceland Lichen. 
Gen. Ch. Plant cartilagino-membranous, ascending or spreading, lobed, smooth, and naked 
on both sides. Apothecia shield-like, obliquely adnate with the margin, the disk colored, plano- 
concave ; border iuflexed, derived from the frond. Loudon's Encyc. 
* In consequence of its solubility in chloroform, stains made by dropping it on cloth, or the grease-spots from 
burning candles, may be quickly removed by that liquid. 
f Poisonous properties are very rare among the great cryptogamic family of Lichens. The Cetraria juniperina 
of Europe is said to be sometimes used as a poison for foxes; whilst the wolf’s moss (Ulfmossa) of the north of 
Europe contains vnlpinic acid, C19II14O5, which has been found by Robert to be an active protoplasmic poison: in 
frogs it produces tetanus, convulsions, and paralysis of central origin; in mammals it causes dyspnoea, vomiting, 
trembling, and a slowing of the pulse, with rise of the blood-pressure due to stimulation of the respective nerve- 
centres. After death the blood is not coagulable, and the secreting kidney-cells are found covered with a crystalline 
or amorphous mass of a vulpinate. No difference of action exists between vulpinic acid derived from wolf’s moss 
and that synthetically produced. From Cetraria pinastrin Professor Zopf has separated pinastrinic act'd, which 
seems to be very closely allied to vulpinic acid. (Sitzungsb. der Dorpat. Naturforsch.-Gesellschaft, 1892.) PART I. 
Cetraria. 
363 
Cetraria Islandica. Acharius, Lichenog. Univ. 512 ; B. & T. 302.—Lichen islandicus. 
Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 803, t. 271. Iceland moss is foliaceous, erect, from two to four inches 
high, with a dry, coriaceous, smooth, shining, laciniated frond or leaf, the lobes of which are 
irregularly subdivided, channelled and fringed at their edges with rigid hairs. Those divisions 
upon which the fruit is borne are dilated. The color is olive-brown or greenish gray above, 
reddish at the base, and lighter on the under than on the upper surface. The fructification is in 
flat, shield-like, reddish-brown receptacles, with, elevated entire edges, placed upon the surface 
of the frond near its border. The plant is found in the northern latitudes of the old and new 
continents, and on the elevated mountains farther south. It received its name from the abun- 
dance with which it prevails in Iceland. It is also abundant on the mountains and sandy plains 
of New England. “ It should be free from pine leaves, mosses, and other lichens, which are 
frequently found mixed with it.” U. S. 
The dried moss is of diversified color, grayish white, brown, and red, in different parts, with 
less of the green tint than in the recent state. It is officially characterized as follows. “ From 
5 to 10 Cm. long, foliaceous, irregularly branched into fringed and channelled lobes, brownish 
above, whitish beneath, and marked with small, depressed spots; brittle and inodorous; when 
softened in water, cartilaginous, and having a slight odor; its taste is mucilaginous and bitter.” 
U. S. It is inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, bitter taste. Macerated in water, it absorbs 
rather more than its own weight of the fluid, and, if the water be warm, renders it bitter. 
Boiling water extracts all its soluble principles. The decoction thickens upon cooling, and 
acquires a gelatinous consistence, resembling that of starch in appearance, but without its 
viscidity. After some time the dissolved matter separates, and when dried forms semi-trans- 
parent masses, insoluble in cold water, alcohol, or ether, but soluble in boiling water, and in 
solution forming a blue compound with iodine. Lichenin, or Lichen starch, C12II20010, resembles 
starch in its general characters, but differs from it in some respects. Berzelius found in 100 
parts of Iceland moss 1-6 of chlorophyll, 3-0 of a peculiar bitter principle, 3-6 of uncrystal- 
lizable sugar, 3-7 of gum, 7-0 of extractive, 44-6 of the peculiar starch-like principle, 1-9 of 
calcium and potassium lichen-stearates mixed with calcium phosphate, and 36-2 of amylaceous 
fibrin—the excess being 1-6 parts. Lichenin has been found to consist of two distinct proximate 
principles, for one of which the name lichenin may be retained, while for the other no particular 
designation has been chosen, but which we may call lichenoid. According to Th. Berg ( These de 
Dorpat, 1872), cetraria yields 35-15 per cent, of the mixed principles, of which 20 per cent, is of 
lichenin, and 11-5 of the so-called lichenoid. To separate them, a decoction of the moss, con- 
centrated to a small bulk, and still hot, is treated by alcohol. The lichenoid is deposited in 
flocculi, which gradually unite in a viscid mass. This, being washed by alcohol until it ceases 
to be bitter, and then dried, yields a light friable matter partly soluble in cold water, with 
which it forms a yellow, limpid solution. To deprive it of mineral and coloring substances, it 
is dissolved in a little water, and precipitated afresh by alcohol. Lichenin is insoluble in cold 
water, but swells up and easily dissolves in hot water. It is insoluble in alcohol and in ether. 
It is only tinged by iodine. Lichenoid is, on the contrary, colored blue by that reagent. It 
is in part dissolved in cold water; and the undissolved part is equally colored blue by iodine. 
It is, like lichenin, insoluble in alcohol and ether. Both substances have strong analogies with 
starch, yet are distinct. For a further account of these principles, see Journ. de Pharm., 1873. 
The name of cetrarin has been conferred on the bitter principle. The following process for 
obtaining it is that of Dr. Herberger. The moss, coarsely powdered, is boiled for half an 
hour in four times its weight of alcohol of 0-883. The liquid when cool is expressed and 
filtered, and treated with diluted hydrochloric acid, in the proportion of three drachms to every 
pound of moss employed. Water is then added in the quantity of about four times the bulk 
of the liquid, and the mixture left for a night in a closed matrass. The deposit which forms 
is collected on a filter, allowed to drain as much as possible, and submitted to the press. To 
purify it, the mass, while still moist, is broken into small pieces, washed with alcohol or ether, 
and treated with two hundred times its weight of boiling alcohol, which dissolves the cetrarin, 
leaving the other organic principles by which it has hitherto been accompanied. The greater 
part is deposited as the liquor cools, and the remainder may be obtained by evaporation. By 
this process one pound of moss yielded to Dr. Herberger 133 grains of cetrarin. This princi- 
ple is white, not crystalline, light, unalterable in the air, inodorous, and exceedingly bitter, 
especially in alcoholic solution. Its best solvent is absolute alcohol, of which 100 parts dissolve 
1*7 of cetrarin at the boiling temperature. Ether also dissolves it, and it is slightly soluble 
in water. Its solutions are quite neutral to test-paper. It is precipitated by the acids, and 364 
Cetraria.— Ghartse. 
PART I. 
rendered much more soluble by the alkalies. Concentrated hydrochloric acid changes its color 
to a bright blue. It precipitates the salts of iron, copper, lead, and silver. In the dose of 
two grains (0-130 Gin.) every two hours, it has been used successfully in intermittent fever. 
(Journ. de Pharm., xxiii. 505.) Drs. Schnedermann and Knop have ascertained that the 
cetrarin above referred to consists of three distinct substances: 1, cetraric acid, C18H1.08, 
which is the true bitter principle, crystallizable, and intensely bitter; 2, a substance resembling 
the fatty acids, called lichen-stearic add, C14H3403, the crystals of which melt at 120° C. 
(248° F.) ; and, 3, a green coloring substance, which they name thallochlor. These principles 
are obtained perfectly pure with great difficulty. (Ann. der Pharm., lv. 144.) Hilger and 
Buchner (jBer. der Deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1890, p. 461) have extracted both lichen-stearic and 
cetraric acids and studied them more fully. They give to the former the formula C43H7e013, 
and to the latter the composition C30H30012, and both are shown to be dibasic acids. 
The gum and starch contained in the moss render it sufficiently nutritive to serve as food 
for the Lapps and Icelanders, who employ it powdered and made into bread, or boiled with 
milk, after having partially freed it from the bitter principle by repeated maceration in water. 
As suggested by Berzelius, the bitterness may be entirely extracted by macerating the powdered 
moss, for 24 hours, in twenty-four times its weight of a solution formed with 1 part of an 
alkaline carbonate and 375 parts of water, then decanting the liquid, and repeating the process 
with an equal quantity of the solution. The powder, being now dried, is perfectly sweet, and 
has been used to some extent in pharmacy as a substitute for acacia. It lacks one important 
quality of the latter, however,—i.e., adhesiveness; and it must be entirely devoid of bitterness, 
if it is to be used for this purpose. (See also Gelatina Lichenis Islandid Saccharata Sicca 
(Germ. Unoff. Formulary), Proc. A. P. A., 1892, 455.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Iceland moss is demulcent, nutritious, and tonic, and 
well calculated for affections of the mucous membrane of the lungs and bowels, with debility 
of the digestive organs, or of the system generally. Hence it has been found useful in chronic 
catarrhs, and other chronic pulmonary affections attended with copious puruloid expectoration, 
in dyspepsia, in chronic dysentery and diarrhoea, and in the debility succeeding acute disease, or 
dependent on copious purulent discharge from external ulcers. At one time it possessed much 
reputation as a remedy in pulmonary consumption. It had long been employed in this disease, 
and in haemoptysis, by the Danish physicians, before it became generally known. In the latter 
half of the last century it came into extensive use, and numerous cures supposed to have been 
effected by it are on record. We now know that it can exercise no specific influence over the 
tuberculous affection; but as Prof. Robert has found that cetrarin is a stimulant to the gastro- 
intestinal mucous membrane and to peristalsis, besides having a tendency to increase the for- 
mation of red and white blood corpuscles, it is easily seen how cetrarin may do good in phthisis 
as a demulcent tonic. Cetrarin itself has been commended in chlorosis or debility, with consti- 
pation ; dose, 15 to 3 grains (0-1—0-2 Gm.). It is usually employed in the form of decoction. 
(See Decoctum Cetrarise.) By some writers it is recommended to deprive it of the bitter prin- 
ciple by maceration in water or a weak alkaline solution, before preparing the decoction; but 
we thus reduce it to the state of a simple demulcent, or mild article of diet, in which respect 
it is not superior to the ordinary farinaceous or gummy substances used in medicine. The 
powder is sometimes given in the dose of thirty grains or a drachm (1-95-3-9 Gm.) ; and a 
preparation at one time obtained some repute, in which the ground moss was incorporated 
with chocolate, and used at the morning and evening meal as an ordinary beverage. 
CHARTS. Papers. 
(CHAR'TjE.) 
Papiers sparadrapiques, Fr.; Medlcamentirte Papiere, G. 
This class of preparations, long official in the French Codex, was afterwards adopted into the 
British Pharmacopoeia, but was not introduced into that of the United States until 1870* 
* Oharta Cantharidis. A blistering paper was formerly recognized by the two Pharmacopoeias, Charta Canthari- 
die, U. S.t Charta Epispastica, Br. ; but as these preparations were found inefficient, they have been very properly 
dropped from the official lists. The United States process (1880) is as follows: “White Wax, eight parts [or four 
ounces av.] ; Spermaceti, three parts [or one and a half ounces av.] ; Olive Oil, four parts [or two fluidounces]; 
Canada Turpentine, one part [or half an ounce av.] ; Cantharides, in No. 40 powder, one part [or half nn ounce av.]; 
Water, ten parts [or five fluidounces]. Mix all the substances in a tinned vessel, and boil gently for two hours, con- 
stantly stirring. Strain through a woollen strainer without expressing, and, by means of a water-bath, keep the 
mixture in a liquid state in a shallow, flat-bottomed vessel with an extended surface. Coat strips of sized paper with 
the melted plaster, on one side only, by passing them successively over the surface of the liquid; when dry, cut the 
strips into rectangular pieces.” Charta Potassii Nitrcdis.— Charta Sinapis. 
PAET I. 
365 
CHARTA POTASSII NITRATIS. U. S. Potassium Nitrate Paper. 
(CHAR'TA PO-TXS'SI-I NI-TRA'tIs.) 
Papier nitrS, Fr. 
“ Potassium Nitrate, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] ; Distilled Water, 
eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims]. Dissolve the Potassium Nitrate 
in the Distilled Water. Immerse strips of white, unsized paper in the solution, and dry them. 
Keep the paper in well-closed vessels.” JJ. S. 
This preparation is identical with the Charta Nitrata of the German Pharmacopoeia; it is 
sometimes called asthma paper. Care should be taken to dissolve thoroughly all of the nitrate, 
so that it shall not be deposited upon the paper in large particles and interfere with slow and 
steady combustion. 
Medical Properties. This paper is an excellent remedy, which in many cases of asthma 
affords much relief. It is used by burning it in front of the patient, who inhales its fumes. Its 
efficacy is much increased by saturating it with fluid extract of belladonna and drying. Paper 
thus prepared must be used with some caution. 
CHARTA SINAPIS. U. S., Br. Mustard Paper. 
(CHAR'TA SI-NA'PIS.) 
Papier sinapisS, Fr.; Senfpapier, G. 
Black Mustard, in No. 60 powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; India- 
Rubber, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Benzin, Carbon Disulphide, each, a sufficient quantity. 
Pack the Black Mustard in a conical percolator, and gradually pour Benzin upon it until the 
percolate ceases to produce a permanent, greasy stain upon blotting paper. Remove the powder 
from the percolator, and dry it by exposure to the air. Having meanwhile dissolved the India- 
Rubber in a mixture of one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], each, of 
Benzin and Carbon Disulphide, mix the purified Mustard with a sufficient quantity of the solu- 
tion to produce a semi-liquid magma, and apply this, by means of a suitable brush, to one side 
of a piece of rather stiff, well-sized paper, so as to cover it completely, and then allow the 
surface to dry. A surface of sixty square centimeters should contain about 4 grammes of 
Black Mustard deprived of oil. Before it is applied to the skin, Mustard Paper should be 
dipped in warm water for about fifteen seconds.” U. S. 
“ Black and White Mustard Seeds, equal proportions by weight; Benzol, Solution of India- 
rubber, of each, a sufficient quantity. Bruise the Mustard Seeds and extract the fixed oil by 
percolation with the Benzol. Dry the residue by exposure to the air in a warm closet, and 
reduce to No. 60 powder. Mix seventy-five grains (or five grammes) of the purified mustard 
with five fluid drachms (or eighteen cubic centimetres) of Solution of India-rubber, and spread 
by means of a suitable brush over about 30 square inches (or about two square decimetres) of 
one side of a piece of cartridge paper. Allow it to dry by exposure to the air.” Br. 
The formula for this preparation has been greatly improved by the U. S. P. 1890 and B. P. 
1898. The British preparation (1885) was at fault in not providing for the extraction of the 
fixed oil by previously percolating with benzin or carbon disulphide ; otherwise the paper will be 
greasy, giving to the plaster an untidy appearance and soiling the linen of the patient. Solution 
of gutta-percha is unsuited for use in this preparation, on account of want of adhesiveness, and 
the tendency of the mixture, when dry, to crack and peel off. We have used instead a solu- 
tion of 1 part of pure rubber in 30 of equal parts of carbon disulphide and benzin. On the 
large scale, by means of a plaster-spreading apparatus a uniform coat of this solution may be 
applied to paper. As the latter passes out from under the apparatus, a sieve containing the 
powdered mustard is shaken over it; this is fixed by the adhesive coat and firmly retained after 
the evaporation of the volatile liquids in a warm place. The application of the powdered 
mustard must be properly regulated according to the speed with which the machine delivers 
the coated paper. The paper is cut into pieces of convenient size, and needs only to be wetted 
with tepid water to be ready for use. Owing to the fact that the large manufacturers can put- 
mustard paper upon the market at such low rates that it pays the apothecary better to buy than 
to prepare it, Charta Sinapis, so far as we can learn, is rarely made in the retail stores. Ex- 
perience has shown that the ready-made mustard papers err rather from too much than from 
too little activity. Moreover, their action cannot be regulated with the same nicety as can that 
of the mustard poultice. Unless in the case of travellers, and of others who must wait upon 
themselves, the domestic application is preferable. The mustard leaves can rarely be borne 
for more than ten or fifteen minutes. 366 
Chelidonium. 
PART I. 
CHELIDONIUM. U. S. Chelidonium. [Celandine.] 
(CHfiL-I-DO'NI-tM.) 
“ The entire plant, Chelidonium majus,Linne (nat. ord. Papaveraceae).” U. S. 
Herba Chelidonii, P. 0.; Tetterwort; Chelidoine, Herbe a lTIirondelle, Fr.; Schollkraut, G. 
Celandine is a perennial herbaceous plant, growing wild in this country, about old houses 
and in rocky places; supposed to have been introduced from Europe, where it is indigenous. 
It is one or two feet high, bears pinnate leaves and small peduncled umbels of yellow flowers, 
and when wounded emits a yellow, opaque juice. The whole plant is used. It has a faint 
unpleasant odor, and a bitter, acrid, durable taste, which is stronger in the roots than in the 
leaves. The odor is nearly lost by drying, but the taste remains. The yellow juice is bitter 
and exceedingly acrid, and when applied to the skin produces inflammation and even vesication. 
It is oflicially described as follows: “ Root several-headed, branching, reddish-brown ; stem 
about 50 Cm. long, light green, hairy; leaves about 15 Cm. long, thin, petiolate, the upper 
ones smaller and sessile, light green, on the lower side glaucous, lyrate-pinnatifid, the pinnae 
ovate-oblong, obtuse, coarsely crenate or incised and the terminal one often three-lobed ; flowers 
in small, long-peduncled umbels with two sepals and four yellow petals; capsule linear, two- 
valved and many-seeded. The fresh plant contains a saffron-colored milk-juice, and has an 
unpleasant odor and acrid taste.” U. S. 
Dr. Probst, of Heidelberg, found in it a peculiar acid denominated clielidonic acid; two 
alkaline principles, one of which forms neutral salts with the acids, and is called chelerythrine 
in consequence of the intense redness of its salts, the other unites with but does not neutralize 
the acids, and is named chelidonine ; and lastly a neutral crystallizable, bitter principle, which 
from its yellow color he calls chelidoxanthin. Orlow believes, however, that the latter is an 
alkaloid, and gives a process for its preparation in Pliarm. Zeit. f. Russ., 1893, No. 21. Chelery- 
thrine appears to be an acrid narcotic poison. (Annal. der Pharm., xxix. 113.) It has been 
shown by Dr. James Schiels, of St. Louis, to be identical with sanguinarine, and may be pre- 
pared in the same manner. (See Sanguinaria.) Zwenger isolated another acid, which he names 
chelidoninic acid, although both Walz and Kraut consider it to be only succinic acid. (A. J. P., 
1861, 7.) Schmidt considers chelidoninic acid to be identical with ethylene-succinic acid. 
(Arch. d. Pharm., 1886, 531.) For color tests for chelidonine, see Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 
992. Chelidonine phosphate, chelidonine sulphate, and chelidonine tannate have been used 
medicinally. (See Proc. A. P: A., 1897, 721.) 
Subsequently (1889) Prof. Schmidt announced the presence of twelve different bases, four of 
which he has studied : chelidonine, C20H19N06-(-IIaO ; methylchelidonine; a-methylchelidonine 
and /?-methylchelidonine, represented by the formula C21H21N06. These bases were ascertained 
to possess physiologically an action resembling that of morphine. (Pharm. Zeit., 1889, p. 582.) 
Schmidt (A. J. P., 1890, p. 13) also found protopine, and showed the identity of stylophorine, 
from Stylophorum diphyllum, with chelidonine. This last result was confirmed by Selle. (A. J. 
P., 1890, p. 176.) Selle later (Arch, der Pharm., 1890, 441-462) sums up the composition 
of Chelidonium majus as follows: it contains, besides chelidonine and chelerythrine, three other 
alkaloids, called a-homochelidonine, C21H21N06, j-homochelidonine, C21H21N06, and protopine. 
These results practically agree with those before obtained by Schmidt. The identity of chel- 
erythrine and sanguinarine is not conceded by G. Kbnig. (Chem.Centralbl., 1891, p. 321.) He 
gives the composition CQ1H1„NOJ. to the former and C„nH1,.NOil to the latter, making one the 
methyl derivative of the other. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Celandine is an acrid purgative, possessed also of 
diuretic, and perhaps diaphoretic and expectorant, properties. In overdose it produces un- 
certain effects and has been ranked as doubtfully poisonous. A case in which a fatal result 
was attributed to the hypodermic injection of half a gramme of the extract is reported in the 
Zeitsch. f Medizinalbeamte, 1898 ; but a careful study of the detailed report is convincing that 
the remedy had nothing to do with the death. By the ancients chelidonium was esteemed in 
jaundice, and was indeed the chief ingredient of the old decoctum ad ictericos of the Edinburgh 
Pharmacopoeia. It has been given also in other complaints, especially those of a scrofulous 
character affecting the mesenteric and lymphatic glands, the skin, and the eyes. The yellow 
juice is distinctly irritant, and has long been used as a local application to corns, warts, and 
other hypertrophic lesions of the skin, as well as in chronic eczema and urticaria. Denissenko 
asserts that he has obtained very favorable results in external cancers by the internal adminis- 
tration of from twenty-four to seventy-five grains of the extract, conjoined with the injection at Chenopodium. 
367 
PART I. 
the border of the tumor of a mixture of equal parts of the extract, distilled water, and glyce- 
rin ; but it is not probable that this treatment is of any value when the growth is really 
malignant. The dose of the dried root or herb is from thirty grains to a drachm (1-9-3-9 
6m.), that of the fresh root one or two drachms (3-9-T-8 6m.), and the same quantity may be 
given in infusion. The dose of the aqueous extract is from five to ten grains (0-324 to 0-648 
6m.), of the expressed juice from ten to twenty drops (0-648 to 1-29 C.c.), to be gradually 
increased. The allegation of Peronin that chelidonine sulphate, in doses of from 0-05 to 0-3 
grain, is an active analgesic and somnifacient has not been confirmed by subsequent observers. 
CHENOPODIUM. U. S. Chenopodium. [American Wormseed.] 
(CHE-NO-PO'DI-UM.) 
“ The fruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides, Linne, and variety anthelminticum, Gray (nat. 
ord. Chenopodiaceae).” U. S. 
Fructus Chenopodii Anthelmintici; Semences de ChSnopode anthelmintique, Fr.; Amerikanischer Wurm- 
samen, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-leaved, four-cornered. Corolla none. Seed one, lenticular, superior. 
Willd. 
Chenopodium, anthelminticum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1304; Barton, Med. Bot. ii. 183; B. & 
T. 216. This is an indigenous perennial plant, with an herbaceous, erect, branching, fur- 
rowed stem, which rises from two to five feet in height. The leaves are alternate or scattered, 
sessile, oblong-lanceolate, attenuated at both ends, sinuated and toothed on the margin, con- 
spicuously veined, of a yellowish-green color, and dotted on their under surface* The flowers 
are very numerous, small, of the same color with the leaves, and arranged in long, leafless, 
terminal panicles, composed of slender, dense, glomerate, alternating spikes. 
This species of Chenopodium, known commonly by the names of wormseed and Jerusalem 
oak, grows in almost all parts of the United States, but most vigorously and abundantly in the 
southern section. It is usually found in the vicinity of rubbish, along fences, in the streets of 
villages, and in open grounds about the larger towns. It flowers from July to September, and 
ripens its seeds successively through the autumn. The whole herb has a strong, peculiar, 
offensive, yet somewhat aromatic odor, which it retains when dry. All parts of the plant are 
occasionally employed ; but only the fruit is official. This should be collected in October.f 
Wormseed, as found in commerce, is in small grains, not larger than the head of a pin, irreg- 
ularly spherical, very light, of a dull greenish-yellow or brownish color, a bitterish, somewhat 
aromatic, pungent taste, and possessed in a high degree of the peculiar smell of the plant. 
These grains, when deprived, by rubbing them in the hand, of a capsular covering which 
invests the proper seed, exhibit the shining, blackish surface of the obtusely-edged seed. They 
abound in a volatile oil, upon which their sensible properties and medical virtues depend, and 
which is obtained by distillation. (See Oleum Chenopodii.') The same oil impregnates to a 
greater or less extent the whole plant. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Wormseed is one of our most efficient indigenous 
anthelmintics, and is thought to be particularly adapted to the expulsion of the round worms 
in children. A dose of it is usually given before breakfast in the morning, and at bedtime in 
the evening, for three or four days successively, and then followed by calomel or some other 
brisk cathartic. If the worms are not expelled, the same plan is repeated. The medicine is 
most conveniently administered in powder, mixed with syrup, in the form of an electuary. 
The dose for a child two or three years old is from one to two scruples (1-3-2-6 6m.). The 
volatile oil is more frequently given than the fruit in substance; though its offensive odor and 
taste sometimes render it difficult of administration. The dose for a child is from five to ten 
drops (0-3-0-6 C.c.) mixed with sugar, or in the form of emulsion. The oil of wormseed is 
probably in overdoses capable of acting as a poison* Dr. A. K. Bond has reported the death, 
preceded by stupor, of a boy three years old, as caused by a half-drachm. (.Maryland Med. 
Journ., 1897.) A tablespoonful (15 C.c.) of the expressed juice of the leaves, or a wineglassful 
(60 C.c.) of the decoction prepared by boiling an ounce of the fresh plant in a pint of milk, 
* Dr. H. Paschkis has made an elaborate study of the microscopic structure of this leaf. (P. J. Tr., 1881, p. 44.) 
t 0. anthelminticum is cultivated to a considerable extent in Maryland, twenty or thirty miles north of Baltimore. 
Ihe seeds are sown in small beds of rich mould early in spring, and during the month of June the young plants are 
nulled up, and set out in ridges three feet apart, with intervals of from six to ten inches. The plants do not require 
;o be renewed oftener than once in four or live years. The crop of the second year is more productive than that of 
he first. The plant is fit for distillation during the first half of September. The distillation is carried on in the 
ame neighborhood. The whole herbaceous part of the plant is used. It is said to yield from 1*5 to 2 per cent, of 
he oil, and the produce of an acre will yield 20 pounds. (See A. J. P., xxii. 304.) PART I. 
368 
Chenopodium.—Chimaphila. 
with the addition of orange-peel or other aromatic, is sometimes substituted in domestic prac- 
tice for the fruit and oil. 
The fruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides, which is very prevalent in the Middle States, is 
said to be used indiscriminately with that of C. anthelminticum, and to be employed in Brazil, 
under the name of Herba Santa Maria, as an anthelmintic and in pectoral complaints (/*. J. 
Tr., ix. 713) ; also in Europe in nervous affections, particularly chorea (a cupful of an infusion 
(3ii to fgx) morning and evening). It may be distinguished by its odor, which is weaker and 
less offensive, and to some persons agreeable. The plant itself is often confounded with the 
true wormseed, from which it differs in having its flowers in leafy racemes. 
C. Botrys, or Jerusalem oak, is another indigenous species, possessing anthelmintic virtues. 
It is said to have been used in France with advantage in catarrh and asthma. 
CHIMAPHILA. U. S. Chimaphila. [Pipsissewa.] 
(PHI-MXPH'I-LA.) 
“ The leaves of Chimaphila umbellata (Linne),Nuttall (nat. ord. Ericaceae.)” U. S. 
Prince’s Pine, Winter-green; Herbe de Pyrole ombell6e, Fr.; Doldenbliithiges Harnkraut, Wintergriin, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Petals five. Style very short, immersed in the germ. Stigma 
annular, orbicular, with a five-lobed disk. Filaments stipitate; stipe discoid, ciliate. Capsules 
five-celled, opening from the summits, margins unconnected. Nuttall. 
This genus was separated from Pyrola by Pursh. It embraces two species, C. umbellata and 
C. maculata, which are both indigenous, and known by the common title of winter-green. The 
generic title is formed of two Greek words, winter, and (pilot.a friend. 
Chimaphila umbellata. Barton, Med. Bat. i. 17 ; Carson, Jllust. of Med. Bot. i. 62, pi. 53.— 
Pyrola umbellata. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 622 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 15.— Chimaphila 
corymbosa. Pursh. B. & T. 165. The pipsissewa is a small evergreen plant, with a perennial, 
creeping, yellowish root (rhizome), which gives rise to several simple, erect or semiprocumbent 
stems, from four to eight inches in height, and ligneous at their base. The leaves are wedge- 
shaped, somewhat lanceolate, serrate, coriaceous, smooth, of a shining, sap-green color on the 
upper surface, paler beneath, and supported upon short footstalks, in irregular whorls, of which 
there are usually two on the same stem. The flowers are disposed in a small terminal corymb, 
and stand upon nodding peduncles. The calyx is small and divided at its border into five teeth 
or segments. The corolla is composed of five roundish, concave, spreading petals, which are 
of a white color tinged with red, and exhale an agreeable odor. The stamens are ten, with 
filaments shorter than the petals, and with large, nodding, bifurcated, purple anthers. The 
germ is globular and depressed, supporting a thick and apparently sessile stigma, the style 
being short and immersed in the germ. The seeds are numerous, linear, chaffy, and enclosed 
in a roundish, depressed,.five-celled, five-valved capsule, having the persistent calyx at the base. 
This humble but beautiful evergreen is a native of the northern latitudes of America, Europe, 
and Asia. It is found in all parts of the United States. It grows under the shade of woods, 
and prefers a loose sandy soil enriched by decaying leaves. The flowers appear in June and 
July. All parts of the plant are endowed with active properties. The leaves and stems are 
found in commerce. The leaves are officially described as “ about 5 Cm. long, oblanceolate, 
sharply serrate above, wedge-shaped and nearly entire towards the base; coriaceous, smooth, 
and dark green on the upper surface. It is nearly inodorous, and has an astringent and bitter- 
ish taste.” IT. S. 
C. maculata, or spotted winter-green, though not official, probably possesses similar virtues. 
The character of the leaves of the two plants will serve to distinguish them. Those of C. 
maculata are lanceolate, rounded at the ba#e, where they are broader than near the summit, 
and of a deep olive green, veined writh greenish white; those of the official species are broadest 
near the summit, gradually narrowing to the base, and of a uniform shining green. 
Properties. Pipsissewa, when fresh and bruised, exhales a peculiar odor. The leaves 
have been already described. Their taste is pleasantly bitter, astringent, and sweetish; that 
of the stems and root unites with these qualities a considerable degree of pungency. Boiling 
water extracts the active properties of the plant, which are also imparted to alcohol. The 
leaves have been examined by Mr. Samuel Fairbank, who found in them gum, starch, sugar, 
extractive, pectic acid, tannic acid, resin, fatty matter, chlorophyll, yellow coloring matter, 
lignin, a peculiar whitish substance which he calls chimaphilin, and various inorganic substances, 
as potassa, lime, magnesia, sodium chloride, and sulphuric, phosphoric, and silicic acids. The Chimaphila.— Chirata. 
PART I. 
369 
chimaphilin was obtained by agitating a tincture with chloroform, allowing the mixture to 
stand, removing the lighter liquid, and allowing the chloroformic solution to evaporate. A 
yellow crystalline substance was left, which, purified by solution in alcohol, filtration, and 
spontaneous evaporation, constituted the substance in question. It was also obtained by simply 
distilling the stems with water. It is in beautiful, golden-yellow, acicular crystals, inodorous, 
tasteless, fusible, volatilizable unchanged, insoluble or nearly so in water, soluble in alcohol, 
ether, chloroform, and the fixed and volatile oils, and possessed of neither acid nor alkaline 
properties. (Joum. and Trans, of the Maryland Coll, of Pharm., 1860.) The active principle 
of the leaves seems to have been isolated by E. S. Beshore (A. J. P, 1887, p. 125) by treat- 
ment of the powdered leaves with petroleum spirit. He obtained white crystals, melting at 
236° C., sparingly soluble in cold or boiling 90-per-cent, alcohol, sparingly soluble in ether, 
benzin, chloroform, and cold glacial acetic acid; more soluble in hot glacial acetic acid. An 
ultimate analysis gave the formula C10H190. He also obtained the golden-yellow crystalline 
principle of Fairbank both from the leaves and the stems. He considers it distinct from the 
one described above. Josiah C. Peacock (A. J. P., 1892, p. 295) has made a careful analysis 
of both C. umhellata and C. maculata. He obtained in several ways the yellow crystalline 
principle chimaphilin, and studied its properties. It forms yellow acicular crystals, nearly 
odorless and tasteless, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, benzen, petroleum 
benzin, acetous and glacial acetic acid. They may be sublimed by careful heating without change. 
Chimaphilin melts at 108°-109° C., and has the composition C24H2104. Peacock also found 
three other crystalline principles, for which no formulas, however, are given. Ridenour (A. J. 
P., 1895, 236) has also prepared chimaphilin, and by the analysis of the purified crystals 
and of two of its derivatives, confirms the formula, C24H2104, given by Peacock. He finds the 
melting point of the purified chimaphilin to be 114° C. He also prepared another crystalline 
principle melting above 250° C., to which he gives the formula C10II190, which agrees with 
Beshore’s product. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This plant is stated to have been used internally by 
the North American Indians in scrofula and rheumatism, and was subsequently a very popular 
remedy among the settlers of this country. It is now known, however, to be only slightly 
tonic, astringent, and diuretic. It is one of the mildest and least effective of the so-called 
stimulating diuretics, being closely similar to, but less certain and effective than, uva ursi in 
its therapeutic influence and application. The best preparation is the official fluid extract, 
which may readily be made into a syrup. The does is two fluidrachms (7’5 C.c.). 
CHIRATA. U. S., Br. Chirata. 
(eHI-KA'TA.) 
“ The entire plant, Swertia Chirata, Hamilton (nat. ord. Gentianeae).” U. S. “ The dried 
plant, Swertia Chirata, Ham., collected when in flower.” Br. 
Chiretta; Chirette, Fr.; Chiretta, G. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla withering, rotate, in aestivation twisted to the right; with glandular hollows 
protected by a fringed scale upon the segments. Anthers not changing. Stigmas sessile. 
Capsules conical; one-celled, with spongy placentae upon the sutures. Seeds indefinite, minute. 
Bindley. 
Agaihotes chirayta. Hon, Bond. Philos. Mag. 1836, p. 76.—Gentiana chirayta. Fleming, 
Asiat. Research, xi. 167.— Ophelia Chirata. Grisebach. B. & T. 183. The chirayta, or chirata, 
is an annual plant, about three feet high, with a branching root, and an erect, smooth, round 
stem, branching into an elegant leafy panicle, and furnished with opposite, embracing, lanceolate, 
very acute, entire, smooth, three- or five-nerved leaves. The flowers are numerous, peduncled, 
yellow, with a four-cleft calyx having linear acute divisions, the limb of the corolla spreading 
and four-parted, four stamens, a single style, and a two-lobed stigma. The capsules are shorter 
than the permanent calyx and corolla. The plant is a native of Nepaul and other parts of 
Northern India. The whole of it is gathered when the flowers begin to decay* 
* In the Indian bazaars the name chirata is applied to various dried gentianaceous plants; the most important 
of these is the Ophelia angusti/olia. It yields the Paharee or Hill chirata, which is distinguished by its inferior 
bitterness, and its rectangular, winged stems, whose section presents a thick woody ring and a centre nearly or en- 
tirely hollow, with only traces of pith. A false chirata, which has also found its way into the London markets, and 
resembles the official variety in having a well-developed pith, but which is completely lacking in bitterness, is 
affirmed to be the product of Ophelia alata. (P. J. Tr., xvii. 903.) Under the name of Indian chirata, the dried 
plant of the Andrographie paniculata, which is officially recognized by the Pharmacopoeia of India, has appeared 
in the London market. It resembles much more closely recently dried broom-tops than the true chirata. It is a 370 
Chirata.—Chloral. 
PART I. 
The dried plant is imported into Europe in bundles, consisting mainly of the stems, with por- 
tions of the root attached. The stems contain a yellowish pith. The drug is officially described 
as a “ root nearly simple, about 7 Cm. long; stem branched, nearly 1 meter long, slightly quad- 
rangular above; containing a narrow wood-circle and a large yel- 
lowish pith. Leaves opposite, sessile, ovate, entire, five-nerved. 
Flowers numerous, small, with a four-lobed calyx and corolla. 
The whole plant smooth, pale brown, inodorous, and intensely 
bitter.” U. S. Its fruits are superior, bicarpellary, and unilocular. 
Its virtues are imparted to water and alcohol, and are retained in 
the extract. According to Lassaigne and Boissel, the stems con- 
tain resin, a yellow bitter substance, brown coloring matter, gum, 
and various salts. Fluckiger and Hbhn, who subsequently ex- 
amined the stems and roots of chirata, extracted from them sugar, 
wax, chlorophyll, soft resin, tannin, an acid which they name 
ophelic, possessing the formula C13H20010, and a peculiar bitter 
substance, denominated chiratin, C2eH48016. The acid is syrupy, 
deliquescent, yellowish brown, at first slightly sour, afterwards 
intensely bitter. It is soluble in water, with some turbidness, 
probably owing to resin mixed with it, and completely soluble in 
alcohol, or a mixture of this with ether. It decomposes certain 
salts, and forms amorphous compounds with acids. Chiratin is a 
yellow, hygroscopic powder, but feebly crystallizable, very bitter, 
sparingly soluble in cold water, more so in hot water, and readily 
dissolved by alcohol and ether. It is neutral to test-paper, and 
yields a copious precipitate with tannic acid. By the action of 
acids, chiratin is separated into ophelic acid, and a yellowish- 
brown, amorphous substance, bitter, scarcely soluble in water, readily soluble in spirit, and not 
reducing copper solutions, as the ophelic acid does. Hbhn gives it the formula C13I12403, and 
names it chiratogenin. (P. J. Tr., Aug. 1870, 106.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Chirata has long been used in India. It has beer 
introduced into Europe, and appears to be highly esteemed, but has not been employed to anj 
considerable extent in this country. Its properties are those of the pure bitters, and probabl; 
do not differ from those of the other members of the family of Gentianacese. (See Gentiana.' 
Like these, in overdoses it nauseates and oppresses the stomach. Some have supposed that, in 
addition to its tonic properties, it exerts a peculiar influence over the liver, promoting the secre- 
tion of bile and correcting it when deranged, and restoring healthy evacuations in cases o:' 
habitual costiveness. It has been used in dyspepsia, and in the debility of convalescence, am 
generally in cases in which corroborant measures are indicated. In India it has been success 
fully employed in intermittents and remittents, combined with the seeds of Guilandina bonducella 
It may be given in powder, infusion, tincture, or fluid extract. The dose in substance is twenty 
grains (1-3 Gm.). 
Chirata, transverse section. 
CHLORAL. U. S. (Br.) Chloral. Chloral Hydrate. 
C2 HC13 O, H2 O ; 164*97. (CHLO'BAL.) C2 HC1S 0, H2 0; 165-2. 
“ A crystalline solid, composed of Trichloraldehyde or Chloral with one molecule of water. 
It should be kept in glass-stoppered bottles, in a cool and dark place.” U. S. “ Chloral Hy- 
drate, or trichlorethylidene glycol, CCl3.CH(OH)2, is obtained by the addition of water to the 
liquid chloral produced by the action of dry chlorine gas on ethylic alcohol.” Br. 
Chloral Hydras, Br., Hydrous Chloral; Chloralutn Hydratum Crystal lisa turn, P. G.; Hydrate de Chloral, Fr.; 
Chloral Hydrat, G. 
In adopting the name chloral to designate chloral hydrate, the U. S. Pharmacopoeia has 
unfortunately perpetuated an inaccuracy which neither the English, the Germans, nor the 
French follow in their usage, the term hydrate being always employed, as it should be. The 
fact that water is absolutely necessary to allow of the crystallization of the preparation, and 
to give it medicinal character, should be recognized in the name. As custom has sanctioned 
the usage here in the present article, whenever the term chloral is used, the hydrate is in- 
little more than two feet long. The branching stems are from J to \ inch in thickness near the base, woody, quad- 
rangular, furrowed, smooth, slightly knotted at the point from which the branches spring, the longitudinal furrows 
are continued through the roots, which have numerous fine radicles, the leaves are opposite decussate, branches 
erect or forming an acute angle with the stem, terminal shoots extremely slender. PART I. 
Chloral. 
371 
tended; and whenever the uncombined substance is referred to, it is designated anhydrous 
chloral. Perhaps no medicine has come so rapidly into extensive use as that now under con- 
sideration. Though discovered by Liebig so long since as 1832, and afterwards investigated 
by Dumas, who determined its chemical formula, it was not until 1869 that its remedial prop- 
erties were first made known by their discoverer, Dr. Otto Liebreich, of Berlin: in 1878 the 
consumption of chloral was estimated at one ton daily in England and America alone; and, 
although not used now to this extent, it is still largely employed. 
Anhydrous Chloral. In preparing anhydrous chloral, the simple method originally employed 
by Liebig, of acting directly on alcohol by chlorine, is generally preferred, even, we believe, by 
the larger manufacturers ; though a more complex proceeding has been suggested by Staedeler, 
of distilling together proximate vegetable principles, as fecula, sugar, etc., with black man- 
ganese oxide and hydrochloric acid, whereby the chlorine acts in statu nascendi. The following 
details of the manufacture of chloral hydrate as carried out on a commercial scale have been 
supplied by E. Schering, of Berlin, who has been for some years the largest manufacturer of 
it. Absolute alcohol in lots of 50 pounds is placed in large glass flasks and saturated with 
chlorine, which is passed in a continuous stream for 6 to 8 weeks. The chlorine is led into 
cold alcohol at first, and when no more is absorbed, the alcohol is heated at first gently and 
then to 60° C. (140° F.). When saturated, the mixture formed is agitated with sulphuric acid 
at a temperature of 60° C. (140° F.) for several hours, during which time most of the hydro- 
chloric acid escapes. The separated chloral is then rectified over calcium carbonate. The pure 
chloral so obtained is then mixed in glass flasks with the necessary amount of water, and the 
resulting hydrate either cast into cakes or purified by crystallization. As solvents for this pur- 
pose certain of the side products of the chloral manufacture, after being purified and rectified, are 
used, for instance, ethylene and ethylidene chlorides. Or in their absence chloroform is used ; 
petroleum benzin and carbon disulphide have also been recommended. The action of chlorine 
upon alcohol is said to be aided by the presence of “ chlorine carriers,” such as iodine, ferric 
chloride, thallium chloride, etc. The formula of anhydrous chloral is C2C13H0; in other 
words, aldehyde, C2H40, in which 3 atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by 3 atoms of 
chlorine. The alcohol, C2H60, may be supposed to give up 2 atoms of its hydrogen to form 
aldehyde, which exchanges 3 of its atoms of hydrogen for 3 atoms of the chlorine, the hydro- 
gen forming hydrochloric acid with 3 other atoms of the chlorine. The name of chloral was 
derived from the chlorine and a/cohol from which it is formed. The anhydrous chloral thus 
formed is a colorless liquid, of'penetrating disagreeable odor, of little taste, of the sp. gr. 1-502, 
and boiling at 94° C. (201-2° F.). It is soluble in ether or chloroform without change. 
According to A. Trillat, in the formation of chloral from alcohol, the latter is first changed 
by the action of the chlorine into aldehyde; this unites with alcohol to form acetal, which is 
changed successively into mono-, di-, and trichloracetal; the action of hydrochloric acid 
decomposes this latter with the formation of chloral alcoholate and ethyl chloride; sulphuric 
acid decomposes the alcoholate, liberating chloral, which then is made to combine with wrater 
to form the crystalline chloral hydrate. (Bulletin, 1897, 17, 230.) 
Meta-chloral. By continued contact of anhydrous chloral and concentrated sulphuric acid, 
a change is effected in the chloral, by wfiich it becomes a solid insoluble in water, which is 
designated as insoluble chloral, or meta-chloral. It is tasteless, of a white color resembling por- 
celain, and insoluble in alcohol and ether. Its formula is C6H3C1903, being formed by the 
union of three molecules of chloral. It is stated that when perfectly pure, chloral does not 
become polymerised; the change is also said to be prevented by the addition of a little chloro- 
form. When heated to 180° C., metachloral distils with reversion to liquid chloral. (Allen, 
Com. Org. Analysis, 2d ed., i. p. 171.) 
Chloral Alcoholate. A compound obtained by M. Roussin, which he announced as pure 
chloral hydrate, was found by M. Personne to contain no water, but to be in fact a compound 
of alcohol and chloral, and is now known by the name of chloral alcoholate, C2HC130,C2H60. 
It results directly from the action of absolute alcohol on anhydrous chloral, and is now known 
to be formed as a stage in the manufacture of chloral from alcohol. As it is very likely to be 
confounded with chloral hydrate, the following points of difference should be noted. It forms 
white crystals melting at 46° C. (114-8° F.), and boils at 113-5° C. (236° F.), while chloral 
hydrate crystals melt at 58° C. (136-4° F.), and boil at 97-5° C. (207° F.) ; chloral alcoholate 
melts without complete solution when warmed with two volumes of water, and, on cooling, 
congeals below the surface of the water, while chloral hydrate is soluble in one and one-half 
times its weight of water; chloral alcoholate, gently heated with nitric acid of 1-2 sp. gr., is 372 
Chloral. 
PART I. 
violently attacked, while chloral hydrate is scarcely acted on; chloral alcoholate, heated on 
platinum foil, inflames readily, while chloral hydrate scarcely burns. (Allen, Com. Org. Analysis, 
2d ed., i. p. 172.) 
The three related products, the anhydrous chloral, the polymeric meta-chloral, and the alco- 
holate, described above, have been more or less introduced into the European markets, and 
have required some notice to prevent them from being confounded with the hydrate, which is 
alone official. The following observations will be confined to this compound; and the reader 
will note that whether the simple term chloral, or the exact designation, chloral hydrate, is 
used, the same substance is intended. 
Properties of Chloral Hydrate, or Chloral, U. S. This results from simply mixing 
anhydrous chloral with water. Acicular crystals soon form, which consist of a molecule each 
of the chloral and water, constituting chloral hydrate, or official chloral. As employed in the 
United States, this comes, we believe, exclusively from Europe, and chiefly from Germany. 
It was at one time made in this country by Dr. E. R. Squibb, of Brooklyn. It occurs in com- 
merce mainly in two forms, in distinct crystals, which is the official form, or in crystalline 
plates,* about three lines in thickness, broken into small, irregular, angular pieces, so as to be 
readily introduced into broad-mouthed bottles. These pieces, while retaining their tabular 
form, are somewhat translucent, but usually covered with a white powder, which somewhat 
conceals that property. This is the more common form and the cheaper; but the crystals are 
to be preferred, as their purity may be relied on. Chloral is white, of a peculiar pungent odor, 
and an acrid pungent taste, especially affecting the velum pendulum. The odor has been com- 
pared to that of an over-ripe melon. Exposed to the air it very slowly volatilizes, and, like 
camphor, when enclosed in a bottle, covers the interior surface with numerous minute crystal- 
lizations. The boiling point of the pure crystals is 97-5° C. (207° F.). If the boiling point 
be under 95° C., it indicates an under-hydrated preparation ; if above 98° C., an over-hydrated 
one. (E. R. Squibb.) The pure hydrate does not take fire when heated in a spoon, but evapo- 
rates without residue. With the aid of heat, its solution may be effected readily in chloroform ; 
and the solution, on cooling, deposits it in beautiful crystals, which are generally needle-shaped ; 
but, when deposited from carbon disulphide, they are prisms. The aqueous solution is prone to 
decomposition, which is ultimately attended with the development of low organisms. Chloral 
should not, therefore, be kept long in this state. (Dr. E. Labbee, Arch. Gin., Sept. 1870.) In 
its relation to acids and alkalies it is neutral, or, according to E. Schering, slightly acid when 
perfectly pure. When equal parts of chloral in crystals and of camphor in small fragments 
are shaken together in a bottle, and allowed to stand, they liquefy, forming a clear solution. 
When chloral and sulphuric acid are mixed, the temperature is greatly reduced. A solution 
of chloral hydrate dissolves morphine, quinine, and most of the vegetable alkaloids. (R. F. 
Fairthorne, A. J. P., Oct. 1871, p. 447.) When ammonium sulphide is added to an aqueous 
solution of chloral hydrate, the mixture rapidly turns yellow, and, after passing through several 
shades of color, finally becomes dark brown. From this liquid diluted sulphuric acid throws 
down a bulky brown precipitate. This, purified from precipitated sulphur and dried, is a light- 
brown powder of the composition C18H24S13N4Oe. Hydrogen sulphide gas forms a sulphydrate 
by its action on chloral. These reactions are important, as the detection of metallic poisons in 
toxicological cases by hydrogen sulphide has been complicated by the presence of chloral 
hydrate. A still more important chemical reaction of chloral is that which takes place when 
the hydrate, or either of its other forms, is placed under the influence of an alkali. Chloro- 
form is developed, and along with it a formate of the alkali employed. Thus, in a strong 
solution of potassa, put a pinch of powdered chloral, and almost instantly the odor of chloro- 
form becomes sensible, and some oil-like globules of chloroform may be seen at the bottom of 
the vessel. The reaction is as follows: 
C„HCL0,H20 + KOI! = CHClg + CHO.OK + H20. 
Chloral hydrate potassium hydrate chloroform potassium formate water 
This relation of chloral to chloroform would serve as a ready test of the former, and may 
be used also to determine its quality ; for pure chloral hydrate ought by calculation to yield 
76-35 per cent, of chloroform, and the best known yields, according to the table of Mason, 71‘5 
(72-20 Selden) per cent. If, therefore, the product of chloroform should fall much below the 
* M. Guerin adds his testimony to the necessity for dispensing only chloral hydrate which has been recrystallized 
and which is in the form of distinct crystals. lie examined many samples, and found acidity in the cake variety, 
due, as he believes, to the formation of hydrochloric and formic acids, produced by the action of water retained in 
the cake during the manufacture, and this remaining in contact with the confused mass of crystals excites decom- 
position. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1886, p. 253.) PAET I. 
Chloral. 
373 
latter percentage, the parcel acted on is probably impure. For other methods of assaying 
chloral hydrate, see Allen, Com. Org. Analysis, i. pp. 174 and 175. The following tests of 
purity are given in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. “ Separate, rhomboidal, colorless and transparent 
crystals, having an aromatic, penetrating, and slightly acrid odor, and a bitterish, caustic taste; 
slowly volatilized when exposed to the air. Freely soluble in water, alcohol, or ether; also in 
chloroform, benzol, benzin, carbon disulphide, fixed and volatile oils. It liquefies when tritu- 
rated with about an equal quantity of camphor, menthol, thymol, or carbolic acid. When 
heated to about 58° C. (136-4° F.), it melts, forming a liquid having a specific gravity of about 
1-575, which, at a higher temperature, should not evolve inflammable vapors. Liquefied 
Chloral solidifies to a crystalline mass between 35° and 50° C. (95° and 122° F.). Chloral is 
decomposed by caustic alkalies, alkaline earths, and ammonia, chloroform being formed, and a 
formate of the base produced. A freshly prepared, aqueous solution of Chloral is neutral, but 
gradually acquires an acid reaction. A neutral alcoholic solution remains neutral permanently. 
Chloral should be dry, and not readily attract moisture in dry air. A solution of Chloral (1 
in 20) in diluted alcohol, acidulated with nitric acid, should remain unaffected by silver nitrate 
test-solution (absence of hydrochloric add and chlorides'). If 1 Gm. of Chloral be dissolved in 
2 C.c. of warm water, mixed with potassium hydrate test-solution in slight excess (about 8 
C.c.), the mixture filtered, and a portion of the clear filtrate treated with iodine test-solution 
until it is yellowish, no yellow, crystalline precipitate (iodoform) should appear within half an 
hour (absence of chloral alcoholate)." “Soluble in less than its own weight of water, alco- 
hol (90 per cent.), or ether, and in four times its weight of chloroform. The aqueous solu- 
tion is neutral or but slightly acid to litmus. On the application of heat Chloral Hydrate 
fuses to a colorless liquid, which, as it cools, begins to solidify at a temperature of about 120° 
F. (48-9° C.). In a test-tube it boils, when pieces of broken glass are immersed in it, at from 
202° to 206° F. (94-4° to 96-7° C.), and on platinum foil at a slightly higher temperature it 
volatilizes without residue. In presence of alkaline substances Chloral Hydrate is decomposed 
and chloroform is liberated. If 4 grammes be heated with 30 cubic centimetres of the vol- 
umetric solution of sodium hydroxide, no more than 6 cubic centimetres of the volumetric 
solution of sulphnric acid should be required to neutralize the soda which remains free on the 
completion of the reaction. A solution in chloroform, when mixed by agitation with sulphuric 
add, does not impart color to the acid (absence of certain organic impurities). When 1 
gramme of Chloral Hydrate is warmed with 6 cubic centimetres of water, and 0-5 cubic centi- 
metre of solution of potassium hydroxide, the mixture filtered, sufficient solution of iodine added 
to impart a deep-brown color, and the whole set aside for an hour, a yellow crystalline precipi- 
tate of iodoform should not result (absence of chloral alcoholate). Its aqueous solution should 
not afford any precipitate with solution of silver nitrate (absence of free chlorides).” Br. 
The most delicate test for the presence of chloral alcoholate in chloral hydrate is said to be 
that with nitric acid. When 1 C.c. of nitric acid (1-38 sp. gr.) is poured over 1 Gm. of 
chloral hydrate a yellow color should not appear within 10 minutes, even if the mixture be 
warmed. (A. J. P., 1894, 191.) For other tests for chloral hydrate by Jaworowski, see 
Pharm. Zeit. f. Russl., 1894, 373. 
Medical Properties and Uses. When chloral is' ingested in full therapeutic dose 
(from 15 to 30 grains), it produces in from ten minutes to half an hour a quiet, placid sleep, 
which usually continues about three hours, when it ceases, generally without any unpleasant 
symptom during its progress or after its termination. In some instances the ordinary doses 
fail to cause sleep, and in others the sleep is attended with dreams and hallucinations, and fol- 
lowed by unpleasant symptoms, like those which often succeed other hypnotics, especially 
opium ; such as nausea, headache, unpleasant nervous disorder, etc. These diversities may be 
ascribed in part to peculiarity of constitution ; but more frequently, in all probability, they 
are owing to morbid conditions existing at the time, which oppose themselves to the proper 
action of the chloral. In an individual in health chloral will probably almost always induce a 
calm sleep, differing little from the natural. Moreover, these unpleasant symptoms are now 
much more rarely produced than formerly, and there can be but little doubt that they have 
often been due to the impurities of the drug. The pulse is in this degree of action not affected, 
or is rendered a little slower ; the pupil is contracted, but becomes normal so soon as the sub- 
ject is awakened ; the respiration is deep, full, and regular. When larger amounts are given, 
the sleep is much deeper, and may pass into profound coma ; the respirations fall in number; 
the pulse is weakened and rendered slower, but may become rapid and irregular if the dose has 
been toxic; the temperature is reduced; the muscular system is relaxed, and both sensibility 374 
Chloral. 
PART I. 
and reflex action are diminished. If a fatal dose has been given, all these symptoms are 
intensified : with coma, intense muscular relaxation, weak, thready pulse, and a pupil contracted 
at first, but afterwards dilated, the victim gradually sinks into death, paralyzed and anaesthetic. 
The immediate cause of death is generally a paralytic arrest of respiration ; but in many cases 
there appears to have been a simultaneous arrest of the cardiac action, and it is very possible that 
fatal syncope may at times occur. At post-mortem examination, congestion of the meninges and 
substance of the brain and cord, and of the lungs, is commonly found. The blood is thought 
by Richardson (Med. Times and Gaz., Sept. 4, 1870) to coagulate less firmly than normal. 
After the brain the motor tract of the spinal cord, including the respiratory centre, is most 
sensitive to the action of chloral. The loss of voluntary muscular power and the lessening of 
reflex activity which the drug produces are the result of this spinal influence. Upon the sen- 
sory tract of the cord chloral acts with much less vigor, while the nerves and muscles practi- 
cally escape its influence. Of course any agent which produces sleep in some measure relieves 
pain, but the anesthetic, influence of chloral is far from pronounced, and often patients on 
waking will complain bitterly of pain suffered during sleep. 
The physiological action of chloral may be summed up as follows. Upon the cerebrum it 
acts as a most powerful and certain hypnotic; in full doses it acts as an intense depressant 
upon the centres at the base of the brain, and upon the spinal cord, causing slowing and weak- 
ness of the heart’s action, probably vaso-motor paralysis, slowing of the respiration, and mus- 
cular weakness, lessening of reflex activity, with a certain amount of anaesthesia; in fatal 
doses it causes death generally by arresting respiration through paralysis of the nerve-centres, 
and finally stopping the heart in diastole. Its action in very small doses is uncertain, but there 
is considerable evidence to indicate that it irritates or stimulates the spinal and the cardiac, 
and even the vaso-motor, centres. On the vagi and on the motor nerve-trunks it has no marked 
influence. Clinical experience indicates that chloral acts as a depressant to the heart-muscle; 
although some authorities believe the influence of the drug upon the heart is not direct, but 
exerted through the nerve-centres. Chloral has little effect on the secretions, though it is said 
somewhat to increase the secretion of urine. In man, it is stated by Bouchut that, in accord- 
ance with his observations, this secretion is not only increased, but has been found also aug- 
mented in density; at the same time reducing the cupro-potassic liquor, and rendered brown 
by potassa or bismuth subnitrate; as if a temporary glycosuria were produced. Formic acid 
has never been found in the urine as a result of the taking of chloral. (Arch. Gen., Sept. 
1870, p. 346.) 
The conversion of chloral by alkalies in solution into chloroform and formic acid first sug- 
gested its use in medicine to Liebreich ( Wiener Medicinische Wochenschrift, August, 1869); 
and the theory that its action is really due to chloroform generated by the alkalinity of the 
blood has been received with favor by Personne and other writers, but there are very many 
facts which militate against the truth of this supposition. Thus, chloroform cannot be detected 
in either the blood, breath, or excretions of chloralized animals, although chloroform at once 
manifests itself when it is administered, and in the so-called “ salt frogs” of Cohnheim, after 
substitution of warm salt water for the blood of the animal, chloral acts as upon the normal 
batrachian. 
Chloral, especially when used continuously, is said to produce in some individuals serious 
disturbances. Such are vaso-motor paralysis, transient skin neurosis, acute purpura, and great 
prostration of the heart’s action, sometimes amounting to paralysis of that organ, and some- 
times ending fatally, even though the doses of the chloral used were within the limits ordi- 
narily deemed safe. For a full discussion of these phenomena, see H. C. Wood’s Therapeutics. 
There can be no doubt that great caution should be practised in administering the drug when 
the heart is very weak or the general powers are much enfeebled. Dr. Jolly relates two cases 
in which 5 grammes (about 76 grains), given every night, caused death, in one case after the 
fifth dose, and in the second after the thirteenth dose, without abnormal symptoms until after 
the last dose, when the action of the heart and respiration suddenly ceased, and the patient 
died. (N. Y. Med. Journ., Nov. 1872.) These cases would appear to justify the statement that 
there is a possible cumulative action of the drug. Although 480 grains have been recovered 
from, Dr. Fuller has recorded a case in which a single dose of thirty grains proved fatal in a 
young lady, and two others in which the same quantity caused alarming symptoms in similar 
circumstances: so that the highest dose to begin with in ordinary diseases, especially in deli- 
cate women, should not exceed twenty grains. In poisoning by chloral, if the case be seen 
early, the stomach should be thoroughly evacuated by an emetic or the stomach-pump, and the PART I. 
Chloral.—Chloroformum. 
375 
system afterwards supported by cardiac and respiratory stimulants, as milk punch, ammonium 
carbonate, etc. Atropine, digitalis, and strychnine should be administered freely, and the same 
general measures taken to sustain the respiration as are usually practised in opium poison- 
ing. Atropine is undoubtedly of value when there is failure of respiration, and care should 
always be taken to maintain the bodily temperature. Artificial respiration should be practised 
when necessary. The bodily temperature should be maintained by external heat. 
From what has been said it will be readily perceived that the two great indications for this 
remedy are to procure sleep and to relax spasm. In pure nervous insomnia, and in the same 
affection attendant on various diseases, as in acute fevers, active congestion of the brain, cerebral 
inflammation, mania, delirium tremens, etc., it is superior to opium ; fifteen to twenty or twenty- 
five grains (1—1-3 or 1-565 Grin.) are generally sufficient for a commencing dose, to be repeated 
in half the quantity in an hour if the first dose fail. The sleep is usually calm and undis- 
turbed for three or four hours, and may be renewed, if required, by the repetition of the dose. 
When the sleeplessness is due to pain, opium is much more effective than chloral. The combi- 
nation of chloral and morphine is often very useful in procuring sleep for the suffering. As 
an anaesthetic, chloral should never be employed ; the intravenous use of it, as at one time 
practised in France, is .most dangerous and absolutely unjustifiable. In spasmodic affections 
chloral is one of the most powerful remedies known. In tetanus and in strychnine poisoning it 
is singularly useful, but must be given in very large doses. In hysteria, severe chorea, and other 
functional or spinal convulsions, it is no less efficient. In epilepsy and other forms of cerebral 
convulsions chloral is of less service, although it is frequently employed with benefit in puer- 
peral convulsions. In local spasms it is often of service, and it has been used with success in 
strangulated hernia, spasm of the glottis, spasmodic croup, asthma, hiccough, and even in inconti- 
nence of urine. Chloral is possessed of very decided antiseptic properties ; a solution of the 
strength of 30 grains to the ounce will preserve animal tissues for a long time. Locally ap- 
plied, chloral is stimulating and antiseptic, and may occasionally be used with very good results in 
the treatment of fold sores, irritable ulcers, etc., which need stimulation. The solution may vary 
from five to thirty-one grains to the ounce, according to the exigencies of the case. Dr. A. M. 
Fauntleroy states that if powdered chloral be sprinkled on adhesive plaster and the whole 
heated sufficiently to adhere to the skin, and applied whilst warm, there is produced an in- 
creasing burning, and in about ten minutes a blister is formed. 
Pharmaceutical Preparations. Chloral is best administered in solution with syrup of 
orange flowers, or in simple solution. The French sometimes employ chloral cream, made of 
chloral hydrate 5 parts, water 15 parts, white sugar finely powdered 100 parts, flavored with 
mint, orange, or vanilla. One grain of chloral is contained in 24 grains of the cream, and a 
teaspoonful is equivalent to about 3 grains of chloral. This preparation keeps well, and the 
dose may be dissolved in a little water. Chloral liniment may be made by dissolving 6 parts 
chloral in 30 parts oil of sweet almonds. Chloral ointment, 6 parts chloral, 3 parts white 
wax, 27 parts lard; the lard and wax are melted at a gentle heat, the chloral added in powder 
and dissolved. (See Chloral Camphoratum, Part II.) Chloral plaster, to produce counter- 
irritant effects, is prepared by spreading powdered chloral on Burgundy pitch plaster. 
CHLOROFORMUM. U. S., Br. Chloroform. 
CHCh; 119*08. (JSHLO-RO-FOK'MUM.) CHCI3; 119-2. 
“ A liquid consisting of 99 to 99-4 per cent., by weight, of absolute Chloroform, and 1 to 
0-6 per cent, of Alcohol. It should be kept in dark amber-colored, glass-stoppered bottles, in 
a cool and dark place.” U. S. “ Chloroform, or trichloromethane, CHC13, to which has been 
added sufficient Absolute Alcohol to produce a liquid having a specific gravity not less than 
1-490, and not more than 1.495. Trichloromethane may be prepared by heating a mixture 
of chlorinated lime, slaked lime, ethylic alcohol, and distilled water.” Br. 
Chloroformum Purificatum, U. S. 1880; Chloroformium, P. G.; Formylum Trichloratum; Chloroforme pur, Fr.; 
Reines Chloroform, G. 
Neither the U. S. nor British Pharmacopoeias give detailed processes for chloroform. (See 
U. S. D., 17th ed., 370.) 
In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1850 a process was given for preparing chloroform ; but, as this 
is never made on a small scale by the apothecary, it was very properly transferred, in 1860, to the 
Materia Medica Catalogue. Chloroformum venale, or commercial chloroform, was introduced, and 
also a formula for the purification of chloroform ; this was very properly dropped in the U. S. P. 
1890, as pure chloroform is now furnished by the manufacturers and easily obtainable at a 376 
Chloroformum. 
PART I. 
moderate price; the process for'purifying chloroform attached to the tests of the U. S. P. (1880) 
will be found below. The process of the British Pharmacopoeia (1885) is for the preparation 
of the chloroform ab initio, with directions which secure its purity if complied with. In this 
process, the reaction by which the chloroform is produced takes place between the chlorinated 
lime and the alcohol; the slaked lime being intended probably to lessen the production of the 
chlorinated pyrogenous oil. As first distilled, the chloroform is very impure, and is directed to 
be washed first with ordinary water, and afterwards with distilled water, which separate alcohol, 
chlorine, and probably other contaminating substances. In consequence of the density of the 
chloroform and its insolubility in water, it readily subsides, forming a distinct layer which may 
be easily separated. The crude product, after having been freed from alcohol by the washing 
with water, is purified from the chlorinated pyrogenous oil, which comes over with the chloro- 
form, by agitation with an equal volume of sulphuric acid, which ought to be pure and color- 
less, and at least of the density 1-840. The oil is charred and destroyed by the acid, which 
becomes yellow or reddish brown, and is partially changed into sulphurous acid. To remove 
the latter acid, as well as any water present, the chloroform, which floats on the surface of the 
acid, is removed and agitated well with chloride of calcium and quick lime, then again sub- 
mitted to distillation, and one per cent, of absolute alcohol added to preserve the chloroform 
from decomposition. In the U. S. 1880 process (see 16th edition U. S. D.) the method of 
purification is somewhat different. Instead of equal measures of the impure chloroform and 
sulphuric acid and an agitation for only 5 minutes, the commercial chloroform is shaken occa- 
sionally for 24 hours with but one-fifth of its weight of the acid. To remove any water and 
acid that may be present, instead of calcium chloride and lime, a little stronger alcohol is mixed 
with the chloroform in a dry retort, and then lime in coarse powder is added, and the mixture 
is distilled to dryness. 
Purification, IT. S. P. 1890. Chloroform which fails to respond to these tests (see p. 380) 
should be purified by the following process. Chloroform, four hundred grammes [or 14 ounces 
av., 48 grains] ; Sulphuric Acid, eighty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 359 grains] ; Dried Sodium 
Carbonate, twenty grammes [or 308 grains] ; Deodorized Alcohol, four cubic centimeters [or 65 
minims]. Add the Sulphuric Acid to the Chloroform, contained in a glass-stoppered bottle, 
and shake them together occasionally during twenty-four hours, avoiding exposure to bright 
daylight. Separate the lighter Chloroform layer, add to it the Dried Sodium Carbonate, pre- 
viously rendered anhydrous by heating it in a porcelain capsule on a sand-bath until it ceases 
to give off aqueous vapor, and shake them together frequently and thoroughly during half an 
hour. Then transfer the Chloroform to a dry retort, add to it the Alcohol, and distil, by 
means of a water-bath, at a temperature not exceeding 67-2° C. (153° F.), into a well-cooled 
receiver, until the distillate measures two hundred and fifty-five cubic centimeters [or 8 fluid- 
ounces, 298 minims]. 
It sometimes happens that the chloroform purified with sulphuric acid, though apparently 
pure at first, will not keep, but after some time becomes so loaded with chlorine and hydro- 
chloric acid as to be altogether unfit for respiration. Dr. Squibb attributes the fact that chloro- 
form purified by concentrated sulphuric acid does not keep well, to the very purity attained. 
He believes that perfectly pure chloroform is prone to decomposition, and is rendered more 
stable by the addition of a small proportion of alcohol, so as to reduce its density to the official 
standard. This he effects by adding alcohol in the proportion of ten drops to each fluidounee 
of good chloroform of maximum density (see Amer. Med. Monthly, July, 1857). This recom- 
mendation was carried into effect in the U. S. 1880 process, and explains the addition of alcohol 
before distillation. Dr. Gregory also attributes the tendency to decomposition to its purity, and 
to the action of sunlight; having found that those portions which he had purified with the 
greatest care were soonest decomposed under the influence of light* For methods of pre- 
serving chloroform by the use of sulphur, hypophosphorous acid, etc., see P. J. Tr., 1895, 
261; also 1896, 249. 
As chloroform of great purity is usually to be purchased in the market, it is not necessary for 
the pharmacist to apply the official process of purification to every parcel that he may meet; 
but it is in the highest degree incumbent on him to sell none for inhalation which is not so pure 
as to stand the tests given in the Pharmacopoeia, and if he can obtain none so pure, then to 
purify it himself. 
The intermediate formation of chloral as a result of the reaction between alcohol and 
chlorinated lime suggested the preparation of chloroform from chloral, which has of late years 
been produced in immense quantities. The advantages which were anticipated from decom- PART I. 
Chloroformum. 
377 
posing pure chloral hydrate with alkalies have not altogether been realized, for the product is 
much more expensive, and the claim of greater stability has not been sustained, as it requires 
just as much alcohol to preserve it as that made in the usual way. 
Chloroform is now made on a large scale both in this country and in Germany by the dis- 
tillation of acetone with chlorinated lime; indeed, this process has latterly almost entirely 
replaced the manufacture from alcohol. Liebig, as long ago as 1832, described the reaction, 
but it was thought to be not adapted for commercial use. In 1882 the manufacture was begun 
on a commercial scale at Mannheim, Germany, and since June, 1885, in this country. To get 
a satisfactory yield a very pure acetone is necessary. When such acetone is taken, a yield of 
nearly or quite 200 per cent, of chloroform can be obtained. (For an account of the methods 
of purifying the acetone and distilling with chlorinated lime, see A. J. P., 1889, p. 321.) In 
July, 1885, a patent was taken out by G. Michaelis, of Albany, for the manufacture of chloro- 
form from the liquid products resulting from the decomposition of crude acetates at high 
temperatures. These liquid products are acetone and other higher ketones. The purified 
chloroform from acetone has a small quantity of alcohol added to prevent decomposition and 
bring it to Pharmacopoeia requirements. Pure methyl alcohol, on the other hand, does not 
yield chloroform. The erroneous statements on this point generally current are probably due 
to the fact that commercial wood spirit contains a large percentage of acetone. 
Dr. Squibb prefers acetic acid to the acetates in the intermediate step of making acetone, 
thus avoiding impurities apt to be present in acetates; he believes that the grant of a patent 
for “acetone chloroform” was deficient in equity. (Ephemeris, 1896, 1743-1757.) 
Still another method for the manufacture of chloroform from acetone is described in the 
French technical journals,—viz., to electrolyze a solution of common salt mixed with acetone. 
A retort of enamel-lined iron, jacketed at the bottom so as to be heated by steam, and provided 
with a delivery and condensing tube, is used. A 20 per cent, solution of common salt is intro- 
duced into the retort and heated to boiling, when the current is made to pass and a continuous 
stream of acetone is run in. The nascent chlorine liberated rapidly converts the acetone 
into chloroform, and it distils over. It is claimed that “190” per cent, of the weight of the 
acetone taken is obtained as chloroform. Lead electrodes were used at first, but these have 
been replaced by carbon rods which can be attached to a vertical shaft and made to serve as 
stirrers. The negative electrode consists of a copper cylinder. (Revue Scientifique, Feb. 1893.) 
Carbon tetrachloride (CC14) has also been proposed (1896) as a source of chloroform, and 
as it is now made cheaply on a large scale, it may come into use. By the action of hydrochloric 
acid and zinc, hydrogen is liberated and attacks the carbon tetrachloride, forming chloroform 
and hydrochloric acid, CCL -j- Ha = CHC13 -j- HC1. As hydrochloric acid is a product of the 
reaction, fresh quantities of zinc are attacked, and a new liberation of chloroform follows. 
Discovery and History. Chloroform was discovered by Mr. Samuel Guthrie, of Sackett’s 
Harbor, N.Y., in 1831, and about the same time by Soubeiran in France, and Liebig in 
Germany. Guthrie obtained it by distilling a gallon from a mixture of three pounds of 
chlorinated lime and two gallons of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-844, and rectifying the product by 
redistillation, first from a great excess of chlorinated lime, and afterwards from potassium 
carbonate. (Sillimans Journal, vol. xxi., Jan. 1832, p. 64.) In a subsequent letter to Professor 
Silliman, dated Feb. 15, 1832, Mr. Guthrie states that the substance which he had obtained, 
“ distilled off sulphuric acid, has the specific gravity of 1-486, or a little greater, and may then 
be regarded as free from alcohol; and if a little sulphuric acid which sometimes contaminates it 
be removed by washing it with a strong solution of potassium carbonate, it may then be regarded 
as absolutely pure." (Ibid., vol. xxii., July, 1832, p. 105.) It is thus evident that Mr. Guthrie 
obtained, in a pure state, the substance now called chloroform ; but he erroneously supposed 
his product to be the well-known oily liquid of the Dutch chemists, which it greatly resembles, 
and for the preparation of which he believed he had fallen on a cheap and easy process. Under 
this impression, he called the substance, in his communications, chloric ether, one of the names 
by which Dutch liquid, or ethene dichloride, is designated. He was induced to make the 
preparation from noticing in Professor Silliman’s Elements of Chemistry a reference to the 
Dutch liquid as a grateful diffusible stimulant when properly diluted with alcohol and water. 
(See also West. Drug., 1894, 51.) 
Properties. Chloroform is “ a heavy, clear, colorless, mobile, and diffusible liquid, of a 
characteristic, ethereal odor, and a burning, sweet taste. Specific gravity, not below 1-490 at 
15° C. (59° F.), or 1-473 at 25° C. (77° F.). Chloroform is volatile even at a low tempera- 
ture, and boils at from 60° to 61° C. (140° to 141-8° F.). It is not inflammable, but its heated 378 
Chloroformum. 
PART I. 
vapor burns with a green flame.” U. S. “ A liquid of characteristic odor and pungent sweet 
taste. Specific gravity 1*490 to 1*495. It should boil between 140° and 143*6° F. (60° and 
62° C.).” Br. According to Bemys (Archiv der Pharm., 3, v. 31), pure chloroform has the 
sp. gr. of 1*500 at 15° C. (59° F.). Besnou gives the densities of various mixtures of alcohol 
and the purest commercial chloroform at 4*5° C. (40° F.) as follows: 
Specific Gravity. 
Chloroform, 
per cent. 
Alcohol, 
per cent. 
Specific Gravity. 
Chloroform, 
per cent. 
Alcohol, 
per cent. 
1-4945 
100-0 
o-o 
1-4772 
97-5 
2-5 
1-4908 
99-5 
0-5 
1-4602 
95-0 
5-0 
1-4874 
99-0 
1-0 
1-4262 
90-0 
10-0 
1-4845 
98-5 
1-5 
1-4090 
87-5 
12-5 
When pure, it has no action on potassium, except to cover the surface of the metal with small 
hubbies of gas. Chloroform is a powerful antiseptic. Like creosote, it does not coagulate 
albumen. It is scarcely acted on by sulphuric acid in the cold, but dissolves readily in alcohol 
and ether. The alcoholic solution, when moderately diluted with water, forms an aromatic, 
saccharine liquid of a very grateful taste. A strong alcoholic solution is decomposed by 
abundance of water, the chloroform separating and subsiding, and the alcohol uniting with 
the water. “ Soluble in about 200 times its volume of cold water, and, in all proportions, in 
alcohol, ether, benzol, benzin, and the fixed and volatile oils.” U. S. It is liable to decompo- 
sition by sunlight, or even diffused daylight; and hence the propriety of keeping it in bottles, 
covered with dark paper, in a rather dark place. Chloroform has extensive solvent powers, 
being capable of dissolving caoutchouc, gutta-percha, mastic, elemi, tolu, benzoin, and copal. 
Amber, sandarac, lac, and wax are only partially soluble. It also dissolves iodine, bromine, 
the organic alkalies, the fixed and volatile oils, most resins, and fats. It dissolves sulphur and 
phosphorus sparingly. It possesses the power of dissolving a large quantity of camphor, and 
furnishes the means of administering that medicine in an elegant form. As a general solvent, 
it has the advantage over ether of not being inflammable; the inflammability of the latter 
being the cause of frequent accidents. For an extensive list of substances soluble, insoluble, 
and partly soluble in chloroform, see a paper by M. Lepage, of Gisors, France, copied into A. 
J. P., 1852, p. 147. It has been found by J. B. Barnes that chloroform has the power of 
preventing the alcoholic, lactic, and other fermentations, probably by killing the organisms 
that provoke these processes. Twenty minims preserved sixteen ounces of malt, to which two 
drachms of yeast had been added, as long as the experiment lasted. The same quantity kept 
fresh eight fluidounces of milk in a warm place for five days. Mucilage and infusions were 
preserved for weeks with one minim or even less to the ounce. Similar results were reached 
by Mr. F. J. Barrett and others. (P. J. Tr., 1874, pp. 441, 442, 455.) The active properties 
of chloroform forbid its use as a preservative of medicinal infusions, but from milk it could 
always he removed by boiling. A. Munz (P. J. Tr., 1875, p. 967) proposes the employment 
of chloroform as a test between chemical and living ferments, since he has found it to have no 
effect upon the former, though absolutely destructive to the latter. 
Composition. Chloroform is composed of one atom of carbon, one of hydrogen, and 
three of chlorine. Its simplest derivation in theory is from marsh-gas (methane), CH4, whence 
it is often called trichloro-methane. While it can be thus produced, by the action of chlorine 
upon marsh-gas, in practice, it is formed either from alcohol by the action of hleaching-powder, 
from chloral by an alkaline hydrate, or latterly from acetone and bleaching-powder. 
The reactions are sometimes complex, but if the -temperature be carefully kept at from 
70° C. (158° F.) to 73° C. (163*4° F.), they are essentially as follows: 
C2H60 + CaOCljj = CaCl2 + C2H40 + H20; 
that is, one molecule of hleaching-powder, reacting with one of alcohol, yields one of calcium 
chloride, one of aldehyde, and one of water. The aldehyde formed is then further decomposed, 
according to the reaction 
2(C H40) -f 6(CaOCl2) = 3CaCla + 3Ca(OH)a + 2(CaHCLO) ; 
that is, two molecules of aldehyde, reacting with six of bleaching-powder, yield three of calcium 
chloride, three of calcium hydrate, and two of chloral. The chloral is, however, decomposed 
by the free base calcium hydrate, according to the reaction 
2(CaHCl30) + Ca(OH)a= Ca(CH03)3 + 2(CHCIS); PART I. 
Chloroformum. 
379 
that is, two molecules of chloral reacting with one of calcium hydrate yield one of calcium 
formate and two of chloroform. The reaction for the manufacture from acetone is simpler: 
2C3H60 + 6CaOCl2 = 2CHC13 + 2Ca(OH)2 + Ca(C2H302)2 + 3CaCl2. 
Impurities and Tests. Chloroform is liable to contain alcohol and ether, both of which 
lower its specific gravity. If it have a less density than 1-38, it will float instead of sinking 
in a mixture of equal weights of concentrated sulphuric acid and water after it has cooled. 
M. Mialhe has proposed the following test for the presence of alcohol. Drop into distilled 
water a small quantity of the chloroform. If pure, it will remain transparent at the bottom 
of the glass; but if it contain even a small proportion of alcohol, the globules will acquire a 
milky appearance. Soubeiran’s method was to agitate almond oil and chloroform together in 
a tube. If the chloroform be pure, it remains clear; if it contain as much as 5 or 6 per cent, 
of alcohol, it becomes milky. {Journ. de Pharm., Aout, 1860, p. 95.) Prof. Procter detected 
alcohol by adding the suspected chloroform to an oxidizing mixture of potassium bichromate 
and sulphuric acid. If alcohol be present, the deep orange color of the chromic mixture will 
gradually become green ; if absent, no change of color will take place. (A. J. P., 1856, p. 
213.) Hoffmann's violet has been recently suggested as a test. If a small portion is added 
to chloroform containing alcohol, the solution is colored a deep purple. Boettger recommends 
adding to the chloroform a solution of molybdic acid in pure, strong sulphuric acid, when 
even a trace of alcohol will cause an intense blue color. (1879.) Chloroform, when pure, upon 
being mixed with an equal volume of sulphuric acid, does not color it; but when contami- 
nated with these oils it gives the acid a color varying from yellow to reddish brown, according 
to the amount of impurity. Alcohol also is detected and removed by sulphuric acid. In 
applying this test, several fluidounces of chloroform should be used, as a slight change of 
color cannot be easily seen in a test-tube, and care must be taken to see that mechanical im- 
purities, like cork-dust, dirt, etc., have been filtered out of the specimen, or the acid will be 
discolored from this cause. A still more delicate test of the oily impurities, according to Dr. 
Gregory, is the smell which they leave. If chloroform thus contaminated be poured upon 
the hand, it quickly evaporates, leaving the oily impurities, recognizable by their offensive 
odor, now no longer covered by that of the chloroform. The pure substance, rubbed on the 
skin, quickly evaporates, and leaves scarcely any smell. Chloroform sometimes contains Dutch 
liquid, which may be discovered by adding an alcoholic solution of potassa ; when the mixture, 
if this impurity be present, will heat and give off a permanent gas, which is acetyl chloride, 
CgHgOCl. (Geuther.)* Fuming nitric acid, heated with chloroform to 100° C. (212° F.) in 
a closed tube for 120 hours, forms a new substance, chloropicrine. 
Two methods for purifying chloroform, one physical and the other chemical, have been 
brought out in the last year or so and have attracted much attention. The first of these is the 
Pictet method of purifying the chloroform by submitting it to very low temperatures, whereby 
the impurities are first frozen out and filtered off from the chloroform at —70° C., and then the 
chloroform itself is solidified at from —80° C. to —100° C. and separated from any liquid impuri- 
ties. It was at first claimed for this u Chloroform Pictet” that it would not be decomposed by 
sunlight and did not require the addition of alcohol to preserve it. These claims do not seem to 
be substantiated by later tests. The other method is based on the discovery of It. Anschutz, that 
chloroform crystallizes out with salicylid, CaH4 | CQ>,ando-homosalicylid,C6H3(CH3) j Cq>, 
while the impurities of chloroform remain. These crystalline compounds contain respectively 
33-24 and 30-80 per cent, of chloroform, and this can be liberated from its combination by 
very moderate heating. The compounds can be kept for a long time in closed vessels in a 
slight atmosphere of chloroform, and the salicylid and o-homosalicylid can be used over and over 
again. After becoming acid, through exposure to light, chloroform may be readily regenerated, 
by agitating it with solution of sodium carbonate, and distilling from a little unslaked lime. 
From what has been said above, chloroform to be kept for use should have the sp. gr. 1-49, and 
if denser than this, should be brought to it by the addition of alcohol. It is best kept in cork- 
stoppered bottles. As the cork is not acted on by chloroform, if it become yellow and softened 
it will indicate the presence of an acid, and thus act as a test. (A. J. P., 1868, p. 289.) 
Official Tests. The U. S. Pharmacopeia directs that “ if 20 C.c. of Chloroform be 
poured upon a clean, odorless filter laid flat upon a warmed porcelain or glass plate, and the 
plate be rocked from side to side until the liquid is all evaporated, no foreign odor should be- 
* In relation to chloroform, see the paper of Soubeiran and Mialhe, Journ. de Pharm,f July, 1849, copied into 
A. J. P.y xxi. 313; also the paper of Dr. Gregory, Chem. Gaz., May 15, 1850. 380 
Chloroformum. 
PART I. 
come perceptible as the last portions disappear from the paper, and the paper should be left 
nearly odorless when compared with a new, odorless filter. If 10 C.c. of Chloroform be well 
shaken with 20 C.c. of distilled water, and the liquid be allowed to separate completely, the 
water should be neutral to litmus paper, and should not be affected by silver nitrate test-solu- 
tion (absence of chlorides), or potassium iodide test-solution (absence of free chlorine'). If to 
about 5 C.c. of Chloroform, contained in a dry test-tube of the capacity of about 10 C.c., about 
4 C.c. of perfectly clear barium hydrate test-solution be added without agitation, and the test- 
tube be then corked and set aside in a dark place for six hours, no film should be visible at the 
line of contact of the two liquids (absence of products of decomposition in Chloroform which 
may be otherwise pure). If 40 C.c. of Chloroform be shaken with 4 C.c. of colorless, concen- 
trated sulphuric acid in a 50 C.c. glass-stoppered cylinder during twenty minutes, and the liquids 
be then allowed to separate completely so that both are transparent, the Chloroform should re- 
main colorless, and the acid should appear colorless, or very nearly colorless, when seen in a 
stratum of not less than about 15 Mm. in thickness (absence of impurities decomposable by sul- 
phuric add). If 2 C.c. of the sulphuric acid, separated from the Chloroform, be diluted with 
5 C.c. of distilled water, the liquid should be colorless and clear, and, while hot from the mix- 
ing, should be odorless, or give but a faint vinous or ethereal odor (absence of odorous decom- 
position products). When further diluted with 10 C.c. of distilled water, it should remain 
clear, and should not be affected by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of chlorinated compounds). 
If 10 C.c. of the Chloroform, separated from the acid, be well shaken with 20 C.c. of distilled 
water, and the liquid be allowed to separate completely, the watery portion should not be affected 
by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of chlorinated compounds).” “ On allowing 20 cubic 
centimetres to evaporate from a large piece of filter-paper placed on a warm plate, no for- 
eign odor is perceptible at any stage of the evaporation. Water which has been shaken for 
five minutes with half its volume of Chloroform, and separated from the Chloroform, should 
be neutral to litmus (absence of acid), should not afford any color with 1 cubic centimetre of 
solution of cadmium iodide and two drops of mudlage of starch (absence of free chlorine), and 
should not yield more than a very slight opalescence with four drops of solution of silver nitrate 
(absence of chlorides). After shaking sulphuric acid with ten times its volume of Chloroform 
for twenty minutes, and setting aside for fifteen minutes, both the acid and the Chloroform 
should be perfectly transparent and nearly colorless. 2 cubic centimetres taken from the layer 
of sulphuric acid, and diluted with 5 cubic centimetres of water, should remain transparent 
and very nearly colorless, and should have a pleasant odor. When this liquid is further diluted 
with 10 cubic centimetres of water, and stirred with a glass rod, it should still be transparent 
and colorless, and the addition of four drops of solution of silver nitrate should not cause more 
than a slightly diminished transparency. Water which has been shaken with half its volume 
of Chloroform, previously treated with sulphuric add as described above, should not afford 
more than a slightly diminished transparency with solution of silver nitrate. (The foregoing 
four tests indicate absence from the Chloroform of products of its decomposition.) It evapo- 
rates without residue (absence of fixed matter).” Br. These tests imply the presence of but 
a minute proportion of alcohol, and the total absence of chlorine and those volatile and em- 
pyreumatic substances which constitute the most injurious impurities of chloroform. A heat 
that would be felt through the bottle, on the admixture of sulphuric acid with chloroform, 
would evince the presence of too much alcohol or water. The want of discoloration from 
the contact of the two liquids shows the absence of empyreumatic oily matter; but a very 
slight discoloration might proceed from the alcohol present, and would not, therefore, be a 
material objection. A color bordering on that of madeira wine would imply an objectionable 
amount of impurities. The volatile impurities are less volatile than chloroform, and would 
consequently be the last to escape on the evaporation of the liquid. Impure chloroform, there- 
fore, leaves a foreign odor behind it when allowed to evaporate from the hand, and especially 
when from a porcelain plate, in the amount and manner indicated; and if a specimen stand 
this test well, it may be considered as free from noxious volatile impurity. The slight foreign 
aroma without pungency, which is given out under these circumstances, is of no injurious sig- 
nificance. It is stated that chloroform made from chloral may be distinguished from other 
chloroform by its remaining colorless when the sulphuric acid test is employed, and by its leav- 
ing no aromatic residue when evaporated, evidences of its absolute purity. It has been 
claimed that this chloral chloroform does not undergo decomposition, but this has been proved 
not to be correct. (A. J. P., xlii. 409.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Chloroform, when applied locally, is very irritant and PART I. 
Chloroformum. 
381 
produces decided pain, which may be followed by some numbness and local anaesthesia. If 
the chloroform be prevented from evaporating, its prolonged contact with the skin is apt to 
produce blistering. Taken internally, it is absorbed and acts upon the general system. The 
rapidity of its absorption, and, to some extent, its general effects, depend upon the method in 
which it is administered. It is commonly exhibited by the mouth or by inhalation. Taken 
into the stomach in doses of 15 to 25 drops (024—0-38 C.c.), it induces only gastric symptoms, 
chiefly due to its irritant properties; but when there is excessive flatulence, colic, or gastral- 
gia, it not only causes an increased peristalsis and expulsion of any flatus present, but evinces 
a distinct local narcotic influence by quieting pain and spasm. Taken in doses of 1 to 2 
fluidraehms (3-75-7’5 C.c.), it produces a narcotism similar to that seen when it is administered 
by inhalation, the narcotism, however, developing and passing off much more slowly than in the 
latter case. Chloroform, as prepared by Mr. Guthrie, was used internally as early as 1832 by 
Professor Ives and Dr. Nathan B. Ives, of New Haven, in asthma, spasmodic cough, scarlet 
fever, and atonic quinsy, with favorable results. (Silliman's Joum., xxi. 406, 407.) It was 
employed by Dr. Formby, of Liverpool, in hysteria, in 1838 ; by Mr. Tuson, of London, in 
cancer and neuralgic affections, in 1843 ; and by M. Guillot, of Paris, in asthma, in 1844. The 
first case in which it was employed in inhalation is related by Professor Ives, of New Haven, 
under date of January 2, 1832. The case was one of pulmonic disease, attended with gen- 
eral debility and difficult respiration, and was effectually relieved. (Silliman's Joum., vol. xxi., 
Jan. 1832, p. 406.) In March, 1847, the action of the pure substance by inhalation was tried 
on the lower animals by M. Flourens, and its effects on the spinal marrow described. In 
November of the same year, Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh, after experimenting with a number 
of anaesthetic agents in order to discover a substitute for ether, tried chloroform at the sugges- 
tion of Mr. Waldie, and, having found its effects favorable, brought it forward as a new rem- 
edy for pain, by inhalation in surgery and midwifery. The advantages which he conceived it 
to possess over ether were the smallness of the dose, its more prompt action, more agreeable 
effects, less tenacious odor, greater cheapness, and greater facility of exhibition. 
The usual effects produced by a full dose of chloroform, administered by inhalation, are the 
rapid production of coma, relaxation of the muscles, slow and often stertorous breathing, up- 
turning of the eyes, and total insensibility to agents which ordinarily produce acute pain. The 
effect on the heart’s action is somewhat variable, but the pulse is usually quickened, with a 
more or less marked loss of volume and firmness. Sometimes frothing of the mouth takes 
place, and, more rarely, convulsive twitches of the face and limbs. The insensibility is gen- 
erally produced in one or two minutes, and usually continues for five or ten minutes; but 
the effect may be kept up for many hours, provided the inhalation be cautiously renewed 
from time to time. As a rule, no recollection is retained of anything that occurred during 
the state of insensibility. In some cases sensibility is distinctly affected before consciousness, 
but the loss is rarely complete enough to be of any practical value; so that it is almost always 
necessary to produce unconsciousness before the surgeon can commence his operation. The 
dose of chloroform for inhalation is a fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.), equivalent to 250 drops, or more, 
to be repeated in two minutes, if the desired effect should fail to be produced. The most 
convenient inhaler is a handkerchief, loosely twisted into the form of a bird’s nest, which, after 
having been imbued with the chloroform, is held to the mouth and nose. The use of this 
simple inhaler insures a due admixture of atmospheric air with the vapor of the chloroform. 
The patient should always be in the horizontal posture. The moment insensibility is produced, 
which should be brought on gradually, the inhalation should be suspended; and if conscious- 
ness return too soon, it should be cautiously renewed. In all cases an experienced assistant 
should attend to the administration of the chloroform and to nothing else, watching the state 
of the respiration and pulse. The moment there is the least snoring or failure of the pulse, 
the vapor should be withdrawn. As shown by Claude Bernard, the hypodermic use of mor- 
phine greatly prolongs the anaesthesia caused' by chloroform, but the method has not been 
found of practical value. Even with the greatest care, there is always danger in the anaes- 
thetic use of this agent. The estimate that sudden death occurs once in about 3000 inhalations 
was first made about thirty years ago, and has been strongly confirmed by subsequent statistics. 
In very many fatal cases the operation has been a very trifling one, and death has occurred 
in the most robust persons, and in those who had previously taken the ansesthetic without bad 
effects. The advantages which chloroform has over ether are in its greater rapidity of action, 
and in the fact that it is less prone to produce, as an after-effect, much nausea and vomiting. 
The greater safety of ether, however, more than counterbalances these advantages, so that a 382 
Chloroformum. 
PART I. 
large proportion of surgeons believe the use of chloroform unjustifiable, except under especial 
circumstances. The reason that ether is so much safer than chloroform lies not chiefly in the 
greater power of the latter agent, but in the fact that chloroform is directly paralyzant to the 
heart, whilst ether is primarily stimulant to that viscus. Experiments show that in the lower 
animals the arterial pressure steadily falls during the administration of the chloroform, whilst 
under ether it rises, and clinical experience abundantly demonstrates that the effects of these 
agents upon the circulation in man and in the lower animals are identical. As chloroform 
accidents usually occur very suddenly, the patient should always be closely watched. In 
most instances a peculiar pallor of the face is the first evidence of danger. The remedies 
for the accident are placing the patient at an angle of 45°, with the head downward, or even 
completely inverting the person, cold air fanned upon the face, cold water poured upon the 
head, sinapisms to the feet, frictions and heat to the body and extremities, and ammonia to 
the nostrils. If respiration ceases, the tongue should be seized with the artery-forceps and 
pulled forward from off the glottis, and artificial respiration vigorously performed. Strychnine 
and digitalis should be used hypodermically or, if circumstances favor, intravenously. Am- 
monia water has been injected into a vein with good results. The cautious inhalation of 
small doses of amyl nitrite has been advantageous. Alcohol should never be used in any 
form. 
In midwifery chloroform is believed to be safer than in surgery, and its use is very extensive. 
It probably tends to increase the danger of post-partum hemorrhage, but this tendency can be 
overcome by the administration of ergot after the head has come well down upon the perineum. 
It is frequently stated that no case of death has occurred from its administration during labor; 
but this appears to be a mistake. On account of its power of producing muscular relaxation, 
chloroform is frequently employed in general and local spasms. In setting fractured bones, in 
reducing dislocations or strangulated hernias, etc., the surgeon frequently employs it, and it 
is often used by the physician in hiccough, chorea, whooping-cough, hysteria, asthma, angina 
pectoris, biliary and nephritic colic, tetanus, poisoning from strychnine, hydrophobia, and tic dou- 
loureux. In these cases it is superior to ether, when a very prompt action is necessary. 
As chloroform is powerfully sedative, and ether powerfully stimulant, it was very naturally 
supposed that by combining them the depressing effects of the former might be counteracted 
by the latter; but experience has not confirmed the suggestion of theory in this case, as fatal 
effects have several times followed the joint administration of the two anaesthetics. This result 
may be in part explained by the more rapid volatilization of the chloroform, which may cause 
it to reach the surface of absorption with comparatively little admixture of the ethereal vapor, 
as suggested by Mr. Robert Ellis. (J/ec?. Times and Gaz., March 9,1867.) It has been claimed 
that chloroform which has been purified by the cold process is much less depressant than 
that of ordinary purity, and in the experiments of R. Du Bois-Reymond ( Therap. Monat., Jan. 
1892) the residue left after the purification of chloroform by cold, while it did not differ in 
its action upon the circulation from the pure chloroform, was found to be distinctly more par- 
alyzing to the respiratory centres. Rechter (Journ. Pharm. et Chim., 1892) and others, how- 
ever, have reached the conclusion that the narcosis produced by Pictet’s chloroform does not 
differ in any way from that commonly seen, and at present writing it does not appear probable 
that the purification by cold yields practical results commensurate with its cost. 
The existence of certain diseases modifies greatly the proper choice of an anaesthetic by the 
surgeon. When brain tumors or severe chronic or acute diseases of the heart, lungs, pleura, 
or kidney exist, an anaesthetic should not be employed unless its use be imperatively demanded. 
In all forms of cardiac diseases, unless it be simple hypertrophy, ether is greatly preferable to 
chloroform, which agent should never be administered under the circumstances mentioned. In 
diseases of any part of the respiratory tract, chloroform is superior to ether on account of the 
severe local irritating effects of the latter agent, which cause it to be very dangerous. Until 
recently the general opinion has been that chloroform is less dangerous in diseases of the kidney 
than is ether, but the latest clinical and experimental evidences make it apparent that, whilst 
ether is dangerous in chronic or acute inflammations of the kidney, chloroform is probably more so. 
It seems well established that very many deaths following surgical operations, which have 
occurred some hours or even days after the recovery of consciousness, have been due to the 
anaesthetic; and it has been definitely proved that the prolonged use of chloroform is capable 
of producing wide-spread degeneration of tissue which may fatally involve the heart. In 
experiments made by Dr. H. C. Wood, Jr., it was found that the exposure of dogs to the 
constant inhalation of a minute amount of chloroform, not sufficient to produce narcosis, was PART I. 
Chloroformum.— Chondrus. 
383 
followed after some hours of consciousness by death, there having been no restraint or operative 
procedures during the inhalation. 
Locally, chloroform is employed as a very prompt, active counter-irritant and narcotic in 
neuralgia, colic, etc., and deep injections of it in the neighborhood of painful nerve-trunks 
have been practised by Dr. Roberts Bartholow with asserted good effects. M. Fournie has 
found that the vapor from a mixture of equal measures of glacial acetic acid and chloroform 
is even more effectual, as a local anaesthetic, than that of pure chloroform, producing complete 
insensibility of the skin in five minutes, if applied from a bottle heated simply by the hand. 
(F. J. Tr., 1862, p. 385.) Chloroform, in vapor, may be used as a topical application to the 
rectum. M. Ehrenreich employed it with success in tenesmus. A drachm may be vaporized 
by the heat of warm water from a bottle, fitted with a flexible tube, inserted into the bowel. 
Prof. Langenbeck, of Berlin, prefers chloroform to tincture of iodine as an injection for the 
radical cure of hydrocele. Chloroform ointment is made by addins twenty parts of chloroform 
to a mixture of ten parts of white wax and ninety parts of lard, previously melted together, 
and allowing the whole to cool. 
Chloroform may be gelatinized by agitating it with an equal weight of white of egg in the 
cold. In three hours it takes the gelatinous form. A stronger preparation may be made by 
shaking together, in a bottle, four parts of chloroform and one of white of egg, and placing 
the mixture in water at 60° C. (140° F.). In four minutes the gelatinization is completed. 
Gelatinized chloroform may be applied to the skin, spread on linen, or by friction. Syrup of 
chloroform may be made by adding one fluidounce of spirit of chloroform to fifteen fluidounces 
of syrup. 
When an overdose of chloroform is taken by the mouth, it is essential to empty the stomach 
by the pump or siphon tube, and then treat the case much as in serious narcosis from inhalation. 
In a case of suicide by swallowing chloroform, in which death took place in about thirty-four 
hours, the lining membrane of the larynx and trachea was found inflamed, the bronchi were 
loaded with a dirty-gray purulent fluid, the lungs were inflamed as in the first stage of pneu- 
monia, and the brain and its membranes congested; but these morbid appearances are not 
constant. 
In relation to the preparations, consisting of chloroform and alcohol, which have been used 
under the name of “ chloric ether,” the reader is referred to Spiritus Chloroformi.* (See, 
also, Aqua Chloroformi, Emulsum Chloroformi, and Linimentum Chloroformi.') 
CHONDRUS. U. S. Chondrus. [Irish Moss. Carragheen.] 
(CHbN'DKUS.) 
“ Chondrus crispus, Stackhouse, and Gigartina mamillosa, J. Agardh (class, Algae).” TJ. S. 
Carrageen, P. G.; Caragahen, Fucus Crispus; Carragaheen, Mousse marine pertee, Fr.; Irlandisches Moos, Perl- 
moos, Knorpeltang, G. 
Gigartina. Gen. Ch. Fronds fleshy, cartilaginous, compressed, composed of an internal 
layer of longitudinal, slender, anastomosing filaments, which pass horizontally outward and 
divide dichotomously into short moniliform filaments, the whole set in a gelatinous substance; 
antheridia in superficial spots; tetraspores conciate, densely aggregated, forming spots just 
below the surface, cystocarps borne in external conceptacles. 
Chondrus. Gen. Ch. The same as gigartina, except that the cystocarps are immersed. 
Chondrus crispus. Greville, Alg. Brit. 129, t. 15; B. & T. 305.—Sphserococcus crispus. 
Agardh.—Fucus crispus. Linn. The Irish moss, or carrageen as it is frequently called, consists 
of a flat, slender, cartilaginous frond, from two to twelve inches in length, dilated as it ascends 
until it becomes two or three lines in width, then repeatedly and dichotomously divided, with 
linear wedge-shaped segments, and more or less curled up so as to diminish the apparent 
length. The capsules are somewhat hemispherical, and are embedded in the disk of the frond. 
The plant grows upon rocks and stones on the coast of Europe, and is especially abundant on 
the southern and western coasts of Ireland, where it is collected. It is also a native of the 
* Chlorodyne. An empirical remedy under this name was first used in London, but is now in some of its imita- 
tions very largely employed in various parts of the world. Many formulas are extant. The following has been ex- 
tensively used in Philadelphia. Morphine hydrochlorate 8 grains, water f -£ss, hydrochloric acid f 3ss, chloroform 
f 3iss, tincture of cannabis indica f gi, hydrocyanic acid, U. S. P., IXPxii, alcohol oil of peppermint TiPij, oleo- 
resin of capsicum Ttph The morphine hydrochlorate and water are heated in a flask with the hydrochloric acid 
until a clear solution is produced, then the other ingredients are mixed together, and when the first solution is cold 
the mixture added to it. This is a dangerous remedy, and should be used with great care in three- to ten-drop doses 
for an adult. (See Mistura Chloroformi et Opii, Part II., National Formulary.) Chondrus. 
PART I. 
384 
United States, and is said to be gathered largely on the southern sea-coast of Massachusetts, 
where it is partly torn from the rocks and partly collected upon the beach, on which it is 
thrown up during storms. It is prepared for market by spreading it out high on the beach, to 
dry and bleach in the sun. (Aug. P. Melzar, Proc. A. P. A., I860.) An elaborate account of 
the plant, of its distribution on the sea-coast of Massachusetts, and of the mode of gathering 
and curing it is given by Mr. G. Hubert Bates, of Scituate, Mass. (U. S. Agricultural Report, 
1866 ; also A. J. P., 1868, 417.) See also T. S. Wiegand’s account of the industry. (A. J. P., 
1895, 596.) 
Gigartina mamillosa, Ag. Phycologia Britannica, PI. 199, resembles the true Irish moss, and, 
growing with it upon the rocks, is often gathered with it. It can, however, be at once dis- 
tinguished by the numerous papillae which cover the surface and margins of the fronds and 
bear the fruit (cystocarps). In chemical and medicinal properties it is probably identical with 
C. cr isp us. 
Irish moss when collected is washed and dried. It is probably sometimes bleached by the 
use of potassium permanganate and sodium hyposulphite by the same process as that used 
for bleaching sponge. (See Spongia Decolorata, Part II., National Formulary.) Herr Schack 
was led to suspect this through discovering the presence of sulphurous acid in a German 
specimen. (Pharm. Zeitung, 1886, p. 87.) In the fresh state it is of a purplish color, but, 
as found in the shops, is yellowish or yellowish white, with occasionally purplish portions. It 
is officially described as “ yellowish or white, horny, translucent; many times forked ; when 
softened in water, cartilaginous; shape of the segments varying from wedge-shaped to linear; 
at the apex emarginate or two-lobed. It has a slight sea-weed odor, and a mucilaginous, some- 
what saline taste. One part of it boiled for ten minutes with 30 parts of water yields a solu- 
tion which gelatinizes on cooling, and is not colored blue by iodine test-solution.” U. S. It 
swells in cold water, but does not dissolve. Boiling water dissolves a large proportion of it, 
and the solution, if sufficiently concentrated, gelatinizes on cooling. Herberger found 79-1 
per cent, of pectin, and 9-5 of mucus, with fatty matter, free acids, chlorides, etc., but neither 
iodine nor bromine. M. Dupasquier discovered in it both of these elements, which had gen- 
erally escaped attention in consequence of their reaction, as soon as liberated, upon the sodium 
sulphide resulting from the decomposition of the sodium sulphate of the* moss when charred. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iii. 113.) The analysis made by Church in 1877 gave: mucilage, 
55-4 ; water, 18-8 ; mineral matter, 14*2 ; albuminoids, 9-4 ; and cellulose, 2-2 per cent. The 
pectin Pereira thought peculiar, and proposed to call it carrageenin. It is distinguished from gum 
by affording, when dissolved in water, no precipitate with alcohol; from starch, by not becoming 
blue with tincture of iodine ; from pectin, by yielding no precipitate with lead acetate and no 
mucic acid by the action of nitric acid. M. Ch. Blondeau gives the name of goemine to a sub- 
stance obtained by boiling carrageen ('goimon, Fr.) for several hours in distilled water, and pre- 
cipitating the mucilaginous liquid by alcohol. Fliickiger, who analyzed this mucilage with 
care, found in it no sulphur, and only 0-88 per cent, of nitrogen. The drug itself yielded not 
more than 1-012 per cent, of nitrogen. (Pharmacographia, 2d ed., 748.) Haedicke, Bauer, 
and Tollens obtained, on extraction with water containing 0-6 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and 
further purification by alcohol, a small quantity of a crystalline compound which resembles 
galactose in its composition, in its action on polarized light, and in its behavior with nitric acid. 
On oxidation with nitric acid, the dry moss yields from 21-6 to 22-2 per cent, of mucic acid. 
Carrageenin is said to have been used as a substitute for acacia, under the name of imitation 
gum■ arahic; the latter occurs in three forms, white, light yellow, and yellow. They all have 
similar properties, swelling up like tragacanth when mixed with cold water, but not forming 
a clear solution unless the mixture be boiled, in this latter respect differing from tragacanth 
or albumen; iodine does not give a blue color, and alcohol does not precipitate the solution, 
even when 50 per cent, of it is added. It has mild adhesive properties. (E. C. Federer, 
Pharm. Era, 1887, 146.) The mucilage of Irish moss has come into considerable use as an 
emulsifying agent. (Proc. A. P. A., 1887 ; A. J. P., 1888, 170.) (See Mucilago Chondrit 
Part II., National Formulary.) 
Carrageen is nutritive and demulcent, and, being easy of digestion and not unpleasant to the 
taste, forms a useful article of diet in cases in which the farinaceous preparations, such as 
tapioca, sago, barley, etc., are usually employed. It has been particularly recommended in 
chronic pectoral affections, scrofxdous complaints, dysentery, diarrhoea, and disorders of the kidneys 
and bladder. It may be used in the form of decoction, made by boiling a pint and a half of 
water with half an ounce of the moss down to a pint. Sugar and lemon-juice may usually be PART I. 
Chrysarobinum. 
385 
added to improve the flavor. Milk may be substituted for water when a more nutritious prep- 
aration is required. It is recommended to macerate the moss for about ten minutes in cold 
water before submitting it to decoction. Any unpleasant flavor that it may have acquired 
from the contact of foreign substances is thus removed. 
CHRYSAROBINUM. U. S., Br. Chrysarobin. 
(CHRYS-A-RO-Bl'NUM.) 
“ A neutral principle, in its commercial, more or less impure form, extracted from Goa 
Powder, a substance found deposited in the wood of Andira Araroba, Aguiar (nat. ord. Legu- 
minosae).” U. S. “ A substance obtained from Araroba by extracting with hot chloroform, 
evaporating to dryness, and powdering. It consists chiefly of a definite chemical substance 
also known as chrysarobin, but contains a varying proportion of chrysophanic acid.” Br. 
The definition of chrysarobin given by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia makes it somewhat doubtful 
what is intended, but the statement of properties and characteristics has led us to consider the 
name as synonymous with that of chrysarobin of the# British Pharmacopoeia, which authority 
very properly recognizes under distinct headings Crude Chrysarobin (Goa Powder or Araroba) 
and the Purified Chrysarobin. (See Araroba, p. 221.) 
Properties. “ A pale orange-yellow, microcrystalline powder, odorless and tasteless ; turn- 
ing brownish-yellow on exposure to air. Very slightly soluble in cold water or alcohol; soluble, 
without leaving more than a small residue, in 150 parts of boiling alcohol; also soluble in 33 
parts of boiling benzol, and in solutions of the alkalies. When heated to 151° C. (303-8° F.), 
it fuses, forming a dark, opaque mass; and, when ignited, it is partly sublimed, and finally con- 
sumed without leaving a residue. When boiled with about 2000 parts of water (which produces 
only partial solution), the light reddish-brown filtrate does not affect litmus paper, and is not 
altered by ferric chloride test-solution. In concentrated sulphuric acid it is soluble with a deep- 
red color ; on pouring this solution into water, the substance is again deposited unchanged. On 
adding 0-1 Gm. of Chrysarobin to 10 C.c. of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, in a 
test-tube, and shaking the latter, the solution, which is at first yellow or yellowish-red, will 
gradually acquire a deep-red color.” U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia requires that chrysa- 
robin shall be entirely soluble in hot chloroform, almost entirely soluble in hot alcohol (90 per 
cent.), and that it shall partially dissolve in a solution of potassium hydroxide with the pro- 
duction of a deep reddish brown color, and shall, when incinerated, not leave more than 1 per 
cent, of ash. (See P. J. Tr., 1892, 543.) Chrysarobin in alkaline solution takes up oxygen 
readily, even from the air, and changes into chrysophanic acid according to the reaction 
C3oH20O7 -(- 40 = 3HaO -j- 2C15H1004. The difference in physical properties between chrysa- 
robin and chrysophanic acid is well described by Andouard. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 864.) 
When chrysarobin is distilled with zinc dust it yields methyl-anthracene, CI5H12. Liebermann 
has since established clearly the relationship of chrysarobin to chrysophanic acid, as the latter 
is a dioxymethylanthraquinone, the former is a reduced quinone. Hence its aflinity for oxy- 
gen, as the reduction products of the quinone class almost always tend to absorb oxygen and 
again go back to their original condition. Liebermann, in observing the chemical relationship 
of chrysophanic acid to commercial alizarine and purpurine, was led to study their reduction 
products (or leuco-compounds), and so discovered a class known as anthrarobins, having similar 
medicinal properties to chrysarobin. (See Anthrarobin, Part II.) Lenirobin, made by the action 
of acetic acid on chrysarobin, and described as a tetracetate, and Eurobin, the triacetate, are 
recommended as substitutes for chrysarobin, having the advantage of not staining linen in- 
delibly. (Merck’s Report, 1898, 466.) 
Medical Uses. When taken internally in sufficient amount, chrysarobin acts as a de- 
cided gastro-intestinal irritant, producing large, very watery, brownish stools, and repeated 
vomiting without much nausea. Dr. J. A. Thompson (JV. R., 1877, 167) states that it acts 
efficiently as a cholagogue purgative in doses of from 20 to 25 grains (1-3—1-565 Gm.) ; but it 
has failed to secure a place as an internal remedy. Chrysarobin has been long used in South 
America and India as a remedy in skin diseases, but the attention of the general profession 
was first called to it in 1874 by Sir Joseph Fayrer* It is frequently applied in psoriasis and 
very chronic eczema, by being rubbed up with water into a dough, which is spread over the 
* Under the name of Chrysarobin oxidum, Unna has highly recommended in eczema a 5 to 10 per cent, solution 
of a substance produced by the action of sodium peroxide upon chrysarobin suspended in boiling water. Ch rysaro binurn.—Cimicifuga. 
PART I. 
386 
diseased spot after it is as far as possible freed from scales by washing. As soon as the dough 
is dry, it should be covered with a layer of collodion or solution of gutta-percha, and the 
whole allowed to remain for several days, when it is removed by washing and renewed. In 
using chrysarobin, care must be observed not to allow it to come in contact with the clothes, 
as it leaves an indelible stain. It is at present employed largely in the preparation of chryso- 
phanic acid; its action is affirmed to differ from that of chrysophanic acid and to be largely 
the result of its strong affinity for oxygen, causing it to act as a reducing agent, In hemor- 
rhoids, Dr. M. S. Kossobudskji claims to obtain extraordinary results. His method is to first 
wash off the hemorrhoids with a two-per-cent, solution of carbolic acid or a one-per-cent, 
solution of creolin, and then, after thoroughly drying them with absorbent cotton, to apply 
two or three times daily a salve composed of chrysarobin, 12 grains; iodoform, 4£ grains; ex- 
tract of belladonna, 9 grains ; vaseline, 3f drachms. In the treatment of internal hemor- 
rhoids he employs suppositories composed of chrysarobin, 1} grains; iodoform, of a grain ; 
extract of belladonna, | of a grain ; cacao butter, 30 grains; with sufficient glycerin to make 
a smooth mass. 
CIMICIFUGA. U. S. (Br.) Cimicifuga. [Black Snakeroot.] 
(CIM-I-CIF'U-GA.) 
“ The rhizome and roots of Cimicifuga racemosa (Linn6), Nuttall (nat. ord. Ranuncula- 
ceae).” U S. “ The dried rhizome and roots of Cimicifuga racemosa, Elliott (Actaea racemosa, 
Linn.).” Br. 
Cimicifugae Rhizoma, lir., Actseae Racemosae Radix; Black Snakeroot; Black Cohosh; Racine d’Actee i 
Grappes, Fr.; Schwarze Schlangenwurzel, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx four- or five-leaved. Petals four to eight, deformed, thickish, sometimes 
wanting. Capsules one to five, oblong, many- 
seeded. Seeds squamose. Nuttall. 
Cimicifuga racemosa. Torrey, Flor. 219; Car- 
son, Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 9, pi. 3.— C. serpentaria. 
Pursh, Flor. Am. Sept. p. 372.—Actaea racemosa. 
Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1139.—Macrotys racemosa. 
Eaton’s Manual, p. 288; B. & T. 8. This is a 
tall stately plant, having a perennial root, and a 
simple herbaceous stem, which rises from four to 
eight feet in height. The leaves are large, and 
ternately decomposed, having oblong-ovate leaflets, 
incised and toothed at their edges. The flowers 
are small, white, and disposed in a long, terminal, 
wand-like raceme, with occasionally one or two 
shorter racemes near its base. The calyx is 
white, four-leaved, and deciduous; the petals are 
minute, and shorter than the stamens; the pistil 
consists of an oval germ and sessile stigma. The 
fruit is an ovate capsule containing numerous flat 
seeds. The plant grows in shady or rocky woods 
from Canada to Florida, flowering in June and July. 
Properties. The dried root consists of a thick, irregularly bent or contorted body or 
caudex, from one-third of an inch to an inch in thickness, often several inches in length, fur- 
nished with many slender radicles, and rendered exceedingly rough and jagged in appearance 
by the remains of the stems of successive years, which to the length of an inch or more are 
frequently attached to the root* It is officially described as follows. “ The rhizome is of 
horizontal growth, hard, 5 Cm. or more long, about 25 Mm. thick, with numerous stout, upright 
or curved branches, terminated by a cup-shaped scar, and with numerous wiry, brittle, obtusely 
quadrangular roots, about 2 Mm. thick ; the whole brownish-black, of a slight but heavy odor, 
and of a bitter, acrid taste. Rhizome and branches have a smooth fracture, with a rather 
large pith, surrounded by numerous sublinear, whitish wood-rays, and a thin, firm bark. The 
roots break with a short fracture, have a thick bark, and contain a ligneous cord expanding 
into about four rays.” U. S. The roots “ exhibit in transverse section from three to five 
Transverse section of Cimicifuga; rootlet showing 
five ligneous rays. 
* For a detailed description of the microscopic character of the root, see A. J. P., 1884, 460; also 1895, 121. Cimicifuga. 
387 
PART I. 
wedge-shaped wood-bundles, separated by as many broad medullary rays. Both rhizome and 
roots are blackened by test-solution of ferric chloride (presence of tannic acid).” Br. The 
odor, though not strong, is peculiar and rather disagreeable, and is gradually lost by keeping. 
The root yields its virtues to boiling water. Tilghman found gum, starch, sugar, resin, wax, 
fatty matter, tannic and gallic acids, a black coloring matter, a green coloring matter, lignin, 
and salts of potassa, lime, magnesia, and iron. (A. J. P., vi.) It no doubt also contains, when 
fresh, a volatile principle, with which its virtues may be in some degree associated. George 
H. Davis separated by distillation a small proportion of volatile oil having decidedly the 
peculiar odor of the root. He also found albumen, extractive, and silica. The sugar noticed 
by him was of the uncrystallizable variety, and the resin of two kinds, one soluble in alcohol 
but not in ether, the other soluble in both these menstrua. (A. J. P., xxxiii.) A crystallizable 
principle has been obtained by Mr. T. Elwood Conard from a strong tincture of the root by 
treating with solution of lead subacetate, which precipitated resin, tannin, and coloring matters, 
then filtering, and precipitating the lead by hydrogen sulphide in excess, and allowing the 
tincture to evaporate spontaneously ; and, finally, having treated the residuary powder with 
benzin, afterwards washing it with water, dissolving it to saturation in strong alcohol, and treat- 
ing the solution with alumina. The mixture was allowed to evaporate to a dry mass, which was 
nearly exhausted with alcohol. The solution, being allowed to 
evaporate, left behind a crystalline mass, somewhat resembling 
alum. This substance has little taste, on account of its extreme 
insolubility in the saliva, but in alcoholic solutions has very 
strongly the acrid taste characteristic of the fresh root. The crys- 
tals are very soluble in cold, and more so in hot, alcohol, soluble 
also in chloroform, and slightly so in ether. They are fusible and 
inflammable. They are neutral, possessing neither acid nor alka- 
line properties. Their effects on the system were not examined. 
(A. J. P., 1871.) L. F. Beach (A. J. P., 1876) obtained from 
commercial resin of cimicifuga (the so-called cimicifugin or ma- 
crotin) a crystalline principle by Conard’s process. M. S. Falck 
(A. J. P., 1884) found in the juice of the fresh plant a crys- 
talline principle resembling the principle announced by Conard. 
On the other hand, neither F. H. Trimble (A. J. P., 1878) nor 
Profs. Warder and Coblentz were able to obtain a crystalline prin- 
ciple, while C. S. Gallaher obtained crystals of cane sugar from 
the fluid extract. (A. J. P., 1887.) In view of these facts, it 
would appear that the active principle is a resinous amorphous 
body. (See Drugs and Medicines of North America, vol. i.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. In 1831 cimicifuga was introduced to the notice of 
the profession by Dr. Young. In overdoses it is said to cause general relaxation, vertigo, 
tremors, decided reduction of the pulse; occasionally it vomits, but its emetic action is never 
violent, and is probably simply the result of a mild gastric irritation. It certainly in large 
doses produces giddiness, with intense headache and prostration. It has been found by Dr. 
B. Hutchinson to cause in frogs complete anaesthesia by a direct action upon the sensory side 
of the spinal cord. The same observer noted that toxic doses produce in mammals slowing 
of the pulse and fall of the arterial pressure, results which appear to be due in part to a 
direct depressant action upon the heart-muscle or its ganglia, in part to a paralysis of the vaso- 
motor centre. It has been used in the past in rheumatism, dropsy, hysteria, phthisis, and various 
other affections, but at present is employed almost exclusively in the treatment of the St. Vitus's 
dance of childhood, in which it is an efficient remedy. The dose of the powder is from a scruple 
to a drachm (1-3-3-9 Gm.). The decoction (gi to Oj) was formerly much used in the dose of two 
fluidounces (60 C.c.), but is now entirely out of vogue. The dose of the tincture is one or two 
fluidrachms (3-75-7-5 C.c.). The fluid extract is, however, the best preparation; dose, from 
one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.) three or four times a day in water. The extract is 
efficient, and has the advantage that it can be administered so as to be practically free from 
taste in pilular form. The practitioners calling themselves eclectics use, under the name of 
cimicifugin, or macrotin, an impure resin obtained by precipitating a saturated tincture of the 
root with water; dose, a grain or two (0-065-0-13 Gm.). (See N. J. Med. Rep., viii. 247.) 
Longitudinal section, highly magni- 
fied. 388 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
CINCHONA. U. S. (Br.) Cinchona. 
(CIN-fJHO'NA.) 
“ The bark of Cinchona Calisaya, Weddell, Cinchona officinalis, Linn6, and of hybrids of these 
and of other species of Cinchona (nat. ord. Rubiaceae), containing not less than 5 per cent, of 
total alkaloids, and at least 2-5 per cent, of quinine [C„0H24N202-f- H20 — 341-3].” US. 
“ The dried bark of the stem and branches of cultivated plants of Cinchona succirubra, Pavon. 
When used for purposes other than that of obtaining the alkaloids or their salts, it should 
yield between 5 and 6 per cent, of total alkaloids, of which not less than half should consist 
of quinine and cinchonidine, as estimated by the following methods.” Br. (See p. 411.) 
Cinchonae Rubrae Cortex, Br., Red Cinchona Bark; Peruvian Bark; Cinchona Bark; Quinquina, Fr.; China, 
Peruvianische Rinde, G.; China, It.; Quina, Sp. 
Cinchonse Flavse Cortex; Yellow Cinchona Bark. Cinchona Flava, U. S. 1880. Yellow 
Cinchona. [Calisaya Bark.] “ The bark of the trunk of Cinchona Calisaya, Weddell (nat. 
ord. Rubiaceae, Cinchoneae), containing at least 2 per cent, of quinine.” U. S. 1880. Cinchonse 
Ruhrse Cortex, Br.; Red Cinchona Bark. Cinchona Rubra. Red Cinchona. [Red Bark.~\ 
“ The bark of Cinchona succirubra, Pavon (nat. ord. Rubiaceae), containing not less than 5 per 
cent, of its peculiar alkaloids.” U. S. “ The dried bark of the stem and branches of cultivated 
plants of Cinchona succirubra, Pavon.” Br. 
Varieties. 
Botanical History. 
Though, the Peruvian bark was introduced into Europe so early as 1640, it was not till the 
year 1737 that the plant producing it was known to naturalists. In that year La Condamine, 
on a journey from Quito to Lima, through the province of Loxa, had an opportunity of 
examining the tree, of which, upon his return, he published a very complete description, with 
plate, under the name Quinquina, stating that three species were recognized. (Mem. Ac., Paris, 
1738, p. 226.) Four years later, Linn6, without justification, proposed a new name, Cinchona, 
in honor of the Countess of Chinchon, who first made the bark known in Europe. Although 
the original name has been adopted by several authors, the synonyme Cinchona appears in 
most writings, and the species are at present arranged under that name. Under the rules of 
nomenclature adopted at the Genoa Congress in August, 1892, the necessity of restoring the 
name Quinquina is avoided, and we retain the later name Cinchona. Linne recognized but one 
species, which he called C. officinalis, and this continued for a long time to be recognized 
by the Pharmacopoeias as the only source of the Peruvian bark of commerce. But a vast 
number of plants belonging to the Linnaean genus Cinchona were in the course of time dis- 
covered ; and the list became at length so unwieldy and heterogeneous that botanists were 
compelled to distribute the species into several groups, each constituting a distinct genus, 
and all associated in the natural family of Cinchonaceae. Seventy-three of those which may 
be denominated False Cinchonas have been enumerated by Weddell. The botanical characters 
distinguishing the true Cinchonas from the related groups, according to the classification of 
Bentham and Hooker, are exhibited in the following table: 
Cinchonece. Corolla-lobes valvate, imbricate, or contorted. Ovary 2-celled, ovules very many in each cell. Fruit 
capsular. Seeds numerous, minute, vertical or ascending, peltate, imbricate, winged, albuminous; radicle almost 
always superior. Trees or shrubs, the stipules (except in Hillie® ) entire. 
Subtribe I. Eucinciione.-r.—Corolla valvate. 
Subtribe II. Hillie^e.—Corolla imbricated or contorted. 
I. EuCINCHONEjE. 
* Placentae adnate to the middle of the septum. 
** Placentae ascending or erect from the base of the septum. 
**■* Placentas pendulous from the apex of the cells. 
f Capsule septicidal, the valves occasionally bifid, 
ft Capsule almost always loculicidal. 
1. Cinchona. Panicles terminal. Corolla-lobes pubescent on the margins. Capsules dehiscent from the base 
upward. 
2. Ca8carilla. Panicles terminal. Corolla-lobes papillose on the margins. Capsules dehiscent from the top 
downward. 
3. liemijia. Panicles or racemes axillary, interrupted. PART I. 
Cinchona. 
1. Cinchona, L. 
Calyx-tube turbinate, pubescent; limb 5-dentate, persistent. Corolla hypocrateriform, pubescent, the tube terete 
or nearly so, the limb 5-lobed, spreading, smooth within, the margin pilose, valvate. Stamens 5, inserted into the 
tube of the corolla, the filaments short or elongated; anthers included, or the apex exsert, dorsifixed, linear. Disk 
pulvinate. Ovary 2-celled; style slender, the branches short, obtuse, within papillose, inserted or sub-exsert. 
Evergreen trees or shrubs, the branchlets terete or 4-angled. Leaves opposite, petiolate. Stipules interpetiolar, the 
base glandular within, deciduous. Flowers white, purple, or flesh-colored, fragrant. 
For our knowledge of these plants as they existed naturally, we are chiefly indebted to the 
following botanists, besides La Condamine, of whom we have before spoken: Joseph de Jus- 
sieu, who in the year 1739 explored the country about Loxa, and gathered specimens still 
existing in the cabinets of Europe; Mutis, who in 1772 discovered Cinchona trees in Co- 
lombia, and afterwards, aided by his pupil, Zea, made further investigations and discoveries in 
the same region; Ruiz and Pavon, who in 1777 began a course of botanical inquiries in the 
central portions of Lower Peru, and discovered several new species; Humboldt and Bonpland, 
who visited several of the Peruvian bark districts, and published the results of their observa- 
tions after 1792 ; P'oppig, who travelled in Peru so late as 1832, and published an account of 
his journey about the year 1835 ; Weddell, whose researches in Bolivia are so well known and 
have been so productive of valuable information in relation to the Calisaya hark and allied 
species; whilst Karsten, Caldas, Martius, Ledger, Markham, and other intrepid explorers have 
in later times largely added to our information. The conclusions concerning the relations of 
the many forms, based upon the observations and collections of the above-named travellers, 
have undergone important modifications in view of the behavior of the plants under cultiva- 
tion. The specific classification of the Cinchonas has always presented great difficulties, owing 
to the different relative values ascribed by different authors to the several structural charac- 
ters. Under cultivation it has been seen that these characters are extremely variable, owing 
partly to the natural tendency of the species to develop strongly-marked varieties, and partly 
to the great freedom with which they hybridize. While these tendencies have been stronger 
in the cultivated plants, they have evidently not been wanting in a state of nature. Thus we 
have come to place an entirely new estimate upon the supposed specific characters, and modern 
authors have been led to deny specific rank to many of the formerly accepted species. The 
extreme view is that of Dr. Otto Kuntze, who recognizes but four full species. This view is 
probably shared by no one, but Dr. Kuntze’s general conclusions concerning the great extent 
of hybridization, and its influence in the production of new forms, are undoubtedly sound.* 
The writer’s studies in the Bolivian plantations led him independently to the same conclusions. 
Any specific classification, however carefully worked out, must be considered to some extent as 
matter of opinion merely. 
Probably the most satisfactory classification is that of Weddell, revised in 1870. (Ann. d. 
Sd. Nat. 5th series, vols. xi. and xii.) Messrs. Bentham and Hooker, in the Genera Plan- 
tarurn, admit the existence of about 36 species, but this number appears entirely too large. 
The most of the species no longer possess more than a botanical and historical interest, as, 
under the changed conditions brought about by cultivation, their products are no longer col- 
lected for the market. The species which have been brought under cultivation for commercial 
purposes are alone named in the following list. Even this short list has been still further re- 
duced as experience has determined the few species and forms which can be most profitably 
cultivated. Hence only the four species Nos. I., II., V., and VI. of the list, which with their 
hybrids furnish almost all our bark at the present day, are here described: 
I. C. officinalis. 
var. Condaminea, 
“ Bonplandia, 
“ crispa, 
yielding crown bark. 
II. C. succirubra, yielding red bark. 
III. C. pitayensis, 
C. lancifolia, 
C. cordifolia, 
yielding Colombian bark. 
yielding gray bark, 
yielding yellow bark. 
IV. C. nitida, 
C. micrantha, 
C. peruviana, 
V. C. calisaya, 
VI. C. ledgeriana, 
* The principal sources of information bearing on this phase of the subject are the several reports of the planta- 
tions in Java, India, and Jamaica, Howard’s Qninology of the East Indian Plantations, Markham’s Peruvian Bark, 
Kuntze’s Arten, Hybriden und Cultur der Chininbdume, Hooper in the Pharmacographia Indica, several contribu- 
tions by Trimen to the Tropical Agriculturist, and Prof. Rusby in the Pharmaceutical Record, Oct. 1887. 390 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
C. calisaya, Weddell {Hist. Nat. des Quinquinas, p. 30, t. 3). Tree tall, usually surpassing those about it, the 
trunk often more than 2 feet in diameter. Leaves petiolate, the blade ovate-oblong to slightly obovate, 3 to 7 inches 
long by 1 to 3 inches broad, obtuse, the base acute or slightly attenuated, very thin, smooth, and, especially below, 
with a satiny lustre, above dark green, below emerald-green or deep purple-green, scrobiculate, the glands scarcely 
visible above. Stipules oblong, about equalling the petioles, very smooth, very obtuse. Panicles ovate to subco- 
rymbose. Calyx pubescent, with a cup-shaped limb and short triangular teeth. Corolla rose-colored (in cultivation 
often white or nearly so), the tube cylindrical and about 4 lines long, the laciniaj more deeply colored, the edges 
white-hairy. Stamens included. Capsule ovate, scarcely as long as the flowers. Seeds elliptical lanceolate, the 
margin irregularly fimbriate-toothed. Bolivia and Southern Peru, 4000 to 6000 feet. Source of the Calisaya or Yellow 
Bark. The species presents many forms, and two varieties are recognized. 
Var. ledgeriana, Howard, differs from the type chiefly in its thicker, narrower, oblong leaves, with attenuate 
base, often bluish-green below. It yields a thick and remarkably rich bark, and is probably the most valued of all 
the cinchonas. Specific rank has been strongly claimed for it. 
Var. microcarpa, Weddell, is very similar to the last, with a firm leaf and short pod. It also yields a rich bark. 
It is not at all improbable that the accepted name “ ledgeriana’' of Howard is a mere synonyme for the older name 
microcarpa of Weddell. 
The var. josephiana, so called, has in reality nothing to do with this species, nor with any other. It is distinct, 
and yields a thin and worthless bark. In Bolivia it is known as “ Paginal," and its presence in the plantation con- 
stitutes a serious difficulty. In appearance the plant is considerably like the ledgeriana, with which it hybridizes 
freely, and the two, with their hybrids, have been apparently much confused in all plantations except those of 
Bolivia. Ledgeriana has a tall and slender habit, with a small crown, while Josephiana is shorter and broader, less 
symmetrical, and generally coarser. The branchlets of the former are blackish, those of the latter bright red. 
C. succirubra, Pavon, Mss. (Howard in Pharm. Journ., Oct. 1856, p. 209, with a figure). Extreme size even greater 
than that of the last. Branches silvery. Petiole pubescent, leaf ovate to oval, acute with a very short point, the 
base more or less narrowing, often 6 by 9 inches, dark green and smooth above, below paler and pubescent to a 
variable degree, especially on the veins, not scrobiculate, the margin slightly revolute. Stipules entire, oblong, 
obtuse, sub-amplexicaul. Flowers much as in the last, but rather smaller. Fruit lanceolate. Western slopes of 
Mt. Chimborazo. The source of the Red Bark. 
C. officinalis, Linne (Sp. PL, ed. i.,p. 172). Petioles smooth, cylindrical, and, like the veins, reddish; blade 4 to 
5 inches long, varying from broadly oval to lanceolate, acute at both ends, the margins usually recurved, smooth and 
deep green above, paler, but bright green below, scrobiculate, the principal veins pubescent. Stipules equalling the 
petioles, ovate, acute, entire, pubescent. Flowers and fruit much as in C. calisaya. Widely distributed in the 
equatorial Andes, at an elevation of from 5000 to 7500 feet. The source of the barks known as Pale, Crown, Loxa, 
Cuenca, and Huanuco. This is the original species, upon which the genus Quinquina or Cinchona was founded. All 
things considered, it is, perhaps, to be regarded as the principal species of tbe genus. Its variability is extreme, and 
it is doubtful if any two authors can be found who agree perfectly as to its limits. The forms of no other species have 
suffered such vicissitudes of nomenclature as have those of C. officinalis. Those which to one author appear easily 
included within it, in the hands of another serve as types of quite a group of species and varieties. The classifi- 
cation of our present supplies of bark is, however, not materially affected by these considerations. 
The specific variations produced by hybridization in the above characters may not be here 
considered, though it may be stated that they are entirely characteristic. The parentage of 
a hybrid is ordinarily fully and strongly indicated in its appearance. As a rule, also, the 
alkaloidal yield takes a mean between that of the parents, but sometimes this is conspicuously 
not the case. 
Geographical Distribution. 
The genuine Cinchona trees are natives exclusively of South America. In that continent, 
however, they are widely diffused, extending from the 19th degree of south latitude, consider- 
ably south of La Paz, in Bolivia, to the mountains of Santa Marta, or, according to Weddell, 
to the vicinity of Caracas, on the northern coast, in about the 10th degree of north latitude. 
They follow, in this distance, the circuitous course of the great mountain ranges, and for the 
most part occupy the eastern slope of the second range of the Cordilleras. Except northward 
from Guayaquil, or a very little to the southward of that latitude, the growth of the cinchona, 
other than upon the eastern slopes of the Andes, is impossible even under cultivation. Elsewhere 
both the western slope and the plateau are entirely too dry or too cold for these plants, which 
require a moderate and equable temperature and an abundant and fairly constant supply of 
water. Irrigation cannot supply the place of a humid climate, for the atmosphere as well as 
the soil must be well charged with moisture. A certain amount of dry weather is, however, 
required for the ripening of the capsules. Free drainage is an important condition. Mr. 
Cross and others, who have personally inspected the region in the Andes where the best barks 
are obtained, have found the Cinchona trees only on the well-drained slopes, and never on wet 
ground. With regard to temperature, Mr. Cross found that in the region of the C. officinalis 
the variation was from 34° to 70° F., a fall below 40° or a rise above 65° being rare, and the 
mean range being from 45° to 60°. Messrs. Humboldt and Caldas place the figures several 
degrees higher. PART I. 
Cinchona. 
391 
For the Red Bark region, Dr. Spruce gives the follow- 
ing table: 
Mean minimum 614° F. 
Mean maximum 72£° 
Highest observed 80£° 
Lowest observed 57° 
Mean daily variation 10£° 
For the Calisaya region, Mr. Markham gives the fol- 
lowing table: 
Mean temperature 69$° F. 
Highest observed 75° 
Lowest observed 56° 
Mean daily variation 10i° 
An environment suitable for the Cinchona is adapted to such plants as the most elevated of the 
palms and bamboos, the tree-ferns, arborescent Melastomaceae, fuchsias, begonias, epiphytic 
orchids, and the Erythroxylon coca. The limits of altitude and climatic conditions are closely 
drawn. In the most southern districts, the 
trees descend to about 2500 feet, while in the 
warmest regions they scarcely ascend to the 
10,000-foot level. The individual species are 
for the most part rigidly restricted as to alti- 
tude and latitude, and, indeed, it has not always 
been found easy to detect the climatic condi- 
tions which would cause one species or variety 
to thrive while another very near it would 
languish. This is especially true of the more 
valuable forms. The actual distribution of 
the more important species is best displayed 
by the accompanying map, taken from Mark- 
ham’s work entitled “ Peruvian Bark.” 
It is to be noted that at present the stocks 
of wild barks have been enormously reduced, 
as detailed under Commercial History. In- 
deed, in certain sections, as the Calisaya dis- 
trict, the tree was practically exterminated in 
the wild state, so far as relates to a bark- 
supply.* From the far interior, however, 
occasional bales of wild Calisaya have been 
received. The low price of cultivated bark 
since 1885 has resulted in checking the de- 
struction of the wild trees, which have begun 
again to multiply, so that they may possibly 
become once more common or even abundant. 
The Crown Bark region of Ecuador is still fairly 
productive, and in Colombia and Venezuela 
there are vast supplies of more or less inferior 
barks which await some favorable change in the 
market—never very likely to take place—that 
will render their collection profitable. Even 
at present a limited and irregular supply of one 
of these barks is furnished. With the excep- 
tions here noticed, our present supplies of bark are entirely the product of cultivation, to 
which, therefore, we must give our chief attention. 
THE CINCHONA REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
I. CalUaya lUgioD. (Caraiaya k Bolivia.) 
II. Grey Bark Region. (Hunnuoo.) 
III. Crown Bark Region. ILoxa,)* 
IV. Red Bark Region. 
V. Colombian Region. 
Region of the dnchonM 
The alarming prospect of the failure of the supply of Cinchona bark (see Commercial His- 
tory) induced Europeans, about the middle of the present century, to turn their attention to 
the possibility of introducing the trees to cultivation. So early as 1737, La Condamine had 
collected a large number of young plants, with a view of conveying them to Europe ; but, after 
having descended the Amazon in safety for more than a thousand leagues, they were washed 
overboard, near the mouth of that river, from the boat containing them, and were all lost. 
After this failure, though the idea of transplanting the Cinchonas was occasionally suggested, 
Cultivation and Production. 
* The writer, while travelling in Bolivia, in 1886, used to listen to the evening conversation of his Indians, who 
would describe with deepest earnestness some locality, perhaps many leagues distant, where a small tree might be 
found standing; but all his efforts, supplemented by the promise of liberal rewards, were not sufficient to secure 
good-sized specimens of wild bark. 392 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
nothing was done until 1846-47, when Dr. Weddell, now celebrated for his successful explo- 
ration of the region of the Calisaya bark, sent some seeds to France, which were planted with 
success in the Jardin des Plantes, and thus supplied some of the conservatories of Europe 
with specimens of the plant. But the first successful effort with a view to great practical 
results was made in 1853 by the Dutch government, by which Mr. Hasskarl, formerly superin- 
tendent of the Botanical Garden in Java, was sent to South America on this important mission. 
A number of young Cinchona plants were forwarded by him directly across the Pacific to 
Batavia, which they reached before the close of 1854. From these, and from seeds obtained 
from other sources, which were planted in the mountains of Java, in sites selected for their 
supposed conformity in climate with the native locality of the Cinchona, have sprung the most 
important plantations now in existence. 
Stimulated by the suggestions of Dr. Boyle, and by the partial success of the Dutch, the 
English government engaged, in 1859, the services of Mr. (now Sir) Clements B. Markham, 
who proceeded to Bolivia, in South America, and, after almost incredible hardships, arising 
partly from the nature of the country and partly from the jealousy of the native authorities, 
succeeded in collecting and transmitting to England upwards of 400 Calisaya plants. Most of 
these, however, were so much injured on their way from England to India, by the excessive 
heat of the Bed Sea, that very few, on their arrival in Ilindostan, had sufficient life remaining 
to grow when planted. Happily, the deficiency was supplied by seeds of C. calisaya sent from 
Java, where they were produced, to Calcutta, at the request of the English Governor-General. 
(De Vrij, P. J. Tr., 1863, p. 440.) Whilst Mr. Markham was in Bolivia, other agents were 
collecting other species in Peru and Ecuador, whence seeds of the pale and red bark Cinchonas 
reached India, and, being planted in the selected sites, proved to be very productive. 
Careful attention to the conditions of growth enumerated under Geographical Distribution 
was found essential in the selection of sites for the plantations. Those selected were near the 
Sanitary Station of Ootacamund in the Neilgherry Hills of Southern India, at heights varying 
from 5000 to 7450 feet. These positions unite the peculiar characters of the native region of 
the Cinchonas in the Andes, not only as regards elevation and latitude, but also as to atmos- 
pheric moisture. Other sites were selected for experimental plantations ; and since the first 
introduction of the Cinchona trees, their culture has been extended to various points from 
Hakgalla, in the island of Ceylon, to the Himalaya Mountains,—as in the Wynaad, the Coorg, 
the hills of Travancore, and especially at Peermede in the Presidency of Madras; in Sikkim 
and Darjeeling in the Presidency of Bengal; at Lingmulla in the Presidency of Bombay ; and 
in the valley of Kangra in the Punjab,—from the southern to the northern extremity of British 
India. Outside of India and Ceylon, culture by the British has been undertaken in the West 
Indies, particularly Jamaica, in Guiana, and in the Fiji Islands. The first plants taken by 
Weddell from Peru to Paris all perished, but the French afterward established plantations in 
the Isle of Bourbon, at Guadeloupe, and in Algiers, none of which are now known to exist. 
The Portuguese have established plantations upon the west coast of Africa, and these now 
yield considerable quantities of bark. Very extensive plantations have been formed, chiefly 
by the Germans, in Bolivia. A rather large plantation in Colombia is now old enough to be 
productive. In Mexico and Central America various attempts to introduce the industry have 
been made. The question of introducing it into the United States has frequently been raised, 
both officially and otherwise. But it may be stated that there is no spot in North America 
where the conditions warrant the slightest hope of success in this direction. 
The history of Cinchona cultivation affords a striking illustration of the importance of 
government aid in the establishment of a new industry of this kind. The early and repeated 
disappointments and failures, owing to the natural obstacles in the way of securing stocks, and 
to an almost total ignorance of the conditions determining the successful propagation and 
growth of the plant, and the composition of its bark, were such as to have discouraged the 
most hopeful of private enterprises. Bepeated and expensive expeditions were necessary 
before the first transplantings were accomplished, and these stocks were preserved and propa- 
gated only through the instrumentality of well-appointed public gardens and plantations. In 
Java, after these early difficulties had been surmounted and success apparently attained, it was 
found that owing to cross-fertilization much of the progeny was entirely worthless, and the 
work of propagation had to be begun anew. The same difficulty was encountered elsewhere, 
and the slow and expensive method of propagation by cuttings was largely resorted to. In 
Ceylon the public were slow to become interested, and the officials were obliged not only to give 
away the young plants, but to solicit experiments with them as a personal favor. In Jamaica PABT I. 
Cinchona. 
393 
a hurricane visited the young and flourishing plantations and almost completely destroyed them. 
But at length, in spite of all, not only were thriving and permanent government plantations 
established, but private capital and enterprise upon a vast scale were enlisted. 
Sharp competition has largely determined the relative degrees of success attained in the 
cultivation of Cinchona in the different localities. The consumption of the bark is not to be 
compared with that of breadstuff’s or clothing or building material, being, after all, quite lim- 
ited, and capable of being readily met by almost any one ef the contributing countries. Hence 
that country that can produce and market the bark at the lowest price, all things considered, 
may totally destroy the industry in other localities, even though these may be by nature ad- 
mirably adapted to its production, as witness the partial case of Bolivia. Of prime impor- 
tance in affecting this result is the cost of labor, so much lower in the East than in any portion 
of America. Its influence acts in more ways than at first appear. Not only does it give an 
advantage in the cultivation and marketing of the product by original methods, but it permits 
the introduction of new methods which greatly increase both the amount and richness of the 
bark. When it is remembered that it costs no more to market, and but a trifle more to ex- 
tract, a rich bark than a poor one, so that the market value of the bark increases more rapidly 
than its percentage yield, it will be seen how immense is the advantage to a producing district 
of being able to utilize cheap labor in improving the quality of the product. In proximity to 
market India and Java again possess an advantage over the South American countries, whence 
the bark must be transported—largely by human porters—across the Andes, over the worst 
of roads, and these impassable during a large portion of the year* The ability to extract 
the bark upon the spot is capable of largely counterbalancing a lack of market facilities; but 
it so happens that this advantage also inures to the benefit of the Eastern countries. Origi- 
nally undertaken in India for the purpose of affording a cheap antiperiodic (the crude alka- 
loids known as 11 febrifuge" or “ quinetum”), home extraction has become a most important 
industry, and has assumed various forms. The experiment of extracting the Java bark at the 
point of production is now under way, if indeed it cannot be said to have already been decided 
successfully. An excellent product has been placed upon the market, and the conditions for 
financial success appear favorable. Through the influence of the above conditions the loca- 
tions of the important industry of Cinchona cultivation have been gradually wrought out. Of 
the districts of cultivation named above, we may exclude from consideration as appreciably 
affecting the market all except Java, Ceylon, India, and Bolivia. Of these important centres 
of production the relative standing has during late years undergone great changes. 
Year (January 1 to January 1) 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
Exports from Ceylon (lbs.) 
1,151,102 
1,329,453 
4,402,901 
7,296,671 
11,444,190 
14,274,142 
14,563,402 
Year (July 1 to July 1) 
1882-83. 
1883-84. 
1884-85. 
1885-86. 
Exports from British India ('lbs.) 
Exports from Java, about 8 per cent, from gov’t j 
plantations (Amst. lbs. = about lj*5 Eng. lbs.)J 
420,000 
1,108,000 
1,196,000 
1,531,000 
Year (January 1 to January 1) 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 
Exports from Ceylon (lbs.) 
12,986,347 
13,251,200 
9,433,715 
8,655,990 
5,679,339 
7,130,000 
Year (July 1 to July 1) . * 
1886-87. 
1887-88. 
1888-89. 
1889-90. 
1890-91. 
1891-92. 
1892-93. 
Exports from British India (lbs.) 
Exports from Java, about 8 per cent, from gov’t 1 
plantations (Amst. lbs. = about Eng. lbs.) j 
1,250,000 
2,230,000 
1,450,000 
3,493,000 
3,074,000 
4,415,000 
2,936,000 
5,121,268 
3,256,979 
6,876,816 
3,633,728 
7,786,867 
7,955,090 
Without attempting an analysis of the data on which this table is based, we would refer to 
the following important conclusions by which the student is impressed. (1) South America, 
from being the original and only source of supply, has come to yield in 1890 only about five 
per cent, of the world’s supply. (2) Of this small amount, but an insignificant portion is from 
the wild trees, a consideration which has a most important bearing upon the character and 
quality of recent supplies. (3) The steady and rapid increase in Java production in the face 
* Large planters in Bolivia informed the writer that the cost of collecting, drying, and marketing their bark was 
not far from one English shilling per pound, exclusive of all cost of production. That some way must have been 
since found for greatly reducing this expense is evident, for much of the bark has sold at prices below this figure. 394 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
of depression and positive decline elsewhere. (4) The great increase in the ratio of private to 
government production. 
The first shipment from Java was of 900 pounds, in 1869. It is to be remembered that a 
great part of the Indian product is not exported. The total acreage now devoted to cinchona 
culture is estimated at 63,491, and the number of trees at 73,540,000. 
Character of Stocks. It is most important that we should have some knowledge of the va- 
rieties of Cinchona composing the stocks in the several producing districts. Unfortunately, it 
is difficult to obtain from all the countries statistics in such form as will allow of their being 
presented in a table. Ceylon.—All that Mr. Ferguson, in his Ceylon Hand-Book and Directory 
(1890-91), is able to say of the 19,500,000 trees existing there is that “ a good deal of atten- 
tion has been given to the hybrids Robusta magnifolia allied to Crown, and pubescens [not 
the species pubescens] allied to Red bark trees ; and the Crown officinalis barks in the higher 
districts 5000 feet upwards; to Ledgerianas grown from seed originally received from Mr. 
Maclvor off Ledger’s trees and from Java and Sikkim in the lower districts, and to Calisayas 
(Morada and Verde) grown from seed direct from South America ; but still we suppose that in 
number planted out 1 Succirubra is king it grows at nearly all elevations from 1500 feet up- 
wards.” India.—In 1889 the trees upon 1779 acres of government plantation in Madras were 
as follows: officinalis, 981,918; hybrids, 655,856; succirubras, 70,693; calisayas, 273; other 
kinds, 915. Upon 3000 acres of government plantation in Bengal, with six million trees, Cali- 
sayas and hybrids represent by far the greater part, replacing as rapidly as possible the succi- 
rubras, owing to a successful method of extracting quinine sulphate instead of the febrifuge 
as heretofore. Private plantations are estimated to contain 9799 acres, and here the tendency 
is even stronger towards the rich calisayas, ledgerianas, and hybrids. Java.—The report of 
the government plantations for the second quarter of 1891 gives ledgerianas, 2,659,000 ; suc- 
cirubras, 1,076,000; officinalis, 52,900 ; calisayas, 2200 ; lancifolias, 1500. Of the three last 
named, none were apparently being propagated. Regarding the small number of calisayas, it 
is to be remembered that ledgeriana is practically of this species, and its richest form. South 
America.—The comparatively small supplies of uncultivated bark proceed almost wholly from 
C. officinalis and its varieties and one other species not definitely known. The cultivated is 
wholly from C. calisaya, professedly of pure blood, any hybridization being purely accidental, 
sought to be avoided by the planters, and occurring with worthless varieties. Before consider- 
ing the quality of these barks it is desirable to refer briefly to the methods of cultivation, to 
which such quality is largely owing. 
Methods of Cultivation. 
The history of Cinchona cultivation teems with evidence as to the difficulty of obtaining 
pure seeds, owing to the tendency of the plants towards cross-pollination. In every locality 
where the industry has been established has the disgust of the gardener been excited by the 
discovery that the plants which he had reared with great care, and upon which he had based 
great expectations, were contaminated by the admixture of foreign pollen. This was especially 
true in case of the earlier attempts, before this tendency had become known. Experience at 
length established the fact that absolute isolation of the seed-trees was essential. One of the 
curious developments of these experiments was the fact, already referred to, that the value of 
the progeny was not always assured by the value of its parentage. Some of the hybrids, even 
when least expected, would develop a surprisingly rich yield ; and this tendency has been utilized 
to develop the most valuable stocks in existence. So certain is it that some of the plants from 
the best of seed will prove worthless, that the careful selection of the seedlings while young is 
deemed necessary, and in South America, at least, all planting contracts are based upon this 
expectation, the contractor not being paid for his work until the plants have become old enough 
to show with certainty the proportion of good plants contained. Both in the selection of the 
young seedlings and the acceptance of the plantation, the test of identity is found in the leaf. 
Propagation by cuttings, extensively practised in some localities, has been found too slow and 
expensive to become general. A thorough preparation of the soil is as beneficial in the case 
of Cinchona as in that of other crops. Thorough tillage after transplantation is also essential, 
a free growth of weeds meaning destruction to a large part of the young trees. The cultivation 
of a secondary crop between the rows of trees is, however, practicable. A large percentage 
of profit depends upon the selection of a suitable age for collecting the bark. There comes 
a time when the use of the ground for starting a new crop is more valuable than the gain 
by permitting the present crop to remain, and after some years an actual deterioration of the 
bark sets in. This age is not the same for all the trees in the plantation. Several years’ PAET I. 
Cinchona. 
395 
difference may occur in the maturing of trees germinated at the same time. In the case of 
calisaya it occurs at from 6 to 9 years from seed, and its indication is the “ chicken-leg” scali- 
ness of the bark, as described under Classification. The officinalis matures somewhat less early. 
In the Bolivian plantations the most experienced hand is selected as the marker, and the cutters 
follow him, peeling the trees which he has indicated. How far these careful methods of selec- 
tion are followed elsewhere, the writer is not informed. 
Four principal methods of collecting the bark are in vogue, these being variously modified 
in different sections. The first is uprooting, the most primitive, by which the trees are simply 
uprooted at the proper age, and the ground replanted. The barks of root, stem, and branches 
are preserved and marketed separately. The second method is coppicing, by which, after peel- 
ing a quill from the lower portion of the trunk, the latter is cut a few inches from the ground 
and the remainder of the stem bark and the branch bark are removed. The “ coppice” is 
formed by a second growth of two shoots from each of the stumps. A second coppice is com- 
monly grown, and this is harvested by uprooting. By the third method, scraping, the outer 
hark is scraped off, leaving the liber untouched. This has been found especially applicable to 
young trees, in which the second growth of bark is rapidly formed and contains 20 to 30 per 
cent, more alkaloid than that which has been taken off. It seems to be a general opinion among 
the planters that shaving checks the growth of the tree after it is 5 years old, so that from 
3 to 5 years is the age at which it is best practised. The fourth method is known as moss- 
ing. It having been noticed that the Cinchona alkaloids, especially in any other form than 
that of sulphate, were apt, on exposure to the direct light of the sun, to become reddened by 
the generation of coloring matter, at the expense of the alkaloid, it was a very natural infer- 
ence that a similar change might take place in the living plant, as a consequence of which the 
proportion of alkaloids they were capable of producing might be greatly diminished. It was 
also observed that the bark upon that side of the tree where the sun struck it was less rich 
than that upon the shady side. To obviate this presumed effect, Mr. Maclvor was induced to 
make the experiment of covering the stems of the growing trees with a layer of moss, so as 
completely to protect the bark against the influence of sunlight. The result was favorable be- 
yond all expectation ; and the yield of the bark thus protected in alkaloids is said to he doubled, 
tripled, or increased even in larger proportion. A tree can thus be made continuously produc- 
tive ; for if a slip is removed longitudinally from the trunk, from top to bottom, by covering 
the decorticated portion with moss, the bark is renewed at least as rich as previously in the 
alkaloids, while from time to time other strips may be taken, till the whole of the old bark is 
removed, and the new ready for removal by a repetition of the same process; and the tree is 
thus preserved indefinitely, probably for the whole normal length of its life. Hooper says that 
renewed bark is always of greater value than the mossed, and mossed than the natural, so long 
as the trees are under 20 years old, for it has been found that after that time the bark ceases 
to thicken, and the alkaloids remain stationary or even decrease. Perhaps 20 years is even 
too old. The practical difficulty with the process is that it requires skilled workmen, not always 
attainable, and hence the “ coppicing system” still largely prevails in India. The supplies of 
suitable moss accessible to the Indian plantations having become exhausted, recourse was had 
to grass, old rags, paper, straw, hay, etc., all of which have been found to serve the same use- 
ful purpose. Regarding the relative amounts of the different forms of bark, we note that 
Ceylon returns show the following general percentages ranging over a period of four years: 
renewed, 30 per cent.; natural stem, 25 per cent.; root, 5 per cent.; branch, 40 per cent. 
Not much is to be learned from these figures, as they must, in the nature of the case, differ 
very widely according to the method of collection employed. As to composition, it was found 
that the branch bark (probably due partly to the quantity of wood which inevitably comes 
away with it) was but one-third as rich in quinine as the natural stem bark, while the renewed 
bark was twice as rich as the natural stem bark. The root bark was about equal to the nat- 
ural stem bark. It is difficult to understand the last statement, in view of the well-known fact 
that an assay of the bark of stem and root of any one tree shows the latter to he much richer. 
The low result may have been due to the presence of wood, earth, or other foreign matter. 
The methods of packing the bark have also undergone important modifications since the 
early days of cultivation. The extensive adulteration practised when the wild bark brought 
very high prices led to a demand for it in large pieces which could be readily and quickly ex- 
amined ; hence the appearance of the large tahla and quill forms, the latter afterwards becom- 
ing the standard for the cultivated bark. The hark of the trunk, and sometimes of the branches 
when very large, is cut into two-foot lengths, and each length removed in a single piece, which 396 
Cinchona. 
PAKT I. 
in drying rolls up to form a quill. Such peeling can of course be successfully practised only 
at the appropriate season of the year. The bark of the roots, branches, and dead or dry trunks 
must be removed by chipping, scraping, or shaving, commonly the latter. The quills, after 
thorough drying, are carefully packed in bales, or preferably in boxes, to avoid breakage, and 
are marketed in packages of from 100 to 250 pounds. Large quantities of cultivated bark 
are still marketed in this way, but, increasing competition having lowered prices so that econ- 
omy in freight has become a very important item, most of the bark is now broken up, and its 
bulk even reduced by high pressure. 
The effect of cultivation upon the world’s supply of Cinchona products has been revolutionary 
as regards quantity, quality, and price. Immense as was the area which yielded the original 
wild bark, it could never begin to furnish such extensive and regular supplies as are obtained 
at the present day. Various influences have combined to produce the improvement in quality. 
The first is the complete suppression of the very extensive adulterations and substitutions, some 
of them most difficult to detect, as well as very nearly that of the shipment of the lowest- 
grade barks. It does not pay to assume the risk of such undertakings, now that the expense is 
little, if any, less than that of supplying a good article. Again, the more strict selection of 
high-grade barks has resulted from the increasingly large demands of the quinine manufacturers, 
who appreciate the economy of obtaining 100 pounds of alkaloid from a ton of bark, instead 
of working over five tons to get the same quantity. Selection, however, is not the only means by 
which this end has been attained. The gardener’s art has produced results which have entirely 
eclipsed the best efforts of nature. The mere transplantation and cultivation of the trees were 
early found to increase their richness in alkaloids. In Java, excellent results were obtained by 
grafting the young shoots of ledgeriana upon young plants belonging to a species of little 
value, as much as 13 per cent, of quinine sulphate being said to have been obtained from bark 
so produced. The careful production, selection, and propagation of hybrids have done more to 
increase the alkaloidal percentage than any other influence. Hybrids yielding from 11 to 13 
per cent, of quinine sulphate were early produced, and very recently one has been reported 
from Java yielding no less than 16 per cent., equivalent to very nearly 12 per cent, of pure 
quinine. The effects of mossing have already been referred to. Samples of mossed bark yield- 
ing 8 per cent, and 10 per cent, of quinine have been of common occurrence. But it is not 
the occurrence of these exceptionally rich samples which marks the improvement in this direc- 
tion ; it is rather the increased average percentage of the annual yield. Unfortunately, we have 
no statistics enabling us to arrive at very definite conclusions as to the average percentages of 
the crops of original wild bark, but it is certainly not too much to say that a yield of quinine 
as great, say, as last year’s average for the Java crop, would have been regarded as exceptional 
even for select lots of such wild bark. Within a few years large plantations in Java have 
been uprooted, because their yield of some 3 per cent, or more of quinine sulphate was seen 
to offer no hope of successful competition against the rich bark now coming on. 
As to the relative richness of bark from different sections, we cannot believe that it has any 
permanent character, depending wholly upon methods of selection and cultivation. The cul- 
tivated barks of Bolivia originally took precedence, but superior cultivation in Asia has enabled 
plantations there to excel her in this direction, at least as regards select lots, which probably 
represent the general product of the future. For a long time the South American planters 
refused to resort to any special methods to increase the alkaloidal yield, such as were employed 
in India, but ruinous competition has compelled them to do so during recent years. The 
result, however, has not enabled them to hold their own in the market. In India the general 
average of the barks has tended in the direction of total alkaloids rather than of quinine, 
owing to the large production for the manufacture of febrifuge and the consequent cultivation 
of C. succirubra. At present a change to quinine-producing varieties is energetically under 
way. Ceylon has always been noted for the low grade of her barks, as regards either quinine 
or the total alkaloids. Upon the whole, Java bids fair to take the lead as to quality. The 
following estimate of quinine percentages was made concerning the crops of 1888 and 1889 
by Messrs. Lewis and Peat: 
_ , 1889. 1888. 
Ceylon crop 2& per cent. 2J per cent. 
India “ 2 “ 2i “ 
1889. 1888. 
Java crop 4 per cent. 4 per cent. 
Bolivia crop 4$ “ 4J “ 
The Java crop of 1891 averaged 4-15 per cent* for a crop of more than 8.500,000 pounds. 
1 his is probably not less than three times the average of the old wild crops of South America. 
* Statistics of the Java crop of 1892 indicate an average of 4J per cent. PART I. 
Cinchona. 
397 
The result does great credit to Java, for during the early history of her bark enterprise her 
plantations were found stocked with discouraging quantities of poor or even worthless barks, 
which have been eliminated by the most steady enterprise and patient industry. 
The effect of this wonderful industry upon the price of bark, and especially upon that of 
quinine, can be appreciated by viewing the average prices per pound paid for all the bark im- 
ported into the United States in the several years between 1885 and 1890. It is to be noted 
that as the price thus steadily declined, the product steadily grew richer and more valuable. 
Year .... 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 
Price per lb. . 25'7c. 20'2c. 15’5c. 12'3c. 12-8c. 9-9c. ll‘3c. 8‘8c. 8'3c. 5‘7c. 6'lc. 6'lc. 5-6c. 9 3c. 
(Reported by McKesson and Robbins.) 
The sudden fall in price about the year 1890 was attributed to the uprooting of the Ceylon 
plantations to make way for the more profitable industry of tea-growing, with the consequent 
flooding of the bark market. Before the effect of this influence had more tlian begun to pass 
away, the greatly increased production in Java depressed the price even more, and has kept it 
so until the past year (1898), when a decided improvement has occurred, as indicated in the 
above table. 
Commercial History. 
The above general history of Cinchona leaves little necessary to be said of its commercial 
history, except to deduce from the facts already presented certain practical conclusions showing 
the present conditions of supply and demand, these bearing especially upon our concluding re- 
marks concerning pharmacognosy and classification. 
For more than a century after Peruvian bark came into use, it was procured almost exclu- 
sively from the neighborhood of Loxa. In a memoir published in 1738, La Condamine speaks 
of the bark of Riobamba, Cuenca, Ayavaca, and Jaen de Bracomoros. Of these places, the 
first two, together with Loxa, lie within the ancient kingdom of Quito, at the southern ex- 
tremity ; the others are in the same vicinity, within the borders of Peru. The drug was 
shipped chiefly at Payta, whence it was carried to Spain and thence spread over Europe. Be- 
yond the limits above mentioned the Cinchona was not supposed to exist, till, in the year 1753, 
a gentleman of Loxa discovered it, while on a journey to Santa Fe de Bogota, in numerous 
situations along his route, wherever, in fact, the elevation of the country was equal to that of 
Loxa, or about 6500 feet above the level of the sea. This discovery extended through Quito 
into Colombia, as far as two degrees and a half north of the equator. But no practical 
advantage was derived from it; and the information lay buried in the archives of the vice- 
royalty till subsequent events brought it to light. To Mutis has been awarded the credit of 
making known the existence of the Cinchona in Colombia, he having claimed its discovery 
in the neighborhood of Bogota in 1772. Recently great doubt has been thrown upon the just- 
ness of this claim. A botanical expedition was afterwards organized by the Spanish govern- 
ment, with the view of exploring this part of their dominions, and the direction was given to 
Mutis. Its researches eventuated in the discovery of several species of Cinchona in Colombia ; 
and a commerce in the bark soon commenced, which was carried on through the ports of 
Carthagena and Santa Marta. 
To these sources another was added about the same time (1776) by the discovery of the 
Cinchona in the centre of Peru, in the mountainous region about the city of Huanuco, which 
lies on the eastern declivity of the Andes, northeast of Lima, at least six degrees south of the 
province of Loxa. To explore this new locality, another botanical expedition was set on foot, 
at the head of which were Ruiz and Pavon, the distinguished authors of the Flora Peruviana. 
These botanists spent several years in that region, during which time they discovered numer- 
ous species. Lima became the entrepot for the bark collected around Huanuco; and hence 
probably originated the. name of Lima bark, so often conferred, in common language, not only 
upon the varieties received through that city, but also upon the medicine generally. 
Soon after the last-mentioned discovery, two additional localities of the Cinchona were 
found; one at the northern extremity of the continent, near Santa Marta, the other very far 
to the south, in the provinces of La Paz and Cochabamba, then within the viceroyalty of 
Buenos Ayres, now in the republic of Bolivia. These latter places became the source of an 
abundant supply of excellent bark, which received the name of Calisaya. It was sent partly 
to the ports on the Pacific, partly to Buenos Ayres. 
The consequence of these discoveries was a vast increase in the supply of bark, which was 
now shipped from the ports of Guayaquil, Payta, Lima, Arica, Buenos Ayres, Carthagena, and 
Santa Marta. At the same time the average quality was probably deteriorated ; for, though 398 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
many of the new varieties were possessed of excellent properties, yet equal care in superin- 
tending the collection and assorting of the bark could scarcely be exercised in a field so much 
more extended. The varieties now poured into the market soon became so numerous as to 
burden the memory if not to defy the discrimination of the druggist; and the best pharma- 
cologists found themselves at a loss to discover any permanent peculiarities which might serve 
as the basis of a proper and useful classification. The restrictions upon the commerce of 
South America, by directing the trade into irregular channels, had also a tendency to deterio- 
rate the character of the drug. Little attention was paid to a proper assortment of the sev- 
eral varieties; and not only were the best barks mixed with those of inferior species and less 
careful preparation, but the products of other trees, bearing no resemblance to the Cinchona, 
were sometimes added, having been artificially prepared so as to deceive a careless observer. 
The markets of this country were peculiarly ill furnished. The supplies, being derived chiefly, 
by means of a contraband trade, from Carthagena and other ports on the Spanish Main, or 
indirectly through Havana, were necessarily of an inferior character; and most of the good 
bark which reached us was imported by our druggists from London, whither it was sent from 
Cadiz. A great change, however, in this respect took place after the ports on the Pacific were 
opened to our commerce. The best kinds of bark were thus rendered directly accessible to 
us: and the trash which formerly glutted our markets became in great measure excluded. 
Much bark was also imported from Carthagena and other ports of the Caribbean Sea, being 
brought down the Magdalena River from the mountains of Colombia; and an additional 
source of supply was opened through the Amazon, though this bark was of inferior quality. 
More or less perplexity attending the recognition of the barks continued until after the firm 
establishment of the hark culture and the cheapening of the price, to the exclusion of the 
worthless varieties, as already described. 
The price of the bark was as irregular and uncertain as its quality. The Cinchona forests, 
being in thinly-inhabited districts, did not, for the most part, belong to individuals, but were 
open to the enterprise of all who chose to engage in the collection of the bark. As a conse- 
quence, the operations were carried on without reference to the future condition of the interest, 
and most wasteful modes of procedure resulted at length in the almost complete destruction 
of the source of supply, and in fabulous prices—$350 to $450 per cwt.—being paid for 
the better grades of bark. To this result private speculation, official intrigue, and national 
greed all contributed. Various attempts were made to utilize the leaves, flowers, and wood 
of the tree, but these were found not to contain the active constituents in sufficient amount. 
Fortunately, cultivation has about abolished all the evils and perplexities attending this trade, 
and has given us a steady and practically unlimited supply of the finest bark at prices which, 
compared with those above referred to, are merely nominal.* Although this great fall in 
price has resulted in a great financial depression at the present time, and has even brought 
disaster to some planters whose expenses have been greater than can be returned at present 
rates, yet, on the whole, the business has been very profitable, having paid for itself several 
times over. The present depression is supposed to have been brought on largely by the very 
heavy marketing by Ceylon, amounting, Ferguson says, to 82,000,000 pounds in seven years. 
Much of this marketing was in turn due to a craze for tea-planting, on account of which, 
from 1885 to 1888, 22,000 acres were uprooted, throwing upon the market 35,000,000 pounds 
of bark. Mr. A. C. Meyjes, who has devoted much study to the commercial history of Cin- 
chona bark, estimated the annual consumption for 1894 at about 15,000,000 lbs. 
One of the most important developments of the modern bark-trade is the fixing of the price 
in accordance with the quality as determined by assay. The most accurate method of selecting 
a characteristic sample for assay is a subject which has received much study, without the dis- 
covery of any method which does not depend for its value upon the discrimination and care 
exercised in its employment. The plan which is regarded as the safest is to take a given 
weight, say 8 ounces, from the inner portion of each package constituting the lot, mix and 
powder the entire suite, and furnish to applicants the required amount of the resulting powder. 
If any portion of any bale or bales is damaged, care is taken to add a proportionately large 
fragment of such portion. The bark is then recorded as containing so many units, a “ unit" 
being each per cent, of quinine contained in a pound of bark. In rich bark the units are 
* One writer, referring to the results of the Ceylon production, says, “ We swamped the markets of the world, 
conferring simultaneously untold benefits on humanity by compelling a reduction in the price of Howard’s quinine 
of more than 75 per cent. . . . Simultaneously we have reduced the value of the unit of quinine in bark against 
ourselves and all other producers from 2s. in 1880 to 3d., and even though now 2d." PART I. 
Cinchona. 
399 
worth more each than in poor, owing to the increased yield of alkaloid for the same cost of 
manufacture. 
In the United States, at least, some difficulty has been experienced by druggists in securing 
the better grades of bark ai/ regular rates, owing to the activity of the manufacturers in drain - 
ing the market of the most desirable stock. The finer-appearing packages of unbroken bar k, 
having been marketed at greater cost, are necessarily held at higher prices. Possessing no 
special value for manufacturing purposes, these fall to the share of the druggist, but at higher 
prices than broken bark of the same richness. This fact has led to the recognition of two 
distinct classes, known as manufacturers’ bark and druggists’ bark. While the latter is of 
finer appearance, it is not necessarily, nor in fact commonly, superior to the former. > Indeed, 
not at all to the credit of our druggists, it is true that, because their bark is not commonly 
wbmitted to assay, they receive a bark of fine appearance but inferior quality. Tbe greater 
portion <51 the' baHis now sold at auction in the cities of Amsterdam and London. 
Year 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 
Packages of about 150 lbs. aid in London (mostly Ceylon and 
Indian) 90,435 90,470 70.yb35 67,528 53,850 56,833 
Packages of about 150 lbs. held in Lorion at close of year . . . 59,619 56,754 57,181 48,213 49,142 37,878 
Packages of about 180 lbs. sold in Amterdam (mostly Java) • . 24,749 39,636 42,520 45,239 
Stocks ordinarily held in Amsterdan are very much smaller than those ini London. 
-Besides"dlls; a consiueraokivmaount of Bolivian bark goes to Hamburg and to Havre, whence 
the Paris market is partly supplied. New Yotk receives little bark direct, the most of it being 
purchased in London and Amsterdam. Samples of the various tots are forwarded in time for 
a selection to be made and purchases ordered by mail or cable. From the statistics which we 
have given, showing the character <6f the hark produced by the several countries, and also the 
sources of the bark sold in the, principal markets, those interested can readily judge as to the 
general character of the off erings at different points. 
A few words remain to be said of the wild South American barks at present dealt in, and 
only partly included iu the preceding enumeration. Enough has already been said to explain 
their very general exclusion. At the same time it is to be remembered that there still remain 
in the London warehouses some 1500 tons of such bark, collected many years ago, which is 
being gradually worked off upon the market at very low prices. Another portion of such bark 
is even yet being collected, and, as much of this latter is used by retail druggists, it demands 
our attention. This bark is almost wholly of two sorts, (1) the Crown bark,—Cuenca, Loxa, 
and Huanu<e'o,—from C. officinalis, and (2) the Hard Yellow or Maracaibo variety. Concerning 
the former1 it is exceedingly difficult to obtain statistics, but the annual production is supposed 
to be about 1200 packages. The greater portion of it goes to France, and is probably consumed 
in the southern European countries. Of the 57 packages of bark imported into the United 
States direct from South America in 1891, 27 were of the cultivated Calisaya and the remainder 
Crown. This is a fairly good bark. Of the second, or Maracaibo, there is no very regular col- 
lection and shipment. The most of it goes to Hamburg, and there large quantities of it can 
be obtained at any time. Considerable of it goes to London also, and once in several years the 
United States receives a shipment of several hundred bales. The most of this is reshipped to 
the West Indies or goes to the Pacific coast, and it is mostly used in making Huxham’s tinc- 
ture and other preparations in which the bitter element is the chief consideration. Although 
really very poor, it is, after sifting and winnowing, a fine-looking yellow bark and quite bitter, 
owing to alkaloids other than quinine, and it finds a ready sale at fair prices. It may be 
added that occasional packages of wild Calisaya in table form, and of wild thick Red bark, are 
received in London. 
Classification. 
Reference has already been made to the extreme difficulty which attended the earlier 
attempts to classify the Cinchona barks of commerce,—difficulties not probably encountered 
elsewhere in the Materia Medica. We have also made it clear that these difficulties no longer 
exist, the varieties having been reduced to a very few. Most of the discarded barks will be 
found described in previous editions of this work. We find it necessary to enumerate and 
describe here only the Pale bark, from C. officinalis, the Red bark, from C. succirubra, the Yel- 
low bark, from C. calisaya and its var. ledgeriana, and the Hard Yellow or Maracaibo bark, 
and to refer briefly to the hybrid forms. First, a few words concerning the forms in which 
Cinchona bark occurs. We have (1) the large flat pieces or chips of irregular shape and size,— 
this referring at present almost wholly to the Maracaibo variety; (2) the small chips or broken 
bark, referring in large part to the root bark, and to other bark broken for close packing; (3) 400 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
the shaved nark, referring to some root bark and to stem bark taken from dry stems, but 
chiefly to branch bark ; (4) the quill bark, referring to natural bark taken from the stem- ana 
root in quill form, this including the uncultivated pale bark and all the varieties of cultivated 
bark; and (5) the renewed and mossed bark, which may be of any cultivated variety. The 
Classification of all varieties and forms into druggists’ and manufacturers’ barks enables as to 
dis'.pe'us in great part with \ description of some of these forms. The manufacturer cares 
noth'ing'fvr. form, appearance, or structure, and but little for the variety of his supplies. He 
is int erested wholly in its composition, and this he determines by assay. For this reason most 
of the broken bark goes to him. The druggist requires the quill or chip bark: so that 
the greyt bulk of the branch bark is also thrown,'at lotv prices, upon the hands of the manu- 
facturer. 
As. regards the root barks, no classified description has come to the writer’s attention. In 
their structure? they correspond very closely to the stem barks of the same varie$T\ can 
be readily distinguished from the'latter by their less thickness, lighter e.xernal and darker 
inner color, gre’uter softness, and twisted or contorted structure. They ociur in short, irregular 
quills or chips, or sometimes as shavings, and contain very much m?e dust than any othcf 
form. Except partly as regrards structure, the descriptions of sten barks will not apply to 
branch barks of the same variety, for the characteristic marking do not appear in the young 
condition. The branch bark appears1 in shavings, to the inner . A manyAztech..’"more 
or less of the wood adheres. If the branches were shaved while yet fresh, these shavings will 
be more or less rolled up and curled; but if dry before being-removed, this rolling and curling 
will not occur. Shaved bark taken from living trees ns thin, soft,< and brittle, consisting of the 
outer bark only. The large quills are of uniform length from the same plantation, but not 
necessarily so from different plantations or different sections. They are eommonly from 2 to 3 
feet in length, but some have been marketed having a length of 5 feet. Usually they represent 
the entire circumference of the stem, but occasionally only half of it.. In drying they roll up 
very tightly from one or both edges, and rarely one will be wholly or pardy involved ;n another. 
The periderm, with all its markings, remains intact, and no other form so well displays the 
natural appearances as this. Mossed bark differs from natural stem, bark in Its great thickness 
and weight, less breadth of the quills, freedom from lichens, very dark color, a.nd rough, corru- 
gated or warty surface. The outer bark or cellular portion bears a greater ratio to the inner 
or fibrous portion than in natural bark. Renewed bark is lighter, both in color and weight, 
thinner, soft and brittle, and marked by a very peculiar external smoothness, sometimes very 
marked indeed. In its general appearance it is strikingly like a root bark, except for the rela- 
tive straightness of its fibres. Like the mossed bark, it is in narrow, only partly rolled quills 
or bands, and is entirely free from lichens. 
As they differ so greatly among themselves in coloration, lichen-growth, degree and form 6f 
exfoliation, structure and consequent fracture, there are but few characters which can be com- 
bined in a general description of the Cinchona barks which we consider. The external color 
varies from light ashy gray to nearly black, the inner varies less in its shades of 
and red-brown. All are more or less bitter, and most are astringent, but only Loxa bark has 
a distinctive odor. The fracture is never very long-splintery, and never tough. As to structure, 
the bast fibres are loosely arranged, the radial rows being neither continuous nor very long. 
The fibres themselves are always unbranched, which distinguishes the true from the false barks, 
are rather short and obtuse, brittle, and usually easily detached from their bed. Laticiferous 
ducts and stone-cells may or may not be present. The former become less conspicuous as the 
bark grows older, so that their relative absence becomes indicative of a stage in .which the due 
proportion of alkaloid should have been acquired. 
It may be noted here that by far the greater portion of the alkaloid, particularly quinine, 
is stored in the outer bark, though that in the inner bark is in a purer state. The latter is not 
stored in the fibres, but in the cellular tissue between them. 
As regards the former classification of barks by color, it referred only in small part to the 
external color, chiefly to the powder. These colors were never regarded as absolutely charac- 
teristic, as the three barks, yellow, red, and pale, exhibited gradations by which they mingled 
at their extremes. Under present conditions, the lines of demarcation have become even mo,-e 
indistinct, and, as a matter of fact, in the market the terms “ yellow” and “ red” are used with 
great looseness. It is true that we receive much pure-blooded Yellow Bark, Lbdgeriana from 
the East, and Calisaya both from there and from South America; but it is also undeniable 
that much of the bark sold under the several names is of mixed blood, and the typical char- Cinchona. 
401 
PART I. 
acters are often greatly obscured. The presence in our market of these mixed forms has made 
the terms even less valuable than they once were, and dealers cannot be found to agree as to 
the character of many samples. Nevertheless, the occurrence 
of the typical forms, and the appearance in a hybrid of the 
blended characters, render it desirable to preserve this classifi- 
cation, and to group the new forms around the types. 
Yellow or Calisaya Bark. Cinchona Flava.* 
Derived from G. calisaya and its var. ledgeriana. Scarcely 
collected in a wild state, but cultivated in all plantations. 
Demand and production rapidly increasing. The largest qui- 
nine yielder, its amount being 70 to 80 per cent, of the total 
alkaloid. The var. ledgeriana yields a very valuable hybrid 
bark with C. succirubra. C. calisaya also hybridizes with the 
Ia*fer cpccics. 
Description. Flat or “table” bark, now very little produced. Quills, 
unless broken for shipment, large and handsome, 14 to 24 feet long, single 
or double, sometimes as much as 24 inches in diameter, 4 to nearly 4 inch 
thick. Externally gray to lightly brownish gray, internally light cin- 
namon-color, the striae very fine. Powder light yellowish brown. Its 
lichens are thin and closely adherent, not rendering it shaggy. Ex- 
ternal markings very characteristic, consisting of a very light longitu- 
dinal ridging or none at all, but of numerous transverse and longitudinal 
fissures or cracks, the presence and arrangement of which constitute the 
chief characteristic of CaPoaya. Upon the young stems and branches 
they do not appear. The first to appear are the usually large primary 
fissures, which encir„ie the stem at the nodes, or points where pairs of 
leaves once stor'1. Subsequently, numerous smaller secondary transverse 
fissures appear upon the internodes, and these quickly become connected 
and crossed by longitudinal cracks, thus dividing the periderm up into 
more or less quadrangular checks, which may remain attached or fall away. 
This gives to mature Calisaya bark an appearance of scaliness like that 
upon the tarsus of a fowl, and this is known to the South American collec- 
tors by a term which signifies the “ chicken-leg appearance.” It has also 
been spoken of as a “ carving-like” marking. Like the roughness upon a 
musk-melon, its great development is regarded as an indication of high 
quality, and especially is this true of a close proximity of the primary fis- 
sures. This roughness is also regarded as a sure indication of maturity. 
There are excellent distinctions between these and the somewhat similar 
fissures upon the bark of C. officinalis. In the latter they are coarser and more gaping. Even more important is 
the absence from Pale Bark of most of the longitudinal cracks, so that it does not become “ chicken-legged,” or at 
most only very slightly so. The external color of Yellow Bark is lighter than that of the Pale Bark. Longitudinal 
ridges are few if any, short, irregular, and inconspicuous. In fine South American bark some very small bright-red 
spots can be detected upon the periderm. East Indian Calisaya can commonly be recognized by its somewhat 
dingy or brownish shade of gray, the gray of the South American bark being bright and somewhat bluish-steel-colored. 
In structure, the zone of large, rather numerous laticiferous ducts just outside the bast is conspicuous in young, 
anti therefore inferior, samples. The rather small bast fibres are loosely scattered, almost uniformly single, a radial 
arrangement being made out. The fracture is rough-splintery, though not coarse. Stone-cells few or none. Odor- 
less, more bitter, and less astringent than the Pale Bark. Ledger bark is the same as Calisaya in all its essential 
characters, but does not reach so great a size. In hybrids of Calisaya with Succirubra the characters and quality 
of the latter appear to predominate. 
C. calisaya. 
Red Bark. Cinchona RuBRA.f 
Derived from G. sucarubra. Scarcely collected in a wild state, but cultivated in all planta- 
tions except those of South America. Demand and production rapidly decreasing. A large 
* This is the bark which is recognized under the name of Cinchona by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia (see p. 388), in 
which it is officially described as follows: “ In quills or incurved pieces, varying in length, and usually two or three, 
or sometimes five Mm. thick ; the outer surface covered with a gray or brownish-gray cork, usually slightly wrinkled, 
marked with transverse and also with intersecting longitudinal fissures (C. Calisuya), and sometimes with scattered 
wans and slight longitudinal ridges; inner surface light cinnamon-brown, very finely striate; fracture short and 
granular in the outer layer, and finely fibrous in the inner layer; powder light brown or yellowish brown; odor 
slight, somewhat aromatic ; taste bitter and somewhat astringent.” 
| This is the bark which is recognized by the Br. Pharmacopoeia (see p. 388), officially described as follows: 
“ Imported in quilled or more or less incurved pieces, coated with the periderm, and varying in length from two 
inches to a foot (five to thirty centimetres) or more—the bark itself from about one-tenth to a quarter of an inch 
(two and a half to six millimetres) thick, or rarely more; outer surface brownish or reddish brown in color, more or 
less rough from longitudinal ridges which are most apparent in the branch bark, with numerous warts often running 
into lines in the larger pieces; in some varieties marked with numerous transverse cracks which have not thickened 
edges; inner surface brick-red or deep reddish brown, irregularly and coarsely striated; fracture shortly fibrous in 
the smaller, and finely fibrous in the larger, pieces; powder brownish or reddish brown ; no marked odor; taste bitter 
and somewhat astringent.” 402 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
alkaloid yielder, hut of this only about 20 per cent, is quinine. Largely hybridized with C. 
officinalis. Also hybridized with C. calisaya and its var. ledgeriana. 
Description. Quills similar to those of Calisaya, though running somewhat broader and thicker. Externally of a 
dingy brown gray, less lichen-bearing than either of the others. Inner surface of a more reddish cinnamon-brown 
than in Calisaya. Powder reddish brown. The important characteristic of red bark is the prominent longitudinal 
ridges, many of them short and confluent, with intervening furrows or elongated meshes. The ridges are suberous, 
bear numerous small warty protuberances, and may be traversed by faint cracks. Transverse fissures may or may 
not be present in red bark. If so, they are few, short, and irregularly disposed, and not connected by longitudinal 
cracks to give the checkered appearance of Calisaya. Hybrids with officinalis display numerous transverse fissures, 
and the external color is lighter and more dingy. Fracture short-splintery, not coarse. Odor none. Taste bitter 
and astringent. 
Structure. Bast fibres few and loosely disposed in numerous in- 
terrupted, single or double radial lines, much disposed to stand in 
pairs or in threes. Laticiferous ducts more disposed to remain con- 
spicuous than in the other barks, large, few, and distinct in a single 
row near the bast region. Stone-cells wanting. 
Varieties and Synonymes. Crown Bark, Loxa or 
Loja Bark, Cuenca Bark, Huanuco Bark. Derived 
from C. officinalis. Collected in a wild state about 
Loxa and other parts of Ecuador, and cultivated in all 
plantations except the South American, especially in 
Pale Bark. 
C. succirubra. 
C. officinalis. (A rather young sample.) 
India. Demand and production decreasing. Quinine constitutes 60 to 70 per cent, of the 
total alkaloids. Largely hybridized with C. succirubra. 
Description. Quills single or double, irregularly broken or entire, 3 or 4 to 15 or 18 inches long by J to j, rarely 
1, inch in diameter, and having a very wide range in thickness, the natural mostly 1 to 2 lines thick. Shaggy, with 
more abundant lichens than in any other species, the abundance of these having been considered, not entirely 
without reason, as an indication of the relative quality. Color of periderm darker than in the other species, but 
varying much from a brown gray to nearly black. Inner surface of a paler brown than in the other species, finely 
striate. Powder pale brown. The external markings consist of transverse fissures and longitudinal ridges, some of 
them wart-bearing. It is only in the thinner samples, in which the warts and fissures scarcely appear, that the 
ridges are continuous and conspicuous. In the prominence and breadth of its fissures and the inconspicuousness of 
its ridges, this bark is most distinct from the Red Bark. These characters are yet sufficiently distinct from the 
somewhat similar ones of Calisaya, as noted in describing that bark. 
Fracture short, the inner fibrous zone sharp and narrow. Taste not so bitter as in the others. Odor of the gen- 
uine Loxa variety peculiar and characteristic. Its structure shows the rather short and not numerous bast fibres in 
short interrupted single or double radial rows, and much disposed to occur in bundles of three to six or more. Stone- 
cells rarely seen, and laticiferous ducts conspicuous only when young. PART I. 
Cinchona. 
403 
Hard Yellow, or Maracaibo Bark. Puerto Cabello Bark. 
Derivation not at all certain. Collected only in a wild state in the mountains of Southern 
Colombia, and yielding almost the whole of the inferior wild bark now collected for market. 
Importation and sale in the United States quite irregular and unimportant. One of the best of 
the lower-grade barks, but not to be compared with any of those already described. Said to 
yield about 2 per cent, of crystallizable sulphates, three-fourths of which is quinine sulphate, 
but a characteristic specimen assayed for this investigation by Prof. Virgil Coblentz yielded 
2-65 per cent, of total alkaloids, only a trace of which was quinine. Contains a large amount 
of resin. The common or commercial names by which have been designated the several barks 
of the northern countries related to this one are of very irregular application. At the time 
when the trade in them was large and important, the term “ Maracaibo Bark” was restricted 
to the less resinous variety, derived from C. cordifolia. At the present time, however, it is 
commonly applied in the New York and London markets to the variety under consideration. 
It is also often sold simply as “ Yellow Bark,” and it is not impossible that it is sometimes ac- 
cepted, under this synonyme, for Calisaya.* 
Description. In irregular broken pieces, rarely so short as an inch, and mostly from 2 to 5 or 6 inches long, 1 to 
or 3 inches broad, and & to f of an inch thick. Formerly it included many much smaller fragments as well as 
much dust, but these portions are now mostly sifted and winnowed out before marketing. The pieces are more or 
less flat, the thinner and narrower ones somewhat incurved, the broader and thicker recurved. The bark is com- 
pact, heavy, and fibrous. Most of the pieces display upon the outer surface more or less of the periderm, forming 
silvery-white or yellowish-white patches, very thin and rather soft. Occasionally the periderm is instead dark, hard, 
very rough, and much fissured. From many pieces the entire periderm is absent, disclosing the outer face of the 
bast, very similar to the inner face. This is compactly and rather finely fibrous, of a deep yellow, with a slight 
rust-brown tinge. Throughout, the bast is of this structure and color. Between it and the periderm there may be 
seen with varying distinctness, in most pieces, a characteristic resinous band of irregular width, dark reddish brown 
and waxy-lustrous on the cut surface. The radial rows of bast fibres are quite irregular. The fracture is quite 
long-fibrous. The odor is distinct, and the taste quite bitter. 
H. H. Rusby. 
* False Barks. In the sixteenth edition of theU. S. Dispensatory may be found an elaborate description of the 
various false barks which have from time to time entered commerce. Most of this we omit, but the so-called Cuprea 
Barks at one time were of so much importance that we here insert the matter contained in that edition concerning 
them. It may be stated, however, that no considerable collection of these barks has been made for some years, and 
that it does not seem probable that they will ever again enter commerce. Some fifteen hundred tons of them are 
said, however, to be still stored in London, the remnant of a much larger quantity of the barks which has been and 
still is being slowly sold off for unprofessional uses. 
Cuprea Bark. As early as 1820, a Brazilian surgeon, by the name of Remijio, pointed out to his countrymen that 
the bark of certain small trees or shrubs growing in Brazil was as effective as the Peruvian bark in malarial fevers, 
and ever since in Brazil these plants have been known by the name of Quinta de Sera, or Quinta de Remijio. St.- 
Hilaire (Plantes Us. Bras.) placed these shrubs in the genus Cinchona, as C. Remijiana, ferruginea, and Vellozii ; 
but De Candolle (Prodromus, iv. 357) erected for them a new genus, Remijia, which has since been universally rec- 
ognized by botanists. It is distinguished from Cinchona by the fruit capsules opening semi-loculicidally, by its 
peltate seeds, and by its inflorescence in elongated axillary racemes with opposite fascicles of flowers. In 1857 a 
new bark appeared in the London market, but only within the last few years has this so-called Cuprea bark appeared 
in large quantities. After its value became known, the search for it in South America became very active; indeed, 
in Colombia a “ fever” is said to have broken out, which has caused agriculture to be neglected and deranged the 
business of the country, whilst in London the supply has been so great as to break the whole cinchona market. Mr. 
S. 6. Rosengarten informs us that the bark reaches this country from London, and also directly from Colombia. 
There are two distinct regions which yield it: one is the lower part of the basin of the Magdalena River, in the 
province of Santander, the trees growing in the mountain-chain of La Paz, and the port of export being Bueara- 
manga; the other the basin of the Orinoco, among the mountains which constitute the eastern branch of the Cor- 
dillera of the Andes. 
Bentham states that the genus Remijia comprises 13 species ; according to the researches of Jose Triana, but two 
of these, R. Purdieana, Wedd. ( Ann. Sci. Nat., 3e ser., xi. p. 272), and R. pedunculata, Triana (Cinchona peduncu- 
lata, Karsten), yield the Cuprea bark of commerce. (P. J. Tr., April, 1882.) An exceedingly important fact con- 
nected with these trees is that they grow in a dry climate, and in position a little above the level of the sea, and 
hence without doubt could be cultivated in many intertropical countries where the Cinchonas will not grow. They 
would in all probability flourish within the limits of the United States. 
The specimens of Cuprea bark which have been furnished us as typical by the Messrs. Rosengarten are composed 
of pieces varying from half an inch to 3 or 4 inches in length, from a quarter to a twelfth of an inch in thickness, 
strong and hard, varying from a yellowish to a red cinnamon color, and having a somewhat cupreous tint, distinctly 
curled, very smooth upon their inner surface, on their outer surface smoothish, or in the larger specimens rough, with 
the epidermis usually adherent; marked, except in the very large pieces, with fine wrinkles, and sometimes with 
transverse or spiral grooves, which are sometimes quite shallow, but often are deeply and sharply cut. The texture 
is dense and hard, the fracture is short, not fibrous, and free from spicules. The microscopic characters differ from 
those of the true Cinchonas in the bast-cells being small and with their cavity widely open, not obliterated by sec- 
ondary layers. The shaved transverse section of Cuprea bark is further characterized by a peculiar horny appearance 
different from that of the true Cinchonas. The bark is also remarkable for its density, which Arnaud gives as from 
•1*128 to 1*18, and consequently sinks in water. Cuprea bark varies in the percentage of quinine it contains. The 
Messrs. Rosengarten state that the yield in their laboratories has been from 1 to 2 per cent., and that usually the bark 404 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
In the analysis of Cinchona bark, the attention of chemists was at first directed exclusively 
to the action of water and alcohol upon it, and to the determination of the relative proportions 
of its gummy or extractive and resinous matter. The presence of tannin and of various alka- 
line or earthy salts in minute quantities was afterwards demonstrated. Fourcroy made an elab- 
orate analysis, which proved the existence of other principles in the bark besides those previously 
ascertained. Dr. Westring was the first who attempted the discovery of an active principle in 
the bark, on which its febrifuge virtues might depend; but he was not successful. Seguin 
afterwards pursued the same track, and endeavored, by observing the effects of various reagents, 
to discover the relative value of different varieties of the drug; but his conclusions have not 
been supported by subsequent experiment. M. Deschamps, an apothecary of Lyons, obtained 
from bark a crystallizable salt of lime, the acid of which Vauquelin afterwards separated, and 
called kinic acid (quinic acid). The latter chemist also pushed to a much greater extent the 
researches of Seguin as to the influence of reagents, and arrived at the conclusion that those 
barks were most efficient which gave precipitates with tannin or the infusion of galls. Reuss, 
of Moscow, succeeded in isolating a peculiar coloring matter from red bark, which he desig- 
nated by the name of cinchonic red, and obtained a bitter substance which probably consisted 
in part of the peculiar alkaline principles subsequently discovered. The first step, however, 
towards the discovery of cinchonine and quinine * appears to have been taken by the late Dr. 
Duncan, of Edinburgh, so early as 1803. He believed the precipitate afforded by the infusion 
of cinchona with that of galls to be a peculiar vegetable principle, and accordingly denominated 
it cinchonin. Dr. Gomez, a Portuguese physician, convinced that the active principle of bark 
resided in this cinchonin, but mixed with impurities, instituted experiments upon some pale 
bark, which resulted in the separation of a white crystalline substance, considered by him to be 
the pure cinchonin of Dr. Duncan. It was obtained by the action of potassa upon an aqueous 
infusion of the alcoholic extract of the bark, and was undoubtedly the principle now universally 
known by the name of cinchonine or cinchonia. But Dr. Gomez was ignorant of its precise 
nature, considering it to be analogous to resin. M. Laubert afterwards obtained the same 
principle by a different process, and described it under the name of white matter, or pure white 
resin. To Pelletier and Caventou was reserved the honor of crowning all these experiments, 
and applying the results which they obtained to important practical purposes. In 1820 they 
demonstrated the alkaline character of the principle discovered by Gomez and Laubert, and 
gave it definitively the name of cinchonine. They discovered in the yellow or Calisaya bark 
another alkaline principle, which they denominated quinine. Both these bases they proved to 
exist in the barks, combined with quinic or kinic acid, in the state of cinchonine and quinine 
quinate. It was, moreover, established by their labors that the febrifuge property of bark 
depends upon the presence of these two principles. In 1833, MM. 0. Henry and Delondre 
discovered a new alkaloid, but afterwards, finding its composition in its anhydrous state the 
same as that of quinine, concluded that it was a hydrate of that base. About 1844, Winckler 
announced anew the existence of the same principle, which he considered distinct, and named 
chinidine ; and, under the similar title of quinidine, it has now taken its place among the cin- 
chona alkaloids. In 1853, M. Pasteur found that what had been considered as quinidine con- 
sisted in fact of two alkaloids, for one of which he retained the name of quinidine, and called 
the other cinchonidine ; and, on pushing his investigations further, he ascertained that no less 
than six alkaloids may be obtained from different varieties of Peruvian bark,—namely, quinine 
and quinidine isomeric with each other, cinchonine and cinchonidine also isomeric, and two others, 
derivatives from the preceding through the agency of heat, viz., quinicine from quinine, and 
cinchonicine from cinchonine, each being isomeric with the alkaloid from which it is derived.f 
Chemical History. 
is remarkably free from inferior alkaloids. The complete absence of cinchonidine is said to be characteristic of them. 
Messrs. D. Howard and I. Hodgkin, Dr. B. H. Paul, and Mr. Cownley and Mr. T. G. Whiffen almost simultaneously 
announced the discovery of a new alkaloid, homoquinine or ultraquinine, which there is some reason for believing is 
a double salt of quinine and quinidine. (Chem. News, xlv. 6.) The characteristic chemical product is the alkaloid 
cinchonamine, whose right to a separate existence seems to be well established. 
iif The termination a or ia was adopted by the American and English chemists to distinguish the organic alkaloids 
from other organic proximate principles the names of which terminate in in or ine, the terms quinine and cinchonine 
becoming quinia and cinchonia. On the same principle, quinidine, quinicine, cinchonidine, and cinchonicine were 
called respectively quinidia, quinicia, cinchonidia, and cinchonicia. The Committee of Revision of the Pharma- 
copoeia, 1880, however, finally accepted the custom of Continental writers, and the a and ia termination was dropped 
and ine substituted. 
f It is unfortunate that in Germany some confusion yet exists in the names adopted for the cinchona alkaloids. 
Cinchonidine is frequently called chinidine, and Hesse insists on calling quinidine conchinine. PART I. 
Cinchona. 
405 
The following table of the natural Cinchona bases is given by A. H. Allen on the authority 
of Messrs. Paul and Cownley. In it the alkaloids are arranged according to formulas: 
Alkaloid. 
Formula. 
Melting 
Point °C. 
Optical 
Rotation, 
SD.1 
Chief Source. 
I. Cinchonine Class : 
Paricine 
C16H18N2O 
130 
0 
C. lutea and C. succiruhra from Darjeeling. 
Cinehotine, 
(277 
+ 
Crude cinchonine sulphate. 
Cinchonamine, 
194 
+121-1 
Remijia Purdieana. 
Hydro cinchonin e, 
C19H24N2O 
256 
C. cuprea. 
Hydrocinchonidine 
229 
-98-4 
Mother-liquors of homocinchonidine. 
(Cinchamidine), 
Cinchonine, 
'255 
+226-5 
Various species of cinchona. Almost always present. 
Cinchonidine, 
C19H22N2O 
202 
-70 
Especially C. rubra. 
Homocinchonidine, 
207 
-107 
With cinchonidine. 
Cinchonicine, 
50 
+20-1 
By heating cinchonine. 
Paytine, 
Paytamine, 
C2XH24N2O 
1156 
-49-5 
i 
From white bark of Payta. 
II. Quinamine Class: 
Quinamine, 
C19H24N2O2 
r 172 
+104-5 
C. succiruhra from British India and Java. 
Conquinamine, 
. 
• 
121 
+204-6 
C. officinalis, C. calisaya. 
Javanine 
. . 
C. calisaya from Java. 
Cupreine 
III. Quinine Class : 
C19H22W2O2 
198 
-175-3 
C. cuprea or Remijia pedunculata. 
Hydroquinine, 
Hydroquinidine, 
• 
C20H26N2O2 
168 
166 
-142-2 | 
In mother-liquors from quinine sulphate. 
Quinine, I 
Quinidine, )■ . 
C20H24N2O2 
r 172 
\ 168 
-145-2 ) 
+236-8 } 
Calisaya officinalis, etc. 
Quinicine, J 
IV. Cnsconine Class : 
( 60 
+44 
By heating quinine sulphate. 
Chairamine, 
233 
+ 100 
Conchairamine, 
120 
+ 68-4 
Chairamidine, 
C22H26N2O4 
127 
+7-3 
Conchairamidine, 
Concusconine, 
114 
144 
-60 
+40-8 
Remijia Purdieana (Cusco or False Cuprea Bark). 
Aricine 
C23II28N2O4 
188 
—58-2 
Cusconine, 
Cusconidine, 
C23H28N2O4 
: 
110 
-54-3 
Cuscamine, 
Cuscamidine, 
: 
218 
• • 
C. Pelletierana. 
V. Anhydro-bnses : 
Dicinchonicine .... 
C38H44N4O2 
40 
+66 
C. rosulenta and C. succiruhra. 
Diquinicine 
C40II46N4O3 
• • 
+ 
C. rosulenta and “ quinoidine.” 
Besides these natural bases we have a number of alkaloids formed by the alteration or treat- 
ment of these natural bases, or in some cases molecular compounds of two of the natural bases. 
They will be noted later in the description of individual bases. 
Chinoidine or Quinoidine is a term now applied to the resinous substance consisting not only 
of the amorphous natural alkaloids, but of those which are produced artificially through the 
action of heat and acids upon the crystalline alkaloids. It was formerly official, but was 
dropped at the 1890 revision. The other constituents of Cinchona bark are Quinic or Kinic, 
Quinovic or Kinovic, Quinotannic or Cinchotannic acids, Quinovin or Kinovin, Cinchonic red, 
volatile butyraceous oil in small quantity, red and yellow coloring matter. These constituents 
will now be considered in detail. 
Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine, or their sulphates, having been made official, 
will be treated of under separate heads (see Index). Quinicine and Cinchonicine, being de- 
rivatives of quinine and cinchonine, will be considered under their respective sources. 
Quinamine, Quinamia, C10H24N2O2. Dr. 0. Hesse discovered this cinchona alkaloid in 
the bark of C. succirubra from Darjeeling in 1872. He has since found it in all the East 
Indian succirubra barks, as well as in the barks of C. nitida, C. calisaya, var. Schuhkrafft, C. 
erythrantha, C. erythroderma, C. rosulenta, and C. calisaya (Para bark), and particularly in 
C. ledgeriana. De Yrij (L’ Union Pharm., 1877, p. 204 ; N. R., 1877, p. 800) has published 
a process for its preparation. It crystallizes in very long, asbestos-like, white prisms, without 
water of crystallization. It is nearly insoluble in cold water and in solution of potassa or am- 
The values for specific rotatory power refer to solutions of the free alkaloids in nearly absolute alcohol. Cinchona. 
406 
PART I. 
monia, more easily in boiling water; is readily dissolved by hot alcohol, which deposits it in 
crystals, and less readily by diluted alcohol. Ether, benzin, and benzene dissolve it rather 
easily at ordinary temperature, more readily when boiling hot, and give it up crystallized on 
cooling and evaporation. In alcoholic solution it has an alkaline reaction. It neutralizes sul- 
phuric and hydrochloric acids, forming with the latter an amorphous salt, but with the former 
one that crystallizes with difficulty in hexagonal scales and short prisms. Its solution is dex- 
trogyrate. Quinamine is almost tasteless, but its solutions in acid are very bitter. Unlike 
quinine, its sulphuric acid solution is not fluorescent. Its reaction with gold chloride is very 
characteristic, the solution of the chloride producing with it a yellowish-white precipitate, 
which soon becomes purple, and separates gold, the supernatant liquid assuming a purplish- 
red and afterwards a brown color. (For other characters, see A. J. P., 1872, p. 302.) 
Quinamidine, Quinidamia (Conchinaniine of Hesse), C18H24N202, is found in C. rosulenta 
and C. succirubra, and probably exists in other species of red bark. It crystallizes in long, 
brilliant prisms, which melt at 123° C. (253-4° F.). A crystalline hydriodide has been pro- 
duced. Like quinamine, its gold salt soon decomposes. 
Cupreine, C19H22N202, was discovered by Paul and Cownley in the bark of Cinchona cuprea, 
or Remijia pedunculata, on the upper Orinoco. It crystallizes from alcohol in anhydrous form, 
but from ether in prisms with 2H20. Cupreine is sparingly soluble in ether or chloroform, but 
readily soluble in alcohol. This solution is laevogyrate, alkaline, gives a dark reddish-brown 
color with ferric chloride, and responds to the thalleioquin test. It forms with soda a definite 
crystallizable compound containing C19H21N20.0Na, from the solution of which the alkaloid 
cannot be extracted by ether. This cupreine-soda is important as furnishing a synthesis of 
quinine, according to the reaction C19H21N20.0Na -j- CH3I = C20H24N2O2 Nal. (See 
Cuprea Bark, p. 403.) 
Homoquinine, C19H 2N2Oa, was discovered in 1881 simultaneously by D. Howard and J. 
Hodgkin, B. H. Paul, A. J. Cownley, and T. Gr. Whiffen (P. J. Tr., 1881, p. 497; 1882, p. 
905). It was first noticed by Paul and Cownley on account of the readiness with which it 
crystallized from its ethereal solution, and is now recognized as a molecular compound of 
quinine and cupreine of the formula C20H24N202,C19H22N202-f-4H20, and can be obtained 
by precipitating a solution of sodium cupreinate with one of quinine hydrochloride. It can 
be resolved into its constituent parts by precipitating the solution with solution of caustic soda, 
when the quinine may be shaken out with ether, while the cupreine remains in the alkaline 
liquid as sodium cupreinate. It is freely soluble in alcohol and chloroform, sparingly in ether, 
from which it crystallizes in proportion as it can take up water. (Hesse.) It is also soluble in 
diluted sulphuric acid, producing fluorescence, and gives wTith chlorine water and ammonia a 
green coloration (thalleioquin). The sulphate coincides exactly in properties with quinine 
sulphate, except in its behavior with ether. Its tartrate closely resembles cinchonidine tartrate. 
Homoquinine and its salts behave towards polarized light like quinine. 
Hydroquinine, C2OH20N2O2, was discovered by Hesse in the mother-liquors from which 
quinine sulphate has been crystallized; he afterwards found it in the commercial quinine salt 
to the extent of 4 per cent. Quinine cannot be perfectly freed from hydroquinine even by 
repeated crystallization of the neutral sulphates, but the hydroquinine can be completely sepa- 
rated by converting the alkaloid into the acid sulphate and recrystallizing this from water or 
alcohol, when the hydroquinine remains in the mother-liquor. (Allen.) According to Hesse, it 
dissolves freely in alcohol and ether, and gives the thalleioquin reaction with chlorine water 
and ammonia like quinine. (P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 904.) 
Hydroquinidine (hydroconchinine), C2(jH26N202 -|- 2£H20, is crystalline, dissolving freely 
in hot alcohol and in chloroform, but less freely in ether. It gives the thalleioquin reaction 
like quinine. (P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 904.) 
Hydrocinchonidine, C19H24N20, bears the same relation to cinchonidine that hydroquinine 
does to quinine. It is found associated with homocinchonidine in commercial cinchonidine. 
(A. J. P., 1883, p. 20.) 
Cinchonamine, C10H24N2O. This alkaloid was discovered in 1881 by M. Arnaud in Cuprea 
bark. It exists in the proportion of 0-2 per cent., and is usually associated with cinchonine. 
His process is to treat the bark with milk of lime, dry the mixture, exhaust with boiling alco- 
hol, distil off the alcohol, and take up the residue with diluted hydrochloric acid; cinchona- 
mine hydrochlorate crystallizes out, cinchonine hydrochlorate remaining in solution. Cin- 
chonamine is insoluble in cold water, soluble in 30 parts of alcohol, more soluble in hot alcohol, 
and in 100 parts of ether. It is dextrogyrate. For formulas for salts of cinchonamine, see PART I. 
Cinchona. 
407 
A. J. P., 1884, 156. Physiologically, cinchonamine, according to the experiments of See and 
Bochefontaine, has six times the toxic power of quinine, and has decided sialagogue prop- 
erties. (P. J. Tr., 1885, 791.) Cinchotine, C19H24N20, is isomeric with cinchonamine; it 
dissolves very sparingly in ether. 
Paytine, C21H24N20,H20, was discovered by Hesse in the white Payta bark. Paytamine 
is an amorphous alkaloid accompanying Paytine. 
Homocinchonine, C1#H22N20, cinchonidine of Koch, is obtained from the bark of C. rosu- 
lenta ; it is laevogyrate, and crystallizes from its alcoholic solution in large prisms. It has been 
mistaken for aricine. 
Dihomocinchonine, C38H44N402, is an amorphous alkaloid obtained from C. rosulenta. It 
is dextrogyrate. 
Homocinchonidine, C19H22N20, is also obtained from C. rosulenta. It crystallizes in large 
prisms, and forms a neutral sulphate containing six molecules of water, which may be had in 
commerce. Its existence is denied by Skraup. 
Cusconine, C23H2aN204,2H20, was discovered by Leverkohn. It is a constituent of the 
cusco bark, C. pubescens var. Pelletieriana, and Hesse has recently found it in Cuprea bark. It 
is nearly insoluble in water, soluble in 35 parts of ether, more easily in alcohol, very soluble in 
chloroform. It may be distinguished from other cinchona alkaloids by forming with sulphuric 
acid a neutral sulphate, which is amorphous, gelatinous, and yellow, and insoluble in an excess 
of the acid. 
Concusconine, C23H26N204, discovered by Hesse. It is tasteless. 
Cusconidine is an amorphous alkaloid found in cusco bark, accompanying cusconine. 
Aricine, C23H28N204. Cinchovatine. This alkaloid, found in cusco bark, and quite recently 
in Cuprea bark, was formerly believed by Hesse to be identical with cinchonidine. Pelletier 
and Cariol obtained aricine as far back as 1829 (see note, p. 308, 14th ed. U. S. D.). Its sep- 
arate existence is now not doubted. It crystallizes in prisms, and its salts are of sparing 
solubility. 
Paricine, C16H18N20, is found with quinamine in the bark of C. succirubra of Darjeeling, 
and, according to Hesse, it may be separated from all the cinchona alkaloids with which it 
may be associated in solution by treating with sodium carbonate, which precipitates paricine 
lirst. 
Dicinchonine, C38H44N402, exists in the bark of C. rosulenta and C. sxiccirubra, and may 
also be obtained by fractional precipitation from the mixed amorphous alkaloids before melt- 
ing, but not from commercial chinoidine. 
Diquinidine, dichonchinine of Hesse, C40H4QN4Os, is found principally in chinoidine which 
has been obtained from barks containing quinine and quinidine. It is dextrogyrate, produces 
a fluorescent solution with diluted sulphuric acid, and responds to the thalleioquin reaction. 
Javanine, obtained by Hesse from C. calisaya var. Javanica. 
Cincholine, a pale-yellow liquid alkaloid, having an odor recalling that of quinoline or 
chinoline, discovered by Hesse in 1882. (See P. J. Tr., May 6, 1882.) 
Chairamine, C22H26N204, discovered by Hesse in Remijia Purdieana, occurs in white 
needles which are readily soluble in ether and chloroform. (Ami. d. Chem., 225, p. 211.) 
Conchairamine, C22H26N204 + H20 -f- C2H60, also discovered by Hesse, crystallizes with 
both water and alcohol of crystallization. It is soluble in hot alcohol, ether, and chloroform. 
The alcoholate dissolves in sulphuric acid containing molybdic acid, giving a brown coloration, 
which soon becomes intensely green. (Ann. d. Chem., 225, p. 211.) 
Hydrocinchonine, C20H26N20, discovered by Caventou, is obtained by treating cinchonine 
with potassium permanganate. It is soluble in 1300 parts of water, more soluble in alcohol 
and in ether. The statement that it may be found in commercial cinchonine has not been 
confirmed. Hesse states that it may be found in Cuprea bark. 
Conchairamidine, C22H26N204 + H20, crystallizes in white needles, and is very soluble in 
ether, chloroform, alcohol, benzene, and acetone. (Ann. d. Chem., 225, p. 211.) 
Of the artificial bases, Quinamicine and Quinamidine are isomeric; they are both amor- 
phous, and are produced by heating quinamine in contact with diluted sulphuric acid. If the 
action of sulphuric acid be continued at 120° C. (248° F.) to 130° C. (266° F.), an amorphous 
brownish substance is formed which may be precipitated by sodium carbonate, and is insoluble 
in ether. Hesse has named this Protoquinamicine. 
Diquinicine, C4oH40N4O3, also termed diconchinine and apodiquinidine, is one of the chief 
amorphous alkaloids in commercial chinoidine; its formula indicates its relation to quinine or 408 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
quinidine. By deducting one molecule of water from a double molecule of either there results 
diquinicine, thus : 2C20H24N202 - H20 = C40H46N403. 
DlCINCHONiciNE, C38H42N40?, dichonchonine or apodicinchonine, is derived from cinchonine 
and cinchonidine, and found in commercial chinoidine. It probably exists in bark in an 
amorphous condition. 
Apoquinamine is isomeric with homocinchonine, and is prepared by boiling quinamine or 
quinamidine with hydrochloric acid for a short time. It is white, amorphous, soluble in ether, 
alcohol, and diluted hydrochloric acid. Homocinchonicine is prepared from homocinchonidine 
just as cinchonicine and quinicine are prepared from cinchonine and quinine,—i.e., by heating 
their sulphates. 
The other constituents of Cinchona bark are of less importance. 
Quinic Acid (Cinchonic or Kinic Acid), C7H120?. This acid was isolated as early as 1785 
by Hofmann, an apothecary of Leer, who obtained it from the calcium salt from cinchona. It 
exists in a number of important plants,—ivy, oak, elm, ash, coffee, etc. It may be desirable 
to procure the alkaloids in the state of saline combination in which they exist in the bark, 
since it is possible that they may exert an influence over the system in this state somewhat 
different from that produced by their combinations with the sulphuric or other mineral acid. 
As it is impossible to procure the quinates immediately from the bark in a pure state, it becomes 
necessary first to obtain the quinic acid separately, which may thus become of some practical 
importance. We shall, therefore, briefly describe the mode of procuring it, and its charac- 
teristic properties. It is usually prepared from calcium quinate, the residue obtained in the 
manufacture of quinine sulphate (see Quininse Sulphas) by decomposing an aqueous solution 
of calcium quinate with oxalic acid, filtering out the precipitated calcium oxalate, and evapo- 
rating the filtrate to the crystallizing point; or by evaporating the infusion of bark to a solid 
consistence, and treating the extract with alcohol, we have in the residue a viscid matter 
consisting chiefly of mucilage with calcium quinate, which is insoluble in alcohol. If an 
aqueous solution of this substance be formed, and allowed to evaporate at a gentle heat, crystals 
of the quinate will be deposited, which may be purified by a second crystallization. The salt 
thus obtained, being dissolved in water, is decomposed by means of oxalic acid, which precipi- 
tates the lime and leaves the quinic acid in solution. This may be procured in the crystalline 
state by spontaneous evaporation, though as usually prepared it is in the form of a thick syrupy 
liquid. The crystals are transparent and colorless, sour to the taste, soluble in 2 parts of water, 
but less soluble in alcohol, and almost insoluble in ether. By heating quinic acid or a quinate 
with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid, we get yellow crystals of kinone, better known as 
quinone, C6H402; a reaction which may be used for ascertaining the presence of quinic acid. 
The cinchonine and quinine quinates may be obtained either by the direct combination of their 
constituents, or by the mutual decomposition of the sulphates of those alkaloids and calcium 
quinate. Cinchonine quinate has a bitter and astringent taste, is very soluble in water, is solu- 
ble also in alcohol, and is crystallized with difficulty. Quinine quinate is also very soluble in 
water, but less so in rectified alcohol. Its taste is very bitter, resembling that of yellow bark. 
It crystallizes in beautiful stellate groups, which are opaque or semi-transparent. The salt is 
with difficulty obtained free from color, and only by employing the ingredients in a state of 
extreme purity. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Juillet, 1829.) Lautemann found, in experiments 
upon himself, that quinic acid, when taken into the system, undergoes a conversion into hippuric 
acid and in this state escapes with the urine. (A/m. der Client, und Pliarm., cxxv. 9.) M. 
Rabuteau has investigated the physiological properties of quinic acid, and has found it closely 
to resemble the ordinary vegetable acids, being harmless in its effects on the system, and form- 
ing with water a refreshing drink like lemonade. Like other vegetable acids, also, it is 
decomposed in the system, forming, when taken in the state of an alkaline salt, a carbonate of 
the alkali in the blood, and rendering that fluid alkaline. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., Oct. 1872, 
p. 524.) Quinic acid is said by Zwenger to have been found in the leaves of Vaccinium 
myrtillus. (A. J. P., March, 1861, p. 128.) 
Quinoyin, Kinovin, or Chinovin. Kinovic Bitter, C38IIe20ir Originally discovered in the 
false bark called quinquina nova, or new bark, this substance lias since been found in the Cali- 
saya bark, and probably exists, in greater or less proportion, in all the Cinchona barks. It was 
detected by De Vrij not only in the bark but also in the wood and leaves of C. calisaya and 
C. lucumsefolia. (Journ. de Pliarm., Avril, 1860, pp. 225, 258.) It is white, uncrystallizable, 
almost insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol and ether. It is very bitter, and, as 
it is asserted to have no febrifuge virtues, may on this account mislead the judgment in relation PART I. 
Oinchona. 
409 
to the activity of the bark in which it maybe found. Some barks are said to owe their bitter- 
ness mainly to this ingredient. Winckler gives, as a certain test of its presence in any hark, 
copper sulphate, which is indifferent to infusion of bark containing none of this principle, hut 
detects the smallest proportion of it by producing a dirty-green color, soon followed by the 
deposition of a fine similarly colored powder. This is a salt of copper, and has a very bitter 
and metallic taste. (See A. J. P., xxv. 343.) 
Quinovin in alcoholic solution was shown in 1859 by Hlasiwetz to be resolved by means of 
hydrochloric acid gas into quinovic acid, C24H3804, and an uncrystallizable sugar, mannitan, 
C6Hi206, by assimilation of H20. The formation of quinovic acid takes place more easily if 
kinovin is placed in contact with sodium amalgam and spirit of wine, when after 12 hours 
mannitan and sodium quinovate are formed. (Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 364.) 
Liebermann and Giesel (Berichte, xvi. 987) believe that two modifications exist, a-quinovin 
and (H-quinovin, the former in Cinchona, the latter in Cuprea bark: a-quinovin is a white 
crystalline powder, nearly insoluble in cold and hot water, but soluble in caustic alkalies, lime 
water, ammonia, and glacial acetic acid, soluble with difficulty in chloroform, ether, and benzin ; 
it dissolves in 57 parts of nearly absolute alcohol. /3-quinovin closely resembles a-quinovin, 
but is not soluble in ether, and crystallizes readily from dilute alcohol. 
De Vrij proposes the following method of isolating quinovin. Macerate powdered cinchona 
with a very weak solution of caustic potassa or soda, precipitate the filtered liquid with an 
acid, redissolve the precipitate in milk of lime to separate the cinchonic red, filter and precipi- 
tate the solution boiling hot with hydrochloric acid, separate the precipitate, wash it, express 
as much as possible, and lastly dry it on porous stones, and powder it. For a process for pre- 
paring quinovin from by-products, see Allen’s Organic Analysis, 1892, vol. iii., Part II., p. 443. 
Thus prepared, the quinovic bitter forms soluble compounds with magnesia and lime, and has 
been employed, in this mode of combination, as a tonic in the hospital of Batavia, with en- 
couraging success. (Journ. de PJuxrm., Avril, 1860, p. 258.) Quinovic or Kinovic Acid, result- 
ing, as before stated, from the decomposition of quinovin, and possessing the formula C32H480e, 
is white, in rhomboidal crystals, insoluble in water, but slightly soluble in ether, somewhat 
more so in boiling alcohol, but very soluble in ammonia and the fixed alkalies, the solutions 
frothing like soap water. On adding an acid to an alkaline solution of quinovic acid, a hydrate 
of quinovic acid is thrown down as a very voluminous jelly, the whole contents of the vessel 
gelatinizing. Dr. Kerner (Deutsche Klin., xx. 81) speaks very favorably of quinovic acid 
as an excellent and at the same time perfectly safe tonic, which produces no narcotic symp- 
toms, and given to adults, in the quantity of half or three-quarters of an ounce, causes not the 
slightest ill effect. He prefers it in the form of calcium quinovate, of which forty grains (2-6 
Gm.) is the average dose. (Am. Journ. Med. Sci., Oct. 1869, 543.) 
By the experiments of Henry, Jr., and Plisson, it may be considered as established that the 
alkaloids of the different varieties of bark are combined at the same time with quinic acid 
and with one or more of the coloring matters which, in relation to these substances, appear to 
act the part of acids. This idea was originally suggested by Bobiquet. (Journ. de Pliarm., 
xii. 282, 369.) The compounds of quinine, cinchonine, etc., with the coloring matter are 
scarcely soluble in water, while their quinates are very soluble. 
The odor of bark appears to depend on a volatile oil, which Fabroni and Trommsdorff ob- 
tained by distillation with water. The oil floated on the surface of the water, was of a thick 
consistence, and had a bitterish, acrid taste, with the odor of bark. 
The fatty matter, which was first obtained pure by M. Laubert, is of a greenish color as ob- 
tained from the pale bark, orange yellow from the yellow. It is insoluble in water, soluble 
in boiling alcohol, which deposits a part of it on cooling, very soluble in ether even cold, and 
saponifiable with the alkalies. 
Cinchofulvic Acid. The cinchonic red of Beuss, identical with the insoluble red coloring mat- 
ter of Pelletier and Caventou, C12H1407, is reddish brown, insipid, inodorous, largely soluble in 
alcohol, especially when hot, and almost insoluble in ether or water, though the latter dissolves 
a little at the boiling temperature. The acids promote its solubility in water. It precipitates 
tartar emetic, but not gelatin; but if treated with a cold solution of potassa or soda, or with 
ammonia, lime, or baryta with heat, and then precipitated by an acid, it acquires the property 
of forming an insoluble compound with gelatin. It yields protocatechuic acid, C7H604, when 
fused with caustic potash. It is most abundant in the red bark (over 10 per cent.), and least 
so in the pale. 410 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
The yellow coloring matter has little taste, is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, precipitates 
neither gelatin nor tartar emetic, and is itself precipitated by subacetate of lead. 
CiNCHOTANNic Acid. Cinchotannin, C14H1609. Tannic acid, tannin, or soluble red coloring 
matter of Pelletier and Caventou, has been considered as possessing all the properties which 
characterize the proximate vegetable principles associated together under the name cincho- 
tannic acid. It is a glucoside existing in cinchona barks in the proportion of 3 to 4 per cent. It 
has a brownish-red color and an austere taste, is soluble in water and alcohol, combines with 
metallic oxides, and produces precipitates with the salts of iron, which vary in color according 
to the variety of bark, being deep green with the pale bark, blackish brown with the yellow, 
and reddish brown with the red. It also forms white precipitates with tartar emetic and gela- 
tin, and readily combines with atmospheric oxygen, becoming insoluble. It must, however, 
differ materially from the tannic acid of galls, which could not exist in aqueous solutions con- 
taining cinchonine and quinine without forming insoluble compounds with them. Rembold 
has shown that when cinchotannic acid is boiled with diluted sulphuric acid cinchonic red is 
produced, sugar being formed at the same time. 
Cinchocerotin, C27H4802. This substance was discovered by Dr. Kerner in flat Calisaya 
bark from South America. He obtained it in white, very light, crystalline scales. It is not 
soluble in boiling water, nor in hydrochloric, dilute sulphuric, or glacial acetic acid, but dis- 
solves readily in ether, chloroform, and alcohol. (A. J. P., 1883, p. 357.) 
Incompatibles. Of the relations of bark to the several solvents employed in pharmacy 
we shall speak hereafter, under the heads of its infusion, decoction, and tincture; where we 
shall also have an opportunity of mentioning some of the more prominent substances which 
afford precipitates with its liquid preparations. It is sufficient at present to state that all the 
substances which precipitate the infusion of bark do not by any means necessarily affect its 
virtues, as it contains several inert ingredients which form insoluble compounds with bodies 
that do not disturb its active principles. As tannic acid forms with the alkaloids compounds 
insoluble in water, it is desirable that substances containing this acid in a free state should not 
be prescribed in connection with the infusion or decoction of bark ; for, though these insoluble 
tannates might be found efficacious if administered, yet, being precipitated from the liquid, 
they would be apt to be thrown away as dregs, or at any rate would communicate, if agitated, 
an unpleasant turbidness. The same may be said of the tincture and compound solution of 
iodine, which form insoluble compounds with all the cinchona alkaloids, and of the alkalies, 
alkaline carbonates, and alkaline earths, which precipitate them from their aqueous solution. 
Estimation of Value. It is evident, from what has been said, that an infusion of bark, 
on account of the tannin-like principle which it contains, may precipitate gelatin, tartar emetic, 
and the salts of iron, without having a particle of cinchonine, quinine, or other alkaloid in its 
composition, and that consequently any inference as to its value, drawn from these chemical 
properties, would be fallacious; but, as the active principles are thrown down by the tannic 
acid of galls, no bark can be considered good which does not afford a precipitate with the 
infusion of this substance* 
It is impossible to determine with accuracy the relative proportion of the active ingredients 
in the different varieties of cinchona, as the quantity is by no means uniform in different 
specimens of the same variety. The results of the most recent experiments have been already 
stated under the head of the several varieties of bark described. But it is highly important, 
in relation to any particular sample of bark, to be able to ascertain its medicinal efficiency, 
which is measured by the quantity of the peculiar cinchona alkaloids it may contain. In 1880 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia for the first time in its history gave a process for assaying Cinchona 
bark ; this was deemed necessary because of the impossibility of judging of the quality of the 
bark by its physical appearances. The manufacturing chemist never trusts to anything short 
of a careful chemical assay, and Cinchona bark should never be dispensed or used without 
* Grahe’s Test. A test of the Cinchona barks containing one or more of their characteristic alkaloids has been 
proposed by Grahe. It is founded on the fact that when these barks are exposed to destructive distillation a 
product is obtained of a bright carmine color, which is yielded by no other bark under the same circumstances, and 
not by cinchona unless it contain one or more of its peculiar alkaloids. Nor do the pure alkaloids afford it; but, if 
mixed with a little acetic, quinic, tannic, citric, or tartaric acid, they exhibit the reaction, showing that in the bark 
it takes place between the alkaloids and organic acids contained in it. Grahe applies the test by heating a piece of 
the bark weighing from five to ten grains in an ordinary test-tube, and gradually increasing the heat to redness. 
Whitish smoke, and watery vapor condensing on the surface of the tube, are first given off, which are soon followed 
by the appearance of redness in the fumes, and by the deposition, an inch above the heated part, of a red pulverulent 
film, which is gradually changed into a thick, oily liquid, running down the glass in drops or streaks of a fine 
carmine color. (Chemisches Centralblatt, Feb. 17, 1858, p. 97.) PART I. 
Cinchona. 
411 
having its quality tested or certified to by a competent authority. The following official process 
of assay is much simpler than that of the U. S. Pharm. 1880, and will give sufficiently 
accurate results for the uses of the pharmacist. Each manufacturer and quinologist usually 
has his own secret process, and a method which will accurately differentiate the quantities of 
the alkaloids is usually difficult and unreliable in the hands of the inexperienced. 
“ Assay op Cinchona. I. For Total Alkaloids. Cinchona, in No. 80 (or finer) powder, and 
completely dried at 100° C. (212° F.), twenty grammes ; Alcohol, Ammonia Water, Chloroform, 
Ether, Normal Sulphuric Acid (volumetric solution), Potassium Hydrate volumetric solution, 
each, a sufficient quantity. To 20 Gm. of Cinchona, in very fine powder, and contained in a 
bottle provided with an accurately ground glass stopper, add 200 C.c. of a previously prepared 
mixture of 19 volumes of alcohol, 5 volumes of chloroform, and 1 volume of ammonia water, 
stopper the bottle, and shake it thoroughly and frequently during four hours. Then separate 
the liquid by pouring it into another bottle through a funnel containing a pellet of cotton, in 
such a manner that no material loss by evaporation may result. Transfer 100 C.c. of the clear 
filtrate (representing 10 Gm. of Cinchona) to a beaker, and evaporate it to dryness. Dissolve 
the residue of crude alkaloids thus obtained in 10 C.c. of water and 4 C.c. of normal sulphuric 
acid, with the aid of a gentle heat, filter the cooled solution into a separatory funnel, and wash 
the beaker and filter until the filtrate no longer has an acid reaction, using as small a quantity 
of water as possible. Now add 5 C.c. of potassium hydrate volumetric solution, or such an 
amount as will render the liquid decidedly alkaline, and extract the alkaloids by shaking the 
mixture, first with 20 C.c., and then repeatedly with 10 C.c., of chloroform, until a drop of the 
last chloroform extraction, when evaporated on a watch-glass, no longer leaves a residue. 
Evaporate the united chloroformic extracts in a tared beaker, dry the residue at 100° C. 
(212° F.), and weigh. The weight found, multiplied by ten (10), will give the percentage of 
total alkaloids in the specimen of Cinchona tested. 
“ II. For Quinine. Transfer 50 C.c. of the clear filtrate remaining over from the preceding 
process (and representing 5 Gm. of Cinchona) to a beaker, evaporate it to dryness, and proceed 
as directed in the assay for total alkaloids, using, however, only one-half the amounts of volu- 
metric acid and alkali there directed. Add the united chloroformic extracts containing 
the alkaloids in solution, gradually, and in small portions at a time, to about 5 Gm. of 
powdered glass contained in a porcelain capsule placed over a water-bath, so that, when the 
contents of the capsule are dry, all or nearly all of the dry alkaloids shall be in intimate 
admixture with the powdered glass, and the chloroform be completely expelled. Now moisten 
the residue with ether, and, having placed a funnel containing a filter of a diameter of 7 Cm., 
and well wetted with ether, over a small graduated tube (A), transfer to the filter the ether- 
moistened residue from the capsule. Rinse the latter several times, if necessary, with fresh 
ether, so as to transfer the whole of the residue to the filter, then percolate with ether added 
drop by drop, until exactly 10 C.c. of percolate have been obtained. Then collect another 
volume of 10 C.c., by similar, slow percolation with ether, in a second graduated tube (B). 
Transfer the contents of the two tubes completely (using ether for washing) to two small, tared 
capsules, properly marked (A and B) so as to avoid confusion, evaporate to a constant weight 
at 100° C. (212° F.), and weigh them. (The residue in A will contain practically all the 
quinine, together with a portion of the alkaloids less soluble in ether; the residue in B will 
consist almost entirely of these alkaloids.) From the amount of residue obtained in capsule 
A deduct that contained in B, and multiply the remainder by twenty (20). The product will 
represent, approximately, the percentage of quinine (containing one molecule of water) in the 
specimen of Cinchona tested.” U. S. 
The Br. Pharmacopoeia gives the following method for testing Red Cinchona bark : 
“ Test. When used for purposes other than that of obtaining the alkaloids or their salts, it 
should yield between 5 and 6 per cent, of total alkaloids, of which not less than half should 
consist of quinine and cinchonidine, as estimated by the following methods. 
“ Mix 20 grammes of Red Cinchona Bark, in No. 60 powder, with 6 grammes of calcium 
hydroxide; slightly moisten the powders with 20 cubic centimetres of water ; mix the whole 
intimately in a small porcelain dish or mortar; allow the mixture to stand for an hour or two, 
when it will present the characters of a moist dark brown powder, in which there should be 
no lumps or visible white particles. Transfer this powder to a suitable flask fitted with a small 
reflux condenser, add 130 cubic centimetres of henzolated amylic alcohol,* boil them together 
* “ Made by mixing together three volumes of benzol and one of amylio alcohol, and decanting the supernatant 
fluid from any deposited water.” Br. 412 
Cinchona. 
PART I. 
for about half an hour, decant the liquid on to a filter, leaving the powder in the flask; add 
more of the benzolated amylic alcohol to the powder, and boil and decant as before ; repeat this 
operation a third time; then turn the contents of the flask on to the filter, and wash by per- 
colation with more of the benzolated amylic alcohol until the Bark is exhausted. Introduce 
the collected filtrate, while still warm, into a stoppered glass separator; add to it 2 cubic 
centimetres of diluted hydrochloric acid, mixed with 12 cubic centimetres of water; shake 
them well together, and when the acid liquid has separated this may he drawn off, and the 
process repeated with water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, until the whole of the 
alkaloids have been removed. The liquid should then, while warm, be carefully and exactly 
neutralized with solution of ammonia, and concentrated to the hulk of 16 cubic centimetres. 
If now about 1*5 grammes of sodium potassium tartrate, dissolved in twice its weight of water, 
he added to the solution, and the mixture stirred with a glass rod, insoluble tartrates of quinine 
and cinchonidine will separate completely in about an hour, and these collected on a filter, 
washed, and dried in a water-oven, will contain eight-tenths of their weight of the alka- 
loids, quinine and cinchonidine, which, multiplied by 5, gives the weight of those alkaloids 
present in 100 grammes of the Bark. To the mother-liquor from the preceding process add 
solution of ammonia in slight excess. Collect, wash, and dry the precipitate, which will con- 
tain the other alkaloids. The weight of this precipitate, multiplied by 5, and added to 
the percentage weight of the quinine and cinchonidine, gives the percentage weight of total 
alkaloids.” 
The German Pharmacopoeia gives the following method: “ The powdered bark is assayed 
as follows: Shake 20 Gm. of it strongly and repeatedly with a mixture of 10 Gm. of water 
of ammonia, 20 Gm. of alcohol, and 170 Gm. of ether, and, after a day, decant 120 Gm. of 
the clear liquid. To this liquid add 3 C.c. of volumetric hydrochloric acid, remove the ether by 
distillation or evaporation, and again add, if necessary, enough hydrochloric acid to render the 
solution acid. Then filter, and mix the cold filtrate with 3-5 C.c. of volumetric solution of 
potassa. When the alkaloids have subsided, drop more of the solution of potassa into the clear 
supernatant liquid, until nothing more is thrown down. Finally, collect the whole of the pre- 
cipitate on a filter, and wash it repeatedly with small portions of water, until drops of the 
wash water allowed to come in contact with the surface of a cold, aqueous, neutral, saturated 
solution of sulphate of quinine no longer produce a turbidity. When the alkaloids have drained, 
press them gently between bibulous paper, and, having dried them sufficiently in the air to 
permit their being removed to a watch-glass, dry them completely, first over sulphuric acid, 
and, finally, by means of a water-bath. The weight of alkaloids procured by this method 
should not be less than 042 Gm. When a small portion of the same is boiled with 300 parts 
of water, the filtrate, after cooling, should yield flakes of quinine. When to 5 parts of this 
solution, after being cooled and decanted, 1 part of chlorine water is added, and water of am- 
monia immediately dropped in, the liquid should acquire a beautiful green color.”* Ph. Germ. 
* Dr. E. It. Squibb’s Method of Assaying Cinchona Bark. Take of the powdered cinchona 5 grammes = 77*16 
grains; lime, well burnt, 1*25 grammes = 19’29 grains; amylic alcohol, stronger ether, purified chloroform, normal 
solution of oxalic acid, normal solution of sodium and water, of each a sufficient quantity; or double all the quan- 
tities throughout, as well as size of vessels, etc., if the barks be poor, or if it be desired to divide the errors of 
manipulation. Add to the lime contained in a 10-Cm. = 4-inch capsule, 30 C.c. — 1 fluidounce of hot water, and 
when the lime is slaked, stir the mixture, add the cinchona, stir very thoroughly, and digest in a warm place for a 
few hours, or overnight. Then dry the mixture at a low temperature on a water-bath, rub it to powder in the cap- 
sule, and transfer it to a flask of 100 C.c. = 3*3 fluidounces capacity, and add to it 25 C.c. = $ fluidounce of amylic 
alcohol. Cork the flask, and digest in a water-bath at a boiling temperature, and with frequent vigorous shaking, 
for four hours. Then cool and add 60 C.c. = 2 fluidounces of stronger ether, sp. gr. 0*728, and again shake vigor- 
ously and frequently during an hour or more. Filter off the liquid through a double filter of 10 Cm. = 4 inches 
diameter, into a flask of 150 C.c. = 5 fluidounces capacity, and transfer the residue to the filter. Rinse out the flask 
on to the filter with a mixture of 10 volumes of amylic alcohol and 40 of stronger ether, and then percolate the 
residue on the filter with 15 C.c.= half a fluidounce of the same mixture, added drop by drop from a pipette to the 
edges of the filter and surface of the residue. Return the residue to the flask from whence it came, add 30 C.c. = 1 
fluidounce of the amylic alcohol and ether mixture, shake vigorously for five minutes or more, and return the whole 
to the filter. Again percolate the residue with 15 C.c. of the menstruum, applied drop by drop from a pipette as 
before. Then put the filter and residue aside, that it may be afterwards tested in regard to the degree of exhaustion. 
Boil off the ether from the filtrate in the flask by means of a water-bath, taking great care to avoid igniting the 
ether vapor, and also to avoid explosive boiling by having a long wire in the flask. When boiled down as far as 
practicable in the flask, transfer the remainder to a tared capsule of 10 Cm. = 4 inches diameter, and continue the 
evaporation on a water-bath until the contents are reduced to about 6 grammes = 92 grains. Transfer this to a flask 
of 100 C.c. = 3*3 fluidounces capacity, rinsing the capsule into the flask with not more than 4 C.c. = 64 minims of 
amylic alcohol. Then add 6 C.c. = 96 minims of water, and 4 C.c. = 64 minims of normal solution of oxalic acid, 
and shake vigorously and frequently during half an hour. Pour the mixture while intimately mixed on to a well- 
wetted double filter of 12 Cm. = 4} inches diameter, and filter off the watery solution from the amylic alcohol into 
a tared capsule of 10 Cm. = 4 inches diameter. Wash the filter and contents with 5 C.c. = 80 minims of water, PART I. 
Cinchona. 
413 
It is usually sufficient to ascertain the quantity of total alkaloids in bark, for this is really a 
test of the efficacy of the bark for pharmaceutical purposes ; since all the organic alkaline prin- 
ciples contained in it are efficient as medicines, and in all probability in a nearly equal degree. 
But for manufacturing purposes it is necessary to push the investigation further, and ascertain 
the proportion of the several alkaloids in the mixture. 
From the most recent and carefully conducted assays, it appears that the best official yellow 
Calisaya bark, the finest red bark, and the finest fibrous Carthagena bark {soft Pitaya) are about 
equal in their amount of alkaloids, each containing from 3 to 4 per cent., and the Indian and 
Java barks frequently exceed these yields; De Vrij obtained from bark of C. officinalis grown 
at Ootacamund total alkaloids as high as 11-96 per cent. (9-1 per cent, of which was quinine). 
The highest yield yet recorded was obtained by De Vrij from Ootacamund bark, 13-5 per cent., 
the greater part of which was quinine.* Between these and the barks of lowest value there is 
every grade of productiveness, down to a mere trace of alkaloidal matter.f 
The quantities of cinchona and other barks used in the manufacture of quinine imported 
into the United States during the year 1896 was 2,699,789 lbs., valued at $165,699, and for 
1897, 2,537,693 lbs., valued at $142,303. In the same years the importations of sulphate of 
quinine amounted to 2,950,078 ounces, valued at $754,050, and 2,714,147 ounces, valued at 
$489,821.70 respectively. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This valuable remedy was unknown to the civilized 
applied drop by drop from a pipette to the edges of the filter and surface of the amylic alcohol. Then pour the 
ainylic alcohol back into the flask over the edge of the filter and funnel, rinsing the last portion in with a few drops 
of water. Add 10 C.c. = 160 minims of water, and 1 C.c =16 minims of normal solution of oxalic acid; again shake 
vigorously for a minute or two, and return the whole to the wetted filter, and filler off the watery portion into the 
capsule with the first portion. Return the amylic alcohol again to the flask, and repeat the washing with the same 
quantities of water and normal oxalic solution. When this has drained through, wash the filter and contents with 
5 C.c. = 80 minims of water, applied drop by drop from a pipette. Evaporate the total filtrate in the capsule on a 
water-bath, at a low temperature, until it is reduced to about 15 grammes = 241 grains, and transfer this to a flask of 
100 C.c. = 3-3 fluidounces capacity, rinsing the capsule into the flask with 5 C.c. = 80 minims of water. Add 20 
C.c.= 66 fluidounces of purified chloroform, and then 6-1 C.c. = 98 minims of normal solution of sodium, and shake 
vigorously for five minutes or more. While still intimately mixed by the shaking, pour the mixture upon a filter of 
12 Cm. = inches diameter, well wetted with water. When the watery solution has passed through, leaving the chlo- 
roform on the filter, wash the filter and chloroform with 5 C.c. = 80 minims of water, applied drop by drop. Then 
transfer the chloroform solution, by making a pin-hole in the point of the filter, to another filter of 10 Cm. = 4 inches 
diameter, well wetted with chloroform, and placed over a tared flask of 100 C.c. = 3'3 fluidounces capacity. Wash 
the watery filter through into the chloroform-wet filter with 5 C.c. = 80 minims of purified chloroform, and when 
this has passed through into the flask, wash the chloroform-wet filter also with 5 C.c. = 80 minims of chloroform 
applied drop by drop to the edges of the filter. When the whole chloroform solution of alkaloids is collected in the 
flask, boil off the chloroform to dryness in a water-bath, when the alkaloids will be left in watery groups of radiating 
crystals adhering over the bottom and sides of the flask. Place the flask on its side in a drying stove, and dry at 
100° C. = 212° F. to a constant weight. The weight of the contents multiplied by 20 gives the percentage of the 
total alkaloids of the cinchona in an anhydrous condition, to within -1 or ‘2 of 1 per cent, if the process has been 
well managed. 
* Quinetum. Under this name a compound is produced in India and other Eastern countries, which consists of the 
mixed alkaloids of Red Bark, the object being to produce a cheap febrifuge which will answer all practical purposes 
and save the cost of refining. The following formula has been adopted by the Dutch Society for the Advancement 
of Pharmacy: “ Red Cinchona bark (the bark of the trunk of Cinchona succirubra, grown in Java and India, and 
containing at least 6 per cent.of,alkaloids),in fine powder, 1000 parts; normal hydrochloric acid (volumetric stand- 
ard), 1000 parts; oxalic acid, 12 parts; solution of soda, q. s.; water, q.s. 
“ Macerate the cinchona with the hydrochloric acid and 3000 parts of water for at least 12 hours, occasionally 
stirring. Pour the mixture into a percolator, the lower orifice of which is closed by a linen plug, and, as soon as 
the liquid runs off clear, displace with water until the liquid running from the percolator is no longer precipitated 
(though it may be colored) by solution of soda. 
“ To the strained liquid (which may amount to perhaps 8000 parts) add the oxalic acid dissolved in a little water, 
and then add carefully, under continued stirring, just enough solution of soda until the precipitate which forms at 
first separates in coherent flakes. Separate this precipitate (which consists of calcium oxalate and cinchona red) by 
pouring off as much of the still acid clear liquid as is possible, and filter the remainder. To the united liquids add 
now an excess of solution of soda, let it settle, and collect the precipitate upon a moistened double filter. Wash it 
with a weak soda solution until the washings have only a light-red color; then wash with the least possible quantity 
of water, until% the washings begin to have a bitter taste. Let the precipitate drain, dry it in the air, and powder it. 
“Quinetum is completely soluble in strong, warm alcohol. When 3-1 grammes of quinetum are dissolved in 10 
C.c. of normal hydrochloric acid, this solution must be clear, and, on the addition of 2 grammes of Rochelle salt, 
must yield a precipitate which, when dried, should amount to at least 65 per cent, of the weight of the quinetum 
dissolved.” (N,. R., 1882, p. 10.) 
f To obviate the disadvantages arising from the variable strength of bark, M. Guillermond recommends to fix on 
an appropriate strength, as indicated by the percentage of quinine, below the highest, yet much above the lowest, 
and either to select bark of this strength, or to bring that employed to the medium strength, by adding a stronger 
or weaker bark, as the case may require, in due proportion. He recommends as this standard the yield of 3-2 per 
cent, of quinine sulphate. This is to be treated by alcohol till entirely exhausted, and the tincture evaporated so as 
to yield an extract which shall exactly represent the virtues of the bark and shall always have the same strength- 
From this extract all the preparations of bark are to be made, which will thus always be uniform in strength. 
(Journ. de Pharrn., Aofit, 1863, p. 124. 414 
Cinchona.—Cinchonidinse Sulphas. 
PART I. 
world till about the middle of the seventeenth century, though the natives of Peru are gener- 
ally supposed to have been long previously acquainted with its febrifuge powers. Humboldt, 
however, is of a different opinion. In his memoir on the Cinchona forests, he states that it is 
unknown as a remedy to the Indians inhabiting the country where it grows; and, as these 
people adhere pertinaciously to the habits of their ancestors, he concludes that it never was 
employed by them. They have generally the most violent prejudices against it, considering 
it poisonous, and in the treatment of fever prefer the milder indigenous remedies. Ruiz 
and Pavon, however, ascribe the discovery to the Indians; and Tschudi states, in his Travels 
in Peru (Am. ed., ii. 280), that the inhabitants of the Peruvian forests drink an infusion of 
the green bark as a remedy in intermittent fever.* On the other hand, the statements of 
Humboldt have been confirmed by the travellers Markham and Spence, the former remarking 
that the native Indian doctors do not use the bark, and the latter that the Cascarilleros of 
Ecuador believe that their red bark is used solely for dyeing. It is uncertain whether, as Jus- 
sieu stated in 1739, the Jesuit fathers received their knowledge from the Indians, or, as Hum- 
boldt believes, discovered the virtues of the drug for themselves, having been led to make trial 
of it by its extreme bitterness. The Countess of Chinchon, wife of the Viceroy of Peru, hav- 
ing in her own person experienced the beneficial effects of the bark, is said, on her return to 
Spain in the year 1640, to have first introduced the remedy into Europe. Hence the name of 
pulvis Comitissse, by which it was first known. After its introduction it was distributed and 
sold by the Jesuits, who are said to have obtained for it the price of its weight in silver. From 
this circumstance it was called Jesuits powder, a title which it long retained. In 1653, Dr. 
Chifflet, physician to the Archduke Leopold, directed the attention of all Europe to the bark 
by his work entitled Pulvis Febrifugus Orbis Americani. This gave rise to a very active con- 
troversy ; the high price of the drug aiding very greatly those who opposed its introduction. 
According to Sturm, twenty doses in 1658 cost sixty florins. It seems first to have been ad- 
vertised in England for sale in 1658 by a James Thomson, and by 1660 it was much employed. 
It still, however, encountered much prejudice and ignorance, and was not made official in the 
London Pharmacopoeia until 1677. Sir Robert Talbot (or Talbor) used it as a secret remedy 
with so much address and success that in 1679 he cured Charles II. of a tertian, and subse- 
quently sold his secret to Louis XIV. of France, who published it in 1681. 
When taken into the stomach, bark usually excites in a short time a sense of warmth in the 
epigastrium, which often diffuses itself over the abdomen and even the breast, and is sometimes 
attended with considerable gastric and intestinal irritation. Nausea and vomiting are some- 
times produced, especially if the stomach was previously in an inflamed or irritated state; 
and its action is not unfrequently accompanied by purging. If the dose of the cinchona bark 
have been large enough, the symptoms of cinchonism may result. (See Quinine.') At one time 
cinchona bark (dose, 10 grains to 1 drachm =.0-65 to 3 9 Gm.) and its preparations were used 
as antiperiodics, but at present for such purpose one of its alkaloids is always selected. The 
best preparation for use as a tonic is the compound tincture. 
CINCHONIDINE SULPHAS. U.S. Cinchonidine Sulphate. 
(cin-cho-ni-dI'na: sul'phXs.) 
(Cu H22 N2 0)2 H2 SO4. 3H2 O ; 738*52. (Ci9 H22 N2 0)2 H2 SO* + 3H2 0; 768. 
“ The neutral sulphate of an alkaloid obtained from the bark of various species of Cin- 
chona.” u.s. 
Sulphate of Cinchonidine; Schwefelsaures Cinchonidin, G.; Sulfate de Cinchonidine, Fr. 
This salt is prepared from the mother-liquors obtained in the manufacture of quinine sul- 
phate, and is separated from the sulphates of the other alkaloids by fractional crystallization. 
The British-India and Javanese cultivated red barks usually contain large quantities of cin- 
chonidine. Of the South American barks, probably the Colombian varieties yield the largest 
proportion of cinchonidine. Owing to some confusion in naming cinchonidine and quinidine, 
this alkaloid is sometimes incorrectly called in Germany chinidine. Skraup’s researches on the 
composition of cinchonine and cinchonidine (1879) established the correctness of the formula 
C19H22NO, instead of the long-accepted formula of Pasteur (1853), C20H24N 0. Skraup’s 
formula has been confirmed by Hesse, and is now generally accepted among chemists. The 
French Codex of 1884 used it, but the British Pharmacopoeia of 1885 retained the old formula. 
* Tschudi also observes that he has found the fresh bark more efficacious than the dried, as, in less than half the 
usual dose, it not only effects cures in a short time, but insures the patient against the return of the disease. PART 1. 
Cinchonidinse Sulphas.—Cinchonina. 
415 
Properties. Cinchonidine sulphate occurs in “ white, silky, acicular crystals, without odor, 
and having a very bitter taste; slightly efflorescent on exposure to air. Soluble, at 15° C. 
(59° F.), in 70 parts of water, and in 66 parts of alcohol; in 1-42 parts of boiling water, 
and in 8 parts of boiling alcohol. Also soluble in 1316 parts of chloroform, and almost in- 
soluble in ether. The presence of sulphates of other cinchona alkaloids increases its solu- 
bility in ether and chloroform. At 100° C. (212° F.) the salt gives off its water of crystalli- 
zation. At 215° C. (419° F.) it melts, and, when ignited, it is consumed without leaving a 
residue. The salt is neutral, or has a faintly alkaline reaction on litmus paper. On adding 
ammonia water to the aqueous solution of the salt, a white precipitate (cinchonidine) is pro- 
duced, which is but slightly soluble in ammonia, but dissolves in about 75 parts of ether. If 
concentrated sulphuric acid be added to a small quantity of the salt, not more than a faintly 
yellowish color should be developed (limit of readily carbonizable, organic impurities). Upon 
adding to this liquid a crystal of potassium dichromate, a yellowish-green color is produced, 
which gradually changes to grass-green. Addition of barium chloride test-solution to an 
aqueous solution of the salt produces a white precipitate insoluble in hydrochloric acid. A 
solution of the salt (about 1 in 1000) in diluted sulphuric acid should not exhibit more than a 
faint blue fluorescence (absence of more than traces of the sulphates of quinine or quinidine). 
If 1 Gm. of the salt be dried at 100° C. (212° F.) until it ceases to lose weight, the residue, 
cooled in a desiccator, should weigh not less than 0-920 Gm. (absence of an undue amount of 
water). If 0-5 Gm. of the salt be macerated, with frequent agitation, at the ordinary temper- 
ature, with 20 C.c. of water, 0-5 Gm. of potassium and sodium tartrate then added, the macera- 
tion continued, under repeated agitation, for one hour at 15° C. (59° F.), and the mixture then 
filtered, the addition of one drop of ammonia water to the filtrate should not produce more 
than a slight turbidity (absence of more than small proportions of the sxdphates of cinchonine 
or quinidine).” U. S. 
Cinchonidine. The alkaloid itself is not official; as usually seen it is in white, light, pulveru- 
lent masses. It is crystallizable, soluble in 1680 parts of cold and in a somewhat smaller quan- 
tity of hot water, in about 20 parts of alcohol, and in 70 parts of ether. It melts at 206-5° C. 
(404° F.), and becomes a solid mass of crystals at 190° C. (374° F.). The acid sulphate 
(sometimes called bisidphate) is much more soluble in water than the official sulphate. The 
cinchonidine salicylate is neutral and crystalline, insoluble in cold water, sparingly in hot water, 
easily soluble in alcohol and diluted alcohol. It may be prepared by the direct combination 
of salicylic acid with the alkaloid. (Rosengarten, A. J. P., 1879, p. 616.) The hydrobromate 
has been employed by Prof. Gubler hypodermically. (JV. i?., 1879, 366.)* Konigs and Hus- 
mann having claimed to have converted cinchonine into cinchonidine by the long-continued 
action of boiling amyl alcohol solution of potash, Paul and Cownley have investigated this 
treatment. They failed to get such conversion, and consider that the cinchonine used by 
Konigs and Husmann must have been impure. (Pharrn. Journ.f Feb. 20,1897.) 
Medical Properties. So far as our knowledge goes, this alkaloid influences the system 
similarly to quinine, the only difference being that it is less powerful. It may be given in 
doses one-third greater than those of quinine, but should not be relied on in severe cases. 
CINCHONINA. U. S. Cinchonine. 
C19 H2J N2 O ; 293*41. (CIN-JSHO-Nl'NA.) Cw H22 N2 0; 294. 
“ An alkaloid obtained from the bark of various species of Cinchona.” U. S. 
This alkaloid was introduced for the first time into the U. S. P. 1880. The sulphate has 
had an extensive use, is again official, and is the source from whence this alkaloid is usually 
prepared. Cinchonine is most conveniently precipitated from an aqueous solution of cinchonine 
sulphate by ammonia water. Several processes have been employed for the preparation of 
cinchonine. One of the simplest is the following. Powdered pale bark is submitted to the 
action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid very much diluted, and the solution obtained is pre- 
cipitated by an excess of lime. The precipitate is collected on a filter, washed with water, and 
treated with boiling alcohol. The alcoholic solution is filtered while hot, and deposits the cin- 
* Cinchonidine Benzoate may be made by Byasson’s process. Sixty parts of benzoic acid are dissolved in two 
hundred parts of alcohol, and poured into a porcelain vessel containing three thousand parts of boiling distilled 
water; two hundred parts of cinchonidine sulphate are dissolved in two thousand parts of water, using sufficient 
diluted sulphuric acid to effect the solution; this is precipitated with ammonia, and washed with a small quantity 
of cold water; the moist precipitate of cinchonidine is added to the hot solution of benzoic acid, and filtered while 
hot. The solution must be made faintly alkaline by the cautious addition of ammonia. On cooling, the cinchoni- 
dine benzoate separates in the form of small, thin, prismatic needles, resembling cinchonidine sulphate. The yield 
is about two hundred parts. (Pharm. Bee., 1884, p. 45.) Clnchonina. 
' PART I. 
chonine when it cools. A further quantity is obtained by evaporation. If not perfectly white, 
it may be made so by converting it into a sulphate with dilute sulphuric acid, then treating 
the solution with animal charcoal, filtering, precipitating by an alkali, and redissolving by 
alcohol in the manner already mentioned. It may also be obtained from the mother-waters of 
quinine sulphate by diluting them with water, precipitating with ammonia, collecting the pre- 
cipitate on a filter, washing and drying it, and then dissolving it in boiling alcohol, which de- 
posits the cinchonine in a crystalline form upon cooling. It may be still further purified by 
a second solution and crystallization. Its formula is now generally accepted as c19h22n2o, 
the molecular weight of which is 294, as proposed by Skraup, instead of the older formula, 
C20H24N20, of Pasteur. 
Properties. This alkaloid occurs in “ white, lustrous prisms or needles, without odor, at 
first almost tasteless, but soon developing a bitter after-taste ; permanent in the air. Soluble, 
at 15° C. (59° F.), in 3760 parts of water, and in 116 parts of alcohol; in 3500 parts of boil- 
ing water, and in 26-5 parts of boiling alcohol. Also soluble in 526 parts of ether, and in 
163 parts of chloroform. At 240° C. (464° F.) the crystals fuse together, and at 258° C. 
(496-4° F.) they melt, forming a brown liquid.* When ignited, they are consumed without 
leaving a residue. When placed on moistened, red litmus paper, Cinchonine shows an alka- 
line reaction. On adding to a neutral or not more than faintly acid solution of Cinchonine, or 
of any of its salts, enough potassium ferrocyanide test-solution to redissolve the precipitate 
first formed, and afterwards an acid, a golden-yellow precipitate will be formed, which, when 
redissolved by gently warming the liquid, will separate, on cooling, in minute scales or needles. 
On adding an excess of ammonia water to a solution of Cinchonine in a dilute acid, the alka- 
loid will be precipitated. The precipitate is but feebly soluble in ammonia, and should re- 
quire not less than 300 parts of ether for solution. A solution of Cinchonine (1 in 1000) in 
diluted sulphuric acid should not exhibit more than a faint blue fluorescence (absence of more 
than traces of quinine or quinidine). Cinchonine should not impart more than a faintly yel- 
lowish tinge to concentrated sulphuric acid (limit of readily carbonizable, organic impurities).” 
U. S. Waddington found it to sublime readily, without change, in perfectly characteristic 
crystals. (P. J. Tr., March, 1868, p. 414.)f Its alkaline character is very decided, as it neu- 
tralizes the strongest acids. Of the salts of cinchonine, the sulphate, nitrate, hydrochlorate, 
phosphate, and acetate are soluble in water. The neutral tartrate, oxalate, and gallate are in- 
soluble in cold water, but soluble in hot water, alcohol, or an excess of acid. Winckler has 
shown that cinchonine is rendered uncrystallizable or amorphous by sulphuric acid in excess, 
aided by heat; a fact of importance in the preparation of the sulphate of this alkaloid. 
(Ghem. Gaz., March 15, 1848.) Cinchonine is but little more soluble in carbonic acid water 
than in pure water, and does not, like quinine, yield crystals of the carbonate on exposure of 
its carbonic acid solution. (Comptes-Rendus, Nov. 7, 1853, p. 727.) It differs from quinine 
by its rotating the plane of polarization to the right, by the want of fluorescence in its solu- 
tions, and by its failing to respond to the thalleioquin test. 
Exposed to the air, cinchonine does not suffer decomposition, but very slowly absorbs car- 
bonic acid gas, and acquires the property of effervescing slightly with acids. It is precipitated 
sulphur yellow by gold tercliloride. Chlorine water dissolves it or any of its salts without 
change ; but if ammonia be now added, a white precipitate is produced. It is thus distinguish- 
able from quinine. (See Quinine.') Dr. J. W. Bill, U.S.A., proposes potassium ferrocyanide as 
a very delicate test of cinchonine. If added to the solution of a salt of this alkaloid, it pro- 
duces a yellowish-white curdy precipitate, which is dissolved upon the application of a gentle 
heat, but is again deposited, when the liquid cools, as an abundant crop of golden-yellow crys- 
tals. No other alkaloid exhibits the same reaction. A cloudy precipitate is produced by the 
same reagent with a salt of quinine ; but this does not happen when the ferrocyanide is in 
excess; and, if the precipitate be dissolved by heat, no subsidence takes place on cooling. 
Hence, in the application of this test to cinchonine, a slight excess of the ferrocyanide should 
be added. (Am. Journ. of Science and Arts, July, 1858, p. 108.) 
* The melting point of cinchonine has been very variously given : 236° (Hesse), 268-8° (Skraup), 257° (Caventou 
and Willtn). Moreover, if the crystals of cinchonine be kept for some time at a temperature of from 150° to 160° C., 
they decompose into liquid and volatile bases, which gives it the semblance of fusion at a much lower fusing point. 
Thus, Allen (Oommerc. Org. Anal., 2d ed., vol. iii., part ii., p. 431) gives the fusing point as 165° C. 
f It is asserted that the hydrochlorates of quinine, cinchonine, and quinidine, heated on a slip of platinum, short 
of combustion, emit a purple vapor like iodine. Neither the alkaloids nor their sulphates have this property; but 
the addition of one-tenth of hydrochlorate will cause the evolution of the colored vapor. (Journ. de Pharm. et de 
Chitn., 4e ser., iii. 397.) Cinchonina.—Cinchoninse Sulphas. 
417 
PART I. 
By the action of potassium permanganate cinchonine is decomposed, with the effect of pro- 
ducing, at first, an entirely distinct neutral principle, cinchotenine, C18H20N2Oa -f- 3H20, and 
an alkaloid, which the authors named hydroa'nchonine, C19H24N20, as it differs from cincho- 
nine (cinchonia) only in having two additional atoms of hydrogen. The cinchotenine, when 
further oxidized by the same reagent, yields quinoline and pyridine derivatives (see Part 
II.), as dnchonic (quinoline-carboxylic) acid, C9H6N(C00H), and cinchomeronic (pyridine- 
dicarboxylic) acid, C6H3N(C00H)2. 
Medical Properties. The physiological action of cinchonine is similar to but less pow- 
erful than that of quinine. Thus, Conzen (quoted by Husemann) has found that its action on 
infusoria and on fermentation is similar to but weaker than that of its sister alkaloid, and that 
on the movements of the white blood-corpuscles its influence seems transient. Upon dogs, 
according to Bernatzik’s experiments, the lethal dose of cinchonine is to that of quinine as 5 
is to 4. As an antiperiodic or tonic, cinchonine exerts an influence similar to that of quinine, 
but is probably about one-third weaker, and must be used in correspondingly larger dose. 
CINCHONINES SULPHAS. U. S. Cinchonine Sulphate. 
(ClN-CHO-Nl'NiE SUL'PHAS.) 
(C19H22 N2 0)2 H2 SO*, 2H2O; 720*56.* (C19 IIB N2 0)2 H2 SO*. 2H2 0; 722. 
“ The sulphate of an alkaloid obtained from the bark of various species of Cinchona and 
Remijia.” Br. 1885. 
Cinchoniae Sulphas, Pharm. 1870; Cinchoninum Sulfuricum, P. G.; Sulfate de Cinchonine, Fr.; Schwefelsaures 
Cinchonin, G. 
The process official in U. S. P. 1870 is as follows: “Take of the mother-water, remaining 
after the crystallization of Sulphate of Quinine, in the process for preparing that salt, a con- 
venient quantity ; Solution of Soda, Alcohol, Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Animal Charcoal, in fine 
powder, each, a sufficient quantity. To the mother-water add gradually, with constant stirring, 
Solution of Soda, until the liquid becomes alkaline. Collect on a filter the precipitate formed, 
wash it with water, and dry it. Then wash it with successive small portions of alcohol, to re- 
move other alkaloids which may be present. Mix the residue with eight times its weight of 
water, and, having heated the mixture, add gradually Diluted Sulphuric Acid until it is satu- 
rated and becomes clear. Then boil the liquid with Animal Charcoal, filter it while hot, and 
set it aside to crystallize. Lastly, drain the crystals, and dry them on bibulous paper. By 
evaporating the mother-liquid, more crystals may be obtained.” U. S. 
In consequence of its greater solubility, Cinchonine Sulphate remains behind in the mother- 
water, when quinine sulphate crystallizes, in the process for preparing the latter salt. To 
separate it from other substances contained in the mother-water, it is decomposed by solution 
of soda, which is preferable to potassa, as it forms a very soluble salt with sulphuric acid, 
whereas the potassium sulphate, being of difficult solubility, might fall with the precipitated 
cinchonine. The precipitate may be safely washed with small portions of alcohol, as the alka- 
loid is almost insoluble in that liquid when cold. It is next reconverted into the sulphate; 
and the solution, having been boiled with unpurijied animal charcoal to decolorize it, and at 
the same time neutralize any possible excess of sulphuric acid which might interfere with the 
crystallization of the salt, is filtered while hot, and then allowed to stand. It is particularly 
important that there should be no excess of sulphuric acid while the solution is exposed to 
heat, as under this influence the alkaloid is much disposed to become uncrystallizable. Hence 
the advantage of using unpurified animal charcoal or bone-black, as the calcium carbonate 
contained in it neutralizes any excess of the acid. The cinchonine sulphate, held in solution 
by the liquid while hot, is deposited by it, upon cooling, in crystals. 
It may be also prepared by first obtaining cinchonine from one of the pale barks; treating 
this with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, added gradually till the alkaloid is dissolved; 
then boiling with purified animal charcoal, filtering the solution while hot, and setting it aside 
to crystallize. 
There are two cinchonine sulphates, the neutral and the acid sulphate. The official salt is 
the neutral sulphate. It is in “ hard, white, lustrous, prismatic crystals, without odor, and 
having a very bitter taste; permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 66 parts of 
water, and in 10 parts of alcohol; in 13-59 parts of boiling water, and in 3-25 parts of boiling 
alcohol. Also soluble in 78 parts of chloroform, but almost insoluble in ether. At 100° C. 
(212° F.) it gives off its water of crystallization, and at 215° C. (419° F.) it melts, forming a 
brown liquid. When ignited, it is consumed without leaving a residue. The salt is neutral 
* The British Pharm. 1885 gave the following formula for this salt: (C2oH24N20)2,H2S04,2H20. 418 
Cinchoninse Sulphas.—Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 
PART I. 
to litmus paper. Addition of ammonia to an aqueous solution of the salt produces a white 
precipitate which should respond to the reactions and tests given under Cinchonina. On add- 
ing barium chloride test-solution to an aqueous solution of the salt, a white precipitate is pro- 
duced, which is insoluble in hydrochloric acid. A solution of the salt (1 in 1000) in diluted 
sulphuric acid should not exhibit more than a faint blue fluorescence (limit of quinine or 
quinidine). If 1 Gm. of the salt be dried at 100° C. (212° F.) until it ceases to lose weight, 
the residue, cooled in a desiccator, should weigh not less than 0-95 Gm. (absence of an undue 
amount of water). If 1 part of the salt, reduced to powder, be macerated, with frequent agi- 
tation, at the ordinary temperature, with 80 parts of chloroform, it should wholly, or almost 
wholly, dissolve (limit of quinine or cinchonidine).* The salt should not impart more than a 
faintly yellowish tinge to concentrated sulphuric acid (limit of readily carbonizable, organic 
impurities)." U. S. The acid sulphate, or bisulphate, C19H22N20H2S04,3H20, is prepared by 
adding sulphuric acid to the neutral sulphate. According to Baup, 100 parts are soluble in 45 
parts of water and in 100 parts of absolute alcohol; it is insoluble in ether. It crystallizes in 
rhombic octohedrons. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cinchonine sulphate has the same remedial properties 
as quinine sulphate, but must be given in somewhat larger dose. Tonic dose, a grain or two 
(0-065-0-13 Gm.) three or four times a day; antiperiodic dose, 15 grains to 40 grains (1-0-2-6 
Gm.) between the paroxysms. It may be taken in pill, or in solution made by the addition 
of dilute sulphuric acid in the proportion of a minim or two drops for each grain of the salt. 
To lessen the bitterness in taste, it may be given suspended in syrup, without the use of any 
acid, or with a few grains of powdered liquorice added to the mixture. 
CINNAMOMUM CASSIA. U. S. Cassia Cinnamon. 
(cIn-na-mo'mum cXs'si-a.) 
“ The bark of the shoots of one or more undetermined species of Cinnamomum grown in 
China (Chinese Cinnamon) (nat. ord. Laurineae).” U. S. 
Cinnamomum, U. S. 1880; Cassia; Cassia Bark; Cortex Cinnamomi, P. G.; Cinnamomum Chinense, Cassia Cin- 
namomea; Cassia Lignea; Cassia Bark; Casse, Cannelle de Chine, Fr.; Cassienzimmt, Zimmtkassie, Chinesischer 
(Gemeiner) Zimmt, G.; Canellina, It.; Casia, Sp. 
CINNAMOMUM SAIGONICUM. U. S. Saigon Cinnamon. 
(cIn-na-mo'mum sa-i-g5n'i-cdm.) 
“ The bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum (nat. ord. Laurineae).” U. S. 
CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM. U. S. (Br.) Ceylon Cinnamon. 
(cIn-na-mo'mum ze-lXn'i-c©m.) 
“ The inner bark of the shoots of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne (nat. ord. Laurineae).” 
U. S. “ The dried inner bark of shoots from the truncated stocks of Cinnamomum zeylani- 
cum, Breyn. Obtained from cultivated trees. Imported from Ceylon, and distinguished in 
commerce as Ceylon cinnamon.” Br. 
Cinnamomi Cortex, Br.; Cinnamomum, U. S. 1880; Cinnamon Bark; Cortex Cinnamomi Zeylonici; Cinna- 
momum Acutum, s. Yerum; Cannelle de Ceylon, Cannelle, Fr.; Brauner Canel, Zeylonzimmt, Zimmt, G.; Canella, 
It.; Canela, Sp.; Kurundu, Cingalese; Karua puttay, Tamil. 
Both cinnamomum, and cassia were terms employed by the ancients, hut whether exactly as 
now understood it is impossible to determine. The term cassia, or cassia lignea, has been gen- 
erally used in modern times to designate the coarser barks analogous to cinnamon. It was 
probably first applied to the barks from Malabar, and afterwards extended to those of China 
and other parts of Eastern Asia. It has been customary to ascribe cassia lignea to the Lauras 
cassia of Linnaeus ; but the specific character given by that botanist was so indefinite, and based 
on such imperfect information, that the species has been almost unanimously abandoned by 
botanists. The barks sold as cinnam.on and cassia in different parts of the world are derived 
from various species of Cinnamomum. 
Gen. Ch. Floicers hermaphrodite or polygamous. Perianth six-cleft, the upper half of each 
segment deciduous. Stamens nine, with four-celled anthers, six (opposite the perianth-segments) 
* A test distinguishing between quinine sulphate and cinchonine sulphate has been announced by M. Palm, of 
Russia, in potassium polysulphide, prepared by boiling solution of potassa with an excess of sulphur. When a solu- 
tion of this sulphide is added to a boiling solution of quinine sulphate, the latter, however small the quantity pres- 
ent, is thrown down as a red terebinthinate mass, which hardens on cooling and then assumes the appearance of a 
resin; while with cinchonine sulphate a white powder is precipitated containing sulphur. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 
1864.) PART I. 
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 
419 
opening inwards without glands, three (opposite three of the above) opening outwards and 
bearing a gland on each side at the base. Staminodia three (opposite the three other outer 
stamens), with capitate or cordate abortive anthers. Berry resting on the enlarged six-lobed 
base of the perianth.” (Bentham, Flora Honghongensisi) As thus defined, the genus Cinna- 
momum does not include the genus Camphora. (See Camphora.') 
1. Cinnamomum zeylanicum. Nees, Laurinese, 52 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 329 ; Hayne, Darstel. 
und Beschreib., etc. xii. 263.—Laurus cinnamomum. Linn. This is a tree about 20 or 30 feet 
high, with a trunk from 12 to 18 inches in diameter and covered with a thick, scabrous bark. 
The branches are numerous, strong, horizontal, and declining ; and the young shoots are beauti- 
fully speckled with dark green and light orange colors. The leaves are opposite for the most 
part, coriaceous, entire, ovate or ovate-oblong, obtusely pointed, and three-nerved, with the 
lateral nerves vanishing as they approach the point. There are also two less obvious nerves, 
one on each side arising from the base, proceeding towards the border of the leaf, and then 
quickly vanishing. The footstalks are short and slightly channelled, and, together with the 
extreme twigs, are smooth and without the least appearance of down. In one variety the 
leaves are very broad and somewhat cordate. When mature, they are of a shining green upon 
their upper surface, and lighter-colored beneath. The flowers are small, white, and arranged 
in axillary and terminal panicles * The fruit is an oval berry, which adheres like the acorn to 
the receptacle, is larger than the black currant, and when ripe has a bluish-brown surface, 
diversified with numerous white spots. The tree emits no smell perceptible at any distance. 
The bark of the root has the odor of cinnamon with the pungency of camphor, and yields this 
principle upon distillation. The leaves have a spicy odor when rubbed, and a hot taste. A 
volatile oil distilled from them has been introduced into commerce.f The petiole has the flavor 
of cinnamon. It is a singular fact that the odor of the flowers is to people in general dis- 
agreeable, being compared by some to the scent exhaled from newly-sawn bones. The fruit 
has a terebinthinate odor when opened, and a taste in some degree like that of juniper berries. 
A fatty substance, called cinnamon-suet, is obtained from it when ripe, by bruising it and then 
boiling it in water, and removing the oleaginous matter which rises to the surface, and concretes 
upon cooling. It is the prepared bark that constitutes the genuine cinnamon. 
This species is a native of Ceylon, where it has long been cultivated. It is said also to be a 
native of the Malabar Coast, and has at various periods been introduced into Java, the Isle of 
France, Bourbon, the Cape Verds, Brazil, Cayenne, several of the West India islands, and 
Egypt, and in some of these places is at this time highly productive, especially in Cayenne, 
where the plant was flourishing so early as 1755. It is exceedingly influenced, as regards the 
aromatic character of its bark, by the circumstances of soil, climate, and mode of culture. 
Thus, we are told by Marshall that in Ceylon, beyond the limits of Negombo and Matura, in 
the western and southern parts of the island, the bark is never of good quality, being greatly 
deficient in the aromatic flavor of the cinnamon ; and that even within these limits it is of 
unequal value, from the various influences of exposure, soil, shade, and other circumstances. 
Cinnamon closely resembling Ceylon cinnamon is said to have been sent to Europe from Brazil. 
2. C. aromaticum. Nees, Laurinese, 52 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 330.— C. cassia. Blume, Ed. 
Ph. ; Hayne, Darstel. und Beschreib., etc. xii. 23.—Laurus cassia. Aiton, Hort. Kew. ii. 427.— 
Not Laurus cassia of Linn. This is of about the same magnitude as the former species, and, 
*' Cassia Buds. This spice consists of the calyx of one or more species of Cinnamomum, surrounding the young 
ovary, and, as stated by Dr. Martius, on the authority of the elder Nees, about one-quarter of the normal size. It is 
produced in China; and Mr. Reeves states that great quantities of it are brought to Canton from the province which 
affords cassia. The species which yields it is in all probability the same with that which yields the bark, though it 
has been ascribed by Nees to Cinnamomum. loureirii. In favor of the former opinion is the statement of Dr. Chris- 
tison, that C. aromaticum, cultivated in the hot-houses of Europe, bears a flower-bud which closely resembles the 
cassia bud when at the same period of advancement. Cassia buds have some resemblance to cloves, and are com- 
pared to small nails with round heads. The enclosed ovary is sometimes removed, and they are then cup-shaped 
at top. They have a brown color, with the flavor of cinnamon, and yield an essential oil upon distillation. They 
may be used for the same purposes as the bark. 
f The cinnamon leaf oil, as formerly imported into Great Britain, was of two kinds, one containing a considerable 
quantity of a fatty fixed oil, perhaps cinnamon-suet from the fruit, the other a pure volatile oil. The oil was said to 
he obtained by distilling the leaves after maceration in sea-water. It resembled the oil of cloves and pimento in sen- 
sible properties, having a brownish color, a penetrating, fragrant odor, and a very pungent taste. According to Sten- 
house, it was of the sp. gr. 1’053, had an acid reaction, and consisted of eugenol, a neutral substance with the formula 
CioIIi*, and a minute proportion of benzoic acid. (P. J. Tr., xiv. 319.) This oil seems to have disappeared from 
commerce; but it has recently been studied by Schimmel & Co. The oil of their own distillation, as also samples 
distilled in Java, was limpid, sp. gr. l-056-l'060, and contained 87 per cent, of eugenol and about 0‘1 per cent, of 
cinnamic aldehyde. A cinnamon leaf oil from the Seychelles consisted chiefly of eugenol. Schimmel & Co.’s Report 
for April, 1897, says that of the Ceylon cinnamon oil exported in 1896, amounting to 132,057 ounces, nine-tenths 
was probably oil of cinnamon leaves, the price of which had risen quite notably. 420 
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 
PART I. 
like it, has nearly opposite, shortly petiolate, coriaceous, entire leaves, of a shining green upon 
the upper surface, lighter-colored beneath, and furnished with three nerves, of which the two 
latter vanish towards the point. The leaves, however, differ in being oblong-lanceolate and 
pointed, and in exhibiting, under the microscope, a very fine down upon the under surface. 
The footstalks and extreme twigs are also downy. The flowers are in narrow, silky panicles. 
The plant grows in China, Sumatra, and other parts of Eastern Asia, and is said to be cul- 
tivated in Java. It is believed to be the species which furnishes, wholly or in part, the Chinese 
cinnamon or cassia brought from Canton, and is supposed to be the source of the cassia buds. 
Besides the two species above described, others have been thought to contribute to the cin- 
namon and cassia of commerce. In 1839 (Madras Journ. Lit. and Sci., No. 22), Dr. Wight 
stated that in his belief cinnamon was derived from 12 to 18 specially distinct trees. G. inners, 
Reinw., is distinguished from C. zeylanicum by the nervation of its leaves, which are also paler 
and thinner than those of the official plant, of which, however, it is probably only a variety. 
It yields the so-called wild cinnamon of Japan. C. loureirii of Nees, growing in the mountains 
of Cochin-China near Laos, and in Japan, affords, according to Loureiro, a cinnamon of which 
the finest kind is superior to that of Ceylon. C. nitidum, growing in Ceylon, Java, and on the 
continent of India, is said to have been the chief source of the drug known formerly by the 
name of Folia Malabathri and consisting of the leaves of different species of Cinnamomum 
mixed together. C. culilawan of the Moluccas yields the aromatic bark called culilawan, 
noticed in Part II. of this work ; and similar barks are obtained from another species of the 
same region, named C. rubrum, and from C. sintoc of Java. Massoy bark, from which an aro- 
matic volatile oil is obtained called oil of massoy, is the product of C. kiamis. (Gmelin, Hand- 
book, xiv. 380.) In the mountains of Eastern Bengal, at a height of 1000 to 4000 feet, flourish 
C. obtusifolium, Nees, C. pauciforum, Nees, and C. tamala, W., and these, with other unknown 
species, afford quantities of bark which are shipped from Calcutta, Java, Timor, etc., to Europe 
under the name of cassia lignea, cassia, cassia vera, or wild cassia. These barks are mostly highly 
aromatic, resembling cinnamon more or less closely in flavor, and are distinguished by yielding 
to cold water an abundant mucilage. 
Culture, Collection, Commerce, etc. In Ceylon, cinnamon bark was originally col- 
lected exclusively from the tree in a wild state; but the Dutch introduced the practice of cul- 
tivating it, which has been continued since the British came into possession of the island. The 
principal cinnamon gardens are in the vicinity of Columbo. The seeds are planted in a pre- 
pared soil at certain distances; and, as four or five are placed in a spot, the plants usually 
grow in clusters like the hazel-bush. In favorable situations they attain the height of five or 
six feet in six or seven years; and a healthy bush will then afford two or three shoots fit for 
peeling, and every second year afterwards from four to seven shoots in a good soil. The cin- 
namon harvest commences in May and continues till late in October. The first object is to 
select shoots proper for decortication, and those are seldom cut which are less than half an inch 
or more than two or three inches in diameter. Before decortication these shoots are trimmed 
up, and the small pieces, when dried, constitute cinnamon chips. The bark is divided by longi- 
tudinal incisions, of which two are made in the smaller shoots, several in the larger, and is then 
removed in strips by means of a suitable instrument. The pieces are next collected in bundles, 
and allowed to remain in this state for a short time, so as to undergo a degree of fermentation, 
which facilitates the separation of the epidermis. This, with the green matter beneath it, is 
removed by placing the strip of bark upon a convex piece of wood and scraping its external 
surface with a curved knife. The bark now dries and contracts, assuming the appearance of a 
quill. The peeler introduces the smaller tubes into the larger, and connects them also end- 
wise, thus forming a congeries of quills which is about forty inches long. When sufficiently 
dry, these cylinders are collected into bundles weighing about thirty pounds and bound 
together by pieces of split bamboo. The commerce in Ceylon cinnamon was formerly monop- 
olized by the East India Company ; but the cultivation is now unrestricted, and the bark may 
be freely exported upon the payment of a fixed duty. It is assorted in the island into three 
qualities, distinguished by the designations of first, second, and third. The inferior kinds, 
which are of insufficient value to pay the duty, are used for the preparation of oil of cinnamon. 
The exportation from Ceylon was, in 1896, 2,223,865 lbs. of bark and 808,502 lbs. of chips; 
in 1897, 2,674,537 lbs. of bark and 1,067,051 lbs. of chips. 
Properties. Immense quantities of cinnamon are exported from China, the finest of which 
is little inferior to that of Ceylon, though the mass of it is much coarser. It passes in commerce 
under the name of cassia, and is said by Mr. Reeves to be brought to Canton from the province Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 
421 
PART I. 
of Kwangse, where the tree producing it grows very abundantly. ( Trans. Med.-Bot. Soc., 1828, 
p. 26.)* It has already been stated that this tree is supposed to be the Cinnamomum aromati- 
cum; but we have no positive proof of the fact. It is, indeed, asserted that true cinnamon 
of very fine grade occurs in China, although it never enters foreign commerce, because of the 
high price which it commands at home. (/*. J. Tr., xxi., 1890.) These fine cinnamons are said 
to be produced in the mountainous district of Annam, or Cochin-China. Cinnamon of good 
quality is said to be collected in Java; and considerable quantities of inferior quality bave 
been thrown into commerce, as cassia lignea, from the Malabar Coast. Manila and the Isle of 
France are also mentioned as sources whence this drug is supplied. Little, however, reaches the 
United States from these places. The island of Martinique, Cayenne, and several of the West 
India islands yield to commerce considerable quantities of cinnamon of various qualities. That 
of Cayenne is of two kinds, one of which closely resembles, though it does not quite equal, the 
aromatic of Ceylon, the other resembles the Chinese. The former is supposed to be derived 
from plants propagated from a Ceylonese stock, the latter from plants which have sprung from 
a tree introduced from Sumatra. By far the greater proportion of cinnamon brought to this 
country is imported from China. It is entered as cassia and Saigon cassia at the custom- 
house. 
From what source the ancients derived their cinnamon and cassia is not certainly known. 
Neither the plants nor their localities, as described by Dioscorides, Pliny, and Theophrastus, 
correspond precisely with our present knowledge; but in this respect much allowance must be 
made for the inaccurate geography of the ancients. It is probable that the Arabian navi- 
gators at a very early period conveyed this spice within the limits of the Phoenician and 
Grecian and subsequently of Roman commerce. 
Ceylon cinnamon is in long cylindrical fasciculi, composed of numerous quills, the larger 
enclosing the smaller. In the original sticks, which are somewhat more than three feet in 
length, two or three fasciculi are neatly joined at the end, so as to appear as if the whole 
were one continuous piece. The finest is of a light brownish-yellow color, almost as thin as 
paper, smooth, often somewhat shining, pliable to a considerable extent, with a splintery 
fracture when broken. It has a pleasant, fragrant odor, and a warm, aromatic, pungent, sweet- 
ish, slightly astringent, and highly agreeable taste. When distilled it affords but a small quan- 
tity of essential oil, which, however, has an exceedingly grateful flavor. It is brought to this 
country from England ; but it is costly. The inferior sorts are browner, thicker, less splintery, 
and of a less agreeable flavor, and are little if at all superior to the best Chinese. The finer 
variety of Cayenne cinnamon approaches in character that above described, but is paler and in 
thicker pieces, being usually collected from older branches. That which is gathered very young 
is scarcely distinguishable from the cinnamon of Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon is in “ long, 
closely rolled quills, composed of eight or more layers of bark of the thickness of paper; pale 
yellowish-brown ; outer surface smooth, marked with wavy lines of bast-bundles ; inner surface 
striate ; fracture short-splintery ; odor fragrant; taste sweet and warmly aromatic.” U. $.t 
Chinese cinnamon, or Cassia, is in tubes from one-eighth of an inch to an inch in diameter, 
usually single, sometimes double, very rarely more than double. In some instances the bark 
is rolled very much upon itself, in others is not even completely quilled, forming segments more 
or less extensive of a hollow cylinder. It is of a redder or darker color than the finest Ceylon 
cinnamon, thicker, rougher, denser, and breaks with a shorter fracture. It has a stronger, more 
pungent and astringent but less sweet and grateful taste, and, though of a similar odor, is less 
agreeably fragrant. It is the kind almost universally kept in our shops. Of a similar charac- 
ter is the cinnamon imported directly from various parts of the East Indies. But under the 
name of cassia have also been brought to us very inferior kinds of cinnamon, collected from the 
trunks or large branches of the trees, or injured by want of care in keeping, or perhaps derived 
from inferior species. It is said that cinnamon from which the oil has been distilled is some- 
times fraudulently mixed with the genuine. These inferior kinds are detected, independently of 
their greater thickness and coarseness of fracture, by their deficiency in the peculiar sensible 
properties of the spice. Chinese cinnamon is “ in quills of varying length and about 1 Mm. or 
more in thickness ; nearly deprived of the corky layer ; yellowish-brown ; outer surface some- 
what rough ; fracture nearly smooth ; odor fragrant; taste sweet, and warmly aromatic.” U. S. 
Saigon cinnamon takes its name from Saigon, the capital of French Cochin-China. It is a thick 
* For method of collection, see P. J. Tr., Feb. 1890. 
t For an account of the cultivation of C. zeylanicum, see P. J. Tr., xi. 261; also one containing statistics and 
interesting notes on Chinese cassia in P. J. Tr., 1898, 47. 422 
Cinnamomum Zeglanicum. 
PART I. 
cassia bark, which has come into European commerce, and is recognized for the first time hy 
the U. S. P. 1890. It is officially described as “ in quills about 15 Cm. long, and 10 to 15 Mm. 
in diameter, the bark 2 or 3 Mm. thick ; outer surface gray or light grayish-brown with whitish 
patches, more or less rough from numerous warts and some transverse ridges and fine longitu- 
dinal wrinkles ; the inner surface cinnamon-brown or dark brown, granular and slightly striate ; 
fracture short, granular, in the outer layer cinnamon-colored, having near the cork numerous 
whitish striae forming an almost uninterrupted line; odor fragrant; taste sweet, warmly aro- 
matic, somewhat astringent.” U. S. The odor of this cinnamon is fragrant, the taste is highly 
aromatic, markedly that of cinnamon, and, in the specimens that we have seen, only slightly 
astringent. It also occurs in commerce much broken, in which state it commands a somewhat 
smaller price than when in quills. The Saigon buds also are brought into the port of New 
York. The quality of Saigon cassia, as it is commonly termed in trade journals, is distinctly 
superior to that of other cassias, and the price which it commands much higher. It is obtained 
from the Cinnamomum loureirii of Nees, the Lauras cinnamomum of Loureiro. According to 
Siebold, the bark of the large branches is of inferior quality and is rejected; that from the 
smallest branches resembles the Ceylon cinnamon in thickness, but has a very pungent taste 
and smell, and is little esteemed ; while the intermediate branches yield an excellent bark, about 
a line in thickness, which is even more highly valued than the cinnamon of Ceylon, and yields 
a sweeter and less pungent oil. (Ann. der Pharm., xx. 280.) 
Powdered cinnamon as found in commerce is often grossly adulterated; sugar, ground 
walnut-shells, and ground cinnamon-shells have been detected. (Chem. and Drug., 1895, 867.) 
Drug millers sometimes add cassia buds to inferior grades of bark, siftings, etc., and powder 
the mixture; Pfister (Forschungs Berichte, i. 540) considers this addition an advantage to the 
low grade powder, for the reason that cassia buds contain a larger proportion of volatile oil. 
The Pharmacographia gives the following tests for distinguisliing powdered cassia from 
powdered cinnamon, and for recognizing the inferior varieties of cassia. Make a decoction of 
powdered cinnamon of known genuineness, and one of similar strength of the suspected 
powder; when cool and strained, test a fluidounce of each with one or two drops of tincture 
of iodine. A decoction of cinnamon is but little affected, but in that of cassia a deep blue- 
black tint is immediately produced. The cheap kinds of cassia known as cassia vera may be 
distinguished from the more valuable Chinese cassia as well as from cinnamon by their richness 
in mucilage; this can be extracted hy cold water as a thick glairy liquid, giving dense ropy 
precipitates with corrosive sublimate or neutral acetate of lead, but not with alcohol. 
Microscopic Structure. Ceylon cinnamon usually consists simply of liber, the outer 
coatings having been stripped off during its preparation for market. Three layers are distin- 
guishable in the liber. “ 1. The external surface, which is composed of one to three rows of 
large thick-walled cells (Fig. 1), forming a coherent ring; it is only interrupted by bundles 
Fig. 1.—True Cinnamon, transverse section (very highly 
magnified). 
Cassia Bark, longitudinal section. 
of liber fibres, which are obvious even to the unaided eye. 2. The middle layer is built up of 
about 10 rows of parenchymatous thin-walled cells, interrupted by much larger cells containing PART I. 
Cinnamomwn Zeylanicum.— Coca. 
423 
deposits of mucilage, while other cells not larger than those of the parenchyme itself are loaded 
with essential oil. 3. The innermost layer exhibits the same thin-walled but smaller cells, yet 
intersected by narrow somewhat darker medullary 
rays, and likewise interrupted by cells containing 
either mucilage or essential oil, instead of bundles 
of liber fibres. Fibres mostly isolated are scattered 
through the two inner layers, the parenchyme of 
which abounds in small starch granules accompanied 
by tannic matter. On a longitudinal section the 
length of the liber fibres becomes more evident, as 
well as oil-ducts and gum-ducts.” (Pharmacographia.) 
The coarser cassia bark, or cassia lignea, usually 
has some of the external or corky layer adherent to 
it, and always the parenchymatous mesophloeum or 
middle bark, but the liber constitutes the chief mass. 
Isolated liber fibres and thick-walled cells (stone-cells) 
are scattered even through the outer layers of a trans- 
verse section. In the middle zone they are numerous, 
but do not form a coherent sclerenchymatous ring as 
in Ceylon cinnamon. The innermost part of the liber 
shares the structural character of cinnamon, with differences due to age, as, for instance, the 
greater development of the medullary rays. Oil-cells and gum-ducts are likewise distributed 
in the parenchyme of the former. The finest cassia or Chinese cinnamon has the three layers 
described in Ceylon cinnamon, but is readily distinguished by the adherent outer parenchyma- 
tous and suberous layer. 
Chemical Composition. According to the analysis of Vauquelin, cinnamon contains a 
peculiar volatile oil, tannin, mucilage, a coloring matter, an acid, and lignin. The tannin is of 
the variety which yields a greenish-black precipitate with the salts of iron. Thos. R. Thorn- 
ton (A. J. P., 1895, 400) has examined the tannin of C. cassia. He found it to amount to 
about 3-90 per cent., as an average of three different determinations on different samples. He 
found it impossible to extract the tannin by any one of several methods tried, and concludes 
that it either has the phlobophene (anhydride) character as it exists in the drug or acquires 
such character when brought into contact with water. Jas. A. Ferguson (1887), in the 
Laboratory of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, determined the ash of several samples 
of Ceylon cinnamon, finding an average of 4 per cent., while in powdered cinnamon cassia 
he found 2*8 and 2-5 per cent. (A. J. P., 1887, 278, 279.) The oil obtained from the Cay- 
enne cinnamon was found to be more biting than that from the Ceylonese. Bucholz found 
in 100 parts of cassia lignea 0-8 of volatile oil, 4-0 of resin, 14-6 of gummy extractive (prob- 
ably including tannin), 64-3 of lignin and bassorin, and 16-3 of water, including loss. This 
aromatic yields its virtues wholly to alcohol, and less readily to water. At the temperature 
of boiling alcohol very little of the oil rises, and an extract prepared from the tincture retains, 
therefore, the aromatic properties. For an account of the volatile oil, see Oleum Cinnamomi. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cinnamon is among the most grateful and efficient of 
the aromatics. It is warm and cordial to the stomach, carminative, astringent, and, like most 
other substances of this class, more powerful as a local than as a general stimulant. It is 
seldom prescribed alone, though, when given in powder or infusion, it will sometimes allay 
nausea, check vomiting, and relieve flatulence. It is chiefly used as an adjuvant, and enters 
into a great number of official preparations. It is often employed in diarrhoea, in connection 
with chalk and astringents, and has recently been recommended as peculiarly efficacious in 
menorrhagia. Hose of powder, 10 grains to a scruple (0-65-1-3 6m.). 
Cassia Bark, transverse section. 
COCA. U. S. (Br.) Coca. 
(CO'CA.) 
“ The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca, Lamarck (nat. ord. Lineae).” U. S. “ The dried leaves 
of Erythroxylum Coca, Lam., and its varieties.” Br. 
Cooae Folia, Br., Coca Leaves; Erythroxylon, Pharm. 1880; Cuca; Feuilles de Coca,, Fr.; Cocablatter, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, at the base five-angular. Styles three, distinct to the base and 
not united into one. De Candolle, Prodromus, i. 573. 424 
Coca. 
PART I. 
E. coca. Lam. B. & T. i. 40. Leaves ovate, areolate, membranaceous, branches squamous, 
pedicels lateral, aggregated in twos or threes, a little longer than the flower. De 6T.* 
According to the researches of Prof. H. H. Rusby, there are two distinct varieties or, per* 
haps, species of Erythroxylon Coca, one the Bolivian form, the other the Peruvian, which are 
distinguished by the fruits being much the larger in the Bolivian variety, whilst the leaves are 
much the larger in the Peruvian. The Bolivian drugf is the more highly esteemed in Peru. 
The coca, which grows wild in various parts of South America, is cultivated not only in its 
native country, but also in British India, in Ceylon, and in Java. The coca shrubs of India 
and Ceylon seem to be the offspring of plants originally sent out from Kew Garden, which 
plants were derived from seeds obtained from Huanuco, and have been considered by Dr. 
Morris as a distinct variety, to which he gives the name of E. nova-granatense. Java plants 
originally grown from seeds obtained from a Ghent firm are said to be so distinct in character- 
istics as to constitute a true variety, sprucenanum. They are probably, however, merely altered 
forms of E. nova-granatense. For figures, see P. J. Tr., vol. xxi. Typical leaves of E. coca, 
Lamarck, do not occur in commerce. The commercial leaves (1898) are the Peruvian, yielded 
by E. nova-granatense, Morris ; and the Bolivian, yielded by E. bolivianum, Burck. The coca 
plant, which is propagated from the seed in nurseries, begins to yield in eighteen months, and 
continues productive for half a century. The leaves, when mature, are carefully picked by 
hand so as to avoid breaking them or injuring the young buds,J are slowly dried in the sun, 
and are then packed in bags (cestos) holding from twenty-five to one hundred and fifty pounds 
each. They were in general use among the natives of Peru at the time of the conquest, and 
have continued to be much employed to the present time. It is affirmed that nearly ten million 
dollars’ worth, or forty million pounds, are annually produced, some plantations yielding three 
or four harvests a year. For details as to method of cultivation, etc., see Therap. Gazette, Jem. 
1886 ; also Chem. and Drug., 1897, 182. 
Properties. The leaves resemble in size and shape those of tea, being oval-oblong, pointed, 
two inches or more in length by somewhat over an inch in their greatest breadth, and furnished 
with short delicate footstalks; but they are not, like the tea-leaves, dentate, and are distin- 
guished from most other leaves by a slightly curved line on each side of the midrib, running 
from the base to the apex. These lines are not ribs, but curves, which have been produced by 
the peculiar folding of the leaf in the bud. Good specimens are perfectly flat, of a fine green 
* The commercial value of cocaine has led to the examination by Prof. Eykmann of Java, and Mr. Howard of 
Kew Gardens, of various species of the genus Erythroxylon, other than E. coca: in a number of species the alka- 
loid was found, but always in too small quantities for commercial purposes. (For details, see P. J. Tr., Jan. 1889.) 
t From time to time various cocas of commerce are spoken of as varieties known by the name of the cities in which 
the large commercial houses have their head-quarters, or of the districts in which the cocas have been grown. Such 
cocas are, however, not really commercial varieties, and change from time to time in their names and even char- 
acteristics. There appear to be at present (1893) in the American markets only two distinctly characterized cocas: 
the one known as Trujillo or Truxillo coca, coming from the department of La Libertad in Northern Peru ; the other, 
the Huanuco coca, coming from Huanuco and Cuzco in South Central Peru. Bolivian coca does not seem to reach us 
in its acknowledged form. 
Truxillo coca is composed of bright-colored, extremely thin, very fragile leaves, which are distinctly smaller, 
narrower, and more lanceolate than those of the Huanuco coca, and have the lateral lines very fine; owing to their 
lack of strength, the leaves are much broken, indeed in fragments, in the commercial samples. According to Prof. 
Rusby, this coca is yielded by the typical E. coca, but it is attributed by Hesse to E. coca var. nova-granatense. 
It is probably, therefore, similar to the coca produced in India, Ceylon, and Java, which has not reached this country 
commercially. 
The leaves of the Huanuco or Cuzco coca are thick, indeed somewhat coriaceous, not much broken, from an inch 
to three inches in length. We have compared a large number of specimens of this coca with Bolivian coca, gath- 
ered in the province of Yungas near Coriaco, by Prof. H. H. Rusby or his assistant, and with other less authentic 
specimens of Bolivian coca. We can make out no difference between the Huanuco leaf and the coca leaf grown in 
Bolivia, and believe that the Huanuco coca is the product of E. coca var. bolivianum, grown in Peru. 
The comparative value of cocas is a matter of great commercial importance. The South American coca is said 
to vary from 0-02 per cent, up to 1*02 per cent., or even more, in the yield of alkaloids, the average being, according 
to Hesse, in good specimens about 0‘08 per cent. Messrs. Parke, Davis & Co., however, write us that in a very large 
number of chemical assays they have never been able to obtain more than 0‘05 per cent, of cocaine out of any South 
American It is possible that alkaloidal deterioration occurs during transportation. According to Warden, 
the alkaloidal yield of India coca varies from 0‘36 to 1*67 per cent. The government chemists in Java report that 
the Java leaf contains over 2 per cent, of cocaine; but a sample obtained directly from Java by Parke, Davis & 
Co. yielded only 1'06 per cent, of total alkaloids. The total yield of alkaloids is not an exact criterion of the value 
of the leaves, because in some, and it is said especially in the Ceylon and Java cocas, cocaine constitutes only a 
small proportion of the total alkaloids. It is not possible to determine the alkaloidal value of a coca by its physical 
properties, so that at present the large manufacturers of cocaine buy the drug by assay. 
It is interesting to note that Mr. C. J. H. Warden states (P. J. Tr., May, 1888) that India coca can be distin- 
guished by the peculiarities of its cocatannic acid. 
t Taja is a peculiar disease of the coca plant, believed to be due to a fungus which results from wounding the twigs 
during careless picking of the leaves. PART I, 
Coca. 
425 
color; brown leaves should always be rejected as inferior. They have an agreeable odor re- 
sembling that of tea, and a peculiar taste, which, in decoction, becomes bitter and astringent. 
“ Varying between ovate, lanceolate, and obovate-oblong, and from 2 to 5 or 7 Cm. in length ; 
short-petiolate, entire, rather obtuse or emarginate at the apex, slightly reticulate on both sides, 
with a prominent midrib, and on each side of it a curved line running from base to apex; odor 
slight and tea-like ; taste somewhat aromatic and bitter. When chewed, it temporarily benumbs 
the lips and tongue.” U. S. “ The midrib itself is prolonged into a minute horny apiculus, which, 
however, is frequently broken off. Most of the epidermal cells of the under surface are seen 
in transverse section to project in the form of small papillae.” Br. The leaves described by the 
U. S. P. are the Bolivian; the Peruvian leaves are shorter and narrower, are pale in color, and 
do not exhibit a prominent ridge above the midrib on the upper surface, nor such distinct curved 
lines on either side of the midrib on the under surface. Mildewed leaves should not be accepted. 
Chemical Constitution. In 1853, Wackenroder demonstrated the existence of tannic 
acid in coca leaves ; and in 1859, M. Stanislaus Martin found in them a peculiar bitter prin- 
ciple, resin, tannin, an aromatic principle, extractive, chlorophyll, a substance analogous to 
theine, and salts of lime. Previous to this (1855) Gardeke had isolated the crystalline alka- 
loid and given it the name of erythroxyline. Dr. Albert Niemann, of Goslar, made the first 
thorough investigation of the leaves, and gave to the alkaloid the name it now usually bears 
of cocaine * The following was his process. The leaves were exhausted with 85-per-cent, alco- 
hol acidulated with 2 per cent, of sulphuric acid; the tincture was treated with milk of lime 
and filtered ; the filtrate was neutralized with sulphuric acid, and the alcohol distilled off. The 
syrupy residue was treated with water to separate resin, and then precipitated by sodium car- 
bonate. The deposited matter was exhausted by ether, and the ethereal solution, after most of 
the ether had been distilled, was allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The cocaine was thus 
obtained in colorless crystals, mixed with a yellowish-brown matter of a disagreeable odor, 
which was separated by washing with cold alcohol. Dr. Squibb’s process for cocaine and its 
hydrochlorate is as follows. Coarsely ground coca leaves are repercolated with an aqueous five- 
per-cent. solution of sulphuric acid, and a very dense, slightly acid percolate is obtained; this 
is thoroughly agitated with pure coal oil and an excess of sodium carbonate ; the liberated alka- 
loid is retained by the coal oil, and is nearly free from coloring matter ; the oily solution is then 
agitated with acidulated water, and again precipitated by sodium carbonate in the presence of 
ether. The ethereal solution of cocaine is treated with diluted hydrochloric acid fractionally, 
and the nearly colorless solutions of cocaine hydrochlorate are cautiously evaporated in shallow 
porcelain pans almost to dryness. The product is in the form of a white, crystalline, granular 
powder, and is a nearly pure anhydrous salt. (Ephemeris, 1887, 906.) For Ilenrique’s process, 
see Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 999. Pure cocaine is in colorless, transparent prisms, inodorous, 
of a bitterish taste, soluble in 704 parts of cold water, more soluble in alcohol, and freely so in 
ether. The solution has an alkaline reaction and a bitterish taste, leaving a peculiar numb- 
ness on the tongue. The alkaloid melts at 97'7° C. (208° F.), and on cooling congeals into a 
transparent mass, which gradually becomes crystalline. Heated above this point it changes 
color, and is decomposed. It is inflammable, burning with a bright flame, and leaving charcoal. 
With the acids it forms soluble and crystullizable salts, which are more bitter than the alkaloid 
itself. The formula is C17H21N04. (See Cocaina, p. 428.) Dr. Niemann also obtained wax, a 
variety of tannic acid (cocatannic acid), and a concrete volatile odorous substance. The presence 
of hygrine in coca leaves is not confirmed. M. Lossen has examined cocaine, and ascertained that 
when heated with hydrochloric acid it splits into benzoic acid, methyl alcohol, and a new base 
which he calls ecgonine, of which the formula is C0H15NO3. Cocaine is, therefore, ascertained to 
t . f C5H7 
be methylbenzoylecgonine, CII3.N < i , while benzoylecgonine, which 
( CH(0C7H60)CH2.C02CH3 
* Benzoyl <p Tropein. Tropacocaine, CsHiiNO.CtHsO. This compound, belonging chemically to the class of Tro- 
peines (see Atropine, p. 242), was isolated by Giesel from a narrow-leaved coca plant from Java. (Ber. der Chem. 
Gesell., xxiv. p. 2336.) It is obtained as an oil, which when quite dry solidifies in radiating crystals, melting at 49° 
C. It has a strong alkaline reaction, and is easily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzene, and petroleum spirit. 
It is decomposed by heating with hydrochloric acid into benzoic acid and pseudo-tropine, CgHisNO. 
Tropacocaine has been studied by Dr. Arthur P. Chadbourne, who finds that its general action on the system 
resembles that of cocaine, and that although it is capable of causing death by paralyzing the respiratory centres, 
and is also in overdose a powerful cardiac depressant, it nevertheless is very much less poisonous than cocaine. 
On the other hand, Chadbourne’s experiments and the clinical researches of Prof. Schweigger seem to show that 
tropacocaine as a local anaesthetic is much more powerful and prompt in its action than cocaine. Notwithstanding 
various favorable reports, tropacocaine has, however, failed to come into use as a local anaesthetic. 426 
Coca. 
PART I. 
also occurs in coca leaves, is C16II19N04. Cocaine is thus seen to be the methyl ether of this 
( C6H7 
latter. The fundamental base, ecgonine, CH„.N 1 i , forms monoclinic prisms 
3 (CH(OH).CIL.COOH * 
melting at 198° C.* A considerable number of closely allied alkaloids, all of which appear to be 
derivatives of ecgonine, are found in the leaves of Erythroxylon coca. The following list is given in 
Allen ( Commerc. Org. Anal., 2d ed., vol. iii., part ii., 271), on the authority of Paul and Cownley : 
C9H17N02, Anhydro-ecgonine. 
C9H16N03, Ecgonine. 
C16II 1^4> Benzoyl ecgonine. 
Ci7H21N04, Benzoyl ecgonine methyl ester 
{cocaine). 
C18H21N04, Cinnamyl-ecgonine. 
CisH23NO*, Cinnamyl-ecgonine methyl ester. 
Cocayl-ecgonine methyl ester 
(cocamine). 
C40II60N2Og, Homo-cocamine. 
C17H10NO2, Benzoyl-pseudotropine (tropsin). 
With the exception of ecgonine and anhydro-ecgonine, all of the bodies in the foregoing list 
are saponifiable, splitting up when heated to from 80° to 100° C. with hydrochloric acid, or when 
boiled with alcoholic potash. 
As the separation of cocaine from the accompanying alkaloids and products of hydrolysis is 
difficult, Liebermann (Berichte, xxi. 3196) has proposed a synthetic method which avoids 
these difficulties and at the same time utilizes the amorphous bi-products. The mixed bases 
arc boiled with hydrochloric acid, whereby they all suffer hydrolysis with formation of ecgonine ; 
then, by passing dry hydrochloric acid into a solution of ecgonine hydrochloride in methyl 
alcohol, the hydrochloride of ecgonine methyl ester is formed, which on concentrating the 
alcoholic solution crystallizes out in prisms. Cocaine is formed when this compound is heated 
on the water-bath with an equal weight of benzoyl chloride until the mixture becomes homo- 
geneous and the evolution of hydrochloric acid ceases. The melted mass is poured into water 
and separated from the insoluble benzoic acid, when the cocaine is precipitated by ammonia 
and recrystallized from alcohol. The tannin of coca leaves strikes a green-black with ferric 
salts, and has received the name of cocatannic acid. Romburgh has detected traces of methyl 
salicylate in the distillate from coca. (Chem. Zeit., 1895, 130.) For methods of assaying coca 
leaves, see Lyons, Chicago Pharmacist, 1885, Sept.; Squibb, Ephemeris, 1887 ; Dohme, Proc. 
A. P. A., 1893, 159 ; Prescott, Organic Analysis ; Proc A. P. A., 1895, 268 ; P. J. Tr1896. 
Medical Properties. As a nerve stimulant, coca has been used immemorially by the 
Peruvian and Bolivian natives. In 1853, Dr. Weddell stated that it produces a gently exci- 
tant effect, with an indisposition to sleep, in these respects resembling tea and coffee; also 
that it will support the strength for a considerable time in the absence of food, but does not 
supply the place of nutriment, and probably in this respect also acts like the two substances 
referred to. The Indians, while chewing it, mixed with some alkaline substance, as the ashes 
of certain plants, or lime, pass whole days in travelling or working without food. It is, however, 
clearly proved that these leaves do not take the place of nutriment, but simply put off the sense 
of fatigue and hunger, the Indian making up at his evening meal for the day’s abstinence. It 
is probable that they prevent hunger simply by their local benumbing influence upon the nerves 
of the stomach. Their moderate habitual use does not seem to be injurious, but the habit is 
said readily to grow upon the person, and finally the inveterate excessive coca-chewer can be 
recognized by his uncertain step, general apathy, sunken eyes surrounded by deep purple 
aureoles, trembling lips, green and crusted teeth, and excessively fetid breath, with peculiar 
blackness about the corners of the mouth. An incurable insomnia is apt to be developed, 
emaciation becomes extreme, dropsy appears, and even death results in a condition of general 
marasmus. When coca is taken in a single large dose it produces a condition of peculiar 
physical beatitude and calm, followed by a sensation of excessive power, which is affirmed to 
be accompanied by a real increase of physical ability. Dr. Mantegazza took in the course of 
two hours about 900 grains of the coca leaf, with the result of great increase in the number 
of the heart-beats, and a condition of intoxication resembling that produced by hasheesh. He 
was possessed by a feeling of intense joyousness, while a succession of visions and phantasma- 
* Cocaine Homologues. M. Poulsson has physiologically investigated compounds in which the radical methyl, 
ethyl, and propyl are substituted for the benzoic acid, and to which he has given the names of honwmSthincoca'ine, 
homoethincoca'ine, and homopropincoca'ine. He finds that these substances act upon the animal organization like 
ordinary cocaine. On the other hand, cocaylbenzoyloxyacetic acid and benzoylhomoecgonine do not have the physio- 
logical action of cocaine. M. Ehrlich has found that benzoylecgonine and methylecgonine are twenty times less 
poisonous than cocaine, whilst the derivatives of cocaine obtained by substituting “ in the benzoylecgonine other 
alcoholic radicals than methyl for the hydrogen of the carboxyl group, cocaethyline, cocopropyline, isopropyline, 
and cocoisobutyline,” are as toxic as cocaine and act like it. (Gaz. MSd. de Paris, Oct. 1890.) PART I. 
Coca. 
427 
goria, most brilliant in form and color, trooped rapidly before his eyes. He then passed into 
a condition of delirious excitement, which was succeeded by a deep sleep lasting three hours. 
The symptoms which have just been detailed are those which have been recorded by various 
writers as produced by the coca leaf in the land of its growth, and especially upon the natives 
of the country. The action of the alkaloid cocaine, and even of the drug coca, upon North 
Americans and Europeans, differs essentially from these effects* Numerous cases of poisoning 
have occurred from the alkaloid: P. Mannheim has collected as many as ninety-nine. (Cleve- 
land Med. Gaz., Sept. 1891.) In mild cases the ordinary symptoms have been great restlessness 
and nervous excitement, but no sense of beatitude, rather a condition of fear and terror. 
With this state come usually distinctly accelerated pulse, increased frequency of respiration, 
and, perchance, muscular twitchings or even mild convulsions. In the more severe cases of 
poisoning the symptoms vary ; sometimes there have been nausea, vomiting, rapid almost imper- 
ceptible pulse, great perspiration, collapse with or without loss of consciousness; in other cases 
the pulse has been slow and feeble, and sometimes pronounced cyanosis, with slow or almost 
arrested respiration, has been the most alarming manifestation. The pupils are usually dilated, 
but are reported in some cases as “ contracted.” After very large doses convulsions usually 
occur; they are often violent and epileptiform; not rarely, at times at least they are partial, 
and in many cases opisthotonos has been pronounced. Consciousness rarely escapes; usually 
it is lost, but sometimes it is merged into a mania with hallucinations and delusions, which 
mania may become violent and even homicidal, as in a case reported by Mattison. Poisoning 
has followed both the internal administration and the local uses of the alkaloid. The occasional 
over-effects of small doses are quite remarkable; thus, four drops of a two-per-cent, solution in 
the eye produced in an old lady intoxication which persisted four days; eight drops of a ten- 
per-cent. solution in the eye of a girl of twelve years caused violent poisoning; and even one 
drop of a one-per-cent, solution in the eye of a child fourteen years old is said to have been 
followed by violent symptoms. A number of cases are on record in which one grain of the 
alkaloid given hypodermically has caused very severe fainting. Death is reported in several 
cases from the local use of the remedy, and twelve drops of a four-per-cent, solution given 
hypodermically to a girl of eleven caused death in forty seconds. On the other hand, large 
doses have been recovered from : twenty-two grains by the mouth, ten grains hypodermically, 
five grains hypodermically, six grains hypodermically. (See H. C. Wood’s Therapeutics.') 
Although cocaine has been used an enormous number of times as a local application without 
much stint, and although doses have been given of two grains, it is evidently not safe to apply 
more than three-quarters of a grain to the mucous membranes of an adult, or to give more 
than the same amount at a dose, or to use hypodermically more than half a grain. 
Cocaine is a cerebral stimulant, producing peculiar mental excitement, ending after large 
toxic doses in narcosis, with epileptiform convulsions, which are probably of cerebral origin. 
In the poisoning there is at first increased reflex activity, followed by paralysis of voluntary 
motion and of reflex activity, which are chiefly due to a direct action upon the spinal cord, the 
sensory side of the cord being probably more sensitive to the drug than the motor side. Toxic 
doses depress and finally paralyze the sensory nerves, and in a much less degree the motor 
nerves. The action of cocaine upon the circulation is pronounced, though less than its influ- 
ence upon the nervous system. The arterial pressure is increased, which increase is probably 
the result, first, of a stimulation of the vaso-motor centres in the medulla oblongata; second, 
of a stimulant action upon the heart; and, thirdly and more doubtfully, of a slight stimulation 
of the muscle-fibres in the vessel walls. The increased action of the heart is probably due, as 
Prof. E. T. Reichert has made out, to a depressing influence on the cardio-inhibitory apparatus, 
both centric and peripheral, causing an acceleration of the pulse. It is probable, however, that 
the alkaloid acts directly upon the cardiac muscle, or intra-cardiac nerves, so as to increase the 
energy of contraction. Toxic doses of cocaine produce sooner or later a fall of the arterial 
pressure, which appears to be the result of a direct action upon the heart and the vaso motor 
system. Upon striated muscles cocaine appears to have a peculiar though very feeble action, 
* The reason of this difference is not evident. Prof. Rusby found that coca triturated with Mayer’s reagent both 
before and after exportation gave evidence of a much larger percentage of the alkaloid before the exportation. He 
believes that during exportation the leaves lose largely of some volatile substance, probably hj'grine. According 
to Hesse, however, hygrine is not an alkaloid of coca, but is a foreign body due to impurities in the reagents 
employed. (P. J. Tr., vol. xx. p. 1135, 1891; also vol. xxii. p. 102.) Dr. H. C. Wood made some not very thorough 
tests with preparations of coca made in South America from the fresh drug under the supervision of Prof. Rusby 
and furnished by Parke, Davis & Co., and was not able to detect any difference between their action and that of the 
parallel preparations made in this country. At present it seems probable that the difference of action under discus- 
sion is due simply to difference of race, precisely as with the effects of hasheesh upon Asiatics and upon Europeans. 428 
Coca.— Cocaina. 
PART I. 
which is not manifested during poisoning by it. It has been asserted that cocaine acts as a 
powerful diuretic, but the drift of present evidence is to show that it has no definite influence 
upon the amount of urine secreted; what evidence is available indicates that it decreases the 
elimination of urea. Dropped into the eye, cocaine actively dilates the pupil without increasing 
the intra-ocular pressure or completely paralyzing the accommodation. It is a powerful stimu- 
lant to the respiratory centres, increasing the rapidity and fulness of the respirations, but if 
the dose be sufficiently large it after a time causes the respirations to become very shallow, and 
finally paralyzes the respiratory centres. Moderate doses are said to increase, large doses to 
paralyze, peristalsis. 
The stimulant effect of coca has led to its extensive use in melancholia, neurasthenia, hys- 
teria, and allied disorders. The results obtained, however, have not been what were expected. 
Almost all clinicians agree that in melancholia no good whatever is achieved, and that in neur- 
asthenia and hysteria the drug, unless given in small doses, acts deleteriously, although in 
some cases the fluid extract of coca or a coca wine seems to be of service for a time in stimu- 
lating the digestion and, to some slight extent, the general nervous system. Locally applied, 
cocaine is a very distinct and certain anaesthetic, acting, according to the observations of Von 
Anrep, upon the nerves of special sense as well as upon those of common sensibility. Cocaine 
penetrates mucous membranes readily, but is not able to pass through the skin, and when given 
hypodermically so rapidly diffuses itself that its local anaesthetic influence is very fugacious 
unless the circulation in the part be controlled by mechanical means. Injected so as to come 
immediately in contact with the large nerve-trunk, it is capable of producing temporary anaes- 
thesia over the whole distribution of the nerve. When applied in concentrated solution to the 
mucous membranes, it produces at once a marked pallor, which is probably due to a powerful 
constriction of the blood-vessels caused by a direct action upon their muscle-fibres. In prac- 
tical medicine cocaine is used for its local effects in benumbing sensibility and relieving pain 
in all mucous tracts that can be reached by the surgeon. When prescribed in an ointment, 
soluble salts of cocaine should be used, and sufficient water directed to prevent crystalliza- 
tion. In burns, painful ulcers, fissures of the anus, etc., cocaine is a very valuable remedy. It is 
also employed with success in various local inflammations of the mucous membranes, subduing 
nervous irritability, and by its constringing influence relieving or even curing acute inflamma- 
tions. Thus, a mixture of cocaine and bismuth will often arrest an acute coryza. In hay fever, 
in the irritated sore throat of advanced phthisis, in chronic laryngitis, in inflamed hemorrhoids, 
and even in bronchitis with excessive cough, it often may be locally applied with advantage. 
The fugaciousness of its effects makes it a valuable mydriatic when it is desired simply to 
examine the eye-ground. The strength of the solution for local application may vary from 
2 to 10 per cent., according to the effects desired. In coryza and hay fever bougies made 
with cacao butter, containing each from one-quarter to one-half grain of cocaine, are often very 
efficacious. In internal medicine cocaine is valuable for its local influence upon the gastro- 
intestinal tract in excessive vomiting, and also in serous diarrhoea. The habitual use of cocaine 
as a stimulant has in many cases led to the formation of the cocaine habit, with the production 
of ill health, accompanied by headache, malaise, insomnia, prostration, often faintness, vertigo, 
and deterioration of the cerebral function. A symptom which is said to be characteristic of 
chronic cocaine poisoning was first described by Magnan, and is known as Magnan’s symptom. 
It consists of an hallucination of common sensation, the feeling that some foreign body is under 
the skin, with an often consequent complaint that grains of sand, worms, or other foreign body 
are situated in the position named. The immediate withdrawal of the cocaine in cases of 
the cocaine habit is not usually followed by any serious danger to life: symptoms that may 
arise are to be met on general principles. 
The dose of coca is from one-half to one drachm (195-3-9 Gm.). If given in infusion the 
leaves should be swallowed, as it is by no means certain that they yield their virtues to water. 
The fluid extract is now official, and is a very eligible preparation ; a tincture of coca, made in 
the proportion of one part in five of diluted alcohol, and a wine of coca, one in ten, woiild also be 
efficient. The elixir of coca, as usually dispensed, is too weak to be of much value. (See Part II.) 
COCAINA. Br. Cocaine. 
(CO-CA-I'NA.) 
“ An alkaloid, C17H21N04, obtained from the leaves of Erythroxylum Coca, Lam., and its 
varieties.” Br. 
The processes for making this alkaloid will be found under Coca. Owing to the small yield, PAET I. 
Cocaina.—Cocainse Hydrochloras. 
429 
it is found more profitable to manufacture cocaine in South America and export it, thus saving 
the expense of transporting the bulky coca leaves abroad. The British Pharmacopoeia gives 
the following description and tests: “ Colorless monoclinic prisms which have a bitter taste 
followed by a sensation of tingling and numbness. It melts at 204-8° to 208-4° F. (96° to 
98° C.). Almost insoluble in water, insoluble in glycerin, soluble in 10 parts of alcohol (90 per 
cent.), in 4 parts of ether, in 2 part of chloroform, in 12 parts of olive oil, and in 14 parts of oil 
of turpentine. Its solution in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the dry salt obtained 
on evaporating this solution, afford the reactions mentioned under ‘ Cocainae Hydrochloridum.’ 
Its solution in water acidulated with nitric acid yields no reaction with the tests for chlorides 
or sulphates.” 
Medical Properties. (See p. 428.) Various salts of the alkaloid have been used in 
medicine. Cocaine hydriodide (C17H21N04HI), which occurs in colorless crystals only moder- 
ately soluble in water, has been especially recommended by It. Marcus as being suitable for 
use by cataphoresis for the production of anaesthesia. 
COCAINE HYDROCHLORAS. U. S. (Br.) Cocaine Hydrochlorate. 
C17H21 NO4, HCl ; 338*71. (CO-CA-i'N.® HY-DRO-CHLO'RAS.) C17 H21 NO4, HC1; 339‘5. 
“ The hydrochlorate of an alkaloid obtained from Coca.” U. S. “ The hydrochloride, 
C17H2iN04,HC1, of an alkaloid obtained from the leaves of Erythroxylum Coca, Lam., and its 
varieties.” Br. 
Cocainee Hydrochloridum, Br., Cocaine Hydrochloride, Hydrochlorate of Cocaine. 
The British Pharmacopoeia gives the following tests: “ It tnelts at 356° to 366-8° F. (180° 
to 186° C.). Soluble in half its weight of cold water, forming a clear and colorless solution, 
neutral to litmus, and in four times its weight of alcohol (90 per cent.) or of glycerin. It is 
insoluble in olive oil and almost insoluble in ether. It affords a yellow precipitate with solution 
of auric chloride ; a white precipitate with solution of ammonium carbonate, and also with solu- 
tion of borax. It dissolves without color in cold sulphuric or nitric acid, but chars with hot 
sulphuric acid, evolving an agreeable odor, and yielding a crystalline sublimate of benzoic acid. 
Its aqueous solution yields with solution of potassium hydroxide a white precipitate soluble in 
alcohol or ether, with solution of picric acid a yellow precipitate becoming crystalline on stand- 
ing, with test-solution of mercuric chloride slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, a white 
precipitate soluble in hot water. Moistened with nitric acid, the mixture evaporated to dry- 
ness, and a drop of alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide added, a characteristic odor is 
evolved more or less recalling that of peppermint. A solution containing not less than 1 per 
cent, gives with excess of solution of potassium permanganate a copious red precipitate which, 
does not change color within an hour (absence of cinnamyl cocaine and cocamine or other 
products derived from cocaine). 0-1 gramme dissolved in 100 cubic centimetres of water and 
0-25 cubic centimetre of solution of ammonia added, affords a clear solution, from which a crys- 
talline deposit should gradually separate on stirring (limit of amorphous alkaloid). It should 
not afford more than the slightest reactions with the tests for sulphates. Dried for twenty 
minutes at 204° to 212° F. (95-6° to 100° C.) it should not lose more than 1 per cent, of 
moisture.” 
“ It may be obtained by agitating with ether an aqueous solution of an acidulated alcoholic 
extract, made alkaline with carbonate of sodium ; separating and evaporating the ethereal 
liquid; purifying the product by repeating the treatment with acidulated water, carbonate of 
sodium, and ether ; decolorizing ; neutralizing with hydrochloric acid, and recrystallizing.” Br. 
(1885). For other processes, see Coca. 
Properties. “ Colorless, transparent crystals, or a white, crystalline powder, without odor, 
of a saline, slightly bitter taste and producing upon the tongue a tingling sensation followed 
by numbness of some minutes’ duration. Permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), 
in 0-48 part of water, and in 3-5 parts of alcohol; very soluble in boiling water, and in boiling 
alcohol; also soluble in 2800 parts of ether, or in 17 parts of chloroform. On heating a small 
quantity of the powdered salt for twenty minutes at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.), it 
should not suffer any material loss (absence of water of crystallization). The prolonged appli- 
cation of heat to the salt, or to its solution, induces decomposition. At 193° C. (379 4° F.)* the 
* J. M. Francis believes that, owing to the ready decomposition of the salt before the melting point is reached, 
much variation must be expected in these figures. (Bull. Pharm., 1893, 541.) 430 
Cocainse Ilydrochloras.—Coccus. 
PART I. 
salt melts with partial sublimation, forming a light brownish-yellow liquid. When ignited, it 
is consumed without leaving a residue. The salt is neutral to litmus paper. On adding 5 
drops of a 5-per-cent, solution of chromic acid to 5 C.c. of a 2-per-cent, solution of Cocaine 
Hydrochlorate, a yellow precipitate is produced which redissolves on shaking; on now adding 
1 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, a permanent, orange-yellow precipitate will be formed. If a small 
quantity of the salt be rubbed, with a glass rod, on a dry, white porcelain surface, with an equal 
bulk of mercurous chloride, and the mixture then breathed upon, it will acquire a dark gray or 
grayish-black color. The aqueous solution of the salt yields, with silver nitrate test-solution, 
a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. The addition of sulphuric or nitric acid to the 
salt, at the ordinary temperature, should develop no color. If 1 drop of a mixture of 1 vol- 
ume of potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric solution and 2 volumes of water be 
added to 5 C.c. of a 2-per-cent, solution of Cocaine Hydrochlorate mixed with 3 drops of 
diluted sulphuric acid and contained in a small, clean, glass-stoppered vial, the pink tint pro- 
duced by the permanganate should not entirely disappear within half an hour (absence of 
cinnamyl-cocaine and some other bases derived from Coca)." U. S. 
For physiological and medical properties, see Coca. The dose of the salts of cocaine may 
be set down at from one-quarter to one grain (0-016 to 0-065 Gm.). 
COCCUS. U. S., Br. Cochineal. 
(cOc'cus.) 
{< The dried female of Coccus cacti, Linne (class, Tnsecta; order, Hemiptera).” U. S. “ The 
dried fecundated female insect, Coccus Cacti, Linn., reared on Nopalea coccinellifera, Salm- 
Dyck, and on other species of Nopalea.” Br. 
Coccionella, P. G.; Cochenille, Fr., G.; Scharlachwurm, G.; Cocciniglia, It.; Cochinilla, Sp. 
The coccus is a genus of hemipterous insects, having the snout or rostrum in the breast, the 
antennae filiform, and the posterior part of the abdomen furnished with bristles. The male 
has two erect wings, the female is wingless. The C. cacti is characterized by its depressed, 
downy, transversely wrinkled body, its purplish abdomen, its short and black legs, and its sub- 
ulate antennae, which are about one-third of the length of the body. (Rees's Cyclopaedia.) 
Another species, C. ilicis, which inhabits a species of oak, is collected in the mountainous 
parts of the Morea, in Greece, and used as a dye-stuff in the East, under the name of kermes, 
chermes, or alkermes. The dried insects are nearly globular, smooth, about the size of a pea, 
and of a reddish-brown color. They yield a carmine-colored powder, and, with a salt of tin, a 
fine scarlet-red dye. The Coccus cacti is found wild in Mexico and Central America, inhabiting 
different species of Cactus and allied genera of plants, and is said to have been discovered also 
in some of the West India islands and in the southern parts of the United States. In Mexico, 
particularly in the provinces of Oaxaca and Guerrero, it is an important object of culture. 
The Indians form plantations of the nopal (Nopalea coccinellifera, Salm, formerly Opuntia 
cochinillifera, Mills), upon which the insect feeds and propagates. During the rainy season, a 
number of the females are preserved under cover, upon the branches of the plant, and, after 
the cessation of the rains, are distributed upon the plants without. They perish quickly 
after having deposited their eggs. These, hatched by the heat of the sun, give origin to 
innumerable minute insects, which spread themselves over the plant. The males, of which, 
according to Mr. Ellis, the proportion is not greater than one to one hundred or two hundred 
females, being provided with wings and very active, approach and fecundate the latter. After 
this period, the females, which before moved about, attach themselves to the leaves, and 
increase rapidly in size ; so that, in the end, their legs, antennae, and probosces are scarcely 
discoverable, and they appear more like excrescences on the plant than distinct animated 
beings. They are now gathered for use, by detaching them by means of a blunt knife, a quill, 
or a feather; a few being left to continue the race. They are destroyed either by dipping 
them enclosed in a bag into boiling water or by the heat of a stove. In the former case they 
are subsequently dried in the sun. The males, which are much smaller than the full-grown 
females, are not collected. It is said that of the wild insect there are six generations every 
year, furnishing an equal number of crops ; but the domestic is collected only three times 
annually, the propagation being suspended during the rainy season, in consequence of the 
inability of the insect to support the inclemency of the weather. The insect has been taken 
from Mexico to the Canary Islands ; and very large quantities of cochineal have been delivered PART I. 
Coccus. 
431 
to commerce from the island of Teneriffe.* Its culture is said to have proved successful in 
Java and Algeria, but unprofitable in Spain.f 
Cochineal is defined in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia as follows: “ About 5 Mm. long; of a purplish- 
gray or purplish-black color ; somewhat oblong and angular in outline ; flat or concave beneath; 
convex above ; transversely wrinkled ; easily pulverizable, yielding a dark red powder. Odor 
faint; taste slightly bitterish. Cochineal contains a red coloring matter soluble in water, alcohol, 
or water of ammonia, slightly soluble in ether, insoluble in fixed and volatile oils. On macer- 
ating Cochineal in water, it swells up, but no insoluble powder should be separated. When 
completely incinerated, Cochineal should leave not more than 5 per cent, of ash.” 
As found in commerce, the finer cochineal, grana Jina of Spanish commerce, is in irregularly 
circular or oval, somewhat angular grains, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, convex on 
one side, concave or flat on the other, and marked with several transverse wrinkles. Two 
varieties of this kind of cochineal are known to the druggist, distinguished by their external 
appearance. One is of a reddish-gray color, formed by an intermixture of the dark color of 
the insect with the whiteness of a powder by which it is almost covered, and with patches 
of a rosy tinge irregularly interspersed. From its diversified appearance, it is called by the 
Spaniards cochinilla jaspeada. It is the variety commonly found in commerce. The other, 
cochinilla renegrida, or grana nigra, is dark-colored, almost black, with only a minute quantity 
of the whitish powder between the wrinkles. The two are distinguished in our markets by the 
names of silver grains and black grains. Some suppose the difference to arise from the mode 
of preparation: the gray cochineal consisting of the insects destroyed by a dry heat; the 
black, of those destroyed by hot water, which removes the external whitish powder; it is also 
said that cochineal is blackened by placing the insects with black sand in a bag and swinging 
backward and forward until some of the juice exudes. According to Mr. Faber, who derived 
his information from a merchant residing in the neighborhood where the cochineal is collected, 
the silver grains consist of the impregnated female just before she has laid her eggs ; the black, 
of the female after the eggs have been laid and hatched. (A. J. P., xviii. 47.) There is little 
or no difference in their quality.| Another and much inferior variety is the grana sylvestra, or 
wild cochineal, consisting partly of very small separate insects, partly of roundish or oval 
masses, which exhibit, under the microscope, minute and apparently new-born insects, enclosed 
in a white or reddish cotton-like substance. It is scarcely known in our drug market. 
Cochineal has a faint heavy odor and a bitter slightly acidulous taste. Its powder is of a 
purplish-carmine color, tingeing the saliva intensely red. According to Pelletier and Caventou, 
it consists of a peculiar coloring principle, a peculiar animal matter constituting the skeleton 
of the insect, stearin, olein, an odorous fatty acid, and various salts. Tyrosin has also been 
found by De la Rue, and its presence in cochineal recently confirmed by Yon Miller and 
Rohde. (Ber., xxvi., 2660.) It was also analyzed by John, who called the coloring principle 
cochinilin. It is. however, universally known now as carminic acid. Hlasiwetz and Grabowski 
(Arm. Chem. und Ph., 141, 329) gave it the formula C17H18010, and considered it to be a gluco- 
side, which was decomposed by boiling with diluted sulphuric acid into a non-fermentable sugar 
and carmine red, CnHj207. The incorrectness of this view of its composition has, however, been 
demonstrated by Yon Miller and Rohde (loc. cit.), who have shown that the purified carminic 
acid is a dioxymethyl-a-naphthoquinone of the formula C1:lH12Oe -f- 2H20, and that the car- 
mine red is identical with it. Schunk and Marchlewski \Ber., xxvii., 2979) have confirmed 
these results of Yon Miller and Rohde, and have shown that the reason that the carminic acid 
as freshly extracted from the cochineal gave the apparent glucoside reaction was that it is 
impure. They prepared the pure crystallized carminic acid, its anilide, and identified its 
character as a naphthoquinone derivative. It shows no sharp melting point, beginning to 
decompose at 130° C. Carminic acid is of a brilliant purple-red color, unalterable in dry air, is 
* Various species of Opuntia are adapted to the support of the cochineal insect, especially those which are very 
juicy, with few thorns and a thick skin. It is the 0. ficus itidica which is chiefly cultivated in Teneriffe, the dry 
but hot climate of which is peculiarly adapted to the growth both of the plant and the insect. For an account of the 
mode of rearing the cochineal insect in the Canary Islands, see P. J. Tr., Sept. 1871; in Central America, see 
A. J. P., 1873. 30; N. R., 1880, 175; in Guatemala, see Pharm. Era, 1893, 227. 
f In Asia Minor, in the vicinity of Oushak, are great quantities of an insect, closely resembling the Coccus cacti, 
which feeds on a species of Cistus; but it is unknown whether any portion has been introduced into general com- 
merce. (A. J. P., xxxv. 455.) 
1 Cake cochineal is the name given to a variety of the drug produced in the Argentine Republic. A specimen 
examined by Dr. Stark was in flat cakes about a quarter of an inch thick, and, under the microscope, was seen to 
consist chiefly of the cochineal insect, mixed with small portions of the thorns and epidermis of the cactus, in con- 
sequence of careless gathering. It is inferior for dyeing purposes to the ordinary variety. (P. J. Tr., xiv. 346.) 432 
Coccus. 
very soluble in water, soluble in cold and more so in boiling alcohol, insoluble in ether, and 
without nitrogen. It is obtained by macerating cochineal in ether, and treating the residue 
with successive portions of boiling alcohol, which on cooling deposits a part of the carminic 
acid, and yields the remainder by spontaneous evaporation. It may be freed from a small 
proportion of adhering fatty matter by dissolving it in alcohol of 40° Baum6 and then adding 
an equal quantity of ether. The pure carminic acid is deposited in the course of a few days. 
Chlorine readily destroys the carminic acid, and nascent hydrogen reduces it to a leuco body, 
which again becomes red on exposure to the air. Prof. Liebermann found that the coating 
of the silver cochineal consisted of a peculiar wax, which he named coccerin, Cg0H60(C3lH61 
03)2; this is soluble in benzene, but nearly insoluble in ether. (P. J. Tr., 1885, 1*6; from 
Berichte.) The watery infusion of cochineal is of a violet-crimson color, which is brightened 
by the acids and deepened by the alkalies. The coloring matter is readily precipitated. The 
salts of zinc, bismuth, and nickel produce a lilac precipitate, and those of iron a dark purple 
approaching to black. The salts of tin, especially the nitrate and the chloride, precipitate the 
coloring matter of a brilliant scarlet, and form the basis of those splendid scarlet and crimson 
dyes which have rendered cochineal so valuable in the arts. With alumina the coloring matter 
forms the pigment called lake. The finest lakes are obtained by mixing the decoction of 
cochineal with freshly-prepared gelatinous alumina. The pigment called carmine is the coloring 
matter of cochineal precipitated from the decoction by acids, the salts of tin, etc., or by animal 
gelatin, and when properly made is of the most intense and brilliant scarlet. Cochineal-carmine 
requires for its production a decoction of cochineal itself, and not of carminic acid, the nitro- 
genized matters being essential to its formation. Liebermann (Per. der Chem. Gesell., xviii. 
p. 1971) considers cochineal carmine to be no ordinary compound of a coloring matter with 
alumina, but to be an alumina albuminate of the carmine coloring matter comparable in some 
respects to the product from alizarin and alumina with “ Turkey-red oil.” (See Chem. and 
Drug., 1893, 199 ; Zeitschr. f. Angewand.te Cliem., 1894.) J. J. Hess proved that if fatty mat- 
ters found in cochineal were removed by treatment with alcohol, a much more brilliant carmine 
could be produced. He found in Guatemala cochineal 17 per cent, of a crystalline stearopten, 
in Java cochineal 7 per cent., and in Canary cochineal 18 per cent. (Dingier, P. J. Tr., 235, 
88; JV. R., 1880, 338.) The degree of coloring power in cochineal may be approximately 
measured by the decolorizing effect produced by solution of potassium permanganate. For a 
method of applying this process, the reader is referred to a paper by J. M. Merrick, of Boston, 
in A. J. P., 1871, 263; from Amer. Chem., April, 1871. The Br. Pharm. requires that when 
cochineal is macerated in water no insoluble powder shall be separated, and that when incin- 
erated with free access of air it shall yield not more than 6 per cent, of ash. 
Cochineal has been adulterated by causing certain heavy substances, such as powdered talc, 
lead carbonate, and barium sulphate, by shaking in a bag or otherwise, to adhere, by means of 
some glutinous material, to the surface of the insects, and thus increase their weight. Cochi- 
neal yields 15 per cent, of ashes. Five specimens of the drug have been examined, which 
left in their ashes respectively 8, 12, 16, 18, and 25 per cent, of the salt of baryta. {A. J. P., 
1870, p. 220.) The fraud may be detected by the absence, under the microscope, of a woolly 
appearance which characterizes the white powder upon the surface of the unadulterated insect. 
Metallic lead, which is said frequently to exist in fine particles in the artificial coating, may be 
discovered by powdering the cochineal and suspending it in water, when the metal will remain 
behind. Grains of a substance artificially prepared to imitate the dried insect have been mixed 
with the genuine in France. A close inspection will serve to detect the difference. (Joum. de 
Pharm., 3e s4r., ix. 110.) Vermilion and chrome-red (lead dichromate) are said also to have 
been largely used in the adulteration of carmine, to the extent sometimes of 60 or even 70 per 
cent. (i5. J. Tr., 1860, p. 547.) There can be no difficulty in detecting them by the appro- 
priate tests. Starch has been used, according to Prof. Maisch, for the same purpose in the 
United States, and in one specimen he found 5744 per cent. (A. J. P., xxxiii. 18.) Artificial 
cochineal, prepared by coloring exhausted cochineal powder with rosaniline and forming it 
into grains, has been found in commerce. It may be recognized by the facility with which it 
forms a paste with water. 
The importations of cochineal have diminished, owing to the gradual replacement of this 
dye by the newer azo colors. In 1889, 550,000 lbs. were brought into the United States; 
in 1895, 1896, and 1897, the importations were 134,205 lbs., 161,330 lbs., and 142,261 lbs. 
respectively. The reduction in price has been such that at present the production in the 
Canaries is said not to be remunerative. 
PART I. Coccus.— Codeina. 
433 
PART I. 
Medical Properties, etc. Cochineal is supposed by some to possess anodyne properties, 
but is probably useless. In pharmacy it is employed to color tinctures and tooth-powders. To 
infants with whooping-cough, cochineal in substance is given in the dose of about one-third 
of a grain (0-02 Gm.) three times a day. The dose of a tincture (one part in eight parts of 
diluted alcohol) is for an adult from twenty to thirty drops (1-25-1-9 C.c.). In neuralgia. 
Sauter gave half a tablespoonful (7-5 C.c.) with asserted cure. 
CODEINA. U.S., Br. Codeine. 
CisHnNOs. H20; 316*31. (CO-DE-I'NA.) Ci8 H21 N03. H2 O; 317. 
“ An alkaloid obtained from Opium.” U. S. “ An alkaloid, C17H18(CH3)N03,H20, obtained, 
from opium or from morphine.” Br. 
Codeia; Codein uni, P. G.; Codeine, Fr.; Codein, G. 
Codeine* was discovered in 1832 by Kobiquet in morphine hydrochlorate prepared ac- 
cording to the process of Gregory. It exists in opium combined like morphine with meconic- 
acid, and is extracted along with that alkaloid in the preparation of the hydrochlorate. (See Mar- 
phina.) When the solution of the mixed morphine and codeine hydrochlorates is treated 
with ammonia, the former alkaloid is precipitated, and the codeine, remaining in solution, may 
be obtained by evaporation and crystallization. It may be purified by treating the crystals with 
hot ether, which dissolves them and yields the codeine in colorless crystals on spontaneous 
evaporation. Codeine is the methyl derivative of morphine, as shown in the formula 
C17H18(CH3)N03. It may be formed artificially from morphine by treating this latter suc- 
cessively with methyl iodide and fixed alkali. (Grimaux, 1881, Jour. Chem. Soc., 44, 358.) 
Codeine occurs in “ white, or nearly translucent, orthorhombic prisms, or octohedral crystals, 
odorless, having a faintly bitter taste, and slightly efflorescent in warm air. Soluble, at 15° C. 
(i)9° F.), in 80 parts of water f and in 3 parts of alcohol. In boiling water Codeine melts into 
oily drops which dissolve in 17 parts of the water. It is very soluble in boiling alcohol; also 
soluble in 30 parts of ether, and in 2 parts of chloroform. At 100° C. (212° F.) Codeine loses 
its water of crystallization (5-67 per cent.) ; at 155° C. (311° F.) it melts, forming a colorless 
liquid ; and, when ignited, it is consumed without leaving a residue. Codeine is alkaline to 
litmus paper. If 01 Gm. of Codeine be dissolved in 6 C.c. of cold, concentrated sulphuric acid 
(free from nitrose), the resulting liquid should be colorless. If about 2 C.c. of this solution be 
poured into a small porcelain capsule, and 1 drop of highly diluted nitric acid (made by adding 
1 drop of nitric acid to 200 C.c. of water) added, a bluish-red tint gradually changing to 
pale blue will be developed. Another portion of the same solution, of about 2 C.c., gently 
warmed, and mixed with 1 drop of a mixture of 1 volume of ferric chloride test-solution and 
19 volumes of water, likewise assumes a bluish or blue tint (difference from morphine). On 
adding to 5 C.c. of an aqueous solution of Codeine (1 in 100) 10 drops of bromine water, and 
shaking so as to redissolve the precipitate formed, the liquid will gradually develop a light 
claret-red tint. This tint may be developed at once by the addition of ammonia water. On 
sprinkling 0-05 Gm. of Codeine upon 2 C.c. of nitric acid (specific gravity 1-200), the crystals 
will turn red, but the acid, even when warmed, -will acquire only a yellow color (difference from 
and absence of morphine)." U. S. “ The alkaloid dissolves in an excess of sulphuric acid, 
forming a colorless solution, a small quantity of which, when gently warmed on a water-bath 
with 2 drops of solution of ammonium molybdate, or with a trace of ferric chloride or potassium 
ferricyani.de, develops a blue or bluish-black color, which, on the addition of a minute trace 
of diluted nitric acid, changes to a bright scarlet, becoming orange. Heated to redness in air 
it yields no ash. Moistened with nitric acid the liquid becomes yellow but not red. A 2 per 
cent, solution of Codeine in water acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid gives a 
whitish precipitate with solution of potassium hydroxide, but not with solution of ammonia. A 
saturated solution of Codeine in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid should give no blue 
* Apocodeine, CisHigNOj. This alkaloid, discovered in 1869 by Matthiessen and Wright, is made by heating a 
concentrated solution of zinc chloride with codeine. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform; insoluble in 
water. It gives a reaction similar to apomorphine, but is more stable. It has been found by Dujardin-Beaumetz to 
be about equal to apomorphine in the same dose; and it also acts as an expectorant in a manner similar to apomor- 
phine. It may be used hypodermically if the solution be perfectly neutral. 
A second derivative from codeine, isomeric with it in formula, has been obtained by Merck as a by-product in 
the manufacture of apocodeine, and has received the name of pseudocodeine. It differs from codeine in its higher 
melting point, 182° C. (359-6° F.), and in its property of being instantly precipitated by ammonia, in the form of 
crystalline needles, not only from cold but likewise from boiling aqueous solutions of its salts. According to Robert, 
it resembles codeine in its physiological action. 
t i'ambach and Henke assert that codeine is soluble in 118-35 parts of water at 15° C. (Merck’s Report, 1897, 305.) 
28 434 
Codeina.—Codeinse Phosphas. 
PART I. 
color, but only gradually a dull green, on the addition of test-solution of ferric chloride and a 
very dilute solution of potassium ferricyanide (absence of morphine and other impurities.)” 
Br. When added in excess to boiling water, the undissolved portion melts and sinks to the 
bottom, having the appearance of an oil. It may be separated from morphine by a solution 
of potassa or soda, which dissolves the morphine and leaves the codeine. It has an alkaline 
reaction on test-paper, and combines with acids to form salts, some of which are crystallizable, 
particularly the nitrate. Its capacity of saturation is almost identical with that of morphine. 
According to Ilobiquet, 1 part of hydrochloric acid is saturated by 7‘837 of codeine, and by 
7-88 of morphine. It is distinguishable, however, from the latter principle by the different 
form of its crystals, which are octohedral, by its solubility in boiling ether, greater solubility 
in water, and insolubility in alkaline solutions, and by not assuming a red color with nitric 
acid, or a blue one with ferric salts. Tincture of galls precipitates from its solutions a codeine 
tannate. Crystallized from a watery solution, it contains about 6 per cent, of water, which is 
driven off at 100° C. (212° F.). The crystals obtained from a solution in ether contain no 
water. 
Medical Properties. It is probable that pure codeine is a very feeble alkaloid, tolerated 
by the human system in very large doses. On the other hand, cases of severe poisoning have 
been published, and experimenters have claimed for it a very powerful influence upon the lower 
animals. As late as 1874, Dr. Myrtle reported the instance of a man who was almost killed 
by four grains of codeine, prepared by Messrs. Smith, of Edinburgh. (Brit. Med. Journ., 1874, 
i. 478.) The symptoms were first vascular excitement and exhilaration, then depression, with 
great anxiety, nausea and vomiting, cold, pale, moist skin, slight contraction of the pupil, and 
delirious sleeplessness. Spratling reports a case in which eight grains of codeine produced in a 
young woman great restlessness, convulsive movements, intense irritation of the whole skin, 
contraction of the pupils, slowing of the respiration to twelve per minute, and light sleep. 
On the other hand, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell took five grains of codeine without effect, save some 
nausea, slight giddiness, and cerebral heaviness, and a trifling acceleration of the pulse; whilst 
we have given codeine prepared by Powers & Weightman, of Philadelphia, in doses of eight 
grains a day without distinct effect. It is very evident that commercial codeine has been and 
probably still is of varying composition, and the results frequently obtained have been produced 
by coherent alkaloids. Mr. Wm. Weightman once informed us that nearly the whole product 
of their laboratory went to France, where it appeared to be largely used as a calmative drug, 
free from many of the objections to opium, but in no way comparing with it in power. It has 
been highly lauded in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, and cases of recovery under its use 
reported. In the grave form of this disorder we have seen it fail to exert any perceptible 
influence, but the evidence is sufficient to demand a fair trial of the remedy in any individual 
case. Medical practitioners often use it to quiet cough, to allay intestinal pain, and to fulfil 
various other of the minor narcotic indications for which opium is commonly administered. 
On account of its frequent contamination with morphine, care should be exercised as to the 
commencing dose, but no effect at all is to be expected, if the alkaloid be pure, from less than 
one grain (0-06 Gm.), and this dose may be rapidly increased until some symptoms are produced. 
It may be given in pill or in syrupy solution. 
CODEINE PHOSPHAS. Br. Codeine Phosphate. 
(CO-DE-f'NiE PH5s'PHXS.) 
“ The phosphate, (C17Hj8(CH3)N03,H3P04)„,3H20, of an alkaloid obtained from opium or 
from morphine.” Br. This salt is official for the first time in the British Pharmacopoeia; it 
has been introduced because of its easy solubility and stability; on account of its large per- 
centage of codeine (about 70 per cent.) it is Well fitted for hypodermic injections. It occurs 
in “ White crystals which have a slightly bitter taste. It is soluble in 4 parts of water, much 
less soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.). A 5 per cent, aqueous solution has a slightly acid reac- 
tion, and yields a whitish precipitate with solution of potassium hydroxide, but not with solution 
of ammonia. It affords the reactions characteristic of Codeine and of phosphates. It loses 
its water of crystallization when dried at 212° F. (100° C.), and at a higher temperature 
melts, forming a yellowish-brown liquid. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the 
tests for chlorides or sulphates. It should not be colored blue by test-solution of ferric chloride 
(absence of morphine).” Br. 
The medical properties of codeine phosphate are the same as those of codeine. Dose, from 
one to two grains (0-06 to 0*13 Gm.). Colchici Radix.—Colchici Semen. 
PART I. 
435 
COLCHICI RADIX. U. S. (Br.) Colchicum Root. 
(C5l/<3HI-Ci RA-DIX.) 
“ The Corm of Colchicum autumnale, Linne (nat. ord. Liliacese).” U. S. “ The fresh corm 
of Colchicum autumnale, Linn., collected in early summer; and the same stripped of its coats, 
sliced transversely, and dried at a temperature not exceeding 150° F. (65-5° C.).” Br. 
Colchioi Cormus, Br., Colchicum Corm; Bulbus s. Tuber Colchici; Meadow-Saffron Root; Bulbe de Colchique, 
de Safran batard, Fr.; Zeitlosenknollen, G. 
COLCHICI SEMEN. U. S. (Br.) Colchicum Seed. 
(cOl'chi-c! se'men.) 
“ The seed of Colchicum autumnale, Linne (nat. ord. Liliacese).” U. S. “ The dried ripe 
seeds of Colchicum autumnale, Linn.” Br. 
Colchici Semina, Br.; Colchicum Seeds; Semen Colchici, P. G.; Semences de Colchique, Colchique, Fr.; Zeit- 
lose, Herbst-Zeitlose, Zeitlosensamen, G.; Colchico, It., Sp. 
Gen. Ch. A spat he. Corolla six-parted, with a tube proceeding directly from the root. Cap- 
sules three, connected, inflated. Willd. 
Colchicum autumnale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 272; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 759, t. 258. This 
species of Colchicum, often called meadow-saffron, is a perennial bulbous plant, the leaves of 
which appear in spring, and the flowers in autumn. Its manner of growth is peculiar, and 
deserves notice as connected in some measure with its medicinal efficacy. In the latter part 
of summer, a new bulb, or cormus as the part is now called, begins to form at the lateral in- 
ferior portion of the old one, which receives the young offshoot in its bosom and embraces it 
half round. The new plant sends out fibres from its base, and is furnished with a radical 
spathe, which is cylindrical, tubular, cloven at top on one side, and half under ground. In 
September, from two to six flowers, of a lilac or pale-purple color, emerge from the spathe, un- 
accompanied with leaves. The corolla consists of a tube five inches long, concealed for two- 
thirds of its length in the ground, and of a limb divided into six segments. The flowers perish 
by the end of October, and the rudiments of the fruit remain under ground till the following 
spring, when they rise upon a stem above the surface, in the form of a three-lobed, three-celled 
capsule. The leaves of the new plant appear at the same time: so that in fact they follow 
the flower instead of preceding it, as might be inferred from the order of the seasons in which 
they respectively show themselves. The leaves are radical, spear-shaped, erect, numerous, about 
five inches long, and one inch broad at the base. In the mean time, the new bulb has been 
increasing at the expense of the old one, which, having performed its appointed office, perishes ; 
while the former, after attaining its full growth, sends forth shoots, and in its turn decays. 
The old bulb in its second spring, and a little before it perishes, sometimes puts forth one or 
more small bulbs, which are the sources of new plants. 
C. autumnale is a native of the temperate parts of Europe and of Northern Africa, growing 
in moist pastures and meadows. Attempts have been made to introduce its culture into this 
country, but with no great success; though small quantities of the bulb, of apparently good 
quality, have entered commerce. The flowers possess virtues similar to those of the bulb. 
Colchici Radix. The medicinal virtue of the bulb depends much upon the season at 
which it is collected. Early in the spring it is too young to have fully developed its peculiar 
properties; and late in the fall it has become exhausted by the nourishment afforded to the 
new plant. The proper period for its collection is from the early part of June, when it has 
usually attained perfection, to the middle of August, when the offset appears* It may be 
owing, in part, to this inequality at different seasons that entirely opposite reports have been 
given of its powers. Krapf ate whole bulbs without inconvenience; Haller found the bulbs 
entirely void of taste and acrimony; and we are told that in Carniola the peasants use it as 
food with impunity in the autumn. On the other hand, there can be no doubt of its highly 
irritating and poisonous nature, when fully developed, under ordinary circumstances. Perhaps 
soil and climate may have some influence in modifying its character. 
The bulb is often used in the fresh state in the countries where it grows, as it is apt to be 
injured in drying, unless the process is carefully conducted. The usual plan is to cut the bulb, 
* Dr. Christison, however, has found the roots collected in April to be more bitter than those gathered in July, 
and conjectures that the common opinion of their superior efficacy at the latter season may not be well founded. 
Prof. Schroff states, as the result of his observation, that the autumnal root is much stronger than that dug in the 
summer. (See A. J. P„ xxix. 324.) Colchici Semen. 
436 
PART I. 
as soon as possible after it bas been dug up, into thin transverse slices, which are spread out 
separately upon paper or perforated trays and dried with a moderate heat. The reason for 
drying it quickly after removal from the ground is that it otherwise begins to vegetate, and a 
change in its chemical nature takes place; and such is its retentiveness of life that, if not cut 
in slices, it is liable to undergo a partial vegetation even during the drying process. Dr. Houl- 
ton recommends that the bulb be stripped of its dry coating, carefully deprived of the bud or 
young bulb, and then dried whole. It is owing to the high vitality of the bud that the bulb 
is so apt to vegetate. During desiccation there is great loss of weight, 70 per cent, being the 
average for a number of years in the laboratory of Messrs. Allen & Hanburys, in London. 
Properties. The recent bulb or cormus of C. autumnale resembles that of the tulip in 
shape and size, and is covered with a brown membranous coat. Internally it is solid, white 
and fleshy, and, when cut transversely, yields, if mature, an acrid milky juice. There is often 
a small lateral projection from its base, which is the bud for the development of a new plant: 
this bud is frequently broken off in drying. When dried, and deprived of its external mem- 
branous covering, the corm is of an ash-brown color, convex on one side, and somewhat flat- 
tened on the other, where it is marked by a deep groove extending from the base to the sum- 
mit. As found in commerce, it is always in the dried state, sometimes in segments made by 
vertical sections of the bulb, but generally in transverse circular slices, about the eighth or 
tenth of an inch in thickness, with a notch at one part of their circumference. “ About 25 
Mm. long, ovoid, flattish and with a groove on one side; externally brownish and wrinkled; 
internally white and solid; often in transverse slices, reniform in shape, and breaking with a 
short, mealy fracture ; inodorous ; taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid.” U. S. The cut 
surface is white and of an amylaceous aspect. Examined with the microscope, the corm is 
seen to be composed of large irregular cells, full of ovoid, angular, sometimes compound, starch 
grains, and interspersed with spiral vessels in vascular bundles. The odor of the recent bulb 
is said to be hircine. It is diminished, but not lost, by drying. The taste is bitter, hot, and 
acrid. Wine and vinegar extract all the virtues of the bulb. 
The alkaloid colchicine, whose nature was first precisely made out by Geiger and Hesse, has 
been the subject of much controversy, for an account of which the reader is referred to the 
seventeenth edition of the U. S. Dispensatory, page 427, foot note. It is now recognized to be 
the methyl ester of acetyl-trimethyl colchicinic acid, and has the formula C22H26N0e. When 
colchicine is heated with 3 parts of hydrochloric acid for two hours on the water-bath, it is 
decomposed, with the formation of colchicinic acid, C16H16N06, and dimethyl colchicinic acid, 
Ci8Hi9N06. When colchicine is boiled with water containing sulphuric acid, it is decomposed 
according to the formula C22H26N06-f H20 = C21H23N06-f-CH30H, the products being 
colchiceine and methyl alcohol. The colchiceine is formed so readily that some of the reactions 
commonly attributed to colchicine itself are probably due to its decomposition product. Col- 
chiceine, which is aceto-trimethyl colchicinic add, can also be made synthetically by heating 
trimethyl colchicinic acid with acetic anhydrides to 100° C. Colchicine has also been built up 
synthetically from colchiceine, sodium methylate, and methyl iodide, which are heated together 
to 100° C. (Johanny, Zeisel, Monatshefte, 9, 8G8.) Colchicine is soluble in water and alcohol, 
also in chloroform, benzol, and amyl alcohol. Dragendorff describes it as soluble in ether, but 
Zeisel as scarcely so. Insoluble in petroleum ether. It is colored yellow with concentrated 
sulphuric acid, and blue, turning to brown and yellow, with nitric acid. It forms precipitates 
with the usual alkaloidal reagents. 
Dr. A. T. Thompson states that the milky juice of fresh colchicum produces a fine blue 
color if rubbed with the tincture of guaiac, and that the same effect is obtained from an acetic 
solution of the dried bulb. He considered the appearance of this color, when the slices were 
rubbed with a little distilled vinegar and tincture of guaiac, a proof that the drug was good and 
had been well dried. Dr. J. M. Maclagan has showm that this change of color is produced 
with the albumen, which is not affected if previously coagulated: so that the value of the test 
consists simply in proving that the drying has not been effected at a heat above 180° F., or 
the temperature at which albumen coagulates. A very deep or large notch in the circum- 
ference of the slices is an unfavorable sign, as it indicates that the bulb has been somewhat 
exhausted in the nourishment of the offset. The decoction yields a deep blue precipitate with 
solution of iodine, white precipitates with lead acetate and subacetate, mercurous nitrate, and 
silver nitrate, and a slight precipitate with tincture of galls. The value of colchicum is best 
tested by its bitterness. For method of assaying colchicum, by K. Schwickerath, see Pharm. 
Rund., 1893, 282. PAET I. 
Colchid Semen. 
437 
Medical Properties and Uses. When taken internally in therapeutic dose, colchicum 
usually produces no other symptoms than intestinal pains and looseness of the bowels. In 
some rare cases it is said to give rise to copious diuresis or diaphoresis instead of purging. 
When larger amounts are exhibited, the purging is more pronounced, and there may be also 
vomiting. With these symptoms there may be some depression, which seems to be due to the 
gastro-intestinal irritation rather than to the direct action of the poison. In an overdose, it 
may produce dangerous and even fatal effects. Excessive nausea and vomiting, abdominal 
pains, purging and tenesmus, great thirst, sinking of the pulse, coldness of the extremities, 
and general prostration, with occasional symptoms of nervous derangement, such as headache, 
delirium, and stupor, are among the results of its poisonous action. A peculiarity of its in- 
fluence is that when its dose is increased beyond a certain point there is not a corresponding 
increase in the rapidity of the fatal issue. This is probably because it kills not by a direct 
influence upon the heart or the nervous system, but by causing gastro-enteritis. On post- 
mortem examination the alimentary mucous membrane is found much inflamed. 
Colchicum was well known to the ancients as a poison, and is said to have been employed 
by them as a remedy in gout and other diseases. Storck revived its use among the moderns. 
He gave it as a diuretic and expectorant in dropsy and humoral asthma, and on the continent 
of Europe it acquired considerable reputation in these complaints; but the uncertainty of its 
operation led to its general abandonment, and it had fallen into almost entire neglect, when 
Dr. Want, of London, again brought it into notice by attempting to prove its identity with 
the active ingredient of the eau medicinale d'Husson, so highly celebrated as a cure for gout. 
In James’s Dispensatory, printed in 1747, it is said to be used in gout as an external applica- 
tion. The chief employment of the meadow-saffron is at present in the treatment of gout 
and rheumatism, in which experience has abundantly proved it to be a highly valuable remedy. 
We have, within our own observation, found it especially useful in these affections, when of a 
shifting or neuralgic character. It sometimes produces relief without obviously affecting the 
system ; but it is more efficient when it evinces its influence upon the skin or alimentary canal. 
Professor Chelius states that it changes the chemical constitution of the urine in arthritic 
patients, producing an evident increase of the uric acid. Dr. Maclagan has found it greatly 
to increase the proportion of both urea and uric acid in the urine, and, where these previously 
existed in the blood, to separate them from it. (Ed. Monthly Journ. of Med. Sci., N. S., v. 23.) 
But Graves and Gardner affirm that the urates diminish under its influence, and in a very 
careful and extended research Dr. A. B. Garrod found that its action upon the uric acid elim- 
ination is very irregular and uncertain. It has been found useful in prurigo, urticaria, and 
other cutaneous affections of a gouty nature. In modern practice it is employed almost solely 
in gout. It is generally given in the state of vinous tincture (see Vinum Colchid Radicis) ; 
but there are various other official preparations, any one of which may be used efficiently. 
The dose of the dried bulb is from two to eight grains (0-13-0-52 Gm.), which may be 
repeated every four or six hours till its effects are obtained.* 
The alkaloid colchidne acts like colchicum ; according to Maret and Combemale, in doses of 
one-twelfth of a grain (0-005 Gm.) producing violent diarrhoea, with diminished urinary se- 
cretion ; in doses of one-thirty-second of a grain (0-002 Gm.) causing some abdominal dis- 
turbance, with increased diuresis. According to Dr. J. Sprega, three grains (0-2 Gm.), repeated 
in three hours, caused violent gastro-enteritis, ending in death in thirty-one hours. (Gazz. d. 
Ospitali, Oct. 1890.) Colchicine salicylate (Colchisat) is a yellow amorphous powder, soluble 
in water, alcohol, and ether, the dose being one-hundredth of a grain (0.0006 Gm.) every 
four hours. 
Colchici Semen.—The seeds of the meadow-saffron ripen in summer, and should be col- 
lected about the end of July or beginning of August. They never arrive at maturity in plants 
cultivated in a dry soil or in confined gardens. (Williams.) They are nearly spherical, about 
the eighth of an inch in diameter, of a reddish-brown color externally, white within, and of a 
bitter acrid taste. “ Subglobular, about 2 Mm. thick, very slightly pointed at the hilum ; red- 
* In preparing colchicum pharmaceutically, if it be desired to retain the colchicine unchanged, both acids and 
alkalies should be avoided, especially when heat is employed. Of the official preparations, the two fluid extracts 
contain the colchicine as in nature; the acetic extract has a portion at least of colchiceine in its composition. In 
the wines, when kept, the colchicine probably passes gradually into colchiceine. (A. J. P., 1867, p. 97.) But it has 
not been proved that these latter preparations are in any degree less efficacious remedially; and, in the absence of’ 
all experience to the contrary, the inference is that colchiceine may have all the powers of colchicine; for the acetic 
extract, and the wines after being long kept, have often been used in practice, without having been found less effectual 
than other preparations of colchicum. 438 
Collodium. 
PAET I. 
dish brown, finely pitted, internally whitish ; very hard and tough ; inodorous ; taste bitter and 
somewhat acrid.” U. S. They are chiefly composed of a gray horny albumen, constituted of 
very thick-walled cells, and surrounded by a closely adherent testa. The leafless embryo is 
very small, and is situated close to the surface opposite the strophiole. Dr. Williams, of Ips- 
wich, England, first brought them into notice in 1820 as superior to the bulb. Prof. Schrotf, 
however, has found that their activity is inferior to that of the dried bulb, dug in autumn 
(A. J. P., xxix. 324) ; and recent studies indicate that they contain only a very small percen- 
tage of alkaloid. A wine, fluid extract, and tincture of the seeds are directed in the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia. Their dose is about the same as that of the bulb. 
COLLODIUM. U.S., Br. Collodion. 
(COL-LO'DI-UM.) 
Collodion, Fr.; Collodium, G. 
“ Pyroxylin, thirty grammes [or 463 grains] ; Ether, seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters 
[or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] ; Alcohol, two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluid- 
ounces, 218 minims]. To the Pyroxylin, contained in a suitable bottle, add the ether, and let 
it stand for fifteen minutes ; then add the Alcohol, and shake the bottle until the Pyroxylin is 
dissolved. Cork the bottle well, and set it aside until the liquid has become clear. Then decant 
the clear portion from any sediment which may have formed, and transfer it to bottles, which 
should be well corked. Keep the Collodion in cork-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, remote 
from lights or fire.” U. S. 
“Pyroxylin, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Ether, 36 /?. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 360 
cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 12fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 120 cubic centimetres. 
Mix the Ether and the Alcohol; add the Pyroxylin; set aside for a few days; should there 
be any sediment, decant the clear Collodion.” Br. 
Collodion is a solution of gun cotton. On account of the facility with which ether evapo- 
rates, it is the better menstruum for remedial purposes; but gun cotton will not dissolve in 
that liquid when quite pure, and the addition of strong alcohol is necessary. Formerly the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia directed that the gun cotton be prepared at the time of making the collodion, 
giving directions for the purpose, but at the revision of 1870 the process of the British Pharma- 
copoeia was substantially adopted, a formula for the preparation of pyroxylin being given sep- 
arately in the Pharmacopoeia. The present formula differs very slightly from that of 1870, 
containing a little more pyroxylin and alcohol. (See Pyroxylin.) A change has been made, 
however, in directing the collodion to be decanted from the sediment. In the Pharm. 1870 
the sediment was directed to be re-incorporated with the clear collodion, and the result was 
the making of a tougher film. This sediment consists of undecomposed filaments of cotton, 
and these become partially felted as the ethereal liquid evaporates and the film is forming; 
this direction of the former Pharmacopoeia was usually disregarded, although for many pur- 
poses the cloudy film is to be preferred. 
Collodion is a transparent, colorless liquid, of a syrupy consistence and an ethereal smell. 
When applied to a dry surface, the ether quickly evaporates, and a transparent film is left, 
having remarkable adhesiveness and contractility. On account of the great volatility of ether, 
collodion must be kept in bottles well stopped. When insecurely kept, the liquid thickens and 
becomes less fit for the use of the surgeon. The thickened liquid sometimes contains acicular 
crystals. The addition of ether will generally restore the collodion to its original condition. 
Collodion was first applied to the purposes of surgery by Dr. J. Parker Maynard* of Bos- 
ton, when a student of medicine, in January, 1847. It is employed for holding together the 
edges of incised wounds, for covering ulcers or abraded or diseased surfaces, chilblains, chapped 
nipples, etc., with an impervious film not acted upon by water, and for encasing parts which 
require to be kept without relative motion. It is applied brushed over the part, or by means 
of strips of muslin. In whatever way applied, the solvent quickly evaporates, and leaves the 
solid adhesive material, which is soluble neither in water nor in alcohol. The rigid film thus 
formed contracts with a good deal of force. This property adapts collodion for certain pur- 
poses, such as drawing together the edges of wounds, exciting pressure on buboes, etc. When, 
* Dr. Maynard recommended the following formula. Take of sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1'850 two parts, and of 
nitric acid of sp. gr. 1/450 one part. Mix them, and, having permitted the heat to fall to about 100° F., add raw 
cotton to saturation. Let it macerate for one or two hours; then pour off the acids, wash the cotton till the wash- 
ings cease to affect litmus paper, and dry thoroughly. The gummy matter thus formed is now to be dissolved in 
ether of the sp. gr. about ’750, or in a mixture of three parts of pure ether and one part of alcohol of 95 per cent. 
Two ounces of cotton will make about a pint of collodion. (Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., 1866, p. 39.) PART I. 
Collodium.—Collodium Cantharidatum. 
439 
however, the surgeon desires simply to protect a surface, a flexible, non-contracting film is 
preferable, and the official flexible collodion should be used. Collodion has been variously 
medicated, and thus made the vehicle of several important medicines for external application. 
Iodized collodion has been proposed by Dr. C. Fleming, for the purpose of obtaining the 
specific effects of iodine in a rapid manner, especially on tumors. It is made by dissolving 
from ten to twenty grains of iodine in a fluidounce of collodion. See Collodium Iodatum 
(N. F.). M. Aran has proposed a ferruginous collodion, made of equal parts of collodion and 
tincture of ferric chloride, as a remedy in erysipelas* A caustic collodion may be prepared 
by dissolving 4 parts of corrosive sublimate in 30 of collodion. Dr. Macke, of Sorau, has used 
this preparation for destroying naevi materni. The eschar formed is one or two lines in 
thickness, and separates in from three to six days, leaving but a trifling cicatrix. (See A. J. 
P., May, 1858, for formulas in which collodion is made the vehicle of iodine, belladonna, sul- 
phur, etc.) All these medicated collodions are best applied by means of a camel’s-hair brush. 
See also Collodium Tiglii (N. F.), and Collodium Salicylatum Compositum (N. F.).f 
COLLODIUM CANTHARIDATUM. U. S. (Br.) Cantharidal Collodion. 
[Blistering Collodion.] 
(COL-LO'DI-UM CAN-THAR-I-DA'TUM.) 
Collodium Vesicans, Br.; Blistering Collodion; Collodium Cantharidatum, P. G.; Collodium Cantharidale, s. 
Vesicans; Collodion vesicant (cantharide), Fr.; Blasenziehendes Collodium, G. 
“ Cantharides, in No. 60 powder, sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Flexible Collo- 
dion, eighty-jive grammes [or 3 ounces av.] ; Chloroform, a sufficient quantity, To make one hun- 
dred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Pack the Cantharides firmly in a cylindrical 
percolator, and gradually pour Chloroform upon it, until the powder is exhausted. Recover 
the chloroform by distillation from a water-bath, and evaporate the residue, in a capsule, on a 
water-bath, until it weighs fifteen grammes [or 231 grains]. Dissolve this in the Flexible 
Collodion, and set it aside to become clear by settling. Finally pour off the clear portion from 
any sediment which may have formed, and transfer it to bottles, which should be securely 
corked. Keep the Cantharidal Collodion in cork-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, remote from 
lights or fire.” U. S. 
“Blistering Liquid, 20 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 200 cubic centimetres; Pyroxylin, 
I ounce (Imp.) or 5 grammes. Add the Pyroxylin to the Blistering Liquid in a stoppered 
bottle; shake them together until the Pyroxylin is dissolved.” Br. 
The official process differs considerably in the manipulation from that of the U. S. P. 1870, 
although the finished preparation is not essentially different. Chloroform is used to extract 
the cantharidin from the powdered cantharides, by percolation ; the chloroform is afterwards 
recovered by distillation, and the oily residue containing the vesicant is dissolved in the collo- 
dion. The efficiency of chloroform as a solvent of cantharidin has been shown by Professor 
Procter. The original process of M. Ilisch was to exhaust, by percolation, a pound of can- 
tharides, with a mixture consisting of a pound of ether and three ounces of acetic ether, and 
in two ounces of this liquid to dissolve 25 grains of gun cotton. Professor Procter states that 
it has been found more advantageous to exhaust the flies with ether, distil off the ether, and 
mix the oily residue with collodion already prepared of the proper consistence (A. J. P., xxiv. 
303); and this is probably a better formula than the official, if care is used in recovering the 
ether to avoid contact with flame. Mr. Charles S. Rand (A. J. P., xxii. 18) states that Ilisch’s 
preparation, made with double the proportion of ether, vesicates equally well, and proposes the 
addition of about 1 per cent, of Venice turpentine, which he has found to prevent the dis- 
* Pavesi’s Styptic Collodion. Collodion, 100 parts; carbolic acid, 10 parts; pure tannin, 5 parts; benzoic acid, 
3 parts. Agitate till thoroughly mixed. On evaporation it leaves a brown pellicle, adhering strongly to tissues, and 
effecting instant coagulation of the blood and albumen. 
Collodium Belladonna, Belladonna Collodion. Mix 10 fluidounces each of fluid extract of belladonna leaves and 
ether, and set aside for 12 hours. Decant and dissolve therein 130 grains camphor, 183 grains pyroxylin, 365 grains 
Canada balsam, 183 grains castor oil. (Naylor.) 
Iodoform Collodion is made, according to Moleschott, by dissolving 1 part of iodoform, in fine powder, in 15 parts 
of flexible collodion. It is recommended for relieving pain caused by gout, and for orchitis, pericarditis, etc. See 
also Collodium Iodoformatum (N. F.). 
i'i f Silk Collodion. M. Persoz the younger prepares a collodion by bringing silk to the condition of the material 
from which the worm spins its thread. This he does by dissolving it in a solution of zinc chloride, and then sepa- 
rating the solvent by means of dialysis. The chloride passes through the parchment of a dialyser, leaving the silk 
substance in a soft fibreless state. The material thus obtained is said to be applicable to photographic purposes. 
Before it could be used as collodion, it would be necessary to dissolve it in a volatile liquid which would evaporate 
spontaneously on application to the surface. (See A. J. P., 1867, p. 182.) 440 
Collodium, Canthandatum.—Collodium Stypticum. 
PART I. 
agreeable and sometimes painful contraction of the collodion upon drying. The preparation 
may be kept indefinitely, in an opaque glass-stoppered bottle, without change; but on exposure 
to the light, the greenish coloring matter of the flies bleaches, and the liquid becomes yellow- 
ish* Cantharidized collodion may be made from cantharidin by dissolving four grains of 
cantharidin in one thousand grains of flexible collodion. 
Cantharidal collodion is a very convenient epispastic remedy. It may be applied to the sur- 
face by means of a camel’s-hair brush, and after the evaporation of the ether, which takes 
place in less than a minute, may be reapplied if the surface should not be well covered. It 
produces a blister in about the same time as the ordinary cerate, and has the advantages that it 
is applied with greater facility, is better adapted to cover uneven surfaces, and retains its place 
more certainly. According to Mr. Rand, if the evaporation of the ether be restrained by a 
piece of oiled silk immediately after its application, it will act much more speedily. 
COLLODIUM FLEXILE. U. S., Br. Flexible Collodion. 
(COL-LO'DI-UM FLkX'l-LE.) 
Collodium Elasticum, P. G.; Collodion elastique, Fr.; Elastisches Collodium, G. 
“ Collodion, nine hundred and twenty grammes [or 32 ounces av., 198 grains] ; Canada Tur- 
pentine, grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains]; Castor Oil, thirty grammes [or 1 ounce 
av., 25 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Weigh the 
ingredients, successively, into a tared bottle, and mix them thoroughly. Keep the product in 
cork-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, remote from lights or fire.” U S. 
“ Collodion, 12 Ji. ounces (Imperial measure) or 480 cubic centimetres; Canada Turpentine, 
4 ounce (Imp.) or 20 grammes; Castor oil, 4 ounce (Imp.) or 10 grammes. Mix.” Br. 
The contractility of the collodion film has long been felt as a drawback to its use simply for 
the purposes of protection. Mr. C. S. Rand, of Philadelphia, proposed to obviate this by dis- 
solving one part of gun cotton and three of Venice turpentine in twenty parts of ether. To 
give more flexibility to the film, M. Sourisseau, of Kaiserberg, suggested the addition of one 
part of elemi to twelve of collodion. According to Mr. Startin, of London, opacity and elas- 
ticity may be imparted at the same time by adding from half a drachm to a drachm of lard, 
or some similar fatty matter, previously dissolved in ether, to an ounce of collodion. The 
qualities of softness and elasticity may also be given by combining collodion with castor oil, in 
the proportion of thirty parts to two, agreeably to the plan of M. Guersant, who found it useful, 
thus modified, in erysipelas; and the proportion of castor oil may be increased if thought 
desirable. This is the method preferred by the French Codex. An elastic collodion, somewhat 
similar, in which, besides castor oil, Venice turpentine and white wax are ingredients, has been 
proposed by E. Lauras. (P. J. Tr., xii. 303.) According to MM. Cap and Garot, the most 
successful way for obtaining an elastic collodion is to mix two parts of glycerin with one hun- 
dred of collodion. Glycerized collodion is exceedingly supple, does not crack and scale off from 
the skin, and accommodates itself to the motions of the part. In order to imitate the color of 
the skin, an ethereal tincture of turmeric or saffron may be added, so as to produce the desired 
tint. Dr. Meller has proposed a solution of shellac in highly rectified alcohol, so as to have a 
gelatinous consistence, as a substitute for collodion. Of all these plans, probably that followed 
in the official directions is the best. Dr. Tournie recommends, in superficial cervical adenitis 
with redness, painting the part with several layers of flexible collodion every two days. (Med. 
Times and Gaz., 1874, p. 540.) 
COLLODIUM STYPTICUM. U. S. Styptic Collodion. 
(COL-LO'DI-UM STYP'TI-CUM.) 
Styptic Colloid, Xylostyptic Ether; Collodion styptique, Fr. 
“ Tannic Acid, twenty grammes [or 308 6 grains] ; Alcohol, five cubic centimeters [or 81 
minims] ; Ether, twenty-jive cubic centimeters [or 406 minims] ; Collodion, a sufficient quantity, 
To make one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Introduce the Tannic 
Acid, Alcohol, and Ether into a graduated bottle, agitate until the Tannic Acid is thoroughly 
incorporated and partially dissolved, then add enough Collodion to make up the volume to one 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], and shake occasionally, until the Acid 
is completely dissolved. Keep the product in cork-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, remote 
from lights or fire.” U. S. 
* Croton Oil Collodion is made by mixing equal weights of croton oil and flexible collodion. (Report on Revision 
of U. S. Pharm., A. P. A., i860.) PART I. 
Collodium Stypticum.— Colocynthis. 
441 
This collodion is a modification of the styptic colloid of Hr. B. W. Bichardson, of London 
(P. J. Tr., 1867, p. 29), a preparation which has had considerable use, particularly in hospitals. 
Experience has shown, however, that Dr. Bichardson’s formula contained too little tannin ; the 
quantity has been increased in the U. S. process to 20 per cent., but this is more than will 
usually dissolve. The manipulation in the official formula might be improved by directing the 
tannic acid to be rubbed into a smooth paste in a mortar with sufficient alcohol, before intro- 
ducing into the bottle. This would enable the pharmacist to prepare it extemporaneously. 
When applied on wounded or abraded surfaces, it soon loses the ether and alcohol, and a firm 
coating is left, in which, besides the tannin and colloidal substance, are the coagulated blood 
and secretions from the surface, forming a covering for the part by which the air is excluded. 
The liquid is applied with a camel’s-hair brush, or by means of cotton saturated with it, to the 
edges of wounds closed by stitches, to ulcerated surfaces and bleeding parts. If it be desired 
to make a special impression on the diseased surface, carbolic acid, creosote, iodine, morphine, 
etc., may be incorporated with the styptic fluid* 
COLOCYNTHIS. U. S. (Br.) Colocynth. 
(c5l-o-cyn'this.) 
“ The fruit of Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrader (nat. ord. Cucurbitacese), deprived of its 
rind.” TJ. S. “ The dried pulp of the fruit of Citrullus Colocynthis, Schrad., freed from 
seeds.” Br. 
Colocynthidis Pulpa, Br., Colocynth Pulp; Fructus Colocynthidis, P. G.; Poma Colocynthidis; Pulpe de Colo- 
quinte, Coloquinte, Fr.; Coloquintenapfel, Koloquintenmark, Koloquinten, G.; Coloquintida, It., Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Male. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-parted. Filaments three. Female. 
Calyx five-toothed. Corolla five-parted. Pistil three-cleft. Seeds of the gourd with a sharp 
edge. Willd. 
Citrullus colocynthis (L.). Schrad., Engel, and Prantl—Cucumis colocynthis. Willd. Sp. 
Plant, iv. 611 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. 189, t. 71. The hitter cucumber is an annual plant, bearing 
considerable resemblance to the common watermelon. The stems, which are herbaceous and 
beset with rough hairs, trail upon the ground, or rise upon neighboring bodies, to which they 
attach themselves by their numerous tendrils. The leaves, which stand alternately on long 
petioles, are triangular, many-cleft, variously sinuated, obtuse, hairy, of a fine green color on 
the upper surface, rough and pale on the under. The flowers are yellow, and appear singly at 
the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a globular pepo, of the size of a small orange, yellow 
and smooth when ripe, and contains, within a hard, coriaceous rind, a white, spongy pulp, 
enclosing numerous ovate, compressed, white or brownish seeds. 
The plant is a native of Turkey, and abounds in the islands of the Archipelago. It grows 
also in various parts of Africa and Asia. Burckhardt, in his travels across Nubia, found the 
country covered with it; Thunberg met with it at the Cape of Good Hope; and Ainslie says 
that it grows in many parts of Lower India, particularly in sandy places near the sea. It is 
said to be cultivated in Spain, to abound in Morocco and in the neighboring countries, and 
even to have been collected in Japan. Colocynth from the maritime plain between the moun- 
tains of Palestine and the Mediterranean is chiefly shipped from Jaffa, and is known as Turkish 
colocynth. It is said to be of superior quality. The fruit is gathered in autumn, when it 
begins to become yellow, and, having been peeled, is dried quickly in a stove or in the sunshine. 
Thus prepared, it is imported from the Levant. Small quantities are said to be imported into 
England from Mogador in the form of brown, unpeeled globular gourds.f The so-called Per- 
sian colocynth of the London markets is very small, and has apparently been compressed in a 
fresh state, so that the position of the seeds is perceptible through the dry pulp. The micro- 
scopic structure and the proportion of the pulp to the seed appear to be the same as in other 
colocynths. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 107.) Colocynth has been grown in New Mexico, but, according 
to Prof. Sayre, the American colocynth possesses only about two-thirds the cathartic action of 
the Trieste variety. 
* Carbolized Styptic Colloid. In this preparation advantage is taken of the antiseptic and styptic properties of 
carbolic acid, and a very effective hasmostatic results. It is made by adding ten per cent, of carbolic acid to official 
styptic collodion. 
t In Union Village, Lebanon, Ohio, the Shakers formerly prepared an extract from a hybrid between the colo- 
cynth and the watermelon. The two plants were placed close to each other, and the hybrid resulting yielded the 
second year a gourd resembling a watermelon, but very bitter, and affording an abundant extract. This is stated to 
be equal in purgative properties to that of colocynth, but at present it is not manufactured. 
Properties. As found in commerce, colocynth is in the shape of whitish balls about the 442 
Colocynthis. 
PART L 
size of an orange, very light and spongy, and abounding in seeds which constitute three-fourths 
of their weight. The seeds are somewhat bitter, but possess little activity, and, according to 
Captain Lyon, are even used as food in the north of Africa.* When the medicine is prepared 
for use, they are separated and rejected, the pulpy or medullary matter only being employed. 
This has a very feeble odor, but a nauseous and intensely bitter taste. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia 
thus describes colocynth : “ From 5 to 10 Cm. in diameter ; globular ; white or yellowish white ; 
light, spongy; readily breaking into three wedge-shaped pieces, each containing, near the 
rounded surface, many flat, ovate, brown seeds; inodorous ; taste intensely bitter. The pulp 
only should be used, the seeds being separated and rejected.” “ It should not yield the char- 
acteristic reactions with the tests for starch, and only traces of fixed oil should be removed 
from it by ether. It yields, when dried at 212° F. (100° C.) and incinerated, at least 9 per 
cent, of ash (indicating absence of seeds).” Br. Barclay considers the estimation of ash in 
powdered colocynth useful in proving its freedom from seeds. The pulp yields from 8-6 to 
14 per cent, of ash, the seeds from 2 to 4 per cent., the whole apple 4-6 per cent. (Amer. 
Drug., 1896, 152.) Water and alcohol extract the virtues of colocynth. It is a matter 
of importance to be able to determine 
whether the drug miller who usually 
powders colocynth is careful to reject the 
seeds. If the seeds have been ground 
with the dried pulp, the microscope will 
show the presence of numerous albu- 
minous granules derived from the coty- 
ledons. (W. T. Clark, P. J. Tr., vii. 
509.) These are best found by putting 
a small amount of the powder on the glass 
slide, adding a drop of water, and gently 
rubbing the cover glass over it; frag- 
ments of the double-walled embryo sac 
show on the outer side elongated, more 
or less hexagonal, thin-walled cells, and 
on the inner side irregular, tabular, thick- 
walled cells. Powdered colocynth con- 
taining a large number of starch granules 
has suffered adulteration. Yauquelin 
obtained the bitter principle of colocynth 
in a separate state, and called it colo- 
cynthin. According to Meissner, 100 
parts of the dry pulp of colocynth con- 
tain 14-4 parts of colocynthin, 1O0 of 
extractive, 4-2 of fixed oil, 132 of a 
resinous substance insoluble in ether, 9 5 
of gum, 3-0 of pectic acid (pectin), 17’6 of gummy extract derived from the lignin by means 
of potassa, 2 7 of calcium phosphate, 3'0 of magnesium phosphate, and 19-0 of lignin, besides 
water.f Colocynthin is obtained by boiling the pulp in wrater, evaporating the decoction, treat- 
ing the extract thus procured with alcohol, evaporating the alcoholic solution, and submitting 
the residue, which consists of the bitter principle and potassium acetate, to the action of a little 
cold water, which dissolves the latter and leaves the greater part of the former untouched. 
Mr. Bastick obtained it by exhausting the pulp with cold water, heating the solution to ebul- 
lition, adding lead subacetate so long as a precipitate was produced, filtering the liquor when 
cold, adding dilute sulphuric acid gradually until it no longer occasioned a precipitate, boiling 
to expel free acetic acid, filtering to separate lead sulphate, evaporating cautiously nearly to 
470 diameters. 
a, inner layer of embryo sac ; b, outer layer of ditto; c, cells of 
palisaded layer with granules; d, stomata from cotyledon ; e, gran- 
ules from cotyledons; /, epidermis of rind; h, starch granule (side 
view). 
* Dr. Nachtigal confirms this statement of Captain Lyon’s, but with the qualification that, before being eaten, 
the seeds are deprived of their coating by some mechanical means, and the kernels are heated to the boiling point, 
then washed with cold water, dried, and powdered. Professor Fliickiger found a bitter principle in the testa, which 
accounts for its rejection as food, though rendering improper the rejection of the seed in preparing the extract. He 
found in the kernels about 45 per cent, of fixed oil and 18 per cent, of albumen. (A. J. P., 1872, 538.) 
f Dr. Walz supposed that he had found another peculiar principle, colocynthitin. It was obtained by treating 
with ether the alcoholic extract previously exhausted by water, decolorizing the ethereal solution with animal char- 
coal, evaporating to dryness, and dissolving the residue in anhydrous alcohol, which deposited it in crystals on spon- 
taneous evaporation. It is white and tasteless, and is probably a resin. (N. Jahrbuch der Pharm., xvi. 10.) Colocynthis.—Confectiones. 
443 
PART I. 
dryness, extracting the colocynthin from the residuum by strong alcohol, which left the salts, 
and finally evaporating the alcoholic solution. The following process, employed by Dr. Walz, 
yields it in a purer state. Colocynth is exhausted by alcohol of sp. gr. 0-84, the tincture 
evaporated to dryness, the residue treated with water, and the solution precipitated first with lead 
acetate and afterwards with lead subacetate. The yellow filtered liquor is then treated with 
hydrogen sulphide to separate the lead, and, after filtration, with solution of tannic acid, which 
throws down a compound of tannic acid and colocynthin. This is dissolved in alcohol, the tannin 
thrown down by lead subacetate, the excess of lead separated, and the liquid digested with 
animal charcoal, filtered, and evaporated. The residue, washed with anhydrous ether, is pure 
colocynthin. This is yellowish, somewhat translucent, brittle and friable, fusible by a heat 
below 100° C. (212° F.), inflammable, more soluble in alcohol than in water, but capable of 
rendering the latter intensely bitter. M. Mouchon states that it is insoluble in ether. It is 
neither acid nor alkaline; but its aqueous solution gives with infusion of galls a copious white 
precipitate. Its formula, according to Dr. Walz, is C56H84023: Upon the same authority it is 
a glucoside, being resolved by the action of sulphuric acid into sugar and a peculiar resinous 
substance termed colocynthein. Henke doubts the probability of colocynthin being a glucoside, 
and states that it is uncrystallizable; he reviews the methods of previous investigators, and 
obtained by his own process but 0-66 per cent, of colocynthin. (Archiv d. Pharrn., 1883, p. 200 ; 
A. J. P., 1883, p. 301.) According to Johannson, colocynthin, when heated with diluted 
sulphuric acid, yields colocynthein, elaterin, and bryonin. (A. J. P., 1885, p. 451.)* An 
infusion of colocynth, made with boiling water, gelatinizes upon cooling. Neumann obtained 
from 768 parts of the pulp, treated first with alcohol and then with water, 168 parts of alcoholic 
and 216 of aqueous extract. (See also paper by George Wagner, Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 179.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. The pulp of colocynth is a powerful drastic, hydra- 
gogue cathartic, producing, when given in large doses, violent griping, and sometimes bloody 
discharges, with dangerous inflammation of the bowels. Death has resulted from a teaspoon- 
ful ai*d a half of the powder. (Christison.) Even in moderate doses it sometimes acts with 
much harshness, and it is therefore seldom prescribed alone. By some writers it is said to 
be diuretic. It was frequently employed by the ancient Greeks and the Arabians, though its 
drastic nature was not unknown to them. Among the moderns it is occasionally used in obsti- 
nate dropsy, and in various affections depending on disordered action of the brain. In combi- 
nation with other cathartics it loses much of its violence, but retains its purgative energy, and 
in this state is extensively employed. The compound extract of colocynth is a favorite prepa- 
ration with many practitioners; and, combined with calomel, extract of jalap, and gamboge, it 
forms a highly efficient and safe cathartic, especially useful in congestion of the portal circle 
and torpidity of the liver. (See Pilulse, Catharticse, Compositse.) The dose of colocynth is from 
five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.). It is best administered in minute division, effected by trit- 
uration with gum or farinaceous matter. The active principle has sometimes been employed, 
and, in the impure state in which it is prepared by the process of M. Emile Mouchon, may be 
given in the dose of a grain (-065 Gm.).f 
Thunberg states that the fruit of C. colocynthis, at the Cape of Good Hope, is rendered so 
mild by being properly pickled that it is eaten both by the natives and by the colonists; but, as 
it is thus employed before attaining perfect maturity, it is possible that the drastic principle 
may not have been developed. 
CONFECTIONES. Confections. 
(CON-FfiC-TI-0'NE§—kpn-fgk-shp-o'nez.) 
Electuaries; Conserves, Electuaires, Saccharoles mous, Fr.; Conserven, Latwergen, G. 
Under tlie general title of Confections, the Pharmacopoeias include all those preparations 
having the form of a soft solid, in which one or more medicinal substances are incorporated 
with saccharine matter, with a view either to their preservation or more convenient administra- 
tion. But two confections have been retained in the present revision of the U. S. Pharmaco- 
* According to Ernst Johannson (Tnaug. Diss., Dorpat, 1S84), colocynthin can readily be found in the alvine dis- 
charges and in the body, after poisoning by it, by the following tests: milligramme will give with concentrated 
sulphuric acid a reddish-yellow color, deepening into red; Froehde’s reagent strikes with milligramme a cherry- 
red color; one part of ammonium vanadanate in 200 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid makes with milligramme 
a blood-red spot surrounded by a bluish tint; alcohol with sulphuric acid strikes a yellow color, not altered by warm- 
ing; selenosulphurie acid (IhiSeSOs) does the same; basic lead acetate and tannic acid precipitate by weak solutions. 
f For further processes for preparing colocynthin, see U. S. D., fourteenth edition, or A. J. P., xxviii. 
1863, 116. 444 
Confectiones.— Confectio Piperis. 
PART I. 
r>oeia. The old division into Conserves and Electuaries has been abandoned; but, as there is 
some ground for the distinction, we shall make a few general remarks upon each division before 
proceeding to the consideration of the individual preparations. 
Conserves consist of undried vegetable substances and refined sugar beaten into a uniform 
mass. By means of the sugar, the vegetable matter is enabled to resist for some time the 
decomposition to which it would otherwise be exposed in the undried state, and the properties 
of the recent plant are thus retained to a certain extent unaltered. But, as active medicines 
even thus treated undergo some change, and those which lose their virtues by desiccation cam 
not be long preserved, the few conserves now retained are intended rather as convenient vehicles 
of other substances than for separate exhibition. The sugar used in their preparation should 
he reduced to a fine powder by pounding and sifting, as otherwise it will not mix uniformly with 
the other ingredients. 
Electuaries are mixtures consisting of medicinal substances, especially dry powders, com- 
bined with syrup or honey, in ofder to render them less unpleasant to the taste, and more con- 
venient for internal use. They are usually prepared extemporaneously ; and it is only when their 
complex nature renders it convenient to keep them ready made, or some peculiarity in the mode 
of mixing the ingredients requires attention, that they become proper objects for official direc- 
tion. Their consistence should not be so soft, on the one hand, as to allow the ingredients to sepa- 
rate, nor so firm, on the other, as to prevent them from being swallowed without mastication. 
Different substances require different proportions of syrup. Light vegetable powders usually 
require twice their weight, gum-resins two-thirds of their weight, resins somewhat less, mineral 
substances about half their weight, and deliquescent salts not more than one-tenth. Should 
the electuary be found, after having been kept for a short time, to swell up and emit gas, it 
should be beaten over again in a mortar, so that any portion of the sugar which may have crys- 
tallized may be again accurately incorporated with the other ingredients. Should it, on the 
contrary, become dry and hard from the mutual reaction of its constituents, more syrup should 
be added, so as to give it the requisite consistence. If the dryness result from the mere, evap- 
oration of the aqueous part, water should be added instead of syrup ; and the same remark is 
applicable to the conserves. To prevent the hardening of electuaries, the French writers recom- 
mend the use of syrup prepared from brown sugar, which is less apt to crystallize than that 
made from the refined. Molasses would answer the same purpose, but its taste might be objec- 
tionable. Some employ honey, but this is not always acceptable to the stomach. Glycerin 
might sometimes be used with advantage.* 
CONFECTIO PIPERIS. Br. Confection of Pepper. 
(CON-FEC'TI-O PI'PER-IS.) 
Electuarium Piperis; Electuaire de Poivre, Fr.; Pfefferlatwerge, G. 
“ Black Pepper, in fine powder, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 40 grammes; Caraway Fruit, in fine 
powder, 3 ounces (Imp.) or 60 grammes; Clarified Honey, 15 ounces (Imp.) or 300 grammes. 
Mix.” Br. This preparation was intended as a substitute for Ward's paste, which acquired 
some reputation in Great Britain as a remedy in piles and ulcers of the rectum. To do good, 
* Confectio Aromatica. Aromatic Confection. (Electuarium Aromaticum ; Electuaire, Confection aromatique, Fr.; 
Aromatische Latwerge, Gewiirzlatwerge, G.) “Take of Aromatic Powder four troy ounces ; Clarified Honey four 
troyounces, or a sufficient quantity. Rub the Aromatic Powder with Clarified Honey until a uniform mass of the 
proper consistence is obtained.” U. S. 1870. The aromatic confection has been abandoned in the U. S. and Br. 
Pharmacopoeias, probably because readily prepared extemporaneously. It affords, nevertheless, a convenient means 
of administering the spices contained in it, and an agreeable vehicle for other medicines. The 1870 U. S. formula 
differed favorably from that of 1850 in the omission of the saffron; and the place of the syrup of orange peel has 
been economically supplied by using a larger proportion of honey. The confection is given in debilitated states of 
the stomach. The dose is from ten to sixty grains (O’fiS-S'O dm.). 
Confectio Aurantii Corticis. Confection of Orange Peel. (Conserva Aurantii; Conserve d’Ecorce d’Orange, Fr.; 
Apfelsinenschalen-Conserve, G.) “ Take of Sweet Orange Peel, recently separated from the fruit by grating, twelve 
troyounces ; Sugar [refined] thirty-six troyounces. Beat the Orange Peel with the Sugar, gradually added, until they 
are thoroughly mixed.” U. S. 1870. This confection, like the preceding, has been dropped in the U. S. and Br. Phar- 
macopoeias. It is not used as frequently as it deserves to be. It is, when well made, a grateful aromatic vehicle or 
adjunct for tonic and purgative powders. 
Confectio Opii. Confection of Opium, which was the modern substitute for the mediaeval preparations known as 
theriaca and mithridate, has been finally dropped from both Pharmacopoeias. One grain of opium was contained in 
about thirty-six grains of the former United States confection, and in about forty grains of the British. The follow- 
ing is the U. S. Pharmacopoeia (1870) formula. “Take of Opium, in fine powder, two hundred and seventy grains; 
Aromatic Powder six troyounces ; Clarified Honey fourteen troyounces. Rub the Opium with the Aromatic Powder, 
then add the Honey, and beat the whole together until thoroughly mixed.” Confedio Rouse.— Confedio Sennae. 
PART I. 
445 
it must be continued, according to Mr. Brodie, for two, three, or four months. The dose is 
from one to two drachms (3-9 to 7-8 Gm.), repeated two or three times a day. Its stimulating 
properties render it inapplicable to cases attended with much inflammation. 
CONFECTIO ROSJE. U. S. (Br.) Confection of Rose. 
(CON-FEC'TI-O RO'§^E.) 
Confeotio Rosae Gallicse, Br.; Confection of Roses; Conserva Rosarum; Conserve de Rose rouge, Fr.; Rosen- 
Conserve, G. 
“Red Rose, in No. 60 powder, eighty grammes [or 2 ounces av , 360 grains]; Sugar, in 
fine powder, six hundred and forty grammes [or 22 ounces av., 252 grains] ; Clarified Honey, 
one hundred and twenty grammes [or 4 ounces av., 102 grains] ; Stronger Rose Water, one 
hundred and sixty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 197 minims]. Rub the Red Rose with 
the Stronger Rose Water previously heated to 65° C. (149° F.), then gradually add the Sugar 
and Honey, and beat the whole together until a uniform mass results.” U. S. 
“ Fresh Red-Rose Petals, one pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes ; Refined Sugar, three pounds 
(Imp.) or 1500 grammes. Beat together in a stone mortar.” Br. 
This preparation differs from that formerly official only in a slight increase—4 per cent.—in 
the quantity of sugar; this is rather an improvement. 
In the British process the unblown petals only are used, and these should be deprived of 
their claws; in other words, the rose-buds should be cut off a short distance above their base, 
and the lower portion rejected. In the last four editions of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, dried 
roses have been substituted for the fresh, as the latter are not brought to our market. The 
process is very similar to that of the French Codex. We have been informed, however, that 
confection of rose is still made in Philadelphia on a large scale from the fresh petals of the 
hundred-leaved rose and others, by beating them into a pulp with sugar, as in the British 
process. An excuse for this deviation from the official formula is, that the confection thus 
made has greater adhesiveness than the official, and is therefore better fitted for the formation 
of pills. Confection of Rose is slightly astringent, but is used almost exclusively as a vehicle 
of other medicines, or to impart consistence to the pilular mass. 
CONFECTIO SENNJE. U. S., Br. Confection of Senna. 
(con-fec’ti-o sen'n.®.) 
Electuarium e Senna, P. G.; Electuarium de Senna Compositum, Electuarium Lenitivum; Electuaire de Sen6 
compose, Electuaire lenitif, Fr.; Senna-Latwerge, G. 
“ Senna, in No. 60 powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces ay., 230 grains] ; Cassia Fis- 
tula, bruised, one hundred and sixty grammes [or 5 ounces av., 281 grains] ; Tamarind, one 
hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains" ; Prune, sliced, seventy grammes [or 2 ounces 
av., 205 grains] ; Fig, bruised, one hundred and twenty grammes [or 4 ounces av., 102 • 
Sugar, in fine powder, five hundred and fifty-five grammes [or 19 ounces av., 252 grains]; 
Oil of Coriander, five grammes [or 77 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thou- 
sand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Place tbe Cassia Fistula, Tamarind, Prune, and 
Fig in a close vessel with five hundred cubic centimeters [or 17 fluidounces] of Water, and digest 
for three hours, by means of a water-bath. Separate the coarser portions with the hand, and 
rub the pulpy mass, first through a coarse hair sieve, and then through a fine one, or through a 
muslin cloth. Mix the residue with one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces] of 
Water, and, having digested the mixture for a short time, treat it as before, and add the product 
to the pulpy mass first obtained. Then, by means of a water-bath, dissolve the Sugar in the 
pulpy liquid, and evaporate the whole, in a tared vessel, until it weighs eight hundred and ninety- 
five grammes [or 31 ounces av., 250 grains]. Lastly, add the Senna and the Oil of Coriander, 
and incorporate them thoroughly with the other ingredients while they are yet warm.” U. S. 
“ Senna, in fine powder, 7 ounces (Imperial) or 140 grammes; Coriander Fruit, in fine 
powder, 3 ounces (Imp.) or 60 grammes; Figs, 12 ounces (Imp.) or 240 grammes; Tamarinds, 
9 ounces (Imp.) or 180 grammes; Cassia Pulp, 9 ounces (Imp.) or 180 grammes; Prunes, 6 
ounces (Imp.) or 120 grammes; Extract of Liquorice, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 20 grammes; Refined 
Sugar, 30 ounces (Imp.) or 600 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Figs 
and Prunes gently with twenty-four ounces (Imp.) or four hundred and eighty grammes of 
Distilled Water in a covered vessel for four hours; add more Distilled Water to make up the 446 
Conjectio Sennse.—Conium. 
PART I. 
quantity to its original volume, and then incorporate the Tamarinds and Cassia Pulp; digest 
for two hours ; rub the softened pulp of the fruits through a hair sieve, rejecting the seeds and 
other hard parts; to the pulp thus obtained add the Defined Sugar and Extract of Liquorice, 
dissolving them by the aid of gentle heat; while the mixture is still warm, add to it gradually 
the mixed Senna and Coriander powders; mix the whole thoroughly; make the weight of 
the resulting Confection seventy-jive ounces (Imp.) or fifteen hundred grammes, either by 
evaporation or by the addition of more Distilled Water.” Br. 
The Confection of Senna, when correctly made, is an elegant preparation, and keeps well if 
properly protected. The present U. S. process differs from that of 1860 in preparing the pulps, 
as suggested in former editions of this Dispensatory, instead of taking them already prepared. 
The present preparation contains about 10 per cent, more sugar than that official in 1880. An 
improvement has been made in the process of the U. S. P. 1890 by replacing the coriander seed 
of the former Pharmacopoeias with oil of coriander: it is almost impossible to powder coriander 
fine enough to avoid hard particles except by drying it to such an extent as to deprive it inju- 
riously of its volatile oil, and the plan of using the oil directly has therefore been adopted. It 
was formerly not uncommon to omit the cassia pulp in this preparation, as the pods were not 
always to be found in the market; but, as this is next to senna the most active ingredient, 
the omission was to be regretted. Cassia fistula is now readily procured in commerce, and there 
can be no excuse for its omission. It has also been proposed to substitute the fluid extract of 
senna for the crude drug (A. J. P., xliii. 123) ; but, as the fluid extract is of such uncertain 
quality, the leaves themselves are preferable. 
A very good, pleasant laxative, admirably adapted to cases of habitual costiveness, especially 
in pregnant women and in persons affected with piles. Dose, two drachms (7‘8 Gm.), at bedtime. 
CONFECTIO SULPHURIS. Br. Confection of Sulphur. 
(C0N-FEC'TI-0 SOL'PHU-RIS.) 
Electuarium Sulphuris; Electuaire de Soufre, Fr.; Schwefel-Latwerge, G. 
“ Sublimed Sulphur, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Acid Potassium Tartrate, in 
powder, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 25 grammes ; Tragacanth, in powder, 18 grains (Imp.) or 1 gramme; 
Syrup, 2 Jl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres; Tincture of Orange, i ji. ounce (Imp. 
meas.) or 12-5 cubic centimetres ; Glycerin, 1£ ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 375 cubic centime- 
tres. Mix.” Br. 
This is merely a mode of administering the two laxatives, sulphur and potassium bitartrate; 
and the relative proportion of the latter is so small that it can have little effect. The addition 
of tragacanth is due to a suggestion of Mr. Peter Boa, who found that without it a syrupy 
layer of liquid formed on top of the confection. (P. J. Tr., 1882, 682.) The syrup of orange 
peel, formerly directed, has been replaced in the Br. Pharm. (1898) by syrup and tincture of 
orange, evidently because the syrup of orange peel did not keep well, whilst the glycerin serves 
to retain the proper consistence of the confection. The dose is from one to two drachms (3-9 
to 7'8 Gm.) or more. 
CONII FOLIA. Br. Hemlock Leaves. 
(CO-NT'I FO'LI-A.) 
“The fresh leaves and young branches of Conium maculatum, Linn , collected when the 
fruit begins to form.” Br. 
Hemlock Leaves; Herba Conii, P.G.; Herba Cicutae Majoris; Feuilles de grande Cigue (de Cigue officinale), Fr.; 
Schierlingskraut, Schierlings-Blatter, G. 
CONIUM. U.S. (Br.) Conium. [Hemlock.] 
(co-n!'um.) 
“ The full-grown fruit of Conium maculatum, Linn6 (nat. ord. Umbelliferas), gathered while 
yet green.” IT. S. “ The dried, full-grown, unripe fruits of Conium maculatum, Linn.” Br. 
Conii Fructus, Br., Hemlock Fruit; Fruits de grande Cigue, Cigue ordinaire, Grande Cigue, FrGefleckter 
Schierling, Schierlingsfriichte, G.; Cicuta, It., Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Partial involucre halved, usually three-leaved. Fruit nearly globular, five-streaked, 
notched on both sides. Willd. PART I. 
Conium. 
447 
V 
Conium maculatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1395; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 113; Woodv. 
Med. Bot. p. 104, t. 42. This is an umbelliferous plant, having a biennial spindle-shaped 
whitish root, and an herbaceous branching stem, from three to six feet 
high, round, hollow, smooth, shining, slightly striated, and marked with 
brownish-purple spots. The lower leaves are tripinnate, more than a 
foot in length, shining, and attached to the joints of the stem by sheath- 
ing petioles; the upper are smaller, bipinnate, and inserted at the di- 
vision of the branches; both have channelled footstalks, and incised 
leaflets, which are deep green on their upper surface and paler beneath. 
The flowers are very small, white, and disposed in compound terminal 
umbels. The general involucre consists of from three to seven lanceo- 
late, reflected leaflets, whitish at their edges; the partial involucre, of 
three or four, oval, pointed, spreading, and on one side only. There are 
five petals, cordate, with their points inflected, and nearly equal. The 
stamens are spreading, and about as long as the corolla; the styles di- 
verging. The fruit, commonly called seeds, is roundish-ovate, a line 
and a half or rather less in length by a line in breadth, striated, and 
composed of two plano-convex, easily separable parts, which have on 
their outer surface five crenated ribs separated by slightly wrinkled 
furrows. On cross-section the absence of oil-ducts becomes apparent, 
and a deep furrow upon the commissural face of the albumen gives a reniform appearance. 
As kept in the shops, the mericarps are usually separated. They are thus officially described: 
“ About 3 Mm. long; broadly ovate ; laterally compressed ; grayish-green ; often divided into 
the two mericarps, each with five crenate ribs, without oil-tubes, and containing a seed which 
is grooved on the face; odor and taste slight. When triturated with solution of potassium or 
sodium hydrate, Conium gives off- a strong, disagreeable, mouse-like odor.” TJ. S. 
Conium is a native of Europe, and has become naturalized in the United States, where it is 
also cultivated for medicinal purposes. It grows usually in clusters along the roadsides or in 
waste grounds, and is found most abundantly near old settlements. It flowers in June and 
July. The whole plant, especially at this period, exhales a fetid odor, compared by some to 
that of mice, by others to that of the urine of cats; and narcotic effects result from breathing 
for a long time air loaded with the effluvia. The plant varies in narcotic power according to 
the weather and climate, being most active in hot and dry seasons and in warm countries. 
The hemlock of Greece, Italy, and Spain is said to be much more energetic than that of the 
north of Europe. As a rule, those plants are most active which grow in a sunny expo- 
sure. The term cicuta, which has often been applied to this plant, belongs to a different 
genus. The leaves and fruit are official. The proper season for gathering the leaves is when 
the plant is in flower ; and Dr. Fothergill asserts, from experiment, that they are most active 
about the time that the flowers begin to fade. The footstalks* should be rejected, and the 
leaflets quickly dried, either in the hot sun, on tin plates before a fire, or by a stove-heat not 
exceeding 120° F. They should be kept in boxes or tin cases, excluded from the air and 
light, by exposure to which they lose their fine green color and become deteriorated. The 
same end is answered by pulverizing them, and preserving the powder in opaque and well- 
stopped bottles. But little reliance can be placed on the dried leaves, as, even when possessed 
of a strong odor and a fine green color, they may be destitute of the narcotic principle. When 
rubbed with caustic potassa they should exhale the odor of coniine. The fruit retains its ac- 
tivity much longer than the leaves. Dr. Christison found them to have sustained no diminu- 
tion of power after having been kept eight years. Hirtz inferred from experiment that extract 
of the seeds was ten times stronger than that of the leaves. Commercial conium occasionally 
contains other umbelliferous plants, or it may be almost wholly composed of such plants, and 
even anise has been used as an adulteration to the fruit. The presence of such impurities is 
to be recognized by physical examination. 
Properties. The dried leaves of the hemlock have a strong, heavy, narcotic odor, less 
disagreeable than that of the recent plant. Their taste is bitterish and nauseous ; their color 
a dark green, which is retained in the powder. A slight degree of acrimony possessed by the 
fresh leaves is said to be dissipated by drying. The seeds have a yellowish-gray color, a feeble 
odor, and a bitterish taste. Their form has already been described. Water distilled from the 
Unripe Conium Fruit, 
transverse section. 
* Dr. Manlius Smith, of Manlius, N.Y., has demonstrated that the footstalks are almost destitute of the active 
alkaline principle. (Ann. de Therap., 1873, p. 39.) 448 
Conium. 
PART I. 
fresh leaves has the odor of hemlock, and a nauseous taste, but does not produce narcotic 
effects. The decoction has little taste, and the extract resulting from its evaporation is nearly 
inert. From these facts it is inferable that the active principle, as it exists in the plant, is not 
volatile at 100° C. (212° F.), and, if soluble in water, is injured by a boiling heat. Alcohol 
and ether take up the narcotic properties of the leaves; and the ethereal extract, which is of 
a rich dark green color, is stated by Dr. A. T. Thomson to have the smell and taste oi the 
plant in perfection, and in the dose of half a grain to produce headache and vertigo. Upon 
destructive distillation, the leaves yield a very poisonous empyreumatic oil. Geiger was the 
first who obtained the active principle in a separate state, and proved it to be alkaline. It 
appears that there are two volatile substances in hemlock; one of them an oil, which is in 
very small quantity, and is obtained by simple distillation ; the other, the volatile alkaloid 
coniine, or conine, which is the active principle. As it exists in the plant in combination with 
an acid, it is not readily volatilized, but it freely comes over with the distillate when an 
alkali has been previously added. The acid of conium Peschier believed to be peculiar, and 
named coniic acid. Other observers assert that it is malic acid. Geiger obtained coniine by 
the following process. He distilled fresh hemlock with caustic potassa and water, neutralized 
with sulphuric acid the alkaline liquid which came over, evaporated this liquid to the con- 
sistence of syrup, added anhydrous alcohol so long as a precipitate of ammonium sulphate was 
afforded, separated this salt by filtration, distilled off the alcohol, mixed the residue with a 
strong solution of caustic potassa, and distilled anew. The coniine passed over with the water, 
from which it separated, floating on the surface in the form of a yellowish oil. According to 
Dr. Christison, an easier process is to distil cautiously a mixture of a strong solution of potassa 
and the alcoholic extract of the unripe fruit. Dr. J. Schorm suggests an improvement in the 
process, which yields a purer coniine, in Ber. d. Deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1881, 1765; also W. R., 
Dec 1881. As obtained by the above process, coniine is in the state of a hydrate, con- 
taining one-fourth of its weight of water and a little ammonia. From the former it may be 
freed by calcium chloride; from the latter, by exposing it under an exhausted receiver till it 
ceases to emit bubbles of gas. 
The fresh leaves or seeds should be employed in the preparation of coniine, as the alkaloid 
undergoes decomposition by time and exposure. The seeds contain most of this principle; but 
even in these it exists in very small proportion. From 6 pounds of the fresh and 9 of the 
dried seeds, Geiger obtained about an ounce of coniine; while from 100 pounds of the fresh 
herb he got only a draehm, and from the dried leaves none. Christison recommends the full- 
grown fruit while yet green, and states that 8 pounds will yield half an ounce of coniine 
hydrate, and contain much more. In relation to the relative strength of different parts of the 
plant, Dr. Manlius Smith, of New York, gives as the result of a series of carefully conducted 
experiments that the unripe fruit of the conium is far preferable to the dried leaves, and is 
even stronger than the full-grown fruit, that it may be dried without serious injury, and that a 
very active preparation may be made from it. He also found that full-grown fruit collected 
in August, and dried in the dark, retained its activity unimpaired for several years. This 
would appear to contradict in some measure previous opinions of the injurious effects of time. 
(P. J. Tr., Feb. 1869, 491-2.) Farr and Wright (P. J. Tr., 1896, 273) confirm the views of 
Dr. Harley and Manlius Smith, and affirm that green fruits are alone reliable. For a method 
of assaying conium fruit, by Schwickerath, see Pharm. Record, 1893, 282. 
Coniine, C8H17N, has been thoroughly studied by Hofmann (1881), who established the 
correct formula as given, instead of C8II15N, as it was formerly assumed, and Ladenburg (1886), 
who effected its synthesis from allyl pyridine by reduction with sodium in alcoholic solution: 
C6H4(C3H6)N —j— 8H = C6H10(C3H7)N. This reaction gives a-normalpropyl piperidine, which 
is optically inactive, but by the crystallization of its tartrate splits into coniine (dextro-rotatory) 
and a very similar laevo-rotatory coniine, just as racemic acid splits into dextro-rotatory and 
lmvo-rotatory tartaric acid. 
Coniine is in the form of a yellowish oily liquid, of sp. gr. 0-862, of a very acrid taste, and 
a strong penetrating odor, compared to that of the urine of mice, and recalling the smell of 
fresh hemlock, though not identical with it. In volatility it resembles the essential oils, readily 
rising with the vapor of boiling water, but when unmixed requiring for ebullition a tempera- 
ture of 166° C. (330-8° F.). It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and the fixed and volatile 
oils, and slightly so in water. It unites with about one-fourth of its weight of water to form a 
hydrate. It reddens turmeric, and neutralizes the acids, forming with them soluble salts, some 
of which are crystallizable. With tannic acid it forms an insoluble compound. Like am- Conium. 
449 
PART I. 
monia, it occasions a white cloud when approached by a rod moistened with hydrochloric acid; 
and the resulting hydrochloride is crystallizable, and not in the least deliquescent. The hydro- 
chloride may also be obtained as a brilliant crystalline mass by dissolving coniine in anhydrous 
ether and passing dry hydrochloric acid gas through the solution. The salt is very soluble in 
water and alcohol but insoluble in ether. It can be heated to 90° C. without decomposition, and 
melts at 218° C. Coniine coagulates albumen, and precipitates the salts of aluminum, copper, 
zinc, manganese, and iron. It also precipitates silver nitrate, but in excess redissolves the 
precipitate. Most of its salts are decomposed by evaporation. When exposed to the air, it 
speedily assumes a deep brown color, and is ultimately converted into a resinous matter, and 
into ammonia, which escapes. Under the influence of heat this change takes place with much 
greater rapidity. The presence of coniine may be detected in an extract or other preparation 
of hemlock by rubbing it with potassa, which instantly develops its peculiar odor* It is a 
most energetic poison. 
In association with coniine in the hemlock are found also the following bases: 
Ethyl-piperidine, C,H15N or C6H9((LH_)N. 
Methyl-coniine, C9H19N or C6H9(C3H7)N(CHa). 
Conhydrine, C8H17N0 or C6H9(CH0H.CH2.CH3)NH. 
Pseudo-conhydrine, C8H^7NO or C6H9(CH3.CH20II.CH)NH. 
Methyl-coniine, first obtained by Kekule and Yon Planta in commercial coniine, is of minor 
importance. 
Conhydrine is crystallizable, fusible below 100° C. (212° F.), and volatilizable at a higher 
temperature, diffusing the peculiar odor of coniine, or one very much like it. Water dissolves 
it considerably, ether and alcohol freely ; and the solution has a strong alkaline reaction. Its 
formula is given as C8H17NO. When distilled with anhydrous phosphoric oxide it splits into 
coniine and one molecule of water. (A. J. P., xxix. 321.) It may be separated from coniine 
by exposing the mixed alkaloids to a freezing mixture, expressing, and then repeatedly crystal- 
lizing from ether. ( Gmelin, xiii. 169.) E. Merck obtained a small quantity of a new alkaloid 
from the high-boiling portion of crude coniine. The isolation was accomplished by fractional 
distillation in vacuo and recrystallization. The alkaloid crystallizes in needles, is easily soluble 
in water, alcohol, ether, benzene, and chloroform, fuses at about 98° C., and boils at 230°— 
232° C. According to Ladenburg, the alkaloid is an isomer of conhydrine, having the formula 
C8H17NO, and for this reason the name pseudo-conhydrine was selected. (Chem. Centralbl., 
1891, 414; see also P. J. Tr., 1891, 1170.) 
Paraconiine. Coniine was supposed to have been artificially produced by Hugo Schiff. From 
the reaction of butyric aldehyde with an alcoholic solution of ammonia, he obtained two bases, 
one of which, dibutyraldine, yielded, on distillation, first a neutral oily substance, and after- 
wards a strong alkaline base, which proved to have the physiological properties of natural 
coniine, but was optically inactive, while true coniine is dextro-rotatory. Since the change in 
the formula of true coniine it will be seen that the base paraconiine, which is C8H16N, is not 
even isomeric with coniine. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Hemlock is supposed to be the narcotic used by the 
Athenians to destroy the life of condemned individuals, and by which Socrates and Phocion 
died. It was also used by the ancients as a medicine, but fell into entire neglect, and did not 
again come into notice till the time of Storck, by whom it was much employed and extrava- 
gantly praised. Though fatal to some animals, hemlock is eaten with impunity by others, as 
horses, goats, and sheep. Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, antaphrodisiac, deobstruent, and 
diuretic properties have been ascribed to it. It was highly recommended by Storck as a 
remedy in scirrhus and cancerous ulcers, and has since been employed in all kinds of chronic 
enlargements, and in diseases most numerous and most diverse. 
Modern research has, however, greatly limited the use of the medicine, rendering its pos- 
session of alterative properties extremely doubtful. When taken internally in sufficient dose 
it produces very profound muscular weakness, associated, it may be, with vertigo and disordered 
vision. After toxic doses the muscular prostration is extreme, the eyelids droop from weak- 
* Orfila gives the following additional chemical characters of coniine. Heated in a capsule, it forms white vapors 
having a strong smell of celery and of the urine of mice. Weak tincture of iodine gives a white precipitate, becoming 
olive with excess of the tincture. Pure concentrated sulphuric acid does not alter it; but when the mixture is heated, 
it becomes first brown, then blood-red, and finally black. Nitric acid imparts a topaz color, not changed by heat. 
Platinum and gold chlorides give yellow precipitates, and corrosive sublimate a white one. Potassium perman- 
ganate is immediately decolorized. Neutral lead acetate gives no precipitate, nor does the subacetate. The parts of 
this note in italics indicate the means of distinguishing this alkaloid from nicotine. (See P. J. Tr., xi. 89.) Conium. 
PART I. 
450 
ness, the voice is suppressed, the pupils dilated, the sight almost lost; consciousness is usually 
preserved to the last, and life finally is extinguished without struggle. In some cases there 
have been convulsive movements, and violent cardiac palpitation has been noted. The chief 
action of the poison is upon the motor nerves, which it paralyzes; the efferent or sensitive 
nerves are also affected, but to a much less extent. Conium probably exerts no direct influence 
upon the cerebral centres, but there is some reason for believing that it is a spinal depressant. 
At present conium is rarely employed by the general practitioner, except in spasmodic affec- 
tions, such as chorea and whooping-cough. Probably the most frequent use of it is by alienists 
for the production of calm in maniacal excitement. 
The juice of the fresh leaves of conium is much used in England, but the fluid extract of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, made from the fruit, is the best of all preparations. The powdered 
leaves may be given in the dose of three or four grains (0-20-0-26 Gm.) twice a day, gradually 
increased till the occurrence of slight vertigo or nausea indicates that it has taken effect. To 
maintain a given impression, it is necessary to increase the dose even more rapidly than is cus- 
tomary with most other narcotics, as the system becomes very speedily habituated to its influence. 
In some instances the quantity administered in one day has been augmented to more than two 
ounces. The strength of the preparations of hemlock is exceedingly unequal; and caution is 
therefore necessary, when the medicine is given in very large quantities, to employ the same parcel, 
or, if a change be made, to commence with the new parcel in small doses, so as to obviate any 
danger which might result from its greater power. Unpleasant consequences have followed a 
neglect of this precaution. There are also an official tincture, a fluid extract, and an alcoholic 
extract, all of which, when properly made, are considered efficient preparations. The expressed 
juice of the fresh plant, with a little alcohol for its preservation, is one of the most reliable 
forms in which the leaves can be used. The powdered seeds should be given in a dose consid- 
erably smaller than that of the leaves* The fresh leaves are sometimes used externally as an 
anodyne cataplasm ; and the extract, and an ointment prepared from the leaves, are applied 
to the same purpose. A plaster made from the extract has also been employed.f 
Coniine acts precisely as does hemlock, and may be used for the same purposes. The dose 
is from one-fourth to one-half drop (0-015 to 0-03 C.c.). A solution of one part in one hun- 
dred of very dilute alcohol has been used with advantage in certain cases of scrofubus ophthal- 
mia with photophobia, applied several times daily by friction about the eyelids. (Journ. de, 
Pharm., 3e ser., xix. 219.) Prof. Mauthner, ofATenna, recommends it especially in the spas- 
modic contraction of the orbicularis oculi in scrofulous children, using a solution containing 
half a grain of coniine in a drachm of almond oil, which he applies by a pencil to the eyelids 
twice or thrice daily. As a collyrium, from one to three drops may be added to six drachms 
of pure water, and two drachms of mucilage of quince seeds, the whole being carefully 
strained. 
Coniine hydrochlorate has been recommended for exhibition by Mr. G. C. Close, as prefer- 
able to the uncombined alkaloid. From half a grain he experienced no sensible effects; but a 
grain produced the characteristic symptoms of coniine in an even unpleasant degree. These 
doses are probably dangerous, and not more than a sixth of a grain (0-01 Gm.) should be 
given as a commencing dose. (A. J. P., 1869, p. 62.) Dr. Harley has prepared an acid coniine 
benzoate by adding two mols. of the acid to one of the base, and found the resulting salt effectual 
in the dose of half a grain. (P. J. Tr., Jan. 1871, p. 585.) According to Mourrut, one of 
the best crystallizable salts of coniine is the bromhydrate. The alkaloid is treated with aqueous 
bromhydric acid, which causes, especially with the brown variety of coniine, an elevation of 
temperature, and a disengagement of white fumes of the odor of coniine ; the mixture then 
turns green, and finally blackish red. The crystals, which form after some time, may be obtained 
quite colorless by repeated crystallizations. They are colorless prismatic needles, soluble in 
water and alcohol, less so in ether and chloroform, inodorous and almost tasteless, and are not 
deliquescent. They should be kept in the dark, otherwise they assume a red tint. The salt has 
been used by various practitioners with great success in the treatment of whooping-cough, in 
* The root, while containing a small proportion of coniine, is too feeble, according to the experiments of Dr. John 
Harley, of London, to be used practically with advantage. Dr. Harley has found in the root three new proximate 
principles, one a very bitter resin, which he names conamarine, and the two others crystallizable bodies, named re- 
spectively rhizoconin and rhizoconolein. They are all neutral, and, so far as known, medicinally inert. (See P. J. 
Tr., Aug. 1867.) 
t The following formula of Planche has been approved by the Society of Pharmacy of Paris. Take of extract 
of hemlock 90 parts, of purified elemi 20 parts, of white wax 10 parts. Melt the resin'and wax with a gentle heat, 
and incorporate the extract with the mixture. (Journ. de Pharm., Juillet, 1862, p. 46.) PART I. 
Convallaria. 
451 
doses of about one-twelfth of a grain (-005 Gm.), if necessary, every hour, for a child three 
years of age ; or one-thirtieth of a grain (-002 Gm.) for a child of one year; or one-sixth of a 
grain (-01 Gm.) for adults. In sciatica it has been employed hypodermically in quantities of one- 
twelfth of a grain (-005 Gm.) with good results. (Ripert. de Pharrn., 1876, p. 369 ; AT. P., 1876, 
1879, pp. 18, 178.) * 
CONVALLARIA. U. S. Convallaria. 
(CON-VAL-LA'RI-A.) 
“The rhizome and roots of Convallaria majalis, Linnd (nat. ord. Liliaceae).” U.S. 
Lily of the Valley; Lilium Convallium; Muguet, Fr.; Maiblumen, G. 
Gen. Ch. Perianth bell-shaped (white), six-lobed, deciduous; the lobes recurved. Stamens 
six, included, inserted on the base of the perianth ; anthers introrse. Ovary three-celled, taper- 
ing into a stout style ; stigma triangular. Ovules four to six in each cell. Berry few-seeded 
(red). Gray. 
The ordinary lily of the valley of the gardens is a low, perennial herb, having slender 
running root-stocks, which send up each spring from the scaly sheathing bud two oblong, 
bright green, smooth leaves, whose long sheathing petioles are so enrolled as to appear 
like a stalk, and producing in late spring or early summer a one-sided raceme of beautiful, 
sweet-scented, nodding, bell-shaped flowers, placed upon an angular scape. It is primarily a 
native of Europe, but may be found in America escaped from gardens, and a plant which 
grows wild in the higher Alleghanies from Central Virginia to South Carolina seems to be 
identical with it. The root-stock of the lily of the valley occurs in pieces two to three inches 
long, covered with a mass of contorted, fine, almost fibrous rootlets. It is much thicker at 
one end, to which are attached the remains of the petioles and scape, and rapidly or some- 
times almost abruptly tapers towards the smaller end. The long end is much gnarled and 
wrinkled, with leaf-scars. It is officially described as “ of horizontal growth and somewhat 
branched, about 3 Mm. thick, cylindrical, wrinkled, whitish, marked with few circular scars ; 
at the annulate joint with about eight or ten long, thin roots; fracture somewhat fibrous, 
white; odor peculiar, pleasant; taste sweetish, bitter, and somewhat acrid.” U. S. G. F. 
Walz found in lily of the valley convallarin and convallamarin. (A. J. P., 1859, p. 577.) Con- 
vallarin is in colorless rectangular prisms, scarcely soluble in water, but sufficiently so to render 
the solution acrid and to cause it when shaken to foam like soap and water. It is easily dis- 
solved by alcohol. Its composition is represented by the formula C34H62011, and it is de- 
composed by long boiling with dilute acids into sugar and convallaretin. It is a glucoside. 
Convallamarin is a white powder, very bitter and afterwards sweetish, soluble in water and 
alcohol, but not in ether. This also is a glucoside. Its composition is and it is de- 
composed by heating with dilute sulphuric acid into sugar and convallamaretin. For preparing 
convallamarin Tanret modifies Walz’s method, as follows. An alcoholic tincture made from 
the whole plant is precipitated with lead subacetate and filtered ; the excess of lead is re- 
moved with dilute sulphuric acid, avoiding the use of more than is necessary, and, after neu- 
tralizing, the tincture is distilled, the last portion of alcohol being driven off in the open air ; 
then the cooled and filtered liquor is treated with tannin, care being taken to keep the liquid 
neutral by cautiously adding a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. A compound of tannin 
and convallamarin is precipitated, which, after washing, is dissolved in 60° alcohol, the so- 
lution decolorized with charcoal, decomposed with zinc oxide, filtered, and evaporated to dry- 
ness. In this way convallamarin is obtained nearly white, and having the appearance of ordi- 
nary digitalin. To free it from the salts that are sometimes carried down by the tannin 
* Dr. Harley’s experiments on the relative value of the different preparations of conium are based upon their 
physiological effects. The results obtained were as follows. 1. The Extractum Conii, B. P., and Succus Conii, 
B. P.—20 grains of the extract equalled 2 fluidrachms of the juice (10 gr. to 4. Succus Conii, B. P.; Tinc- 
ture of the green fruit (London in : four drachms of the juice equalled fifty minims of the tincture 
to TIX50). 11. Different preparations of Succus, B. P., prepared by different persons,—Buckle’s (the plant yielding 
75 per cent, of juice) and Hanbury’s (the plant yielding 35 per cent, of juice): nine drachms of Buckle’s equalled 
three drachms of Hanbury’s (3ix to 5jiij). 12. Extract of green fruit, Tincture of green fruit, and Succus, B. P.— 
Three grains of the extract equalled four fluidrachms of the Tincture, and four drachms of Succus (gr. iij of 
extract = fgiv of Tincture, and %iv of Succus). 14. Of Squibb’8 fluid extract 50 minims equal of the Tinct. of the 
green fruit, London, 3'ss> of the Succus Conii, B. P., ; of the Tincture of the fresh plant, to 3ov; an(t of 
the Tincture of the dry plant, 15. Of Squibb’s fluid extract gj equals of pale Succus g vi, of dark Succus 
S>ij; of Tincture of the green fruit Jiss; of Tincture of the fresh plant 3iv; Neutral Coniine Benzoate, gr. f. 
18. Of Succus Conii, B. P. (Buckle’s), v.) — Coniine Benzoate, gr. £. The author draws the following conclu- 
sions from his experiments. The green fruit, as the basis of Tinctures and Extracts, is decidedly superior to any 
other part of the plant; and the spirituous extract of the green fruit should be substituted for the almost worthless 
Extract of the Br. Pharm. The variable strength of the Succus is an objection. (P. J. Tr., Jan. 1871, p. 585.) 452 
Convallaria.—Copaiba. 
PART I. 
precipitate, it is a good plan to redissolve it in 90° alcohol, filter, and then evaporate. One kilo- 
gramme of the fresh plant collected in the first .days of August yielded two grammes of conval- 
lamarin. (P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 423.) Taken internally the flowers are said to be emetic and 
cathartic, and their extract purges actively in the dose of half a drachm. They were formerly 
used in epilepsy and against worms. The root, which is also bitter, has similar purgative 
properties, and in powder is said to be sternutatory. 
Medical Properties. The lily of the valley is stated to have been long used in Russia 
for the relief of dropsy, and in 1880 Drs. Troitzky and Bojojawlewsky commended it highly 
to the notice of the profession in valvular heart disease. The effects on the system of con- 
vallarin and convallamarin have been investigated by Dr. H. Marme, of Germany, with the 
following results. Convallarin, in doses of 3 or 4 grains, acts as a purgative without observable 
inconvenience to the animals acted on; convallamarin, even in small doses, produces active 
vomiting, whether given by the mouth or injected into the subcutaneous tissue or directly into 
the veins. The latter principle acts especially on the heart, at first diminishing the number 
of its pulsations, and afterwards rendering them more frequent and irregular, and causing death 
in a few minutes after the introduction of the poison. The heart appears to be paralyzed, and 
cannot be excited after death. The principle acts on the heart through the vagi nerves. 
Prom 6 to 8 milligrammes (one-tenth to one-eighth of a grain) cause death when injected 
into the cervical vein in rabbits. (N. Y. Med. Journ., 1867 ; Schmidt's Jahrbuch., 1867, v.) The 
physiological action of convallarin has been investigated by a number of observers, with con- 
trary results. Prof. See finds that in the dog it slows the action of the heart and increases 
the blood-pressure decidedly; whilst Leubuscher states that in no doses whatever does it ele- 
vate the arterial pressure. Ott, Coze, and Simon find that the heart is arrested in systole "r 
Sbe, that the arrest is diastolic ; whilst Lowenthal, using the same preparation in exactly the 
same manner and dose upon different animals of the same species, obtained diverse results. 
Nathanson asserts that the confusion is largely due to the impurity and lack of genuineness in 
the products used; even Dr. Merck having admitted the impurity of his commercial convalla- 
marin. Nathanson found that convallarin produced in man, when given in doses of 0-06 to 
0-12 gramme, three or four times daily, only nausea, diarrhoea, and gastric pain ; while conval- 
lamarin administered in daily amounts, gradually increasing from 0-03 to 0-3 gramme, re- 
duced the rate of the pulse and markedly increased the flow of urine, only in very rare cases 
causing nausea or vomiting. In cardiac dropsy See gives, of an aqueous extract of the whole 
plant, 15 to 23 grains a day ; Bojojawlewsky each day 50 to 100 grains of the plant in infusion. 
(See Extractum Convallarise Fluidum.) 
COPAIBA. U. S., Br. Copaiba. [Balsam of Copaiba.] 
(CO-PA'I-BA.) 
“ The oleoresin of Copaiba Langsdorffii (Desfontaines), 0. Kuntze, and of other species of 
Copaiba* (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” U. S. “The oleo-resin obtained from the trunk of 
Copaifera Lansdorfii, Desf., and other species of Copaifera, Linn.” Br. 
Balsamum Copaiva, P. G.; Balsam Copaiba, Balsam Capivi; Copahu, Oleo-resine (Baume) de Copahu, Fr.; 
Copaiva; Copaiva-Balsam, G.; Balsamo di Copaiba, It.: Balsamo de Copayva, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Petals four. Legume ovate. Seed one, with an ovate arillus. WiUd. 
Copaiba was first noticed in a work published by Purchas, in England, in 1625. The next 
reference to it was by Cristoval d’Acuna, in 1638. In 1648, Marcgraf and Piso gave a de- 
tailed account of the tree which produces it, and the methods of gathering it. Jacquin in 
1763 described a species of Copaifera, growing in Martinique, which he named C. officinalis. 
As this was believed to be the same plant with the one observed by Marcgraf in Brazil, it was 
adopted in the Pharmacopoeias; but their identity was denied ; and Desfontaines proposed for 
Jacquin’s species the title of C. jacquini, in honor of that botanist. It is now known that 
many species of Copaifera exist in Brazil and other parts of South America; and all of them, 
according to Martius, yield copaiba. Besides C. officinalis or C. jacquini, the following are 
described by Hayne : C. guianensis, C. langsdorffii, C. coriacea, C. beyrichii, C. martii, C. bijuga, 
C. nitida, C. laxa, C. cordifolia, C.jussieui, C. sellowii, C. oblongifolia, and C. multijuga. Hayne 
believed that C. bijuga was the plant seen by Marcgraf and Piso. The four species to which 
in the Pharmacographia the production of copaiba is especially attributed are C. officinalis, 
L., C. guianensis, Desf., C. coriacea, Mart., and C. langsdorffii. 
* The change of the generic name from Copaifera to Copaiba is another sacrifice to botanical reform. Prof. H. 
H. Rnsby very properly says that this reform, as embodied in Kuntze’s Revisio Generum, “ will cause complete confu- 
sion.” The generic records are said to be as follows: Copaiba, Mill., Gard. Diet. (1739); Copaiva, L., Mat. Med. 
(1749), fide 0. Kuntze; Copaifera, L., Gen. (1762), fide 0. Kuntze. PART I. 
Copaiba. 
453 
C. officinalis is a native of Venezuela, and grows in the province of Carthagena, mingled 
with the trees which afford the balsam of Tolu. It grows also in some of the West India 
islands, particularly Trinidad and Martinique. Though recognized in former editions of the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia as a source of copaiba, it probably yields little of that now in use. Ac- 
cording to Hayne (x. t. 17 f. c.), the species from which most of the copaiba of commerce is 
derived is C. multijuga, growing in the Brazilian province of Para. It was recognized by 
the U. S. P. 1870 ; but Bentham, after examining the only specimens extant, asserts it not to 
be a Copaifera at all. It is probable that C. guianensis, which inhabits the neighboring 
territory of Guiana, especially in the vicinity of the Rio Negro, affords also considerable 
quantities; and C. langsdorffii and C. coriacea, which are natives of the province of Sao Paulo, 
are thought to yield most of the juice collected in that section of Brazil. C. nitida, inhabit- 
ing the province of Minas Geraes, probably also contributes to the commercial supplies through 
the port of Rio Janeiro. 
The juice is obtained by making a square chamber in the stems of the trees, reaching 
to the very centre; and the operation is said to be repeated several times during the same 
season. It is asserted that a single tree will yield about eighty-four English Imperial pints. 
As it flows from the wound, it is clear, colorless, and very thin, but it soon acquires a thicker 
consistence, and a yellowish tinge. It is most largely collected in the provinces of Para 
and Maranham, in Brazil, and is brought to this country from the port of Para, in small 
casks or barrels. Large quantities of it come from Maracaibo, in Venezuela, and from other 
ports on the Caribbean Sea, whence it is brought in casks, demijohns, cans, jugs, etc. The 
drug is also exported from Angostura, Cayenne, Rio Janeiro, and some of the West 
islands. African copaiba, from West Africa, appeared in the London markets in 1891. (See 
P. J. Tr., 1891, 449 ; 1893, 215.) 
Properties. Copaiba is a clear, transparent liquid, usually of the consistence of olive oil, 
of a pale yellow color, a peculiar not unpleasant odor, and a bitterish, hot, nauseous taste. Its 
sp. gr. varies ordinarily from 0 950 to 1-000, but has been known to be as low as 0-916. 
(Procter, A. J. P., xxii. 292;* “from 0-916 to 0-993.” Br.) It is insoluble in water, but 
entirely soluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and the fixed and volatile oils. Strong alkaline 
solutions dissolve it perfectly; but the resulting solution becomes turbid when largely diluted 
with water. With the alkalies and alkaline earths it forms saponaceous compounds, in which 
the resin of the copaiba acts the part of an acid. It dissolves magnesia, especially with the 
aid of heat, and even disengages carbonic acid from the carbonate of that earth. If triturated 
with a sixteenth of its weight of magnesia and set aside, it gradually assumes a solid consist- 
ence ; and a similar change is produced with calcium hydrate. (See Massa Copaibse.) Its 
essential constituents are volatile oil and resin, with at times small quantities of acids. As it 
contains no benzoic acid, it cannot with propriety retain its old title of balsam of copaiva. 
The substances which it most closely resembles, both in composition and in properties, are the 
turpentines. (See Oleum Copaibse.) For a description of an apparatus for distilling the vola- 
tile oil, see a paper by R. A. Cripps in Chemist and Druggist, 1892, 282. Cripps found 
commercial copaiba to contain the following percentages of volatile oil: 40-95, 45, 45-3, 46-4, 
47-8, 48-2, 49-6, 50-4, 50-8, 53-3, 59-6. J. C. Umney (A. J. P, 1893, 544) found in African 
copaiba 39 per cent, of an oil of 0-918 specific gravity and with a rotation of -|- 20° 42', the 
last character distinguishing it from the other varieties which yield laevo-rotatory oils. 
“ A transparent or translucent, more or less viscid liquid, of a pale yellow to brownish-yel- 
low color, having a peculiar, aromatic odor, and a bitter and acrid taste. Specific gravity: 
0-940 to 0-990 at 15° C. (59° F.). Insoluble in water; readily soluble in absolute alcohol, 
ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide, benzin, and fixed and volatile oils. It yields a trans- 
parent mixture with one-third of its volume of ammonia water. When Copaiba is heated, it 
should not evolve the odor of turpentine. When the volatile oil has been completely driven 
off by heating Copaiba in a flat-bottomed capsule, the residue, when cold, should be amor- 
phous, transparent, and friable (absence of fixed oils'). Copaiba should not be fluorescent, and, 
when heated to 130° C. (266° F.), it should not become gelatinous. On adding 1 drop of 
* The variety of copaiba found by Prof. Procter to have this low sp. gr. was supposed to be from Para. It was 
of a light straw color, very fluid, and possessed of the pure copaiba odor. It contained 80 per cent, of volatile oil 
and 20 of resin, and was not affected by recently calcined magnesia. It appears to be the same with a variety de- 
scribed by Dr. L. Posselt in the Chemical Gazette for May 1, 1849. The view of Prof. Procter that it is the product 
of young trees, in which the juice has not become fully elaborated, is highly probable. As the virtues of copaiba 
depend mainly on the oil, this variety should be more efficacious than the copaiba in common use. 454 
Copaiba. 
PART I. 
Copaiba to 19 drops of carbon disulphide, and shaking the mixture with 1 drop of a cold mix- 
ture of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids, it should not acquire a purplish-red or violet 
color (absence of gurjun balsam).” U. S. “ The volatile oil should be present to the extent 
of at least 40 per cent., should rotate the plane of a ray of polarized light from 28° to 34° to 
the left (absence of African copaiba), and should not boil under 482° F. (250° C.).” Br. 
The resinous mass which remains after the distillation of the oil is hard, brittle, translucent, 
greenish brown, and nearly destitute of smell and taste. By mixing it with the oil in proper 
proportion, we may obtain a liquid identical or nearly so with the original juice. This resin- 
ous mass is of an acid character, and yields a series of amorphous salts. It may be obtained 
pure by exposing a mixture of 9 parts of copaiba and 2 parts of aqueous ammonia (sp. gr. 
0-95) to a temperature of 10° C. In this way crystals of copaivic add, C20H3002, are ob- 
tained. This acid agrees with the abietic add of colophony in composition, but not in proper- 
ties. Copaivic acid is readily soluble in alcohol, and especially in warmed copaiba itself; much 
less in ether. When recrystallized from alcohol, copaivic acid fuses at 116°-117° C. (241°— 
242-6° F.). (A. J. P., 1879, p. 305.) An analogous substance, oxycopaivic add, C20H2803, 
was found in 1841 by H. von Fehling in Para copaiba; and Strauss in 1865 extracted meta- 
copaivic add, C22H3404, from Maracaibo copaiba. Copaivic acid forms crystallizable salts with 
alkalies, and sodium copaivate, NaC20H2902, made by combining molecular quantities of the 
acid and soda, is asserted by Zlarnal and Roquette to be more efficient than any other prep- 
aration of copaiba. A misdble copaiba proposed by Groves was made by treating copaiba with 
a saturated solution of potassium carbonate. It resembled ordinary copaiba in appearance and 
consistence, but was alkaline, and when shaken with water, instead of floating on the surface, 
readily formed a white emulsion, more or less stable according to the degree of dilution. (P. 
J; Tr., ix. 195.) 
Copaiba, upon exposure to the air, acquires a deeper color, a thicker consistence, and greater 
density, and, if spread out upon an extended surface, ultimately becomes dry and brittle. This 
change is owing partly to the volatilization and partly to the oxidation of the essential oil. As it 
is the soft resin that results from the oxidation of the oil, it follows that the proportion of this 
resin increases with age. Considerable diversity must, therefore, exist in the drug, both in 
physical properties and in the properties of its ingredients, according to its age and degree of 
exposure. Similar differences also exist in the copaiba procured from different sources. Thus, 
that of the West Indies, when compared with the Brazilian, which is the variety above de- 
scribed, and in common use, is of a thicker consistence, of a deeper or darker yellow color, 
less transparent, and of a less agreeable, more terebinthinate odor; and specimens obtained 
from the ports of Venezuela or Colombia were found, upon examination by M. Vigne, to differ 
from each other not only in physical properties, but also in their chemical relations. (Journ. 
de Pliarm., N. S., i. 52.) The same is true, as observed by M. Buignet, of their action on 
polarized light, in which they differ not only in degree, but sometimes also even in direction. 
(Journ. de Pliarm., Oct. 1861, pp. 266-7.) It is not impossible that differences may exist in 
the juice according to the circumstances of its collection. The species of Copaifera from 
which the juice is collected, as well as the age of the tree, its position, and the season of col- 
lection, must also have influence over the product. It is highly probable that the resinous 
matter results from oxidation of the oil in the cells of the plant, and that the less elaborated 
the juice may be, the larger proportion it will contain of the oil. It is said that a volatile oil 
flows abundantly from a tree near Bogota, which is employed to adulterate the copaiba collected 
in that vicinity and shipped from Maracaibo and other neighboring ports. 
Adulterations. Copaiba is often adulterated* with a fixed oil, especially castor oil, which, 
in consequence of its solubility, cannot, like the others, be detected by alcohol. Various plans 
have been proposed for recognizing the castor oil. The simplest is to boil a drachm of the 
copaiba in a pint of water till the liquid is wholly evaporated. If the copaiba contain a fixed 
oil, the residue will be more or less soft, according to the quantity present; otherwise it will be 
hard. Magnesium carbonate, caustic potassa, and sulphuric acid have also been proposed as 
tests. In the late Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia it was stated that copaiba “ dissolves a fourth part 
of its weight of magnesium carbonate, with the aid of a gentle heat, and continues translucent.” 
The presence of a small proportion of any fixed oil renders the mixture opaque. One part of 
* Some years since, a substance was imported into New York, under the name of red copaiba, which did not 
possess a single characteristic of the genuine drug. It was of a thick, semi-fluid consistence, not unlike that of 
balsam of Tolu, as it often reaches us, of a brown color similar to that of the same balsam, though darker, and of an 
unpleasant yet somewhat aromatic odor, recalling that of liquidambar, but less agreeable. Its origin is unknown. Copaiba. 
455 
PART I. 
potassa dissolved in two of water forms a clear solution with nine parts of pure copaiba, and 
the liquid continues clear when moderately diluted with water or alcohol; but the presence of 
one-sixth of fixed oil in the copaiba occasions more or less opacity in the liquid, and half the 
quantity causes the precipitation of white flakes in a few hours. (Stolze.) Turpentine, which 
is said to be sometimes added to copaiba, may be detected by its smell, especially if the copaiba 
be heated. According to Mr. Redwood, most of the proposed tests of the purity of copaiba are 
liable to fallacy; and the best measure of its activity is the quantity of volatile oil it affords 
by distillation. Castor oil, Venice turpentine, linseed oil, or gurjun balsam may be detected 
by means of petroleum benzin, which makes a clear solution with pure copaiba, but if either 
of the substances mentioned be present a milky mixture, which soon settles into two layers, is 
formed, the copaiba solution being on top (A. J. P., July, 1873; Proc. A. P. A., xxiv. 191, 
xxvi. 286). Prof. Maisch has found that ten volumes of benzin, instead of three as proposed 
by Prof. Wayne, must be added to one of copaiba to get the best results from this test. In- 
deed, it has been shown that pure copaiba will sometimes show turbidity when mixed with 
benzin. (A. J. P., 1877, p. 131.) Hager recommends the use of absolute alcohol, which he 
says completely dissolves, without turbidity, all the varieties of copaiba except the Para, whose 
solution on standing clears itself by the deposition of a few white flakes. J. M. Fulton asserts 
that some pure copaibas are not entirely dissolved by absolute alcohol. (A. J. P, 1877.) For 
additional tests and criticisms by Beckurts and Brueche, see Arch. d. Pharm., 1891, p. 90 ; also 
Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., 1892, 635. For Hager’s test, see Chem. and Drug., 1894, 740. 
Dodge and Olcott (Amer. Drug., 1895, 5) describe a test to detect gurjun balsam in copaiba, 
which Kebler regards as the most reliable yet proposed; it is as follows. Four drops of the 
suspected sample, dissolved in half a fluidounce of glacial acetic acid, will, if pure, remain color- 
less and clear, or but slightly cloudy, if from four to six drops of pure nitric acid be dropped 
into the solution. If the sample be pure gurjun balsam, the mixture will have a deep purple 
color; if a mixture of the two balsams, the depth of color will vary according to the amount 
of the adulterant, as small a proportion as 2 per cent, being discoverable. (See also A. J. P., 
1896, 143, and 1897, 394.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Copaiba is gently stimulant, diuretic, laxative, and in 
very large doses often actively purgative. It produces, when swallowed, a sense of heat in the 
throat and stomach, and extends an irritant action not only throughout the alimentary canal, 
but also to the urinary passages, and in fact, in a greater or less degree, to all the mucous 
membranes, for which it appears to have a strong affinity. The urine acquires a peculiar odor 
during its use, and its smell may be detected in the breath. It sometimes occasions an erup- 
tion upon the skin resembling that of measles, and attended with disagreeable itching and tin- 
gling, or even violent pemphigus. (N. Y. Med. Journ., Jan. 1873, p. 416.) Nausea and vomiting, 
painful purgation, strangury and bloody urine, and a general state of fever are caused by ex- 
cessive doses. As a remedy it has been found most efficient in diseases of the mucous mem- 
branes, particularly those of a chronic character. Thus, it is given with occasional advantage 
in leucorrhoea, chronic cystitis, chronic dysentery, diarrhoea, hemorrhoids, chronic bronchitis, and 
psoriasis. The complaint, however, in which it is most employed is gonorrhoea. It should not 
be administered in the first stages, when the inflammation is severe and acute, nor is it appli- 
cable to very chronic, indolent forms of the disorder, such as gleet. It was formerly much 
esteemed as a vulnerary, and as an application to ulcers ; but it is now seldom used externally. 
Dr. Ruschenberger recommends it locally in chilblains. (Med. Examiner, i. 77.) 
Both the volatile oil and the resin are eliminated by the kidneys in an altered condition: if to 
the urine of a person taking the drug nitric acid be added, a precipitate is thrown down, which 
may be mistaken for albumen. The volatile oil is more active than is the resin, which is not, 
however, inert. Dr. Wilks, of Guy’s Hospital, London, speaks of the resin with great confi- 
dence as a hydragogue diuretic in obstinate dropsy, given in the dose of fifteen or twenty 
grains three times a day. 
The dose of copaiba is from twenty drops to a fluidrachm (1 -25-3-75 C.c.) three times a 
day, or a smaller quantity repeated more frequently. It may be given dropped on sugar, but 
in this form is often so exceedingly offensive as to render some concealment of its nauseous 
qualities necessary. A less disagreeable form is that of emulsion, prepared by rubbing the 
copaiba first with mucilage or the yolk of an egg, and sugar, and afterwards with some aro- 
matic water, as that of mint or cinnamon. The volatile oil, which is official, may be given in 
the dose of ten or fifteen drops, in emulsion, or, as is almost universally preferred, in capsules. 456 
Coriandrum.—Creosotum. 
PART I. 
CORIANDRUM. U. S. (Br.) Coriander. 
(co-ri-Xn'drum.) 
“ The fruit of Coriandrum sativum, Linne (nat. ord. Umbelliferae).” U. S. “ The dried ripe 
fruit of Coriandrum sativum.” Br. 
Coriandri Fructus, Br.; Coriander Fruit; Fructus Coriandri, P. G.; Coriandre, Fr.; Koriander, G.; Coriandro, 
It.; Cilantro, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla radiate. Petals inflex-emarginate. Universal involucre one-leafed. Partial 
involucres halved. Fruit spherical. Willd. 
Coriandrum sativum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1448; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 137, t. 53. This is 
an annual plant, with an erect, round, smooth, branching stem, rising about two feet, and fur- 
nished with compound leaves, of which the upper are thrice ternate, 
with linear pointed leaflets, the lower pinnate, with the pinnae cut into 
irregular serrated lobes like those of parsley. The flowers are white or 
rose-colored, and in compound terminal umbels ; the fruit globular, and 
composed of two concave hemispherical portions. C. sativum is a 
native of Italy, but at present grows wild in most parts of Europe, 
having become naturalized in consequence of its extended cultivation. 
The flowers appear in June, and the fruit ripens in August. It is a 
singular fact that all parts of the fresh plant are extremely fetid when 
bruised, while the fruit becomes fragrant by drying. This is the official 
portion. It is brought to us from Europe. 
The fruit of the coriander is globular, about an eighth of an inch in 
diameter, obscurely ten-ribbed, with minute indications of secondary ribs in the furrows, of a 
grayish or brownish-yellow color, and separable into the two mericarps (half-fruits), which 
are only bound together by the membranous pericarp. Each half-fruit is provided with two 
oil-tubes on the conjoining face. The whole fruit has the persistent calyx at its base, and is 
sometimes surmounted by the adhering conical style. Coriander is thus described by the 
U. S. Pharm.: “ Globular; about one-sixth of an inch (4 mm.) in diameter; crowned with the 
calyx-teeth and stylopod ; brownish-yellow, with slight longitudinal ridges ; the two mericarps 
cohering, enclosing a lenticular cavity, and each furnished on the face with two oil-tubes; odor 
and taste agreeably aromatic.” U. S. The aromatic taste and smell depend on a volatile oil, 
which may be obtained separate by distillation. One pound of the seeds yields forty-two 
grains of the oil. (Zeller.) This is colorless or pale yellow, with an agreeable odor of cori- 
ander, a mild aromatic taste, and a sp. gr. varying from 087 to 0-88. Its main constituent, 
according to Semmler (Ber. der Chem. Gesell, xxiv. 206), is what was first called coriandrol, 
but is now recognized as linalool, C10H180, boiling between 194° and 198° C. Besides this, 
about 5 per cent, of dextro-pinene was isolated, boiling between 156° and 160° C. It is one 
of the most permanent of the volatile oils, resisting oxidation for a long time. The virtues 
of the fruit are imparted to alcohol by maceration, and less readily to water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Coriander is a rather feeble aromatic. It is almost 
exclusively employed in combination with other medicines, either to cover their taste, to render 
them acceptable to the stomach, or to correct their griping qualities. It was well known to 
the ancients. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm (1*3—3-9 Gm.). 
Transverse section mag- 
nified. 
CREOSOTUM. U. S., Br. Creosote. 
(CKE-O-SO'TUM.) 
“ A mixture of phenols, chiefly guaiaeol and creosol, obtained during the distillation of 
wood-tar, preferably of that derived from the beech, Fagus sylvatica, Linne (nat. ord. Cupu- 
liferrn).” U. S. “ A mixture of guaiaeol, creosol, and other phenols ; obtained in the distillation 
of wood-tar.” Br. 
Creasotum, Br. (1885), Creasote; Kreosotum, P. G.; Creosote, Fr.; Kreosot, G 
This is a substance discovered in 1830 by Reichenbaeh in the products of the distillation of 
wood. This distillation of wood yields products very analogous to one fraction of the coal-tar 
obtained by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal. This fraction is the heavy oil of 
coal-tar, which comes over between 165° C. (329° F.) and 200° C. (392° F.) : it is often called 
* The official name of this compound was changed in theU. S. P. (1S90) from “creasotum” to “ creosotum.” This 
alteration, in our opinion, is of doubtful utility: the original name is in accord with the etymological orthography. PART I. 
Creosotum. 
457 
“ coal-tar creosote,” and contains a group of phenols, including carbolic acid, or common phenol, 
C6H60, boiling at 182° C. (359-6° F.), ct'esylic acid, or cresol, C7HaO, boiling at 198° C. (388-4° 
F.), and xylenol, or dimethyl phenol, C8H100, boiling at 211° C. (411-8° F.). Wood-tar is a 
complex mixture of phenoloid bodies. These are chiefly the acid methylic ethers of catechol 
(or pyrocatechin) and its homologues. We may mention as the chief constituents— 
A. Monohydric Phenols. 
Phenol, or carbolic acid CgllsOH. 
Paracresol C6H4(CHs)OH. 
Xylenol, or phlorol C6H3(CH3)20H. 
B. Methylic Ethers of Dihydric Phenols. 
Guaiacol C6H4(OCH3)OH. 
Creosol C6Hs(CH3)0CH3.0H. 
Homocreosol C6H2(CH3)2OCH30H. 
Coerolignol C6H3(C3H7)OCH*OH. 
C. Methylic Ethers of Trihydric Phenols. 
Dimethyl pyrogallate C6H3(OCH3)2OH. 
Dimethyl methyl-pyrogallate C6H2(CIl3)(OCH3)2OH. 
Dimethyl propyl-pyrogallate (picamar) C6lI2(C3H7)(OCH3)2OH. 
Methyl propyl-pyrogallate C6H2(C3H7)(OCH3)(OH)2. 
{Allen’s Com. Org. Analysis, 2d ed., vol. ii. p. 565.) 
Preparation. Creosote is obtained either from wood-tar or from crude pyroligneous acid. 
When wood-tar is used, it is distilled until it has attained the consistence of pitch. The dis- 
tilled liquid divides itself into three layers, an aqueous between two oily layers. The inferior 
oily layer, which alone contains the creosote, is separated, and saturated with sodium carbon- 
ate to remove acetic acid. The liquid is allowed to rest, and the new oil which separates is 
decanted from it. This oil is distilled, and yields products lighter than water, and a liquid 
heavier. The latter alone is preserved, and, after having been agitated repeatedly with weak 
phosphoric acid to neutralize ammonia, is allowed to remain at rest for some time. It is next 
washed as long as acidity is removed, and then distilled with a fresh portion of weak phos- 
phoric acid, care being taken to cohobate from time to time. The oily liquid thus rectified is 
colorless, and contains much creosote, but also a portion of light oil distillate. To separate 
the latter, the liquid is mixed with a solution of caustic soda of the density 1-12, which 
dissolves the creosote, but not the light oil. The oil, which floats from its levity, is then 
separated ; and the alkaline solution of the creosote is exposed to the air, until it becomes 
brown in consequence of the decomposition of a foreign matter, and is then saturated with 
sulphuric acid. This sets free the creosote, which is decanted, and again distilled. The treat- 
ment by solution of soda, sulphuric acid, etc., is to be repeated until the creosote no longer 
becomes brown by exposure to the air, but only slightly reddish. It is then dissolved in a 
stronger solution of soda, and distilled again, and finally redistilled for the last time, rejecting 
the first portion which comes over, on account of its containing much water, collecting the next 
portion, and avoiding to push the distillation too far. The product collected in this distillation 
is creosote. 
When creosote is extracted from pyroligneous acid, the first step is to dissolve sodium sul- 
phate in it to saturation. The oil which separates and floats above is decanted, and, having 
been allowed to remain at rest for a few days, is saturated by potassium carbonate with the 
assistance of heat, and distilled with water. The oleaginous liquid obtained is of a pale yel- 
low color, and is to be treated with phosphoric acid, etc., as above detailed, in relation to the 
treatment of the corresponding oil obtained from wood-tar. 
Properties. Creosote, when pure, is a colorless oleaginous liquid, of the consistence of 
oil of almonds, slightly greasy to the touch, volatilizable by heat, and having a caustic, burning 
taste, and a penetrating, disagreeable odor, like that of smoked meat, and analogous to, yet 
different from, that of phenol. As met with in commerce, it has frequently a brownish tinge. 
It burns with a sooty flame. Applied in a concentrated state to the skin, it corrugates and 
then destroys the cuticle, causing a white spot. On paper it leaves a greasy stain, which 
disappears in a few hours, or in ten minutes if heated to 100° C. (212° F.). Its sp. gr. is 
1-057 at 55° (Gorup-Besanez), 1-035-1-085 ( JJ. S.), 1-079 (Br.). It boils between 200° and 
220° C., and remains fluid at —27° C. (—17° F.). It is a non-conductor of electricity, and 
refracts light strongly. It is devoid of acid or alkaline reaction. Mixed with water, it forms 
two layers: one consisting of one part of creosote and about eighty of water, the other, of one 
part of water and ten of creosote. It dissolves a large proportion of iodine and phosphorus, 
and a considerable amount of sulphur, especially when assisted by heat. Allen states that 
in Bhenish creosote guaiacol predominates, while a sample of Morson’s creosote from “ Stock- 
holm tar,” examined by him, boiled at about 217° C., and consisted chiefly of creosol. 458 
Creosotum. 
PART I. 
The Pharmacopoeia describes creosote as “ an almost colorless, yellowish or pinkish, highly 
refractive, oily liquid, having a penetrating, smoky odor, and a burning, caustic taste; usually 
becoming darker in tint on exposure to light. Specific gravity: not below 1-070 at 15° C. 
(59° F.). Soluble in about 150 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), but without forming a per- 
fectly clear solution. With 120 parts of hot water it forms a clear liquid which on cooling 
becomes turbid from the separation of minute oily drops. The filtrate from this yields a red- 
dish-brown precipitate with bromine test-solution (distinction from carbolic acid). Soluble, in 
all proportions, in absolute alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzin, carbon disulphide, acetic acid, 
and fixed and volatile oils. It begins to boil at about 205° C. (402-8° F.), and most of it dis- 
tils over between 205° and 215° C. (401° and 419° F.). When it is cooled to —20° C. (—4° 
F.), it becomes gelatinous, but does not solidify (difference from carbolic acid). It is inflam- 
mable, burning with a luminous, smoky flame. Creosote is neutral, or only faintly acid to 
litmus paper. On mixing equal volumes of Creosote and collodion in a dry test-tube, no co- 
agulum should form. If 1 volume of Creosote be mixed with 1 volume of glycerin, a nearly 
clear mixture will result from which the Creosote will separate on the addition of 1 or more 
volumes of water. On adding to 10 C.c. of a saturated, aqueous solution of Creosote 1 drop 
of ferric chloride test-solution, the liquid will acquire a violet-blue tint which rapidly changes 
to greenish and brown, with formation, usually, of a brown precipitate. (The preceding three 
tests show difference from and absence of notable quantities of carbolic acid.) On mixing 2 
C.c. of Creosote with 8 C.c. of a 7’5-per-cent. solution of sodium hydrate, a clear, pale yel- 
lowish liquid results which becomes turbid when diluted with water, but clears up after 50 C.c. 
have been added (absence of neutral oils). If 1 C.c. of Creosote be mixed with a warm, 20- 
per-cent. solution of potassium hydrate in absolute alcohol, a solid crystalline mass will form 
upon cooling. If 1 C.c. of Creosote be shaken with 2 C.c. of benzin and 2 C.c. of freshly 
prepared barium hydrate test-solution, upon separating, the benzin should not be blue or muddy, 
and the aqueous layer should not have a red tint (absence of coerulignol and some other high- 
boiling constituents of wood-tar)." U. S. The British Pharmacopoeia describes Creosote as 
follows: “ A colorless or yellowish highly refractive liquid, having a strong empyreumatic 
odor and acrid taste ; neutral or only faintly acid to litmus. It is dissolved by about 150 parts 
of water at ordinary temperatures, and is more soluble in hot water. It is freely soluble in 
alcohol (90 per cent.), ether, chloroform, glycerin, and glacial acetic acid. Specific gravity, not 
below 1-079. It distils between 392° F. (200° C.) and 428° F. (220° C.). A 1 per cent, 
solution in alcohol (90 per cent.), or a half per cent, solution in water, with a drop of the test- 
solution of ferric chloride, yields a green coloration, rapidly changing to a reddish brown. It 
rotates the plane of a ray of polarized light to the left. Dropped on white filtering paper and 
exposed to a temperature of 212° F. (100° C.), it leaves no translucent stain (absence of less 
volatile liquids). It is miscible with an equal volume of collodion without gelatinization ; and, 
when shaken with 5 times its bulk of solution of ammonia, its volume should not be diminished 
materially (distinction from phenol).” 
Creosote instantly dissolves ammonia, and retains it with great force. Strong nitric and 
sulphuric acids decompose it, the former giving rise to reddish vapors, the latter to a red 
color, which becomes black on the addition of more of the acid. Dilute nitric acid converts 
it into a brown resin, which, treated with ammonia, and then dissolved in boiling alcohol, 
gives, by evaporation, certain salts of ammonia, two of which contain new acids, discovered 
by Laurent. Hydrochloric acid produces no change in it. Mr. Morson, of London, gives 
a test based on the solvent power of glycerin over carbolic acid, which is dissolved by it 
in all proportions, while pure creosote is insoluble or nearly so; and, consequently, if any 
liquid assumed to be creosote dissolves largely in glycerin, it probably consists in the whole, or 
in large part, of carbolic acid. Subsequent experiments appear to show that this test succeeds 
best with Morson’s creosote; and beech-wood creosote, although pure, sometimes mixes with 
glycerin without turbidity. Hager has modified Morson’s test by using a mixture of 3 parts 
absolute glycerin and 1 part water. With this fairly good results are obtained, according 
to Allen. A still better test, according to Mr. John A. Clark, is an alcoholic solution of iron 
perchloride ( Tinct. Ferri Perchlor., Br.), which with an alcoholic solution of creosote produces 
a deep greenish-blue color, but with carbolic acid a light brown. (A. J. P., June, 1873, 
269.) Creosote dissolves a large number of metallic salts, and reduces some of them to the 
metallic state; as, for example, silver nitrate and acetate. Froehdes reagent (a solution of 1 
part of molybdic acid in 100 parts of sulphuric acid) is recommended by E. W. Davy as a 
distinguishing test for carbolic acid. (P. J. IV., 1878, 1022.) A drop or two of the doubt- Creosotum. 
459 
PART I. 
ful liquid is to be agitated with two fluidrachms of distilled water, the whole filtered, and a 
drop or two of thie test-solution added. Pure creosote gives a brown or reddish-brown reaction 
on standing or slight warming, passing to a light yellowish brown; with carbolic acid, the 
brown passing to a maroon soon develops a more or less intense purple. Of all the properties 
of creosote, the most remarkable is its power of preserving meat. It is this property which 
has suggested its name, derived from xpeat;, flesh, and a I preserve. 
Impurities and Adulterations. Creosote is apt to contain eupion, and is sometimes 
adulterated with rectified oil of tar and the fixed and volatile oils. All these substances are 
detected by strong acetic acid, which dissolves the creosote, and leaves them behind, floating 
above the creosote solution. Creosote from beech-wood tar, however, is only partially dissolved 
by hot acetic acid of ordinary strength. Fixed oils are also discovered by a stain on paper not 
discharged by heat. Any trace of the matter which produces the brownish tinge is detected 
by the liquid becoming discolored by exposure to sunshine. Commercial creosote almost always 
contains carbolic and cresylic acids, from coal-tar; and, indeed, much of what is sold for creo- 
sote is nothing more than impure carbolic acid. (See Acidum Carbolicum.') It has been already 
stated that this acid strongly resembles creosote; and this resemblance probably extends also 
to their therapeutical effects: so that the substitution is less to be regretted than might other- 
wise be the case. But, as the effects of the two on the system may not be identical, it is highly 
desirable to be able to distinguish between them. Tests for this purpose have been given 
above, and, with those quoted from the Pharmacopoeia, are sufficient for the purpose. 
Medical Properties, etc. The constitution of even genuine beech-wood creosote varies 
very greatly in the proportion of guaiacol and creosol and in the amount of monophenols, and 
it would seem impossible to get under the name of creosote a fixed medicament. Nevertheless, 
for practical therapeutic purposes creosote is sufficiently constant iu its composition, the 
physiological and therapeutic action of its various constituents being apparently so closely 
allied as to make variability in the proportion of these constituents of little importance; 
indeed, our knowledge of the physiological effects of creosote is very imperfect. It rivals 
carbolic acid in its antiseptic power. It is, when applied locally, a paralyzant to the nerves, 
and probably to all higher tissues; and it has been generally believed to be almost identical 
in the range and powers of its activity with carbolic acid. If it be true, however, as stated 
in La Semaine Med., July, 1891, that Prof. Bouchard has administered it in doses of two 
and a half drachms without evil result, it cannot be physiologically equivalent to carbolic 
acid. The correctness of this view is further indicated by the rarity of cases of creosote 
poisoning in the records of medicine. Dr. Freudenthal (iV. Y. Med. Rec., April, 1892) reports 
the case of a woman who took 600 drops of creosote in a very short time, the ingestion being 
followed almost immediately by unconsciousness, with intense trismus, contracted immobile 
pupils, and general cyanosis, but in which recovery was made practically without the adminis- 
tration of remedies. He further states that subsequently this same patient, by increasing the 
dose of creosote, was able to take 500 drops daily without ill effect. Creosote was originally 
administered in phthisis with the idea of destroying the tubercle bacillus. There is, however, 
no reason for believing that it directly affects the growth of this organism, although it 
undoubtedly is a very effectual remedy in the disease. Its value is almost in direct proportion 
to the amount of expectoration,—i.e., to the activity of the catarrhal processes. It acts by in- 
fluencing the pulmonic catarrh, which, although a secondary result of the bacillus, favors greatly 
their growth. It is of at least equal service in cases of chronic non-tubercular inflammation of 
the bronchial tubes, and even of the lung structure itself when the disease is of a catarrhal type. 
To be effective it must be given in as large doses as the stomach can bear, and its use must be con- 
tinually kept up for weeks and even months. It may be given in cod-liver oil or emulsion, but is 
usually best tolerated in capsules (three to five minims each). Two of these may be administered 
at first four times a day, the dose being gradually increased until from thirty to forty minims 
a day are taken, or some evidences of disagreement with the digestion appear. The remedy 
should be taken after meals, or the ingestion should be immediately preceded by a glass of milk. 
Creosote has also been used hypodermically in phthisis. Thus, Perom employed a 10 per cent, 
solution given in oil of sweet almonds, two injections of eighty minims each being given daily. 
Dor administered, by intra-tracheal injections, a 5 per cent, solution in recently boiled olive 
oil, holding that the drug reached the pulmonic alveoli and attacked the disease locally. On 
account of its local action as a powerful paralyzant of nerve-tissue, creosote is frequently em- 
ployed with great advantage in cases of nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea, dependent upon excessive 
irritability, without acute inflammation, of the gastric or intestinal mucous membrane; it has 460 
Creosotum.—Creta Prseparata. 
PAET I. 
also been successfully used in the vomiting of pregnancy or of hysteria, in cholera morbus, cholera 
infantum, lienteric diarrhoea, typhoid fever, and even in dysentery. When in these cases there 
is a tendency to fermentation of the contents of the stomach or bowels, creosote is especially 
valuable, and may often be combined advantageously with an alkali or chalk. Externally, creo- 
sote has been employed for exactly the same diseases as has carbolic acid. Indeed, the latter 
remedy, on account of its greater cheapness, has almost entirely supplanted creosote. The skin 
diseases to the treatment of which creosote has been supposed to be best suited are those of a 
scaly character. In burns its efficacy has been insisted on, especially in those attended with 
excessive suppuration and fungous granulations. In chilblains also it is stated to be a useful 
application. Mixed with four parts of lard, it is said to have proved very serviceable in ery- 
sipelas. When applied to wounds it acts as a haemostatic, stopping the capillary hemorrhage, 
but possesses no power to arrest the bleeding from large vessels. Accordingly, creosote water 
has been applied locally in menorrhagia, and to arrest uterine hemorrhage and the bleeding from 
leech-bites. The ulcers in the treatment of which it has been found most useful are those of 
an indolent and gangrenous character, in which its several properties of escharotic, stimulant, 
and antiseptic are usefully brought into play. In all these cases, should the remedy cause irri- 
tation, it must be suspended, or alternated with emollient and soothing applications. Injected 
into fistulous ulcers, it proves a useful resource, by exciting the callous surfaces and disposing 
them to unite. Wherever there are foul ulcers, gangrenous surfaces, or inflamed serous, mu- 
cous, or glandular tissues giving rise to fetid discharges, creosote may be substituted for car- 
bolic acid; as examples may be mentioned fetid leucorrhoea, puerperal metritis, fetid otorrhoea} 
putrid or diphtheritic sore throat, chronic empyema. The strength of the application may 
vary from that of pure creosote to a single drop to the fluidounce of water, according to the 
delicacy of the part and the severity of the disease. On account of its local anaesthetic and 
antiseptic influence, it is much employed by dentists for the obtunding of sensitive dentine and 
as an ingredient of pastes for the destruction of nerves. One or two drops of the pure sub- 
stance must be carefully introduced into the hollow of the tooth on a little cotton, avoiding 
contact with the tongue or cheek. To render it effectual, the hollow of the tooth must be well 
cleansed before it is applied. A mixture of 15 parts of creosote and 10 of collodion is said to 
have a jelly-like consistence, and to be usefully applied to carious teeth, which it protects from 
the air; but, as pure creosote does not coagulate collodion, this remark applies properly to the 
impure carbolic acid before stated to be commonly sold under the same name. 
In an overdose creosote acts as a poison, producing giddiness, obscurity of vision, depressed 
action of the heart, convulsions, and coma. Prof. Hobart A. Hare has found that sulphuric 
acid and the soluble sulphates are antidotal to creosote as they are to carbolic acid. The 
medical treatment consists in the evacuation of the poison and the administration of ammonia 
and other stimulants. 
Under the name of Vapor Creasoti (Inhalation of Creosote), the British Pharmacopoeia 
(1885) formerly directed a preparation consisting of 12 minims of creasote and 8 fluidounces 
of boiling water, which were directed to be mixed in an inhaling apparatus, so arranged that 
the air should be made to pass through the solution, and then inhaled. It may be used in 
chronic inflammation of the air-passages. 
Ca CO3; 99*76. (CRE'TA PRiE-PA-RA'TA—pre-pa-ra'ta.) Ca COg; 100. 
“ Native calcium carbonate, freed from most of its impurities by elutriation.” Br. 
Craie pr6par6e, Fr.; Praparirte Kreide, G. 
Calcium carbonate, in the extended meaning of the term, is the most abundant of simple 
minerals, constituting, according to its state of aggregation and other peculiarities, the different 
varieties of calcareous spar, common and shell limestone, marble, marl, and chalk. It occurs 
also in the animal kingdom, forming the principal part of shells, and a small proportion of the 
bones of the higher orders of animals. It is present in small quantity in most natural waters, 
being held in solution by the carbonic acid which they contain. In the wraters of limestone 
districts it is a very common impregnation, and causes purging in those not accustomed to its 
use. In all such cases, boiling the water, by expelling the carbonic acid, causes the carbonate 
to be deposited. It has been shown, however, that calcium carbonate is itself in a slight de- 
gree soluble in water; so that a small proportion remains in limestone water which has been 
long exposed to boiling. That the carbonate is not held in solution by free carbonic acid is 
shown by the fact that lime water causes no precipitation. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e 
CRETA U. S , Br. Prepared Chalk. Creta Prseparata.—Crocus. 
461 
PART I. 
s6r., iii. 147.) Besides being official in the state of chalk, calcium carbonate is also ordered 
as it exists in marble and oyster-shell, and as obtained by precipitation. Chalk occurs abun- 
dantly in the south of England and the north of France. It exists massive in beds, and very 
frequently contains nodules of flint, and fossil remains of land and marine animals. Accord- 
ing to F. Y. Hayden, chalk-beds identical with those of Europe extend for 400 miles along 
the Missouri River in Dakota. Chalk is an insipid, inodorous, insoluble, opaque, soft solid, 
generally white, but grayish white when impure. It is rough to the touch, easily pulverized, 
and breaks with an earthy fracture. It soils the fingers, yields a white trace when drawn 
across an unyielding surface, and when applied to the tongue adheres slightly. Its sp. gr. 
varies from 2*3 to 2-6. It is never a perfectly pure calcium carbonate, but contains, besides 
gritty silicious particles, small portions of alumina and ferric oxide. If pure, it is entirely 
soluble in hydrochloric acid; but usually a little silica is left. If this solution be not precipi- 
tated by ammonia, it is free from alumina and iron. Chalk, on account of the gritty particles 
which it contains, is unfit for medicinal use until it has been reduced to a very fine powder. 
The mineral, previously pulverized, should be rubbed with a little water upon a porphyry slab, 
by means of a muller of the same material. Having been thus very minutely divided, it is 
agitated with water, which upon standing a short time deposits the coarser particles, and, being 
then poured off, slowly lets fall the remainder in an impalpable state. The former part of the 
process is called levigation, the latter elutriation. The soft mass which remains after the de- 
canting of the clear liquor is made to fall upon an absorbent surface in small portions, which 
when dried have a conical shape* Practically, prepared chalk is generally made on the large 
scale from whiting by the manufacturer. (See P. J. Tr., vii. 146.)f 
<! A white, amorphous powder, often moulded into conical drops, odorless and tasteless; per- 
manent in the air. Almost insoluble in water; insoluble in alcohol. Soluble in diluted acetic, 
hydrochloric, or nitric acid with copious effervescence, but without leaving more than a trifling 
residue. When heated to redness Prepared Chalk loses carbon dioxide and is converted into 
lime. The solution in diluted acetic acid yields, with ammonium oxalate test-solution, a white 
precipitate insoluble in acetic, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. If from the solution in 
diluted acetic acid the calcium be completely removed by precipitation with ammonium oxalate 
test-solution in slight excess, the filtrate should not be rendered very turbid upon addition of 
sodium phosphate test-solution and a little ammonia water (limit of magnesium). Another 
portion of the solution in acetic acid should not assume more than a slight bluish tint upon 
addition of potassium ferrocyanide test-solution (limit of iron). Another portion of the same 
solution should not be rendered turbid by the addition of barium chloride test-solution (absence 
of sulphate). In another portion of the solution no precipitate should occur upon the addition 
of potassium dichromate test-solution (absence of barium)." U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This is the only form in which chalk is used in 
medicine. It is an excellent antacid; and, as the salts which it forms in the stomach and 
bowels, if not astringent, are at least not purgative, it is admirably adapted to diarrhoea accom- 
panied with acidity. It is also sometimes used in acidity of stomach attending dyspepsia and 
gout, when a laxative effect is to be avoided ; and it is one of the best antidotes for oxalic acid. 
It has been employed as an application to bums and ulcers, which it moderately stimulates, while 
it absorbs the ichorous discharge and thus prevents it from irritating the diseased surface or 
the sound skin. It is given internally in the form of powder, or suspended in water by the 
intervention of gum arabic and sugar. (See Mistura Cretse.) It is better fitted for the chalk 
mixture than the precipitated calcium carbonate, in consequence of its more impalpable char- 
acter and greater powers of adhesion. Dose, from ten to forty grains (0-65-2-6 Gm.). 
CROCUS. U. S., Br. Saffron. 
“ The stigmas of Crocus sativus, Linne (nat. ord. Iridese).” TJ. S. 11 The dried stigmas and 
tops of the styles of Crocus sativus, Linn.” Br. 
Safran, Fr., G.; Zafferano, It.; Azafran, Sp. 
(CRO'CUS.) 
* “ Take of Chalk a convenient quantity. Add a little water to the Chalk, and rub it into fine powder. Throw 
this into a large vessel nearly full of water, stir briskly, and, after a short interval, decant the supernatant liquor, 
while yet turbid, into another vessel. Treat the coarser particles of the Chalk, remaining in the first vessel, in a 
similar manner, and add the turbid liquid to that previously decanted. Lastly, set the liquor by, that the powder 
may subside, and, having poured off the water, dry the powder.” U.S. 1870. 
f Mr. F. Harris Alcock found some very handsome specimens of “ prepared chalk” in the English market to 
contain 67*016 per cent, of calcium sulphate. (P. J. Tr., 1883, p. 1015.) 462 
Crocus. 
PART I. 
Crocus sativus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 194; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 763, t. 259. The common 
cultivated saffron is a perennial plant, with a rounded and depressed bulb or cormus, from which 
the flower rises a little above the ground, upon a long, slender, white, and succulent tube. The 
flower is large, of a beautiful lilac or bluish-purple color, and appears in September or October. 
The leaves are radical, linear, slightly revolute, dark green upon their upper surface, with a 
white longitudinal furrow in the centre, paler underneath, with a prominent flattened midrib, 
and enclosed at their base, together with the tube of the corolla, in a membranous sheath, from 
which they emerge soon after the appearance of the flower. The style hangs out on one side 
between the two segments of the corolla, and terminates in three long convoluted stigmas, which 
are of a rich orange color, highly odorous, rolled in at the edges, and notched at the summit. 
The stigmas of the Crocus orientalis are used in the East. 
C. sativus, or autumnal crocus, is believed to be a native of Greece and Asia Minor, where it 
has been cultivated from the earliest ages. It is, however, unknown in a wild state, and, as the 
French plant does not produce seed, Chappellier asserts that it is a hybrid. (Bull. Soc. Bot. de 
France, xx.) More recently, however, Chappellier has found that the ordinary crocus, as grown 
in France, is readily fertilized by the Grecian variety, and it is most probable that the species 
is a distinct one. There are three main varieties of it, the French, the Grecian, and the 
Chinese. The first of these is superior in color and flavor, the second in the amount of yield, 
whilst the third is said to unite these qualities. Saffron is also cultivated for medicinal use in 
Sicily, Spain, France, England, and other temperate countries of Europe. Large quantities of 
saffron are raised in Egypt, Persia, and Cashmere, whence it is sent to India. Much of the 
drug reaches the market of Constantinople from the neighborhood of Tiflis and the Caucasus. 
We cultivate the plant in this country chiefly as a garden flower, although some of the drug 
of very fine quality has been produced in Pennsylvania. It is liable to two diseases, which 
interfere with its culture,—one dependent on a parasitic fungus which attaches itself to the 
bulb, the other called by the cultivators in France tacon, by which the bulb is converted into a 
blackish powder. (Journ. de Pharm., xviii. 41.) 
In England the flowers appear in October, and the leaves continue green through the winter; 
but the plant does not ripen its seed, and is propagated by offsets from the bulb. These are 
planted in grounds prepared for the purpose, and are arranged either in rows or in small 
patches at certain distances. The flowers are gathered soon after they show themselves, as the 
period of flowering is very short. The stigmas, or summits of the pistils, together with a 
portion of the style, are separated from the remainder of the flower, and carefully dried by 
artificial heat, or in the sun. During this process they are sometimes made to assume the 
form of a cake by pressure; but the finest saffron is that which has been dried loosely. The 
two forms are distinguished by the names of cake-saffron and hay-saffron. Five pounds of the 
fresh stigmas are said to yield one pound of the dried. The English saffron, formerly most 
highly esteemed in this country, has disappeared from our market. What may be sold under 
the name is probably derived from other sources. Much of the drug is imported from Gib- 
raltar, packed in canisters. Parcels of it are also brought from Trieste and other ports of the 
Mediterranean. The Spanish saffron is generally considered the best in the United States, 
although most European writers in Materia Medica give the preference to the French saffron. 
Genuine cake-saffron is at present seldom found in commerce. The better grades of Spanish 
saffron are known as Valencia saffron, whilst Alicante saffron is said by Prof. Maisch to contain 
scarcely more than 50 per cent, of genuine saffron. According to Landerer, the stigmas of 
several other species besides those of C. sativus are gathered and sold as saffron in Greece and 
Turkey.* 
* At the International Exhibition in London in the year 1862, Dr. Geo. B. Wood noticed a specimen of saffron 
from the island of Ceylon, closely resembling that of the Crocus sativus. It consisted of the stigmas of the Crocus 
orientalis. According to Mr. Charles A. Heinitsh, until within a few years saffron was cultivated to a considerable 
extent in Lancaster County, Pa. The plant requires a rich soil, which should be deeply dug and heavily manured. 
The bulbs are planted in August, eight inches apart, and the growing plant should be kept free from weeds. The 
flowering period begins about the middle of September, and continues till the beginning of October. The flowers 
are picked early in the morning, and the stigmas separated and dried in the shade. This is done every day during 
the period of flowering. He thinks the cultivation can be profitably conducted. A plot of 72 square feet will pro- 
duce 9000 stigmas, weighing 420 grains, or from 33 to 36 pounds to the acre. (A. J. P., 1867, p. 38.) In the Apen- 
nines the bulbs, which have been left in the ground during the winter without protection, are removed in August, 
are planted again in September in rows, and four weeks later the collection of the flowers is begun. (See Arch. d. 
Pharm., Aug. 1885.) For an account of the cultivation in England, see P. J. Tr., June, 1887. M. Monthus, an 
experienced cultivator in France, prefers a dry calcareous soil; plants the bulbs 3 or 4 inches deep; after the har- 
vest in October manures the ground; and renews the planting every three years. He thus prevents the diseases 
peculiar to the plant. M. Monthus recommends the petals of the flower as applicable to the same purposes as the PART I. 
Crocus. 
463 
Properties. Saffron has a peculiar, sweetish, aromatic odor, a warm, pungent, bitter taste, 
and a rich deep orange color, which it imparts to the saliva when chewed. The stigmas of 
which it consists are an inch or more in length, expanded and notched at the upper extremity, 
and narrowing towards the lower, where they terminate in a slender, capillary, yellowish por- 
tion, forming a part of the style. They are thus officially described: “ Separate stigmas, or 
three, attached to the top of the style, about 3 Cm. long, flattish-tubular, almost thread-like, 
broader and notched above; orange-brown; odor strong, peculiar, aromatic; taste bitterish 
and aromatic. Saffron should not include the yellow styles. When pressed between filtering 
paper, it should not leave an oily stain. When chewed it tinges the saliva deep orange-yellow. 
When soaked in water, it should not deposit any pulverulent, mineral matter, nor show the 
presence of organic substances differing in shape from that described. On agitating 1 part 
of Saffron with 100,000 parts of water, the liquid will acquire a distinctly yellow color. No 
color is imparted to benzin agitated with Saffron (absence of picric acid and some other coal- 
tar colors). On drying Saffron at 100° C. (212° F.), it should not lose more than 14 per cent, 
of its weight (absence of added water). When thus dried, and ignited with free access of air, 
100 parts of the dry Saffron should not leave more than 7*5 per cent, of ash (absence of 
foreign inorganic substances).” U. S. 11 Incinerated with free access of air, dried Saffron does 
not deflagrate (absence of nitrates), and yields about 7 per cent, of ash. It should not lose 
more than 12-5 per cent, of moisture when dried at 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. Analyzed by Vogel 
and Bouillon-Lagrange, saffron afforded 65 per cent, of a peculiar extractive matter, and 7*5 
of an odorous volatile oil, together with wax, gum, albumen, saline matter, water, and lignin. 
The extractive was named polychrdite, from the changes of color which it undergoes by the 
action of reagents. Weiss (Wiggers and Husemann, Jahresbericht, 1868, 35) considered poly- 
chro'ite to be a glucoside, but later researches have shown that it is a mixture of the glucoside 
crocin, sugar, and essential oil. (Planchon, Drogues Simples, vol. i. 210.) Kayser obtained (Ber. 
der Chem. Ges., 1884, 2228) pure crocin, having the formula C44H70028, as a yellow powder, 
easily soluble in water and dilute alcohol, slightly soluble only in absolute alcohol, and giving 
with concentrated sulphuric acid a deep blue color, which turns violet, then cherry-red, and 
finally brown. It is easily decomposed by lime or baryta water into crocetin and a right- 
rotating sugar which Kayser’calls crocose. The crocetin is a red powder, not soluble in water, 
but easily soluble in alcohol and ether. Its solution in alkalies shows an orange-yellow color, 
from which solution acids separate it again in orange-colored flocks. Its formula is C34II46O0. 
Kayser also found a colorless bitter principle, to which he gave the name picro-crocin or saffron 
bitter, and the formula C38H66017, which is also of glucoside character. It is to the essential 
oil, which, according to M. Henry, is present to the amount of 10 per cent., that the medicine 
owes its activity. It may be partially separated by distillation. It has the formula C10II140, 
boils at 208°—210° C. (406-4°—410° F.), is yellow, of a hot, acrid, bitterish taste, and heavier 
than water, in which it is slightly soluble. 
Adulterations. The high price of this medicine gives rise to frequent adulterations. 
Water is said to be very often added in order to increase its weight. Oil or glycerin is also 
added for the same purpose, or to improve the appearance. In some specimens the dyed corolla 
of the crocus with the attached stamens is abundant. Sometimes the flowers of other plants, 
particularly Carthamus tinctorius, or safflower, Calendula officinalis, or official marigold, and arnica, 
are fraudulently mixed with the genuine stigmas. They may be known by their shape, which 
is rendered obvious by throwing a portion of the suspected mass into hot water, which causes 
them to expand. (See Carthamus.) A specimen of this adulteration has been introduced into 
the American market, by the name of African saffron. (Maisch, A. J. P., March, 1872, p. 
110.) Other adulterations are the fibres of dried beef, the stamens of the crocus, distinguish- 
able by their yellow color, the stigmas previously exhausted in the preparation of the infusion 
or tincture, and various mineral substances, easily detected upon close examination. The 
stigmas, having found them to be possessed of aromatic properties. They demand no peculiar caution in drying; 
but to preserve them it is necessary to exclude light and moisture. Acids redden them with extreme facility, and 
alkalies turn them green. He therefore recommends a tincture to be made from them, as a substitute for syrup of 
violets. He prepares the tincture by macerating 10 parts of the dried flowers in 100 parts of alcohol of 40°, for 48 
hours. A longer maceration would destroy the color. Paper may be stained with the tincture, and kept green or red, 
the former for acids, the latter for alkalies. (Journ. de Pharm., Juillet, 1867, 54.) According to Heim, Crocosma 
aurea, PI., which is cultivated in Southern Africa as a dye-stuff, affords an excellent substitute for saffron, the dried 
petals giving, when diluted with water, a brilliant yellow solution. The yellow coloring matter is more soluble in 
dilute alcohol and in alkaline solutions than in water, but is insoluble in absolute alcohol and in benzol. The partly 
dry aqueous extract gives with sulphuric acid a blue coloration, passing to violet, similar to that obtained from 
saffron. 464 
Crocus. 
PART 1, 
flowers of a Brazilian plant named Fuminella have, according to M. J. L. Soubeiran, been 
employed for the adulteration of saffron. They may be detected by shaking, gently but re- 
peatedly, a large pinch of the suspected saffron over a piece of paper. The flowers of Fumi- 
nella, being smaller and heavier, separate and fall, and may be 
seen to consist of very short fragments, with a color like that 
of saffron, but a rusty tint which the latter does not possess. 
(See Pharm. Review, 1898, 258.) J. Muller recommends con- 
centrated sulphuric acid as the most certain test of saffron. 
It instantly changes the color of pure saffron to indigo blue. 
(Chern. Gaz., May, 1845.) An adulteration which has been 
largely practised appears to consist of yellow-colored chalk or 
barium sulphate, made into a thin paste probably with honey, 
and attached to the stigmas, sometimes isolated, sometimes in 
groups of five or six, enveloping them almost completely. If 
this saffron be kept in a dry place, and often handled, the 
paste becomes partly broken up, and the colored powder 
spreads itself in the mass and the envelope. The chalk can 
at once be detected by shaking the suspected saffron with 
water, and treating the precipitated powder with hydrochloric 
acid, when effervescence will occur. A less than the ordinary 
brightness of color in the saffron should lead to suspicion of 
this adulteration. Much can be told as to the purity of saffron 
by agitating the suspected flowers in distilled water; if the 
drug be pure the liquid will remain clear, slowly assuming a 
fine pure yellow tint; the saffron also will retain its red color 
for hours. Another excellent plan is to scatter a pinch of the 
flowers upon the surface of warm water, when the stigmas 
should spread out and display their proper form. Minute 
fragments of red saunders, which are often added to saffron, 
may be separated by agitating with water. For an elaborate 
discussion of adulteration, see A. J. P., 1885, 487.* In 
various European markets there has been offered a saffron 
largely adulterated with borates, chlorides, and other salts of sodium and potassium, and yet 
retaining the physical properties of saffron of high character. These and other adulterations 
with inorganic salts can be detected by the amount of ash left on burning, genuine saffron 
leaving from five to seven per cent. This saffron also yielded immediately to water an orange- 
yellow color. Further, some of it at least was hygroscopic, so that when rubbed up between 
the fingers into a ball it retained that form instead of being elastic as is true saffron. 
Attention has been called to a product of the Cape of Good Hope, named Cape saffron, 
which has a remarkable resemblance to genuine saffron, having a similar odor, and yielding a 
similar color to water, though the flowers themselves are differently colored. It is the flower 
of a small plant very abundant at the Cape, belonging to the family of Scrophvlariacese, and 
is said by Dr. Pappe, of Cape Town, to possess medical virtues closely resembling those of true 
Fragment of coarsely powdered Cro- 
cus. 1, epidermis, showing hair; 2, pollen 
cell; 3, pollen cell commencing to grow ; 
4, bundles of wood vessels ; 5, parenchy- 
matous tissue with epidermis; 6, trans- 
verse section, showing parenchyma and 
epithelium. 
* B. S. Procter has proposed a color test which would seem to be very efficient. One grain of saffron is to be 
agitated with two drachms of ether, which should become fairly yellow (any over-coloring of the ether indicates 
aniline or other dye); ether decanted; saffron dried, then agitated with two drachms of rectified spirit, and heated 
short of ebullition, for about one hour; next dried with two drachms of water in the same manner; this alternate 
use of spirit and water is to be continued until the solvent ceases to extract color and the fibres are nearly white; 
the total liquors being made up to exactly two fluidounces should have a color closely resembling that of fourteen 
grains of potassium bichromate in two ounces of water. In comparison, the best results are obtained by taking 
eight minims of the standard liquor and diluting it with an ounce of water, half filling a test-tube about half an 
inch in diameter with this diluted standard, then adding to an ounce of water eight minims of the liquor obtained 
from the sample under examination, and, having half filled a similar test-tube with this, holding the two tubes side 
by side against a sheet of white paper. E. Yinassa recommends that saffron should always be steeped in petro- 
leum before examination under the microscope, and the particles should then all present equality in coloration. 
Immersion in chloral hydrate and subsequent boiling with water enable the operator easily to detect admixtures 
of sandal or campeche wood and of safflower. Attention should also be paid to the pollen-grains, hairs, and crys- 
tals present. Chemical examination shows that the amount of water should not exceed 16 per cent, and the ash 8 
per cent, in a good sample, whilst the tinctorial power may be estimated by comparison with potassium bichromate 
solution. The capillary behavior of an aqueous solution of saffron is also very interesting, and is distinguished from 
that of any other natural or artificial coloring matter in that distinct zones of color are produced in strips of filter- 
ing paper dipped in the solution, the uppermost zone being terminated by a sharply defined light yellow line. {Bull. 
Pharm., Nov. 1892.) PART I. 
Crocus.—Cubeba. 
465 
saffron. The flowers have been used successfully in the convulsions of children. (jP. J. Tr., 
vi. 462, 1865.) 
Choice of Saffron. Saffron should not be very moist, nor very dry, nor easily pulverized; 
nor should it emit an offensive smell when thrown upon live coals. The freshest is the best, 
and that which is less than a year old should, if possible, be selected. It should possess in a 
high degree the characteristic properties of color, taste, and smell. When agitated with water 
it should color it bright yellow, and it should not effervesce in the presence of a dilute acid. 
If it does not color the fingers when rubbed between them, or if it has an oily feel, or a musty 
flavor, or a black, yellow, or whitish color, it should be rejected. In the purchase of this 
medicine in cakes, those should be selected which are close, tough, and firm in tearing; and 
care should be taken to avoid cakes of safflower. 
As its activity depends, partly at least, on a volatile ingredient, saffron should be kept in 
well-stopped vessels. Some recommend that it should be enclosed in a bladder and introduced 
into a tin case. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Saffron was extensively used by the ancients and by 
mediaeval physicians, as a highly stimulant antispasmodic and even narcotic emmenagogue, 
and is still employed to some extent upon the Continent; but in Great Britain and the United 
States it has fallen into well-deserved and almost complete desuetude. In domestic practice 
saffron tea is occasionally used in exanthematous diseases, to promote the eruption. At 
present it is chiefly used to impart color and flavor. The dose is from ten to thirty grains 
(0-65-1-95 Gm.).* 
CUBEBA. U. S. (Br.) Cubebs. [Cubeb.] 
“ The unripe fruit of Piper Cubeba, Linne filius (nat. ord. Piperaceae).” U. S. “ The dried 
full-grown unripe fruits of Piper Cubeba, Linn, fil.” Br.f 
Cubebae Fructus, Br.; Cubebs, Cubeba}, P. G.; Fructus (s. B acute) Cubebae, Piper Caudatum; Cubebe, Cubebe 
poivre a Queue, Fr.; Kubeben, G.; Cubebe, It.; Cubebas, Sp.; Kebabeh, Ar. 
(CU-BE'BA.) 
* Syrupus Oroci. A Syrup of Saffron is sometimes called for, and would seem to be an appropriate preparation. 
The following formula is recommended by Mr. Geo. W. Kennedy, of Pottsville, as producing excellent results. Take 
of saffron glycerin, £ij, water, Macerate for a week, filter into a pint bottle, and add sufficient water 
through the filter to make Sviij; then add 14 avoird. oz. of sugar, and dissolve without heat, frequently shaking. 
(A. J. P., Feb. 1871, 54.) 
t The fruit of the Piper afzelii of Lindley, Cubeba clusii of Miquel, figured in the P. J. Tr. (xiv. 201), is known 
in commerce as African cubebs, Ashant.ee pepper, Guinea pepper, or African black pepper. It was formerly taken 
to Europe in considerable quantities by the Portuguese, but has been superseded by the more agreeable products of 
the East Indies. The fruit is one-third smaller than the official cubebs, is more compact, and has a taste more anal- 
ogous to that of ordinary black pepper. Dr. Stenhouse has also shown that it is chemically more analogous to black 
pepper than to cubebs, as it contains piperin and not cubebin. {Ibid., xiv. 364.) An alleged African cubebs which 
has been sent to London from Cape Coast Castle, in Africa, is the fruit of a plant belonging to the Xanthoxylacete, 
probably either a Toddalia or a Vepris. According to Prof. Archer, it is simply aromatic and stimulant, without 
any of the special virtues of cubebs. {P. J. Tr., March, 1865, 463.) 
Our knowledge of the false cubebs of commerce up to 1894 was epitomized in the last edition of the U. S. D., 
p. 457. To this account the reader is referred for historical details. In 1894 the subject was much clarified by A. De 
Wevre, a long abstract of whose memoir may be found in the P. J. Tr., xxv., 1894. It appears that the natives of 
Java recognize three varieties of the cubeb plant under the respective names of Rinoe katoentjar, Rinoe badak, 
and Rinoe tjaroelock. Of these the first is true cubeb. 
Rinoe badak yields a fruit strongly resembling the genuine cubeb. but having from eight to nine or even twelve 
rows of cells in the mesocarp, and yielding, when crushed with sulphuric acid, a yellow-brown or orange tone instead 
of the carmine-red color given by the true cubeb. 
Rinoe tjaroelock is believed by De Wevre to be the Piper crassipes of Kirkby, and to be simply a variety of Piper 
cubeba, so that its fruit must be considered to be a true cubeb, though it differs from the official drug in having its 
pedicel about twice as long as the fruit and flattened throughout, and in having an odor of mace and a more bitter 
and less burning taste than true cubebs, and yielding, when crushed with sulphuric acid, a brown color only. Its 
mesocarpic cells are in six or seven rows. 
The large false cubeb of English commerce, commonly believed to be yielded by Piper crassipes of Korth, is a 
large, globular, brown or blackish fruit borne on a curved pedicel, usually at least twice as long as the fruit; the 
pedicel is not flattened, and is sometimes tapering, but never dilated, at its free extremity. The fruit measures from 
7-8‘5 Mm., and the pedicel 12-23 Mm. The taste is bitter, but does not leave a persistent burning sensation in 
the mouth. Sulphuric acid gives with the crushed fruit a yellow coloration. So far as De Wevre’s examination 
went, Piper crassipes of Korth is identical with Piper ribesioides (Wallich). 
A short pedicelled cubeb which occurs in commerce, in which the feebly aromatic fruit is from 4 to 5 Mm. in 
diameter and the pedicel 1 Mm., is especially characterized by a layer of small cells under the epidermis, like those of 
the epidermis, by a hypodermal layer of three or four rows of polygonal uniform stone cells, and by the cubical cells 
of the endocarp being cutinized in horseshoe fashion,—that is, having the outside wall thinner than the other three 
(the reverse of what occurs in black pepper). 
Keboe cubeb is much larger than the official, being about 7 Mm. in diameter, with a pedicel 16 Mm. long; the 
color is blackish or grayish black, the surface much wrinkled, the taste acrid, slightly bitter, and pungent, and the 466 
Cubeba. 
PART I. 
Piper cubeba. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 159 ; Woodv. Med. Bot., 3d ed., v. 95.— Cubeba officinalis. 
Miquel. This is a climbing pereimial plant, with a smooth, flexuous, jointed stem, and entire, 
petiolate, oblong or ovate-oblong, acuminate leaves, 
rounded or obliquely cordate at the base, strongly 
nerved, coriaceous, and very smooth. The flowers 
are dioecious and in spikes, with peduncles about as 
long as the petioles. The fruit is a globose, pedieelled 
berry. This species of Piper is a native of Java, 
Penang, and probably other parts of the East Indies. 
It is extensively grown in the coffee plantations, sup- 
ported by the trees which are used for shade, and 
has been introduced into Ceylon. The dried unripe 
fruit is the official portion. 
Properties. Cubebs are round, about the size 
of a small pea, of a blackish or grayisli-brown color, 
and furnished with a short stalk, which is continu- 
ous with raised veins that run over the surface of 
the berry and embrace it like a net-work. The shell 
is hard, almost ligneous, and contains within it a 
single loose seed, covered with a blackish coat, and 
internally white and oleaginous. “ Globular, about 
4 or 5 Mm. in diameter, contracted at the base into 
a rounded stipe about 6 or 8 Mm. long, reticulately 
wrinkled, blackish-gray, internally whitish and hol- 
low ; odor strong, spicy; taste aromatic and pun- 
gent. Cubeb should not be mixed with the nearly 
inodorous rachis or stalks.” U. S. “A transverse 
section of the pericarp exhibits two layers of scleren- 
chymatous cells, one near the outer, the other near 
the inner surface, those of the latter being radially 
elongated. The crushed Fruit imparts a crimson color to sulphuric acid." Br. The odor of 
the berry is agreeably aromatic; the taste warm, bitterish, and camphorous, leaving in the 
mouth a peculiar sensation of coolness, like that produced by oil of peppermint. The pericarp 
Cubeb fruit. A, fruit itself, natural size ; C, seg- 
ment of the fruit, magnified ; tx, ring of stonylwall- 
cells; l, oil-cells; D, section of the seed; l, oil-tubes; 
d, epidermis. 
strong odor different from that of cubebs. It is said to be yielded by Piper (Pothomorphe) mollissimum, BI., the P. 
crassipes of Brunotte. 
The fruit of the Daphnidium cubeba, a rather common adulteration of cubebs, has been shown to be identical with 
that of Tetranthera citrata. It is especially characterized by its endocarp, which consists of long, narrow, sclerenchy- 
matous cells, crowded closely together in a single line and arranged radially. The taste of the fruit is slightly bitter 
and aromatic, but not burning. It has usually no pedicel, and the pericarp contains a plainly dicotyledonous seed 
without albumen, whereas in the cubeb the embryo is too small for the naked eye to distinguish the cotyledons, the 
mass of the seed consisting of albumen. The cells of the endocarp have a very narrow linear cavity, and are very 
distinct from those of cubebs. Even the powder of Daphnidium cubeba is to be recognized from that of a Piper by 
the absence of small angular starch granules. 
Among the other species of Piper whose berries have been found in cubebs,—in the African P. clusii, D. C., and P. 
guineense, Schum., and in the Javanese P. lotvong, BI., and P. sylvestre, Lam.,—neither the endocarp nor the hypo- 
derm contains sclerenchymatous cells ; whilst in P. mollissimum, BI., the endocarp is not sclerenchymatous and the 
hypoderm very sparingly so. De Wevre refers to a species of Rhamnus certain adulterating berries which occur in 
the cubebs. These berries are nearly tasteless, with an odor somewhat resembling that of Daphnidium cubeba ; are 
rounded and compressed laterally, with two rather deep furrows, separating the fruit into halves, and have, inter- 
nally, two cells. Their powder is characterized by the presence of a great number of stone cells, entirely different 
in form from those of cubebs. 
Mr. E. M. Holmes and Mr. E. D. Gravill (P. J. Tr., vol. xv.) give the following tests which may be available 
in detecting powdered false cubebs. After being crushed, the genuine cubebs gives on a porcelain slab with concen- 
trated sulphuric acid a deep crimson with a distinct carmine tint in it. P. crassipes strikes a reddish-brown color, 
Daphnidium cubeba, a yellowish-brown color. Iodine gives with a decoction of genuine cubebs a pure blue tint, and 
wTith spurious cubebs a dull purple tint. One cubic centimetre of the tincture of true cubebs treated with ten cubic 
centimetres of strong sulphuric acid (sp. gr. P843) develops a deep violet color, the false cubebs similarly treated a 
deep red-brown. On diluting these mixtures with four fluidounces of distilled water and allowing them to stand, the 
true cubebs becomes opalescent and changes to a deep blue, the false becomes opalescent and changes to a dirty 
yellow. In applying these tests to adulterated cubebs, the color developed will, of course, be dependent upon the 
amount and character of the adulteration. An important conclusion reached by De Wevre is, that it is not possible 
to detect by microscopic examination with certainty the freedom of a powdered cubeb from adulteration with various 
berries, especially those yielded by different species of the genus Piper, although the presence of numerous polygonal 
stone cells would indicate adulteration, whilst the peculiar prismatic sclerenchymatous cells of the true cubeb indi- 
cate genuineness. It would seem to be essential for the pharmacist to buy his cubebs whole, and examine the fruit 
before powdering. Cubeba. 
467 
PART I. 
(Fig. C, p.c) of the cubeb berry consists of three layers, the exterior of which is composed of 
an interrupted row of small, thick-walled cubical sclerenchymatous cells arranged in irregular 
groups of three or four. The middle layer of the pericarp is composed of loose, undeveloped 
tissue, interspersed with large oil-cells, and contains quantities of starch and sometimes groups 
of needle-shaped crystals. The inner layer is free from starch, and is formed of four rows of 
parenchymatous cells. At the junction of the inner and middle layers there are usually from 
ten to twelve distinct woody bundles, chiefly composed of narrow spiral vessels along with a few 
dotted vessels (Fig. C, m.c). The mesocarp is composed of compressed parenchymatous cells, 
of which there are usually four rows, whilst the endocarp is formed of long sclerenchymatous 
cells arranged radially,—i.e., on their ends (Fig. C., e.c). The testa consists of one row of 
large, thick-walled cells. The perisperm is surrounded by red membrane, formed of rather 
large cells, and is composed of angular parenchymatous cells containing starch and oil. On 
allowing thin sections to stand in glycerin for a few weeks, crystals are formed both in the 
pericarp and in the perisperm. The powder is dark-colored and of an oily aspect, and is 
microscopically characterized by the presence of prismatic sclerenchymatous cells. The most 
obvious constituent of cubebs is the volatile oil, the proportion of which yielded by the drug 
varies from 4 to 13 per cent. It is, as shown by Oglialoro, a mixture of an oil, C10Hie (di- 
pentene), boiling at 158°-163° C. (316'4°-325-4° F.), which is present 
in very small amount, and two oils of the formula C16H24, boiling 
at 262°-265° C. (503-6°-509° F.). One of these, known as cadi- 
nene, is strongly laevogyrate, and yields a crystallized compound, 
C15H242HC1, melting at 118° C., while the other is less laevogyrate, 
and does not combine with HC1. 
The oil distilled from old cubebs on cooling at length deposits 
large transparent inodorous octohedra of camphor of cubebs, C15H260. 
E. Schmidt found that this camphor melts at 66-5° C.; simply 
by standing over sulphuric acid, more rapidly on heating, it gave 
up water and passed into that fraction of cubeb oil which boils 
at 260° C., of which it is, therefore, simply the hydrate. Another 
constituent of cubebs is cubebin. This is an inodorous substance, 
crystallizing in small needles or scales, melting at 125° C. (257° F.), 
having a bitter taste in alcoholic solution ; it dissolves freely in boiling 
alcohol, but deposits on cooling, and is abundantly soluble in chlo- 
roform. Its composition, according to Weidel (1877), is C10H1003. 
Fused with caustic potash it yields proto-catechuic acid. The resin 
extracted from cubebs consists of an indifferent portion, nearly 3 per 
cent., and of cubebic acid, C13H1407, amounting to about 1 per cent. 
(Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 587.) 
The formula of cubebic acid as just given is that of Schmidt. Schultze (Jahresbericht, 1873, 
p. 863), on the other hand, gives to it the formula C28H3007 -f- H20. According to MM. Capi- 
taine and Soubeiran, cubebin is best obtained by expressing cubebs from which the oil has been 
distilled, preparing from them an alcoholic extract, treating this with a solution of potassa, wash- 
ing the residue with water, and purifying it by repeated crystallizations in alcohol. It bears a 
close resemblance to piperin, but materially differs from it in composition, as it contains no 
nitrogen. (Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 355.) In the official oleoresin of cubeb a deposit takes 
place consisting chiefly of cubebin, which may be obtained by washing the deposit with a small 
quantity of cold alcohol to remove adhering resin and oil, and then dissolving repeatedly in 
boiling alcohol, and crystallizing until the product is white.* The volatile oil is official. (See 
Oleum Cubebse.) By practical trial Bernatzik has satisfied himself that the peculiar virtues 
of cubebs as a remedy in gonorrhoea depend not on the cubebin or the volatile oil, but on the 
cubebic acid. (See Am. Journ. of Med. Sri., October, 1867, p. 534.) When the ethereal ex- 
tract of cubebs is deprived of its volatile oil by evaporation, on a water-bath, and of cubebin 
and wax by deposition, a soft resin is left, the cubebic acid of Bernatzik, in which, according 
to Mr. F. Y. Heydenreich, who experimented with it as a physiological agent, the diuretic proper- 
ties reside, the cubebin being without apparent effect, and the volatile oil, though stimulant 
and carminative, having no diuretic action. The soft resin, which was of the consistence of 
honey, of a dark olive-green color, and some remaining odor of cubebs, when taken in the 
* Prof. E. Schaer calls attention to the similarity in reaction between cubebin and veratrine, aconitine, morphine, 
and digitalin. [Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 531.) 
Transverse section. 468 
Cubeba.—Cupri Sulphas. 
PART I. 
dose of ten grains every two hours for six hours, acted as a laxative, and gave the urine a 
peculiar odor, without increasing its quantity; but in the dose of a drachm, once repeated at 
an interval of three hours, while it produced the same effects as the smaller dose, it considerably 
augmented the urine. In still larger doses it produced decided irritation of the urinary pas- 
sages. (A. J. P., Jan. 1868.) Mr. Heydenreich’s experiments are confirmatory of Bernatzik’s 
conclusion as to the peculiar active principles of cubebs. Cubebs gradually deteriorate by 
age, and in powder become rapidly weaker, in consequence of the escape of their volatile oil. 
They should be kept whole, and pulverized when dispensed. The powder is said to be some- 
times adulterated with that of pimento. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Cubebs are generally stimulant, with a special direc- 
tion to the urinary organs. In considerable quantities they excite the circulation, increase the 
heat of the body, and sometimes occasion headache and giddiness. At the same time they fre- 
quently produce an augmented flow of the urine, to which they impart a peculiar odor. Among 
their effects are also occasionally nausea and moderate purging; and they are said to cause a 
sense of coolness in the rectum during the passage of the faeces. We have no evidence that 
they were known to the ancients. They were probably first brought into Europe by the Ara- 
bians, and were formerly employed for similar purposes with black pepper ; but they were found 
much less powerful and fell into disuse. In India they have long been used in gonorrhoea and 
gleet, and as a grateful stomachic and carminative in disorders of the digestive organs, and 
they are at present very frequently given both in this country and in Europe in gonorrhoea, 
after the subsidence of the first active inflammatory symptoms. They have been given also 
in leucorrhoea, cystirrhoea, the urethritis of women and female children, abscess of the pros- 
tate gland, piles, and chronic bronchial inflammation. In connection with copaiba they have 
been especially recommended in affections of the neck of the bladder and the prostatic por- 
tion of the urethra. They are best administered in powder, of which the dose in gonorrhoea is 
from one to three drachms (3-9-11-65 6m.) three or four times a day. For other affections, 
the dose is sometimes reduced to ten grains (0-65 6m.). The volatile oil may be substituted, 
in the dose of ten or twelve drops (0-6—0-72 C.c.), suspended in water by means of sugar; 
though, if the experiments of Bernatzik and Heydenreich are to be relied on, the oil is much 
less efficient than the soft resin as a remedy in gonorrhoea and in diseases of the urinary pas- 
sages generally. An ethereal extract is directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and consider- 
ably used; and, as it contains the soft resin or cubebic acid, it is no doubt a very efficient 
preparation. (See Oleoresina Cubebsel) An infusion, made in the proportion of an ounce of 
cubebs to a pint of water, has been employed as an injection in discharges from the vagina. 
CUPRI SULPHAS. U. S., Br. Copper Sulphate. [Cupric Sulphate.] 
Cu SO*. 5H2 O ; 248*8. (CU'PRl StJL'PHAS.) Cu S04. 5H2 0; 249-2. 
“ This salt, CuS04,5H20, may be obtained by the interaction of water, sulphuric acid, and 
copper or cupric oxide.” Br. 
Cuprum Sulfuricum, P. G.; Cuprum Yitriolatum; Blue Vitriol, Roman Vitriol, Blue Stone; Sulfate de Cuivre, 
Vitriol bleu, Couperose bleu, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Kupfer, Kupfersulfat, Kupfervitriol, Blauervitriol, Blauer Galitzen- 
stein, G.; Rame solfato, Vitriolo di Rame, It.; Sulfato de Cobre, Vitriolo azul, Sp. 
Preparation, etc. Copper sulphate occasionally exists in nature, in solution in the water 
which flows through copper-mines. In this case the salt is procured by merely evaporating 
the waters which naturally contain it. Another method of obtaining it is to roast the native 
sulphide in a reverberatory furnace, whereby it is made to pass, by absorbing oxygen, into the 
state of sulphate. The roasted mass is lixiviated, and the solution obtained evaporated that 
crystals may form. The salt procured by either of these methods contains a little ferric sul- 
phate, from which it may be freed by adding either an excess of cuprous oxide, which precipi- 
tates ferric oxide, or recently precipitated copper subcarbonate, which causes the deposition of 
the iron as a carbonate. (A. J. P., xxxiv. 507.) A third method is to dissolve copper scales 
to saturation in sulphuric acid contained in a wooden vessel lined with sheet lead. The scales 
consist of metallic copper mixed with oxide, and are produced in the process for annealing 
sheet copper. 
Most of the copper sulphate produced at present is obtained as a bi-product by the gold, 
silver, and copper refiners. In 1895 there was produced in the United States 45,000,000 lbs. 
of copper sulphate, valued at $1,750,000 ; in 1896, 48,732,840 lbs., valued at $1,953,225 ; and 
in 1897, 51,012,945 lbs., valued at $2,040,518. 
In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia copper sulphate is presumed to be obtained pure from the manu- PART I. 
Cupri Sulphas. 
469 
facturer; the British Pharmacopoeia suggests the method in which it may be prepared, with- 
out entering into the details of the process. The German Pharmacopoeia has two kinds official, 
Cuprum Sul/uricum, which corresponds with the former Cuprum Sul/uricum Purum, and Cu- 
prum Sul/uricum Crudurn, or commercial sulphate. 
Properties. Copper sulphate has a rich deep blue color, and a strong metallic styptic 
taste. It reddens vegetable blues, and crystallizes in “ large, transparent, deep blue, triclinic 
crystals, odorless, of a nauseous, metallic taste; slowly efflorescent in dry air. Soluble, at 15° 
C. (59° F.), in about 2-6 parts of water, and in 0-5 part of boiling water; almost insoluble in alco- 
hol. When carefully and continuously heated to 30° C. (86° F.), the salt loses 2 of its 5 mol- 
ecules of water (14-43 per cent.), and is converted into a pale blue, amorphous powder. Two 
more molecules of water are lost at 100° C. (212° F.), while the fifth is retained until 200° C. 
(392° F„) is reached, when a white, anhydrous powder remains (63-9 per cent, of the original 
weight). At a still higher temperature sulphur dioxide and oxygen are given off, and a resi- 
due of black cupric oxide is left. The aqueous solution (1 in 20) has a blue color and shows 
an acid reaction with litmus paper. If a drop of the solution be placed upon a bright piece 
of iron, it will produce a red stain of metallic copper. With potassium ferrocyanide test-solu- 
tion the solution yields a deep reddish-brown precipitate. Barium chloride test-solution pro- 
duces a white precipitate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid. If ammonia water be added to the 
solution, drop by drop, a pale blue precipitate of cupric hydrate is formed, which redissolves 
in an excess of ammonia water, forming a deep azure-blue solution, leaving no trace of residue 
undissolved (absence of iron, aluminum, etc.) If the aqueous solution (1 in 20) be heated to 
boiling with an excess of sodium hydrate test-solution, until all of the copper has been con- 
verted into black cupric oxide, it will yield a filtrate which, after acidulation with acetic acid, 
should not be colored or rendered turbid by an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide test-solu- 
tion (absence of arsenic, lead, zinc, etc.) If hydrogen sulphide gas be passed through 10 C.c. 
of the solution slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, until all the copper is precipitated as 
sulphide, the filtrate should, on evaporation, leave not more than a trace of residue (limit of 
iron, aluminum, alkaline earths, etc.),” U S. “ Soluble in 3-5 parts of cold water, forming a 
solution which strongly reddens litmus ; very soluble also in glycerin, almost insoluble in alcohol 
(90 per cent.). It affords the reactions of copper and of sulphates. It should yield no char- 
acteristic reaction with the tests for lead, arsenium, zinc, or aluminium, and not more than the 
slightest reactions with the tests for iron.” Br. When heated, copper sulphate first melts in its 
water of crystallization, and then dries and becomes white. If the heat be increased, it next 
undergoes the igneous fusion, and finally, at a high temperature, loses its acid, cupric oxide 
being left. Four of the molecules of water of crystallization can be driven off at 100° C. 
(212° F.) ; but the fifth only goes off at a temperature of from 220° C. (428° F.) to 240° C. 
(464° F.), when the anhydrous salt remains. Potassa, soda, and ammonia throw down from 
it a bluish-white precipitate of hydrated cupric oxide, which is immediately dissolved by an 
excess of the last-mentioned alkali, forming a rich deep blue solution, called aqua sappharina. 
It is decomposed by the alkaline carbonates, and by borax, lead acetate and subacetate, ferric 
acetate, silver nitrate, mercuric chloride, potassium tartrate, and calcium chloride, and it is pre- 
cipitated by all astringent vegetable infusions. If it becomes very green on the surface by 
the action of the air, it contains ferric oxide. This oxide may also be detected by ammonia, 
which will throw it down along with the copper oxide, without taking it up when added in 
excess. When copper sulphate is obtained from the dipping liquid of manufacturers of brass 
or German silver ware, it is always contaminated with zinc sulphate, as pointed out by Mr. S. 
Piesse. This liquid is at first a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids, but becomes, at last, 
nearly saturated with copper. When zinc is present in copper sulphate, it will be taken up by 
solution of potassa, added in excess, from which it may be thrown down, in white flocks, by a 
solution of bicarbonated alkali. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Copper sulphate is irritant or mildly escharotic; and 
when in dilute solution, stimulant and astringent. At one time it was given in epilepsy and 
other nervous diseases; but at present it is never used internally, except for its influence upon 
the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. In chronic diarrhoea with ulceration it is often a 
useful remedy. In doses of 5 grains it acts as a powerful, prompt emetic, without causing 
general depression or much nausea, but is too irritant to be used freely. Externally it is 
employed in solution as a stimulant to ill-conditioned ulcers, as an escharotic for destroying 
warts, fungous granulations, and callous edges, and as a styptic to bleeding surfaces. It is 
found, in not a few instances, to promote the cicatrization of ulcers, and is not infrequently 470 
Cupri Sulphas.—Cuprum. 
PART I. 
employed, with that view, as a wash for chancres. The preparation called cuprum aluminatum 
(lapis divinus—pierre divine) is made, according to the French Codex, by mixing, in powder, 
three ounces, each, of copper sulphate, potassium nitrate, and alum, heating the mixture in a 
crucible, so as to produce watery fusion, then mixing in a drachm of powdered camphor, and, 
finally, pouring out the whole on an oiled stone to congeal. The mass, when cold, is broken 
into pieces, and kept in a well-stopped bottle. It is often desirable to employ copper sulphate, 
as a caustic, in the form of pencil. Its tendency to effloresce interferes with its use in this way 
in the pure state. M. Llovet recommends for the purpose a mixture of one part of potassa- 
alum and two of copper sulphate, which are to be first powdered, and then gradually melted 
together in a porcelain vessel, and poured into moulds made of bronze. ( Gaz. des Hop., Juillet 
28, 1863.) Another mode of preparing pencils of copper sulphate is to rub briskly together 
four parts of that salt and one of borax, and to mould the plastic mass which results into the 
desired form. (A. J. P., March, 1864, p. 106.) The best form is that of an elongated cone, 
made by selecting suitable crystals and turning them in a lathe to the desired form ; or they 
may be made by filing the crystals, and finishing with sand-paper. 
The dose of copper sulphate, as an astringent, is a quarter of a grain (0-016 Gm.) ; as an 
emetic, five grains (0-33 Gm.), repeated in fifteen minutes if necessary, but not oftener than 
once. As a stimulant wash, the solution may be made of the strength of two, four, or eight 
grains to the fluidounce of water. For its effects as a poison, see Cuprum. 
CUPRUM. Copper. 
Cu ; G3*18. (CU'PRUM.) 
“ Fine Copper wire, about No. 25 wire gauge, or about 0-02 inch.” Br. 1885. 
Cupreum Filum; Fil de Cuivre, Cuivre, Fr.; Kupfer, Kupferdraht, G.; Rame, It.; Cobre, Sp. 
This metal is very generally diffused in nature, and exists principally in four states : as native 
copper, as an oxide, as a sulphide, and as a salt. Its principal native salts are the sulphate, 
carbonate, arsenate, and phosphate. In the United States it occurs in various localities, but 
especially in the neighborhood of Lake Superior, in Montana, Arizona, and East Tennessee. 
The principal producing copper-mines of Europe are those of Spain and Portugal and of Mans- 
feld in Germany. Chili and Japan are also relatively large producers at present. 
The total production of copper in the United States has increased very rapidly in recent 
years, and now is more than half that of the world’s annual production. It was for 1895, 
386,453,850 lbs., valued at $36,944,988; for 1896, 479,806,183 lbs., valued at $51,003,397; 
for 1897, 510,190,789 lbs., valued at $56,325,055. The three most productive States are 
Montana, Michigan, and Arizona, in the order named, the first yielding fully half of the total. 
The consumption of copper in the United States for 1896 was 216,483,123 lbs., and the exports 
for the same year 281,905,217 lbs. 
Properties. Copper is a brilliant, sonorous metal, of a reddish color, and very ductile, 
malleable, and tenacious. It has a slightly nauseous taste, and emits a disagreeable smell 
when rubbed. Its texture is granular, and its fracture hackly. Its sp. gr. is 8-92 to 8-95, and 
its fusing point 1398° C. (2538° F.) according to Daniell, being intermediate between the 
fusing points of silver and gold. Its atomic weight is given as 63-5, or, according to the most 
accurate determinations, 63-18. Exposed to the air it undergoes a slight tarnish. Its combina- 
tions are numerous and important. With oxygen it forms two well-characterized oxides, a red 
suboxide, better known as cuprous oxide, Cu20, and a black oxide, known as cupric oxide, CuO. 
While a cuprous chloride, iodide, and sulphide are known, it is the cupric oxide chiefly that 
unites with the common acids to form cupric salts. With metals copper forms numerous alloys, 
of which that with zinc, called brass, and that with tin, called bronze, are the most useful. 
Characteristics. Copper is recognized by its color, and the effects of tests on the solution 
of its nitrate. This solution, with potassa, soda, and ammonia, yields a blue precipitate, 
soluble in excess of the latter alkali, with which it forms a deep azure-blue liquid. Potassium 
ferrocyanide occasions a brown precipitate of copper ferrocyanide, and a bright plate of iron 
immersed in the solution immediately becomes covered with a film of metallic copper* Potas- 
sium ferrocyanide is a very delicate test for minute portions of copper in solution. Another 
test, proposed by M. Verguin, is to precipitate the copper in the metallic state on platinum 
by electro-chemical action. For this purpose a drop of the liquid to be examined is placed on 
* Thoms (Zeitsch. fur Analyt. Chem., 94, 464) asserts that if to a solution too dilute to give a sensible reaction 
with potassium ferrocyanide be added a solution of potassium iodide, a yellow coloration is produced which becomes 
violet with starch paste. This test will show as little as 1 to 600,000. PART I. 
Cuprum.—Cusparise Cortex. 
471 
a slip of platinum foil, and a slip of bright iron is brought in contact with the platinum and 
the liquid. If copper be present it will be instantly precipitated on the surface of the platinum. 
Action on the Animal Economy. Copper in its pure state is perfectly inert, but in 
combination it is highly deleterious. Nevertheless a minute portion of the metal has been 
found in the human body. According to Millon, copper, when it exists in the blood, is, like 
the iron, attached to the red corpuscles. To bring the copper into a state favorable for ready 
detection, he advises that the blood, as it escapes from a vein, be received in about three times 
its bulk of water, and the mixture poured into a bottle of chlorine and agitated. The whole, 
upon being rapidly filtered, furnishes a liquid in which copper is readily detected. Wackenro- 
der found copper in the blood of man, but does not consider it a constant and normal constituent. 
He also detected this metal in the blood of domestic animals living on a mixed diet, but not in 
their blood when nourished on vegetable food only. (Chem. Gaz., May 1, 1854.) It has been 
found in the feathers of certain birds, as of a grass-green paroquet from Australia, which is 
said to frequent districts of the country where copper is found. (Ibid., Oct. 24, 1873, p. 212.) 
The soluble combinations of copper, when taken in poisonous doses, produce a coppery taste in 
the mouth; nausea and vomiting; violent pain in the stomach and bowels ; frequent black and 
bloody stools; small, irregular, sharp, and frequent pulse; faintings; burning thirst; difficulty 
of breathing ; cold sweats ; paucity of urine, and burning pain in voiding it; violent headache ; 
cramps, convulsions, and finally death. The best antidote is the potassium ferrocyanide, given 
freely, which forms with the poison the very insoluble copper ferrocyanide. Soap and alkalies 
are also antidotal. Before the antidote can be procured, large quantities should be given of 
milk, and white of eggs mixed with water, which act favorably by forming copper caseate and 
copper albuminate; but these compounds should be evacuated as soon as possible by vomit- 
ing and purging. Should vomiting not take place, the stomach-pump may be employed. The 
symptoms of slow poisoning by copper are, according to Dr. Corrigan, of Dublin, a cachectic 
appearance, emaciation, loss of muscular strength, colicky pains, cough without physical signs, 
and retraction of the gum, with a persistent purple edge, quite distinct from the blue edge 
produced by lead. (Braithwaitds Retrospect, Am. ed., xxx. 303.) But there is much doubt 
whether these symptoms can be produced by the metal. (See H. C. Wood’s Therapeutics.') 
In medico-legal examinations, where cupreous poisoning is suspected, Orfila recommends that 
the viscera be boiled in distilled water for an hour, and that the matter obtained by evaporating 
the filtered decoction to dryness be carbonized by nitric acid. The carbonized product will 
contain the copper. By proceeding in this way there is no risk of obtaining the copper which 
may happen to pre-exist in the animal tissues. This method of search is preferable to that of 
examining the contents of the stomach and intestines, from which copper may be absent, while 
it may have penetrated the different organs by absorption, especially the abdominal viscera. 
Vessels of copper which are not coated with tin should not be used in pharmaceutical or culi- 
nary operations; for, although the metal uncombined is inert, yet the risk is great that the 
vessels may be acted on and a poisonous salt formed. 
CUSPARIiE CORTEX. Br. Cusparia Bark. 
“ The dried bark of Cusparia febrifuga, DC.” Br. 
Angustura, U, S. 1870; Angusture, Fr.; Angusturarinde, G.; Corteccia dell’ Angustura, It.; Corteza de Angos- 
tura, Sp. 
This bark was dropped from the U. S. Pharmacopoeia at the revision of 1880. 
The subject of Angustura bark in its botanical relations has been involved in some confu- 
sion. The drug was at first supposed to be derived from a species of Magnolia, and was re- 
ferred by some to Magnolia glauca, of this country. Humboldt and Bonpland were the first to 
throw light upon its true source. When at Angostura, a South American city on the Orinoco, 
they received specimens of the foliage of the plant from which the bark was obtained, and 
afterwards believed that they had found the same plant in a tree growing in the vicinity of 
Cumana. This latter they had the opportunity of personally inspecting, and were therefore 
enabled to describe accurately. Unable to attach it to any known genus, they erected it into 
a new one with the title of Cusparia, a name of Indian origin, to which they added the specific 
appellation of febrifuga. On their authority, Cusparia febrifuga was generally believed to be 
the true source of the medicine, and was recognized as such by the London College. A speci- 
men having in the mean time been sent by them to Willdenow, the name of Bonplandia was 
COK'TEX.) 472 
Cusparide Cortex. 
PART I. 
imposed on the new genus by that celebrated botanist, and it was subsequently adopted by 
Humboldt and Bonpland themselves, in their great work on equinoctial plants. Hence the 
title of Bonplandia trifoliata, by which the tree is described in many works on Materia Mediea. 
De Candolle, however, having found in the description all the characters of the genus Galipea 
of Aublet, rejected both these titles, and substituted that of Galipea cusparia, which was 
adopted by the London College, and for a time was retained in the British Pharmacopoeia. 
But, after all these changes, it appears from the researches of Dr. Hancock, who resided for sev- 
eral months in the country of the Angustura bark tree, that it is doubtful whether the plant 
described by Humboldt and Bonpland is that which yields the medicine, and is not another 
species of the same genus. Among other striking differences between them is their different 
sizes; the tree described by Humboldt and Bonpland being at least sixty feet high, while that 
from which the bark is obtained is said to be never more than twenty feet. Hancock proposed 
for the plant of the Orinoco the title of Galipea officinalis, which was adopted in the TJ. S. P. 
1870. This name was afterwards changed by Hancock to Cusparia officinalis (Syn. C. trifoliata 
H. et B., also (Willd.) Engl., and Angostura Cuspare, 11. et Sch. of New Granada and Cumana). 
Nat. ord. Rutaceae. 
Cusparia febrifuga, DC.— Cusparia officinalis. Hancock, Trans. Lond. Medico-Bot. Soc.— 
Galipea cusparia. St.-Hilaire, B. & T., vol. i. 43. This is a small tree, irregularly branched, 
rising to the medium height of twelve or fifteen feet, with an erect stem from three to five 
inches in diameter, and covered with a smooth gray bark. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, 
and composed of three leaflets, which are oblong, pointed at each extremity, from six to ten 
inches in length, from two to four in breadth, and supported upon the common petiole by short 
leafstalks. They are very smooth and glossy, of a vivid green color, marked occasionally with 
small whitish round spots, and, when fresh, of a strong odor resembling that ©f tobacco. The 
flowers are numerous, white, arranged in axillary and terminal peduncled racemes, and of a 
peculiar unpleasant odor. The fruit consists of five bivalve capsules, of which two or three are 
commonly abortive. The seeds, two of which are contained in each capsule, one often abortive, 
are round, black, and of the size of a pea. The tree grows abundantly on the mountains of 
Carony, between the 7th and 8th degrees of N. latitude, and is well known in the missions near 
the Orinoco, upwards of two hundred miles from the ocean. It flourishes at the height of from 
six hundred to one thousand feet above the level of the sea. Its elegant white blossoms, which 
appear in vast profusion in August and September, add greatly to the beauty of the scenery. 
The bark is generally brought from the West Indies packed in casks; but, according to Mr. 
Brande, the original package as it comes from Angostura consists of the leaves of a species 
of palm, surrounded by a net-work of sticks. 
Properties. “ Occurs in flattened or curved pieces, or in quills, generally about four or 
five inches (ten or twelve centimetres) long, an inch (twenty-five millimetres) wide, and one- 
twelfth of an inch (two millimetres) thick. The outer layer usually consists of a gray or yel- 
lowish cork which is often soft and easily removed, disclosing a hard, dark brown inner layer; 
the inner surface is light brown and frequently laminated. The fracture is short and resinous; 
on the fractured surface many white points are visible. A transverse section exhibits numerous 
cells filled with acicular crystals of calcium oxalate and small oil glands, but seldom any 
sclerenchymatous tissue other than small isolated groups of bast fibres. Odor musty ; taste 
bitter.” Br. Calcium oxalate raphides are abundant in the bark, but the most characteristic 
peculiarity is the presence of numerous cells a little larger than the other parenchymatous cells 
and completely filled with oil or a yellowish resin* The smell of Angustura bark is peculiar 
and disagreeable when fresh, becoming fainter with age; the taste is bitter and slightly aro- 
matic, leaving a sense of pungency at the end of the tongue. According to Fischer, it contains 
volatile oil, bitter extractive, a hard and bitter resin, a soft resin, a substance analogous to 
caoutchouc, gum, lignin, and various salts. Oberlin and Schlagdenhauffen (1878) found in 
the bitter extractive an alkaloid, angosturine, C10H40N014, which melts at 85° C., is crystal- 
lizable, and is turned red by pure sulphuric acid, and green by sulphuric acid with admixture 
of nitric acid. The volatile oil, which may be obtained by distillation with water, is of a pale 
yellowish color, lighter than water, of an acrid taste, and with the odor of the bark. Its 
formula is given as C13H240 by Dr. C. Herzog, who states that its boiling point is 266-l° C. 
(511° F.), probably one of the highest of the volatile oils. The cusparine of Saladin has not 
been found by other investigators. Beckurts and Nehring (A. J. P., 1892, 410) announced 
the discovery of four alkaloids in Angustura bark,—viz., galipine, C20H21NOa, melting at 
* For an elaborate microscopical study of the bark, see Journ. de Pharm., xxviii. 230. PART I. 
Cusparise Cortex.—Cusso. 
473 
115-5° C. and crystallizing in slender lustrous needles of white color; galipidine, C19HieN03, 
melting at 111° C. and crystallizing in silky lustrous plates of white color ; cusparine, C20H19N03 
(Ci9H17N03, Kdrner), melting at 89° C. and readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, ace- 
tone, and benzene, more sparingly in light petroleum ; and cusparidine, C10H17NO3, melting at 
78° C. and crystallizing in minute slender white needles. Its salts are less soluble than those 
of galipine and galipidine, but more readily than those of cusparine. The four alkaloids are 
tertiary bases. (See also ArcMv d. Pharm., 233 (1895, No. 6) 410.) Beckurts and Nehring 
also extracted the essential oil, amounting to 1-5 per cent. It had a sp. gr. at 15° C. of 0-956. 
Distilled under a pressure of 35 Mm. it commenced to boil at 153° C., and the greater part 
distilled between 200° and 220° C., the last portions becoming solid when artificially chilled. 
(See also ArcMv d. Pharm., 1897, 518.) They found the bitter principle angosturine, which 
when purified was white and melted at 58° C. A glucoside was also found, the solution of 
which fluoresced; hut it was not fully investigated. 
Dr. A. T. Thomson states that precipitates are produced with the infusion by the solutions 
of ferrous sulphate, antimony and potassium tartrate, copper sulphate, lead acetate and sub- 
acetate, mercuric chloride, silver nitrate, and pure potassa, by nitric and sulphuric acids, and 
by the infusions of galls and yellow cinchona; but how far these substances are medicinally 
incompatible with the bark it would be difficult to determine. 
False Angustura. Under this title, European writers describe a bark which was intro- 
duced on the Continent mixed with true Angustura bark, and, being possessed of poisonous 
properties, produced in some instances unpleasant effects when dispensed by mistake for that 
medicine. It is distinguished by its greater thickness, hardness, weight, and compactness; by 
its resinous fracture; by the appearance of its epidermis, which is sometimes covered with a 
ferruginous efflorescence, sometimes is yellowish gray and marked with prominent white spots; 
by the brownish color and smoothness of its internal surface, which is not, like that of the 
genuine bark, separable into laminae ; by the white slightly yellow powder which it yields; by 
its total want of odor, and its intense tenacious bitterness. When steeped in water it does not 
become soft, like the true Angustura. Pelletier and Caventou found it to contain brucine. 
(See Nux Vomica.) In- consequence of the presence of this principle, a drop of nitric acid 
upon the internal suface of the bark produces a deep red spot. The same acid, applied to the 
external surface, renders it emerald-green. In true Angustura bark a dull red color is produced 
by the acid on both surfaces. The false Angustura was at first supposed to be derived from 
Brucea antidysenterica, but at present is ascribed to Strychnos nux vomica. (See also A. J. P., 
1892, 115, and P. J. Tr., 1895, 722.) 
Brazilian Angustura Bark, the product of Esenbeckia febrifuga, consists of slightly curved 
pieces 8 to 10 inches long, about of an inch in thickness, of a persistently bitter taste. The 
outer surface is usually ashen gray, and always marked with longitudinal red or black spots 
on a yellow ground ; the inner surface is reddish, with paler, distinct, elongated fibres. On 
maceration the bark does not swell. (Oberlin and Schlagdenhauffen, Journ. de Pharm., xxviii.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Angustura bark had been long used by the natives 
of the countries where it grows before it became known elsewhere. From the continent its 
employment extended to the West Indies, where it acquired considerable reputation, and about 
eighty years since it was introduced into Europe. Its operation is that of a stimulant tonic. 
In large doses it also evacuates the stomach and bowels, and is often employed for this purpose 
in South America. It is said to be peculiarly efficacious in bilious diarrhoeas and dysenteries, 
and has been recommended in dyspepsia and other diseases requiring a tonic treatment. The 
testimony, however, of practitioners in Europe and the United States is not strongly in its 
favor ; and it is probably better adapted to tropical diseases than to those of temperate climates. 
It may be given in powder, infusion, tincture, or extract. The dose in substance is from ten 
to thirty grains (0-65-1-95 Gm.). In larger quantities it is apt to produce nausea. From five 
to fifteen grains (0-33-1 Gm.) is the dose of the extract, which, however, according to Dr. 
Hancock, is inferior to the powder or infusion. To obviate nausea, it is frequently combined 
with aromatics. (See Infusum Cusparisei) 
CUSSO. U. S., Br. Kousso. [Brayera, Pharm. 1880.] 
(cus'so.) 
“ The female inflorescence of Hagenia Abyssinica (Bruce), Gmelin (nat. ord. Rosacese.)” 
IT. S. “ The dried panicles of pistillate flowers of Brayera anthelmintiea, Kunth.” Br. 
Koosso; Flores Kosso, P. G.; Kusso, E.; Cousso, Kousso, Fr.; Kosso, Kusso, Cusso, G. Cusso. 
474 
PART I. 
Ilagenia abyssmica. Willd. B. & T. 102.—Brayera anthelmintica. Kunth; De Cand. Pro- 
drom. ii. 580 ; Pereira, Mat. Med., 3d ed., ii. 1818.—Banksia ahyssinica. Bruce. This is a 
tree about twenty feet high, growing on the table-land of Abyssinia, at an elevation of from 
three thousand to eight thousand feet. The branches exhibit circular cicatrices, left by the 
fallen leaves. These are crowded near the ends of the branches, large, pinnate, sheathing at 
the base, with opposite, lanceolate, serrate leaflets, villose at the margin, and nerved beneath. 
The unisexual flowers are tinged with purple, pedicelled, with an involucre of four roundish, 
oblong, obtuse, membranous bracts, and are arranged in fours, upon hairy, flexuous, bractate 
peduncles, with alternate branches. They are small and of a greenish color, becoming purple. 
These and the unripe fruit are the parts of the plant employed. The petals are apt to be 
wanting in the dried flowers. They are brought from Abyssinia packed in boxes, reaching 
Europe chiefly by way of Aden and Bombay. The Abyssinian name of the medicine has 
been variously spelled by European writers kosso, koosso, cusso, cosso, etc. The fruit of the 
tree is said to be used as an anthelmintic in Abyssinia, but DragendorfF failed to detect any 
active principle in it. 
Properties. The dried flowers are in unbroken though compressed clusters. The male 
flowers are usually collected, so that ordinarily the general color of the mass is greenish yellow 
or light brown; sometimes the female flowers constitute the bulk of the drug, which then has 
a distinct reddish tint, and is often known in commerce as red kousso. In accordance with 
our Pharmacopoeia, this commercial variety should alone be used. The male flowers are often 
found mixed with the female flowers, when loose (not in bundles) as high as 12 per cent, 
of this adulteration having been noticed by Meyer and Sandlund. (Pharm. Zeit., 1893, No. 
99.) The official description is as follows: “ In bundles, rolls, or compressed clusters, consist- 
ing of panicles about 25 Cm. long, with a sheathing bract at the base of each branch ; the 
two roundish bracts at the base of each flower, and the four or five obovate, outer sepals, are 
of a reddish color, membranous and veiny; calyx top-shaped, hairy, enclosing two carpels or 
nutlets; odor slight, fragrant, and tea-like; taste bitter, acrid, and nauseous.” U. S. As the 
medicine, from its high price, is apt to be adulterated, it should be procured in the unpowdered 
state, in which the botanical characters of the flower will sufficiently test its genuineness. It 
has a fragrant balsamic odor; and the taste, slightly perceptible at first, becomes in a short 
time somewhat acrid and disagreeable. Analyzed by Wittstein, it was found to contain, in 
100 parts, 1-44 of fatty matter and chlorophyll, 2-02 of wax, 6-25 of bitter acrid resin, 0-77 
of tasteless resin, 1-08 of sugar, 7'22 of gum, 24-40 of tannic acid, 40-97 of lignin, 15-71 of 
ashes, with 0-14 part of loss. In 1855 it was studied by Clemens Willing ( Chem. Centralbl 
1855, 224), who found a small quantity of tannin, volatile oil, crystallizable acid, and a bitter 
resin. In 1858 Pavesi ( Viertelj. f. Prak. Pharm., viii. 505) made a further chemical study 
of the drug; but we are chiefly indebted to Dr. Bedall, of Munich, for determining that the 
bitter acrid resin of Wittstein is equivalent to the taeniin of Pavesi, and for the name of 
kosin. It may be obtained by treating kousso repeatedly with alcohol to which calcium hydrate 
lias been added; the residue is boiled with water, the liquids are mixed, filtered, and distilled, 
and the residue treated with acetic acid, which precipitates the kosin in a white flocc-ulent 
form, soon becoming denser and resin-like, and, on drying, yellowish, or, at a higher tempera- 
ture, brown. The product is 3 per cent. In bulk, kosin has an odor like that of Russian 
leather, a persistent bitter and acrid taste, a yellowish or yellowish-white color, and an indistinct 
crystalline appearance under the microscope. It is very sparingly soluble in water, but freely 
so in alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions. (A. J. P., 1872, 394.) Its formula, according 
to Fliickiger, is C31H38010. It fuses at 142° C. (287-6° F.), and remains after cooling an 
amorphous yellow mass, but if touched with alcohol it immediately assumes the form of stel- 
late tufts of crystals. This may be repeated at pleasure, kosin not being altered by cautious 
fusion. (Pharmacog., 2d ed., 258.) Leichsenring (Archiv d. Pharm., 1894, 50) has re- 
examined kousso, and finds an inactive crystalline principle to which he gives the name 
protokosine, and an amorphous substance, kossotoxine, which he considers the active principle 
of the drug; the latter is a yellowish powder, fusing at 80° C., and not obtainable in a crys- 
talline state. It is easily soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol, carbon disulphide, and insoluble 
in water. 
Koussinate of Sodium has been recommended by Pavesi as a very eligible preparation for 
obtaining the virtues of kosin : a process is given in Amer. Drug., 1884, 96; A. J. P., 1885. 
Medical Properties. Koosso is highly valued in Abyssinia as a vermifuge. Bruce 
speaks of it in his travels, and gives a figure of the plant. Dr. Brayer, a French physician PART I. 
Cusso.— Cypripedium. 
475 
practising in Constantinople, published a treatise on it at Paris in 1823. It was in his honor 
that Kunth adopted the generic title of the plant. Much attention has recently been attracted 
to this medicine; and trials made with it have proved that it has extraordinary efficacy in the 
destruction and expulsion of the tape-worm. Its effects when taken internally are not very 
striking. In the ordinary dose it sometimes produces heat of stomach, nausea, and even 
vomiting, and shows a tendency to act on the bowels, though this effect is not always pro- 
duced. It appears to act exclusively as a poison to the worms, and has been found equally 
effectual in both kinds of tape-worm. The medicine is taken in the morning upon an empty 
stomach, a light meal having been made the preceding evening. A previous evacuation of 
the bowels is also recommended. The flowers are given in the form of powder, mixed with 
half a pint of warm water, the mixture being allowed to stand for fifteen minutes, then stirred 
up, and taken in two or three draughts at short intervals. The medicine may be preceded 
and followed by lemonade. The medium dose for an adult is half an ounce (15-5 Gm.), 
which may be diminished one-third for a child of twelve years, one-half for one of six years, 
and two-thirds for one of three years. Should the medicine not act on the bowels in three 
or four hours, a brisk cathartic should be administered. One dose is said to be sufficient to 
destroy the worm. Should the quantity mentioned not prove effectual, it may be increased to 
an ounce (31-1 Gm.). 
Pure kosin has been considerably used in Germany in doses of thirty grains (2 Gm.), taken 
in two or four powders; but Buchheim found pure kosin less powerful as an anthelmintic than 
that which was not pure, whilst Arena (Pharm. Zeitschr. f. Russl., 1879, 655) believes that kosin 
is not the active principle at all, but that the activity of koosso resides exclusively in the 
green, slightly bitter resin, which is soluble in alcohol and ether. If this view be correct, it 
explains the greater efficacy of freshly powdered koosso, for the green resin turns yellow by 
age and loses its power (see Extractum Cusso), and further indicates that the amorphous kosin 
of commerce is preferable to the pure principle. It is a yellowish-brown mass, which may be 
given in doses of from seven to fifteen grains (0'5-l Gm.), repeated every half-hour until 
four doses are taken, to be followed in an hour by a full dose of castor oil. So far as we 
know, no cases of poisoning by koosso or its active principle are on record; but it has been 
found by Rochebrune to be capable of causing centric convulsions in the lower animals. 
CYPRIPEDIUM. U. S. Cypripedium. [Ladies’ Slipper.] 
“ The rhizome and roots of Cypripedium pubescens, Swartz, and of Cypripedium parviflorum; 
Salisbury (nat. ord. Orchideas).” U. S. 
Rhizoma Cypripedii; Ladies’ Slipper Root; Racine de Cypripede jaune, ValSriane americaine, Fr.; Gelbfrauen- 
scboh-Wurzel, G. 
Under the common name of ladies' slipper, or moccasin plant, several species of Cypripedium 
inhabit the woods in different parts of the United States. They are small plants, with large, 
many-nerved, plaited leaves, sheathing at the base, and large often beautiful flowers, of a shape 
not unlike the Indian moccasin, whence they derive one of their common names. Their ge- 
neric name of Cypripedium (Kunjptq, Venus, and i:68iov, sock) had a similar origin. Several 
of them have been used by American physicians, the root being the part employed. Dr. R. 
P. Stevens, of Ceres, Pennsylvania, says of them that he has found the C. spectabile and C. 
acaule, especially when growing in dark swamps, to be possessed of narcotic properties, and to 
be less safe than the C. parvifiorum, which is gently stimulant with a tendency to the nervous 
system, and is quite equal to valerian. He has employed it advantageously in hysteria, and in 
the pains of the joints following scarlet fever. (N. Y. Journ. of Med., iv. 359.) Dr. E. Ives 
considers C. pubescens, C. spectabile, and C. humile identical in their effects, but C. pubescens the 
most powerful. (Trans. Am. Med. Assoc., iii. 312.) The roots of the two species 0. pubescens 
and C. parvifiorum are indiscriminately kept in the shops and sold by the same name. 
Cypripedium pubescens. Willd. Sp. Plant., 1805, iv. 142. (C. hirsutum, Mill. Gard. Diet., 
1768.) The yellow ladies slipper, as this plant is called from the color of its flowers, has a 
simple often flexuous, pubescent, leafy stem, from one to two feet high. The leaves are 
pubescent, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, narrowing at the base, about four or five inches long 
by two in breadth, alternate, sessile, and sheathing. The flower is usually solitary and terminal, 
with four divisions of the perianth, the two outer cohering nearly to the apex, the inner longer, 
narrower, undulatory or twisted, and the lip an inch or two in length, swelling sac-like, and of 
(QYP-RI-PE'DI-UM.) 476 
Cypripedium. 
PART i. 
a yellow color. The fruit is an oblong capsule, tapering at each end, recurved, pubescent, and 
peduneled. The plant is indigenous, growing abundantly in rich, moist woods throughout the 
United States. 
Cypripedium parviflorum. (Salisbury.) Common Ladies' Slipper. Small-flowered Ladies' 
Slipper. This is a perennial plant with a leafy stem, a foot or two in height, and compara- 
tively small yellowish-green flowers, appearing in May. The specific character of the flower, 
which is that also of the plant, is that the lobe of the style is triangular and acute ; the outer 
petals are oblong-ovate and acuminate; the inner linear and contorted; the lips shorter than 
the petals, and compressed. This species grows extensively through the United States south 
of the Potomac, east and west of the Allegbanies, and in several of the Northern States, par- 
ticularly New York, Michigan, Connecticut, and Vermont. In Pennsylvania, especially near 
Philadelphia, it does not appear to prevail, and it is not mentioned in Harlington’s Flora Ces- 
trica as among the plants of Chester County. 
The rhizome is from two to four inches long. “ Of horizontal growth, bent, 10 Cm., or 
less, long ; from 3 to 5 Mm. thick ; on the upper side beset with numerous circular, cup-shaped 
scars ; closely covered below with simple, wiry roots varying from 10 to 15 Cm. in length ; 
brittle, dark brown or orange-brown ; fracture short, white; odor peculiar, heavy; taste sweet- 
ish, bitter, and somewhat pungent.” TJ. S. Prof. Maisch gives a distinctive description of the 
roots of tbe two species, of which the following is a condensed account. Of C. pubescens the 
rhizome is almost horizontal, in its greatest length nearly four inches, slightly bent with a shal- 
low downward curve, from i to T6 of an inch thick, with numerous deeply concave scars left 
by the stems, having fully the width of the rhizome. The rootlets are numerous, several 
inches in length, sometimes even nine inches or more, about of an inch thick, without 
branches, somewhat undulate, and, though attached to the rhizome on all sides, are abruptly 
turned downward, owing to its horizontal position in the ground. Their color is yellowish 
brown, becoming much darker on drying, which causes longitudinal wrinkles. The cortical 
part of both species is colored blue by iodine. The rhizome of C. parviflorum is altogether 
different from the former, being bent nearly at right angles three or four times, each section 
about f of an inch long; and the whole length, while only about two inches in a straight line 
from end to end, is yet actually three inches along the course of the rhizome. This is about | 
of an inch thick, and has stem-scars about the same in width, with about three in each bend. 
The rootlets, which are attached to all sides of the rhizome, are numerous, four to six inches 
long, less undular than those of C. pubescens, and of a brighter color, being a decided orange- 
brown when fresh, and changing little on drying. (A.J. P., 1872, 297.) Poisonous properties 
have been attributed to C. spectabile and C. pubescens (see Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey, Minnesota 
Bull., 9, part i.), but it has been shown that the secretion from the glandular hairs simply 
exerts an irritant action. 
The roots of the Cypripedia are sometimes mixed, as brought into the market, with those of 
Hydrastis canadensis, from the plants occasionally growing in close contiguity. (See Hydrastis.) 
Roots of seneka have also been noticed in specimens of Cypripedium; but there can be no 
difficulty in distinguishing them. 
Properties. Cypripedium has a somewhat aromatic odor, which diminishes by time, and a 
bitter, sweetish, peculiar, and in the end somew-hat pungent taste. It yields its virtues to water 
and alcohol. The root has been analyzed by Mr. Henry C. Blair, who found it to contain a 
volatile oil, a volatile acid, tannic and gallic acids, two resins, gum, glucose, starch, and lignin. 
(M. J. P., 1866, p. 494.) The so-called eclectics prepare what they improperly call cypripedin 
by precipitating with water a concentrated tincture of the root. The substance thus obtained 
is complex, and has no claim to the name given it, which ought to be reserved for the active 
principle when discovered. It is probable that the virtues of the root reside in a volatile oil 
and a bitter principle. 
Medical Uses. Cypripedium appears to be a gentle nervous stimulant or antispasmodic, 
and has been used for the same purposes as valerian, though less powerful. Hr. E. Ives, of 
New Haven, Conn., commends the remedy in hypochondriasis, neuralgia, and morbid sensitive- 
ness of the nervous system generally, and especially of the eye. It may be used in powder, 
infusion, or tincture. The dose of the powder given by Hr. Ives was fifteen grains (1 Gm.) 
three times a day. The oleoresin, obtained by precipitating the tincture, has been given in 
doses varying from half a grain to three grains (0-03-0-20 Gm.). (See Extractum Cypripedii 
Fluidum.) part I. 
Decoeta. 
477 
DECOCTA. Decoctions. 
(DE-CbC'TA.) 
Decoctions, Fr.; Abkochungen, G. 
Decoctions are solutions of vegetable principles, obtained by boiling the substances containing 
these principles in water. Vegetables generally yield their soluble ingredients more readily, and 
in larger proportion, to water maintained at the point of ebullition, than to the same liquid at 
a lower temperature. Hence decoction is occasionally preferred to infusion as a mode of extract- 
ing the virtues of plants, when the call for the remedy is urgent, and the greatest possible 
activity in the preparation is desirable. The process should be conducted in a covered vessel, 
so as to confine the vapor over the surface of the liquid, and thus prevent the access of atmos- 
pheric air, which sometimes exerts an injurious agency upon the active principle. The boiling, 
moreover, should not, as a rule, be long continued; as the ingredients of the vegetable are 
apt to react on one another, and thus lose, to a greater or less extent, their original character. 
The substance submitted to decoction should if dry be either powdered or well bruised, if fresh 
should be sliced, so that it may present an extensive surface to the action of the solvent; and 
previous maceration for some time in water is occasionally useful by overcoming the cohesion 
of the vegetable fibre. Should the physician not happen to prescribe this preliminary com- 
minution, the pharmacist should not omit it. 
All vegetable substances are not proper objects for decoction. In many the active principle 
is volatile at a boiling heat, in others it undergoes some change unfavorable to its activity, and 
in a third set is associated with inefficient or nauseous principles, which, though insoluble or but 
slightly soluble in cold water, are abundantly extracted by that liquid at the boiling temperature, 
and thus encumber, if they do not positively injure, the preparation. In all these instances, 
infusion is preferable to decoction. Besides, by the latter process more matter is often dissolved 
than the water can retain, so that upon cooling a precipitation takes place and the liquid is 
rendered turbid, and this constitutes the greatest objection to this class of preparations. When 
the active principle is thus dissolved in excess, the decoction should always be strained while 
hot, so that the matter which separates on cooling may be mixed again with the fluid by agi- 
tation at the time of administering the remedy. In compound decoctions, the ingredients may 
be advantageously added at different periods of the process, according to the length of boiling 
requisite for extracting their virtues; and, should one of them owe its activity to a volatile 
principle, the proper plan is, at the close of the process, to pour upon it the boiling decoction, 
and allow the liquor to cool in a covered vessel. 
As a rule, glass or earthenware vessels should be preferred, as those made of metal are some- 
times corroded by the ingredients of the decoction, which thus become contaminated. Vessels 
of clean cast-iron or common tin, or of block tin, are preferable to those of copper, brass, or zinc ; 
but iron pots should not be used where astringent vegetables are concerned. 
Decoctions, from the mutual reaction of their constituents, as well as from the influence of 
the air, are apt to spoil in a short time. Hence they should be prepared only when wanted for 
use, and should not be kept, in warm weather, for a longer period than forty-eight hours. 
The tendency of modern medicine and pharmacy has been decidedly against the employ- 
ment of decoctions; the nauseous taste, bulky dose, repulsive appearance, and non-permanent 
character have been powerful reasons for causing their retirement, whilst the use of tinctures 
and fluid extracts has largely increased. In the 1880 revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia the 
number of official decoctions was reduced to two, and a general formula was appended for the 
guidance of the pharmacist. The U. S. P. 1890 reduced the strength of the decoctions from 
10 per cent, to 5 per cent., as will be seen from the following. “ An ordinary Decoction, the 
strength of which is not directed by the physician, nor specified by the Pharmacopoeia, shall 
be prepared by the following formula : Take of the Substance, coarsely comminuted, fifty 
grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Put the substance into a suitable vessel pro- 
vided with a cover, pour upon it one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ flui- 
drachms] of cold Water, cover it well, and boil for fifteen minutes. Then let it cool to about 
40° C. (104° F.), express, strain the expressed liquid, and pass enough cold Water through 
the strainer to make the product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J 
fluidrachms]. 
“ Caution. The strength of Decoctions of energetic or powerful substances should be spe- 
cially prescribed by the physician.” U. S. The decoctions which were official in 1870 but 
dropped at the 1880 revision are Decoctions of Pipsissewa, Yellow Cinchona, Red Cinchona, 478 
Decoctum, Aloes Compositum.—Decoctum Cetrarise. 
PART I. 
Dogwood, Bittersweet, Logwood, Barley, White Oak, Seneka, and Uva Ursi. With the exception 
of decoction of barley, these were all made by boiling a troyounce of the drug with a pint of 
water for fifteen minutes, straining, and adding sufficient water through the strainer to make 
the decoction measure a pint. 
DECOCTUM ALOES COMPOSITUM. Br. Compound Decoction of 
Aloes. 
(DE-COC'TUM XL'0-E§ COM-PO§'l-TUM.) 
Tisane (Decoct6) d’AloSs composee, Fr.; Zusainmengesetztes Aloedecoct, G. 
“ Extract of Barbados Aloes, \ ounce (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Myrrh, Saffron, Potassium 
Carbonate, of each, \ ounce (Imp.) or 5 grammes; Extract of Liquorice, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 
40 grammes; Compound Tincture of Cardamoms, 15 Ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 300 cubic 
centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Reduce the Extract of Barbados Aloes 
and the Myrrh to coarse powder, and boil them and the Potassium Carbonate and the Extract 
of Liquorice with one pint (Imp. meas.) or four hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water 
in a covered vessel for five minutes ; add the Saffron ; when the liquid is cool add the Tincture 
of Cardamoms; set aside in the covered vessel for two hours; strain through flannel; pass 
sufficient Distilled Water through the strainer to make fifty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one 
thousand cubic centimetres of the Compound Decoction of Aloes.” Br. 
This is essentially the former process of the British Colleges. The direction is properly 
given to rub the aloes, myrrh, and potassium carbonate together before the addition of the 
other ingredients. The effect of the alkaline carbonate is, by combining with the resin of the 
myrrh and the insoluble portion of the aloes, to render them more soluble in water, while the 
liquorice assists in the suspension of the portion not actually dissolved. The tincture of 
cardamom is useful not only by its cordial property, but also by preventing spontaneous de- 
composition. This decoction is said not to filter clear when first made, but, if kept for some 
time, to deposit insoluble matter, and then to become bright and clear on filtering. (P. J. Tr., 
xiv. 491.) J. F. Brown proposes to prepare a concentrated decoction which keeps for a time 
unchanged. (Chem. and Drug., 1896, 425.) 
Long boiling impairs the purgative property of aloes; and the same effect is thought to be 
produced, to a certain extent, by the alkalies, which certainly qualify its operation and render 
it less apt to irritate the rectum. This decoction, therefore, is milder as a cathartic than aloes 
itself: it is also more tonic and cordial, from the presence of the myrrh, saffron, and carda- 
mom, and derives antacid properties from the potassium carbonate. It is given as a gentle 
cathartic, tonic, and emmenagogue, and is especially useful in dyspepsia, habitual constipation, 
and atonic amenorrhoea. The dose is from one-half to two fluidounces (15-60 C.c.). The de- 
coction should not be combined in prescription with acids, acidulous salts, or other bodies 
incompatible with the alkaline carbonate. 
DECOCTUM CETRARIiE. U. S. Decoction of Cetraria. 
Decoction of Iceland Moss; Tisane (Decoct6) de Lichen d’Islande, Fr.; Islandisch-Moos-Absud (Decoct), G. 
“ Cetraria, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Cover the Cetraria, in a 
suitable vessel, with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of cold 
Water, express after half an hour, and throw the liquid away. Then boil the Cetraria with 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms] of Water for half an hour, 
strain, and add enough cold Water, through the strainer, to make the product, when cold, 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This decoction is stronger than the one official in 1870. At present 5 per cent, of Iceland 
moss is used in the preparation, instead of about 3 per cent, as formerly. The preparation was 
dropped from the Br. Ph. 1898. The directions of the U. S. P. 1850 were to boil half an ounce 
of the Moss with a pint and a half of Water down to a pint, and to strain with compression; 
and this process is preferable when the object is to extract not only the bitter principle, but also 
the whole of the demulcent and nutritive matter. As the bitter principle is dissolved along 
with the starch-like matter of the moss, this decoction has an unpleasant flavor; but the plan 
which has been proposed of first extracting the bitterness by maceration in water or a very weak 
solution of an alkaline carbonate, and afterwards preparing the decoction, is inadmissible, as 
(DE-COC'TUM CE-TRA'RI-jE.) PART I. 
Decoctum Cetranse. 
479 
the peculiar virtues which distinguish the medicine from the ordinary demulcents are thus 
entirely lost. (See Cetraria.') A pint (473 C.c.) of the decoction may be taken during the day.* 
* The following decoctions have been omitted in the recent revision of the Pharmacopoeias, but, as they are still to 
a greater of less extent in use, require notice. 
Decoctum Chimaphilse. U. S. 1870. Decoction of Pipsissewa. “Take of Pipsissewa, bruised, a troyounce ; Water 
a sufficient quantity. Boil the Pipsissewa in a pint of Water for fifteen minutes, strain, and add sufficient Water, 
through the strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. This decoction is in every way inferior 
to the fluid extract. One pint (472 C.c.) of it may be given in the course of twenty-four hours. 
Decoctum Cinchona Flavse. U. S. 1870. Decoction of Yelloxo Cinchona. “ Take of Yellow Cinchona, bruised, 
a troyounce; Water a sufficient quantity. Boil the Yellow Cinchona in a pint of Water for fifteen minutes, strain, 
and add sufficient Water, through the strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. 
Decoctum Cinchonse Rubrse. U. S. 1870. Decoction of lied Cinchona. Decoction of Red Bark. “ Take of Red 
Cinchona, bruised, a troyounce ; Water a sufficient quantity. Boil the Red Cinchona in a pint of Water for fifteen 
minutes, strain, and add sufficient Water, through the strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. 
The decoctions of Cinchona have been very appropriately dropped from the Pharmacopoeia. Although capable 
of impressing the system, they are very ineligible preparations. The dose of either decoction is two fluidounces 
(60 C.c.), to be repeated more or less frequently according to circumstances. Two drachms of orange peel, added to 
the decoction while still boiling hot, improve its flavor, and render it more acceptable to the stomach. 
Decoctum Cornxls Floridse. U. S. 1870. Decoction of Do<jwood. “ Take of Dogwood, bruised, a troyounce ; Water 
a sufficient quantity. Boil the Dogwood in a pint of Water for fifteen minutes, strain, and add sufficient Water, 
through the strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. This decoction has been proposed as a 
substitute for that of Peruvian bark; but, though possessed of analogous properties, it is much inferior in efficacy, 
and is not likely to be extensively employed so long as the Peruvian tonic is attainable. The dose is two fluidounces 
(60 C.c.). 
Decoctum Dulcamarse. U. S. 1870. Decoction of Bittersweet. “Take of Bittersweet, bruised, a troyounce ; Water 
a sufficient quantity. Boil the Bittersweet in a pint of Water for fifteen minutes, strain, and add sufficient Water, 
through the strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. This is a good preparation of bittersweet 
if it is absolutely necessary to use an aqueous menstruum. Dose, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
Decoctum QuercHs Albse. U. S. 1870. Decoction of White-oak Bark. “Take of White-oak Bark, bruised, a troy- 
ounce; Water a sufficient quantity. Boil the White-oak Bark in a pint of Water for fifteen minutes, strain, and add 
sufficient Water, through the strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. 
Decoctum Cinchonse. Br. 1885. Decoction of Cinchona. “Take of Red Cinchona Bark, in No. 20 powder, one 
ounce and a quarter [avoirdupois] ; Distilled Water one pint [Imperial measure]. Boil for ten minutes in a covered 
vessel. Strain the decoction, when cold, and pour as much distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will 
make the strained product measure one pint [Imp. meas.].” Br. Dose, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
Decoctum Hordei. Br. 1885. Decoction of Barley. “Take of Pearl Barley two ounces [avoirdupois]; Distilled 
Water one pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Wash the Barley in cold water, and reject the washings; boil the 
washed Barley with the Distilled Water for twenty minutes, in a covered vessel, and strain. The product is about 
one pint.” Br. 
Barley water, as this decoction is usually called, is much employed as a nutritive drink in febrile and inflamma- 
tory complaints, and, from the total absence of irritating properties, is peculiarly adapted to cases in which the gas- 
tric or intestinal mucous membrane is inflamed. As the stomach of those for whom it is directed is often exceedingly 
delicate, it is important that the decoction should be properly made in accordance with the former official directions. 
The object of the washing with cold water is completely to remove any mustiness, or other disagreeable flavor, which 
the barley may have acquired from exposure. Dose, from one to four fluidounces (30-120 C.c.). 
Decoctum Papaveris. Br. 1885. Decoction of Poppy. “ Take of Poppy Capsules, bruised, two ounces [avoirdupois]; 
Distilled Water a pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, then strain, and 
pour as much distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the strained product measure a pint [Imp. 
meas.].” Br. 
This decoction is used as an anodyne fomentation in painful tumors, and in superficial cutaneous inflammation or 
excoriation. It is recommended not to reject the seeds, as their oil, suspended in the water by the mucilage of the 
capsules, adds to the emollient virtues of the preparation. 
Decoctum Pareirse. Br. 1885. Decoction of Pareira. “ Take of Pareira Root, in No. 20 powder, one ounce and 
a quarter [avoirdupois]; Distilled Water one pint [Imperial measure]. Boil for fifteen minutes in a covered vessel, 
then strain, and pour as much distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the strained product 
measure a pint [Imp. meas.].” Br. 
This is apt to remain turbid after straining, but, if allowed to stand, gradually deposits insoluble matter, and then 
can be filtered perfectly clear. (P. J. Tr.., xiv. 491.) The dose is from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.) three or 
four times a day. 
Decoctum Quercus. Br. 1885. Decoction of Oak Bark. “ Take of Oak Bark, bruised, one ounce and a quarter 
[avoirdupois]; Distilled Water one pint [Imperial measure]. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, then strain, 
and pour as much distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the strained product measure a pint 
[Imp. meas.].” Br. 
This decoction contains the tannin, bitter principle, and gallic acid of oak bark. It affords precipitates with the 
decoction of Peruvian bark and other substances containing vegetable alkaloids, with solution of gelatin, and with 
most metallic salts, particularly those of iron. Alkaline solutions diminish or destroy its astringency. Its uses 
have been already detailed. The dose is two fluidounces (60 C.c.), frequently repeated. 
Decoctum Sarsse. Br. 1885. Decoction of Sarsaparilla. “Take of Jamaica Sarsaparilla, cut transversely, two 
ounces and a half [avoirdupois]; Boiling Distilled Water one pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Digest the 
Sarsaparilla in the Water for an hour; then boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, cool, and strain, pouring dis- 
tilled water, if required, over the contents of the strainer, or otherwise making the strained product measure a pint 
[Imp. meas.].” Br. 
An idea was long entertained that the virtues of sarsaparilla resided in its fecula, the extraction of which was, 
therefore, the main object of the decoction. Hence the long boiling formerly ordered by the London and Edinburgh 
Colleges. But this opinion is now admitted to have been erroneous. The activity of the root is believed to depend 
upon one or more acrid principles, soluble to a certain extent in water, cold or hot, and either volatilized or ren- 480 
Decoctum Granati Cortids.—Decoctum Sarsaparillse Compositum. 
PART I. 
DECOCTUM GRANATI CORTICIS. Br. Decoction of Pomegranate Bark. 
(de-c5c'tum gra-na'ti cor'ti-cis.) 
Decoctum Granati Radicis, Br. (1885), Decoctum Corticis Radicis Granati; Tisane (DScocte) d’Ecorce de la 
Racine de Grenadier, Fr.; Granatwurzel-Rinden-Absud, G. 
“ Pomegranate Bark, in No. 10 powder, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 200 grammes; Distilled 
Water, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Pomegranate Bark with twenty-four fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or twelve hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water in a suitable vessel for ten 
minutes ; strain ; pour enough Distilled Water over the contents of the strainer to made one pint 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the strained Decoction.” Br. 
This decoction has double the quantity of bark in the Br. Pharm. 1898 over the Br. 
Pharm. 1885, the quantity of root bark in the latter for one pint being two ounces. 
For the uses and dose of this decoction, see Granati Radicis Cortex. 
DECOCTUM HAMATOXYLI. Br. Decoction of Logwood 
Tisane (DecoctS) de Bois de Campeche, Fr.; Blauholz-Absud, G. 
“ Logwood, in chips, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, 70 grains 
(Imp.) or 8 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Boil the Logwood with twenty- 
four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or twelve hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water in a 
suitable vessel for ten minutes, adding the Cinnamon Bark towards the end of the time ; strain ; 
pour enough Distilled Water over the contents of the strainer to make one pint (Imp. meas.) 
or one thousand cubic centimetres of the strained Decoction.” Br. 
We prefer the old U. 8. formula, wrhich ordered an ounce of the logwood to be boiled with 
two pints down to a pint, and doubt much whether the wood is exhausted by a boiling of ten 
or fifteen minutes. The cinnamon of the Br. formula is in general a very suitable addition, 
but there might be circumstances under which it would be better omitted; and in this case, as 
in others, any addition to the simple decoction might be left to the judgment of the prescriber. 
This is an excellent astringent in diarrhoeas of relaxation. Dose, for an adult, two fluid- 
ounces (60 C.c.); for a child about two years old, two or three fluidrachms (75-1125 C.c.). 
(DE-COC'TUM H^i-MA-TOX'Y-LI—he-ms-ttk'sj-li.) 
DECOCTUM SARSAPARILLA COMPOSITUM. U. S. Compound 
Decoction of Sarsaparilla. 
Decoctum Sarsae Compositum, Br. 1885; Tisane (Apozeme) sudorifique, D6cocte de Salsepareille compost, Fr.; 
Zusammengesetztes Sarsaparilla-Decoct, G. 
“ Sarsaparilla, cut and bruised, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Sassa- 
fras, in No. 20 powder, twenty grammes [or 308 grains] ; Guaiacum Wood, rasped, twenty 
grammes [or 308 grains] ; Glycyrrhiza, bruised, twenty grammes [or 308 grains] ; Mezereum, 
cut and bruised, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thou- 
sand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Boil the Sarsaparilla and Guaiacum 
(de-coc'tum sar-sa-pa-ril'la: com-po§'i-tum.) 
dered inert by chemical change, at the temperature of 100° C. (212° F.). This fact appears to be demonstrated by 
the experiments of Pope, Hancock, Soubeiran, Beral, and others. Soubeiran macerated one portion of bruised sarsa- 
parilla in cold water for twenty-four hours; infused another portion in boiling water, and digested with a moderate 
heat for two hours; boiled a third portion bruised, and a fourth unbruised, in water for two hours; and in each in- 
stance used the same relative quantities. Testing these various preparations by the taste, he found the cold and hot 
infusions scarcely different in this respect, and both possessed of a stronger odor and more acrid taste than the decoc- 
tions, of which that prepared with the bruised root was the strongest. From these facts the inference is obvious, 
that the best method of imparting the virtues of sarsaparilla to water is either by cold or hot infusion. Digestion 
for some hours in water maintained at a temperature of 82'2° C. (180° F.), or somewhat less, in a covered vessel, 
has strong testimony in its favor. Percolation, if properly conducted, is a convenient and no doubt efficient mode 
of exhausting the root, so far as water will effect that object. Decoction is the worst method; and the longer it is 
continued the weaker will be the preparation. For these reasons the decoction of sarsaparilla is no longer official. 
Precipitates are produced by various substances with this decoction; but it has not been ascertained how far such 
substances interfere with its activity. Those which merely throw down the fecula do not injure the preparation. 
Dose, from four to six fluidounces (120-180 C.c.). 
Decoctum Scoparii. Br. 1885. Decoction of Broom. “ Take of Broom-tops, dried, one ounce [avoirdupois] ; Dis- 
tilled Water one pint [Imperial measure]. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, then strain, and pour as much 
distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the strained product measure a pint [Imp. meas.].” Br. 
This decoction is a very useful diuretic in dropsy. From half a pint to a pint (236-472 C.c.) may he taken during 
the day, in doses of from two to four fluidounces (60-120 C.c.). 
Decoctum Taraxaci. Br. 1885. Decoction of Dandelion. “Take of Dried Dandelion Root, sliced and bruised, 
one ounce [avoirdupois] ; Distilled Water one pint [Imperial measure]. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, 
then strain, and pour as much distilled water over the contents of the strainer as will make the strained product 
measure a pint [Imp. mens.].” Br. 
Dose, two fluidounces (60 C.c.) two or three times a day. (See Taraxacum.) PART I. 
Decoctum Sarsaparillse Compositum.—Digitalis. 
481 
Wood for half an hour in a suitable vessel with one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6J fluidrachms] of Water. Then add the Sassafras, Glycyrrhiza, and Mezereum, cover the 
vessel well, and macerate for two hours. Finally strain, and add enough cold Water, through 
the strainer, to make the product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The Br. Pharmacopoeia (1898) no longer recognizes Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla* 
This decoction is an imitation of the celebrated Lisbon diet drink. The sarsaparilla and 
mezereon are the active ingredients ; the guaiacum wood imparting scarcely any of its virtues, 
and the sassafras and liquorice serving little other purpose than to communicate a pleasant 
flavor. An improvement was made in the U. S. formula of 1880 in directing the sassafras, 
glycyrrhiza, and mezereum to be added after the boiling of the ligneous drugs has been com- 
pleted. Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla now contains a little more sarsaparilla, sassafras, 
guaiacum wood, and glycyrrhiza than the U. S. formula of 1870, but nearly double the quan- 
tity of mezereum: as the latter has been believed by many to be the only active substance in 
this weak preparation, the increase in quantity was judicious. If prepared with good sarsa- 
parilla, and with a due regard to the practical rules which may now be considered as estab- 
lished, the decoction may be used with advantage as a gentle diaphoretic and alterative in 
secondary syphilis, either alone, or as an adjuvant to a mercurial course; also in certain scrof- 
ulous and other depraved conditions of the system, in chronic rheumatism, and in various 
obstinate cutaneous affections. The dose is from four to six fluidounces (120-180 C.c.) three 
or four times a day. The patient during its use should wear flannel next the skin, and avoid 
unnecessary exposure to changes of temperature.f 
DIGITALIS. U. S. (Br.) Digitalis. [Foxglove.]]; 
(DI^-I-TA'LIS.) 
“ The leaves of Digitalis purpurea, Linne (nat. ord. Scrophularineae), collected from plants 
of the second year’s growth.” XJ. S. “ The dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, Linn. Col- 
lected from plants commencing to flower.” Br. 
Digitalis Folia, Br., Digitalis Leaf; Folia Digitalis, P. G.; Digitalis Leaves, Foxglove Leaves; Feuilles de Digi- 
tale pourpree (de grande Digitale), Digitale pourpree, Doigtier, Fr.; Purpurrother Fingerhut, Fingerhutkraut, G.j 
Digitale purpurea, It.; Dedalera, Sp. 
* “Take of Jamaica Sarsaparilla, cut transversely, two ounces and a half; Sassafras Root, in chips, Guaiacum 
Wood turnings, Dried Liquorice Root, bruised, each a quarter of an ounce ; Mezereon Bark one-eighth of an ounce ; 
Boiling Distilled Water one pint and a half [Imperial measure]. Digest the solid ingredients in the Water for an 
hour; then boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel; cool and strain, pouring distilled water, if required, over the 
contents of the strainer, or otherwise making the strained product measure a pint [Imp. meas.].” Br. 1885. The 
ounce employed in this process is the avoirdupois ounce. 
f The Decoction of Zittmann (Decoctuin Zittmanni) is a preparation of Sarsaparilla much used in Germany for 
similar purposes with our compound decoction of sarsaparilla; and, as it has attracted some attention in this country 
as a remedy in obstinate ulcerative affections, we give the formula of the German Pharmacopoeia, which is generally 
followed in its preparation. Decoctum Sarsaparillce Gompositum Fortius, P. G. [Zittmann’s Stronger Decoction.~\ 
Stdrkere8 Zittmann’sches Decoct.—“ Take of sarsaparilla root, cut, one hundred parts ; pour upon it common water, 
two thousand six hundred parts ; digest for twenty-four hours; then add of sugar powdered, alum powdered, each, 
six parts, and heat them in a covered vessel, in a steam bath, for three hours, stirring frequently. Towards the end 
of the boiling, add of anise bruised, fennel seed bruised, each, four parts ; senna cut, twenty-four parts ; liquorice 
root cut, twelve parts. Strain by expression, and set aside for a short time. The clear decanted liquid should be 
two thousand five hundred parts. When not otherwise directed, a colature of two thousand five hundred grammes is 
divided into eight portions. 
“ N.B.—When Decoctum Zittmanni is prescribed, it is prepared in a similar manner, except that to the sugar and 
alum are added of mild chloride of mercury, four parts ; cinnabar (red sulphide of mercury), one part, enclosed in 
a linen bag.” P. G. 
Decoctum Sarsaparillce Compositum Mitius, P. G. [Zittmann’s Milder Decoction.] Milderes Zittmann’sches Decoct. 
—“ Take the residue of the stronger decoction and sarsaparilla root, cat, fifty parts ; pour upon them common water, 
two thousand six hundred parts, and expose to the heat of a steam bath for three hours in a covered vessel, stirring 
frequently. Towards the end of the operation add of lemon peel, cassia bark, small cardamoms, liquorice root, each, 
cut and bruised, three parts. Strain by expression, and set aside for a short time. The clear decanted liquid should 
be two thousand five, hundred parts. When not otherwise directed, a colature of two thousand five hundred grammes 
is divided into eight portions.” P. G. Mercury was detected by Wiggers in this decoction in very small proportion. 
It should not be prepared in metallic vessels, lest the mercurial in solution should be decomposed. The decoction 
may be drunk freely. 
Decoctum Senegw. U. S. 1870. Decoction of Seneka. “Take of Seneka, bruised, a troyounce ; Water a sufficient 
quantity. Boil the Seneka in a pint of Water for fifteen minutes, strain, and add suflicient Water, through the 
strainer, to make the decoction measure a pint.” U. S. 1870. 
This is one of the decoctions in which experience has shown that long boiling impairs the activity of the medicine. 
It is customary to add to the seneka in decoction an equal weight of liquorice root, which serves to cover its taste 
and in some measure to obtund its acrimony. The virtues and practical application of seneka will be treated of 
under Senega. The dose of the decoction is about two fluidounces (60 C.c.). 
| Foxglove is a corruption of Folksglove, Folk being an old English synonyme of Fairies. Digitalis. 
482 
PART I. 
Digitalis purpurea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 383; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 218, t. 78. The fox- 
glove is a beautiful plant, with a biennial or perennial fibrous root, which in the first year 
sends forth large tufted leaves, and in the following summer a single erect, downy, and leafy 
stem, rising from two to five feet, and terminating in an elegant spike of purple flowers. The 
lower leaves are ovate, pointed, about eight inches in length and three in breadth, and stand 
upon short, winged footstalks; the upper are alternate, sparse, and lanceolate ; both are ob- 
tusely serrate, and have wrinkled velvety surfaces, of which the upper is a fine deep green, the 
under paler and more downy. The flowers are numerous, and attached to the upper part of 
the stem by short peduncles, in such a manner as generally to hang down upon one side. At 
the base of each peduncle is a floral leaf, which is sessile, ovate, and pointed. The calyx is 
divided into five segments, of which the uppermost is narrower than the others. The corolla 
is monopetalous, hell-form, swelling on the lower side, irregularly divided at the margin into 
short obtuse lobes, and in shape and size not unlike the end of the finger of a glove, a circum- 
stance which has suggested most of the names by which the plant is designated in different 
languages. Its mouth is guarded by long soft hairs. Externally, it is in general of a bright 
purple ; internally, it is sprinkled with black spots upon a white ground. There is a variety with 
white flowers. The filaments are white, curved, and surmounted by large yellow anthers. The 
style is simple, and supports a bifid stigma. The seeds are numerous, very small, grayish brown, 
and contained in a pyramidal two-celled capsule* 
The foxglove grows wild in the temperate parts of Europe, where it flowers in the middle 
of summer. In this country it is cultivated both for ornament and for medical use. The 
leaves are the part generally employed. Much care is requisite in selecting, 
preparing, and preserving them, in order to insure their activity. They 
should be gathered in the second year, immediately before or during the 
period of inflorescence, and those only chosen which are full-grown and per- 
fectly fresh ( Geiger) ; but the observations of F. Schneider would lead to the 
conclusion that they are much stronger when not gathered before the latter 
part of summer or the beginning of autumn. (A. J. P., 1870, p. 221.) It 
is said that those plants are preferable which grow spontaneously in elevated 
places exposed to the sun. (Duncan.) As the leafstalk and midrib are com- 
paratively inactive, they may be rejected. Withering recommends that the 
leaves should be dried either in the sunshine, or by a gentle heat before the 
fire; and care should be taken to keep them separate while drying. Pereira 
states that a more common and, in his opinion, a preferable mode is to dry 
them in a basket in a dark place in a drying-stove. It is probably owing, 
in part, to the want of proper attention in preparing digitalis for the market 
that it is so often inefficient. The dried leaves should be kept in tin canisters, 
well closed so as to exclude light and moisture; or they may be pulverized, 
and the powder preserved in well-stopped and opaque bottles. As foxglove deteriorates by 
time, it should be frequently renewed, as often, if possible, as once a year. Its quality must 
be judged of by the degree in which it possesses the characteristic properties of color, smell, and 
especially taste. It is said to be sometimes adulterated ; but if it be bought in leaf, there can 
be little difficulty, to one acquainted with the characters of the genuine leaves, in detecting the 
sophistication. German digitalis consists of the leaves of wild plants, whereas English digi- 
talis is from cultivated plants. According to Joseph W. England, comparative experiments 
made in the Philadelphia Hospital have shown the English digitalis to be much more uniform 
and active than is the German drug. This may be because the English variety is more care- 
fully freed from leafstalks, since Broeker found the parenchyma to yield five times as much 
digitalin as did the leafstalks. 
The seeds contain more of the active principle than the leaves, are less apt to suffer in drying, 
and keep better, but are little used. So far as the relative strength of these two parts can be 
determined from that of their alcoholic extracts, it would appear, from the experiments of Prof. 
Hirtz, that the seeds are ten times stronger than the leaves. (See A. J. P., xxxiii.) 
Properties. Foxglove is without smell in the recent state, but acquires a faint narcotic 
odor when dried. The color of the dried leaf is a dull pale green, modified by the whitish 
down upon the under surface; that of the powder is a fine deep green. “ From 10 to 30 Cm. 
long; ovate or ovate-oblong, narrowed into a petiole ; crenate ; dull green, densely and finely 
Digitalis Leaf. 
Epidermis of the 
lower side, showing 
stomata and hairs. 
* Digitalis ambigua contains, according to Paschkis, the same constituents as D. purpurea (Apoth. Ztg., 1888.) PART I. 
Digitalis. 
483 
pubescent; wrinkled above; paler and reticulate beneath ; midrib near the base broad ; odor 
slight, somewhat tea-like; taste bitter, nauseous. An infusion prepared with 1 part of Digi- 
talis and 10 parts of boiling water, and allowed to cool, has a peculiar odor, turns blue litmus 
paper red, and, upon the addition of a few drops of ferric chloride test-solution, acquires a 
darker tint, a brown precipitate appearing after a few hours. The infusion, diluted with 3 
parts of water, becomes turbid on the addition of a few drops of tannic acid test-solution.” 
U. S. “ The transverse section exhibits a mesophyll free from crystals of calcium oxalate.” 
Br. Digitalis yields its virtues both to water and to alcohol. It contains, besides active prin- 
ples, a volatile oil, a fatty matter, a red coloring substance analogous to extractive, chloro- 
phyll, albumen, starch, sugar, gum, lignin, and salts of potassa and lime, among which, accord- 
ing to Rein and Haase, is potassium superoxalate. M. Morin, of Geneva, discovered in the 
leaves two acids: one fixed, called digitalic acid, the other volatile and resembling valerianic 
acid, which he proposed to name antirrhinic add (P. J. Tr., vii. 294). J. W. England (A. J. P., 
1892, 361) found about 5 per cent, of fixed oil in digitalis leaves. Dr. Morries obtained a 
narcotic empyreumatic oil by the destructive distillation of the leaves. 
Under the name of digitalin* there have long been in commerce two distinct substances ob- 
tained from digitalis, both of them of the nature of extracts rather than of organic principles. 
The French digitalin was that originally prepared by Homolle. It is a whitish powder, of a 
neutral reaction, soluble in 2000 parts of cold and in 1000 parts of hot water. It is this 
digitalin which was formerly recognized by the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias. The so-called 
German digitalin is distinguished from the French by being, in great part or entirely, freely 
soluble in water. 
In 1871, M. Nativelle received from the French Academy the prize of Orfila for the dis- 
covery of the active principle of digitalis. The method of preparation, as finally improved and 
modified by himself, and published in the Journ. de Pharm., xx. 1874, p. 81, and also a process 
which has the advantage of being far shorter and more readily carried out, devised by M. 
Tanret (Ibid., Oct. 1875), may be found on p. 1143, 14th ed., U. S. Dispensatory. 
According to the researches of Schmiedeberg (Pharm. Journ., (3) v. 741), confirmed by 
Kiliani (Pharm. Journ., (3) xxii. 1061, and (4) i. 29), the seeds and leaves of digitalis pur- 
purea contain a preponderating amount of a glucoside, digitonin. They contain in addition 
three other substances which possess the power of acting on the heart,—namely, crystallizable 
digitoxin and two amorphous glucosides, digitalin and digitalein. They also contain an inert 
crystallized body called digitin, C4H902. 
Digitonin forms fully one-half of the mixed glucosides from the digitalis seed and the 
principal portion of German “ digitalin,” from which it may be prepared by extraction with 
and crystallization from 85 per cent, alcohol. Digitonin softens at 225° C. and melts completely 
at 235° C. The crystals dissolve sparingly in cold water, more readily in hot, to an opalescent 
solution which froths on agitation. It cannot be crystallized from water. The aqueous solution 
* 
* French digitalin may be prepared according to the following process, which was formerly recommended by the 
British Pharmacopoeia : 
“Take of Digitalis Leaf, in coarse powder, forty ounces [avoirdupois] ; Rectified Spirit, Distilled Water, Acetic 
Acid, Purified Animal Charcoal, Solution of Ammonia, Tannic Acid, Oxide of Lead in fine powder, Pure Ether, of 
each, a sufficiency. Digest the Digitalis with a gallon [Imperial measure] of the Spirit for twenty-four hours at a 
temperature of 120°; then put them into a percolator, and, when the tincture has ceased to drop, pour a gallon 
[Imp. meas.] of Spirit on the contents of the percolator, and allow it slowly to percolate through. Distil off the 
greater part of the Spirit from the tincture, and evaporate the remainder over a water-hath until the whole of the 
alcohol has been dissipated. Mix the residual extract with five [fluid]ounces of Distilled Water to which half an 
ounce] [avoird.] of Acetic Acid has been previously added, and digest the solution thus formed with a quarter of an 
ounce of Purified Animal Charcoal; then filter, and dilute the filtrate with Distilled Water until it measures a pint 
[Imp. meas.]. Add Solution of Ammonia nearly to neutralization, and afterwards add one hundred and sixty grains 
of Tannic Acid dissolved in three [fluid]ounces of Distilled Water. Wash the precipitate that will be formed with 
a little Distilled Water; mix it with a small quantity of the Spirit and a quarter of an ounce of the Oxide of Lead, 
and rub them together in a mortar. Place the mixture in a flask, and add to it four [fluid]ounces of the Spirit; 
raise the temperature to 160°, and keep it at this heat for about an hour. Then add a quarter of an ounce of Puri- 
fied Animal Charcoal; put it on a filter, and from the filtrate carefully drive off the Spirit by the heat of a water- 
bath. Lastly, wash the residue repeatedly with Pure Ether.” According to the method of Walz (Husemann, Die 
PJlanzenstoffe, p. 900), German digitalin is prepared by extracting under pressure one part of digitalis with eight 
parts of alcohol, evaporating, digesting the residue with successive portions of water so long as they acquire a bitter 
taste, uniting the liquids, and treating them with litharge and lead acetate until a portion filtered for testing is no 
longer precipitated by lead acetate. Sulphuric acid is added to the filtrate to precipitate the lead, and, after filtra- 
tion, neutralized with ammonia, and the liquid precipitated by tannic acid. The precipitate, having been well 
washed and pressed, is rubbed up with freshly precipitated lead oxide, the mass boiled with alcohol, and, after the 
lead has been separated by precipitation with sulphuric acid, and most of the alcohol distilled off, the residue is 
allowed to slowly evaporate, the crude digitalin being left behind. 484 
Digitalis. 
PART I. 
is lsevo-rotatory ([a]D = —49-25° C.), and is precipitated by tannin, ammoniacal lead acetate, 
and baryta water. Digitonin is only slightly soluble in absolute alcohol, and still less so in 
ether, chloroform, or petroleum spirit. It forms a crystalline compound with amyl alcohol. 
According to Kiliani, digitonin has the formula C27H46014 -f- 5H20, and when boiled with 
strong alcohol and hydrochloric acid splits up into dextrose, galactose, and digitogenin, the last 
body separating in warty masses on cooling. 
Digitoxin is characterized by its free solubility in alcohol and chloroform, slight solubility 
in ether, and insolubility in petroleum spirit. It crystallizes from alcohol in pearly scales or 
needles which melt at 240° C. It is quite insoluble in water, to which it does not impart even 
a bitter taste. Warmed with strong hydrochloric acid, it gives a yellow or greenish coloration, 
which is one of the reactions ascribed to the “ digitaline crystallise” of the French Codex. 
Sclimiedeberg states that it is not a glucoside, but Kiliani asserts that upon heating its alco- 
holic solution with hydrochloric acid it splits up into digitoxigenin and a glucose digitoxose. 
Kiliani writes the reaction for this, C31H60010==:C22H3204-f-C9II1806. Digitoxin is found 
mainly in the leaves (Kiliani stating that it is not found in the seeds at all), but Keller (P. 
J. Tr., July 24, 1897) finds it also in the seeds in smaller amount. It is the most poisonous 
of the constituents of digitalis. 
Digitalin (Digitalinum verum of Kiliani) forms a white amorphous powder or soft white 
grains which remain unchanged when heated to 200° C., at 210° C. begin to aggregate, and 
towards 217° C. melt, becoming yellow. When treated with water the particles of digitalin swell 
up and dissolve slightly, giving a solution which foams strongly on agitation. It is dissolved 
sparingly by cold proof spirit (1-100), but in considerable amount by hot rectified spirit or abso- 
lute alcohol. When a minimum of alcohol is used, the solution on cooling becomes almost solid 
from the separation of a thick magma of granules, which are, however, destitute of crystalline 
structure. This peculiar behavior affords a valuable means of testing its purity, as only a 
small percentage of the other glucosides with the digitalin prevents the formation of the 
granules. The minutest admixture of amorphous glucosides also rapidly causes an intense 
yellow coloration. Digitalin is very sparingly soluble in ether or chloroform. When digitalin 
is heated with dilute hydrochloric acid, an insoluble resinous substance almost immediately 
separates out; Schmiedeberg termed this digitaliresin. By operating in alcoholic solution, 
Kiliani avoids the separation of resin, and finds that digitalin splits up as a glucoside into 
digitaligenin, glucose, and digitalose, according to the reaction C29II46012 -j- H20 = CieH220„ -f- 
CeH1206 -(- C7H1406. Kiliani found that the commercial digitalinum purum contained but 
5-5 per cent, of true digitalin. 
Digitalein is considered to be a distinct glucoside by Schmiedeberg, but Kiliani, who worked 
over it later, regards its independent existence as questionable. 
Digitin of Schmiedeberg is also considered by Kiliani to be simply digitonin. 
The above resume of our present knowledge clearly shows that the chemistry of digitalis 
cannot be considered as settled; but it also clearly shows that no digitalin completely repre- 
sents digitalis. Moreover, the digitalin of commerce varies greatly. (See Archiv d. Pharm., 
1895, 299; also 1895, 698.) For methods of testing digitalin, see Drug. Bull., 1893, 108. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Experiments upon the lower animals, confirmed by 
clinical observation, have shown that digitalis acts primarily and with most force upon the cir- 
culation, producing a great rise in the arterial pressure, followed, in poisoning, by a no less marked 
fall, which, however, does not take place at all after moderate doses. The increased blood force 
is due partly to increased cardiac action and partly to vaso-motor spasm. Upon the heart 
digitalis acts by stimulating the peripheral ends of the inhibitory nerves and also the cardiac 
muscle. By the first influence it produces prolongation of the diastole ; by the second, an in- 
creased putting forth of power in the systole. The work done by the heart under the influence 
of the drug is much beyond normal. After a toxic dose the systolic irritation overbalances the 
diastolic stimulation, and the pulse becomes dicrotic, because the diastole is interrupted by 
an abortive systole. Finally, the apex of the heart never dilates, diastole is continually inter- 
rupted by systolic contractions, and the aortic system remains empty, because the left ventricle 
never relaxes sufficiently to receive blood. The final cessation of the heart’s action is not due 
to paralysis, but to spasm, the heart ceasing not in diastole, but in systole. 
This resume of our knowledge of the physiological action clearly shadows forth the proper 
use of the drug. It is indicated when the heart is weak, not absolutely, but relatively weak, 
or, in other words, when the work required of the heart is greater than its power. When 
digitalis is administered in ordinary doses, it produces at first no distinct effect; but if the Digitalis. 
485 
PAET I. 
dose be repeated, after a time the pulse becomes less frequent. The pauses between the beats 
are longer than before, and the individual beat is longer, fuller, and stronger, indicating that 
the heart is acting with more force than normal. When the reduction of the pulse-rate has 
commenced, it is apt to continue for some days, and even to increase for a time, although the 
use of the remedy be intermitted, slowness and permanency of action being characteristic of 
digitalis. In some cases, gastric disturbance, and even nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea, are 
produced by therapeutic doses of the drug. If sufficient of the remedy have been taken into 
the system, the pulse may fall to 35 or 40 a minute, still preserving the peculiarity of a dis- 
tinctly dicrotic heat. Now a very peculiar phenomenon may often be witnessed. Whilst 
the patient is quiet in the horizontal position the pulse is very slow and strong, hut when 
he rises to his feet it becomes at once rapid, irregular, small, and feeble, and even hobbling. 
During the milder operation of digitalis there may be some sense of cerebral disturbance, 
brow-tightness, and even a confusion of thought and giddiness. After toxic doses the symp- 
toms are severe; a feeble, scarcely perceptible pulse, nausea and vomiting, stupor or delirium, 
cold sweats, extreme prostration of strength, hiccough, convulsions, and syncope have in several 
cases preceded the fatal issue. 
The dilated heart is of course a weak heart, and simple cardiac dilatation is one of the 
strongest indications for the use of digitalis, whilst cardiac hypertrophy is a contra-indication. 
It must not be forgotten, however, that in valvular disease of the heart, the heart, although 
stronger than normal, may be relatively weak, because the leakage at the diseased valve re- 
quires more power to overcome its effect than even the increased strength of the cardiac muscle 
is able for. Hypertrophy exists, but is not sufficient to be compensatory. In all forms of val- 
vular lesion, when the hypertrophy is not compensatory, digitalis is very useful. It is also to 
be employed (hypodermically) in sudden cardiac exhaustion from any cause. Dropsy is very 
frequently the result of a general venous repletion, which also interferes with the function of 
the kidneys. Under these circumstances digitalis is a favorite remedy, and also acts as a de- 
cided diuretic. In these cases the result is in greater or less part due to the improvement of 
the circulation; but the drug has some tendency, even in health, to provoke diuresis. It is 
especially when it fails to do this that the so-called cumulative action is apt to be witnessed. 
After giving the drug for a long time without apparent effect, suddenly symptoms so severe as 
to be toxic are manifested. In aneurism, or when from any reason the coats of the vessels are 
thin or fragile, digitalis is contra-indicated. We have seen a dilated aorta ruptured by the 
powerful blood-current produced by the drug. 
Externally applied, digitalis sometimes acts speedily and powerfully as a diuretic, and has 
proved useful in dropsy. For this purpose the fresh leaves bruised, or the dried leaves made 
into a poultice, or flannels wet with the tincture, may be applied to the abdomen and on the 
inside of the thighs. Ch. Hoffman has shown by experiments on himself that the active matter 
of digitalis is capable of being absorbed through the skin, and that its effects on the system 
may be obtained by means of baths * A case is recorded in which a cataplasm of the leaves 
applied to the abdomen for the relief of obstinate and dangerous suppression of urine, and re- 
peated in six hours, brought on excessive diuresis, with a discharge amounting to probably 8 
gallons in less than 24 hours, producing fatal exhaustion. (Med. Times and Gaz., Jan. 1868.) 
Digitalis is administered in substance. The dose of the powder is one grain (0-065 Grm.), 
repeated twice or three times a day, and gradually increased till some effect is produced upon 
the head, stomach, pulse, or kidneys, when it should be omitted or reduced. The question as 
to which of the preparations of digitalis is preferable is a very important one. All the active 
principles are soluble in alcohol; the tincture (Tinctura Digitalis), therefore, fully represents 
the crude drug. According to Kobert, in the making of the fluid extract digitoxin is precipi- 
tated as an insoluble powder. If this be correct, the fluid extract does not as fully represent 
the crude drug as does the tincture. It is, however, very possible, indeed probable, that digi- 
toxin should be precipitated in one method of making a fluid extract and not in another, so 
that it cannot be considered demonstrated that the fluid extract, U. S. P., contains no digitoxin. 
As digitoxin is not soluble in water, it would seem, a priori, probable that it and the other 
constituents of the so-called French or insoluble digitalin would be left behind in making an 
f M. Hoffman, during a period of 44 days, took 16 baths prepared with 300 liters of water and 250 grammes of 
digitalis leaves. After the third bath he began to feel the effects of the medicine,—namely, a peculiar uneasiness, 
and a reduction of the pulse 4 or 5 pulsations per minute; and this condition persisted several hours. At the eighth 
bath the uneasiness was increased, and the pulse decreased from 68 to 51. After the sixteenth bath the pulse* fell 
to 48. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Juillet, 1867, p. 37.) 486 
Digitalis. 
PART I. 
infusion, but certainly the infusion of digitalis is an active preparation and is preferred by 
many practitioners. It is possible that the superiority claimed by some clinicians for the 
infusion, which we have elsewhere otherwise explained (see page 733), is in fact due to 
the absence from it of active substances which are present both in the crude digitalis and 
in the tincture. A careful chemical physiological investigation of the relative activities of 
the preparations of digitalis seems to us urgently needed, but the probabilities are that all 
the official preparations are active when they have been carefully made from well-selected 
leaves. 
The subject of the therapeutic activity and value of the different non-official preparations 
of digitalis is one of great difficulty, and at present of doubt. In these paragraphs we propose 
to consider only the commercial products or educts of digitalis which are for sale in the market. 
These commercial preparations are of two characters, the so called digitalins—which should be 
looked upon as purified or rather as partial extracts of digitalis—and certain alleged active 
principles. 
As already stated (p. 484), there are two digitalins ; of these Digitalinum gatticum, or French 
digitalin, official in the French and Belgian Pharmacopoeias, is almost insoluble in water, and 
is said to consist largely of a glucoside allied to digitoxin. (See P. J. Tr., 1898, 506.) The 
dose of the commercial article is put down at 0-00025 6m., rapidly increased to 0-0015 Grin, 
per day; the maximum daily dose being 0-002 Gm. The granules of Homolle, which are 
commonly used in Europe, each contain a milligramme, or about the seventieth of a grain; 
probably equivalent, on the average, to a grain and a half of digitalis of medium strength. 
One of these globules is usually given as a commencing dose. Forty of them taken with a 
view to suicide, though followed by copious vomiting, produced the most alarming prostration, 
with a pulse weak, from 46 to 48 in a minute, intermittent, and at times scarcely perceptible. 
The patient, however, ultimately recovered. (Ann. de Therap., 1858, 103.) 
Digitalinum germanicum, digitalin of the German Pharmacopoeia, is soluble in water and 
alcohol but almost insoluble in chloroform ; it is believed to be a mixture of digitalein, crys- 
tallized digitalin, digitonin, and digitalin of Kiliani. German digitalin may be used either 
by the mouth or hypodermically; the dose usually given is from 0 001 to 0002 Gm., re- 
peated twice or three times a day, increased if necessary; the maximum dose being 0-004 
Gm., or the daily dose 0-02 Gm. It is contended by Dr. Henry Beates that these doses are 
absolutely inadequate, and he asserts as the result of much experience that the proper adult 
dose of the pure German digitalin is one-tenth of a grain, whilst the maximum dose is one- 
half a grain; also that these doses will be followed by definite and positive results and are 
entirely safe and free from unpleasant effects, excepting that occasionally the larger dose 
(one-third to one-half a grain) will cause some gastric disturbance, which is readily overcome 
by the use of bismuth and other proper remedies. He narrates cases in which four consecu- 
tive half-grain doses, administered at intervals of two hours, brought great relief. We are 
informed by Merck & Co. that in the manufacture of German digitalin the average yield is 
from 4 to 5 per cent. On this basis, if German digitalin did nearly represent digitalis, it 
would be from twenty to twenty-five times as strong, so that four-tenths of a grain of it would 
stand for eight grains of digitalis, or about seventy minims of the tincture. Unfortunately, 
it is plain that German digitalin does not completely represent digitalis; it is probable that 
it contains altered principles which do not exist in digitalis, and it is more than probable that 
commercial German digitalin varies greatly, according as it has been made by this or that 
manufacturer. It does not seem to be an eligible preparation, and if the practitioner uses it, 
he should employ habitually the make of one chemist with which he is practically familiar. 
We have been unable to find that it has any advantage over the official preparations, except 
that it is capable of being given in capsules, and is therefore less offensive to the palate and 
stomach. As a hypodermic agent in a limited trial it has so far proved to be as irritant as is 
the tincture of digitalis. 
The statements in regard to the therapeutic activity of the various commercial products 
claiming to be pure active principles of digitalis vary greatly ; moreover, the exact nature of 
the commercial alleged active principles is always doubtful; so that, if the practitioner use these 
substances at all, their employment should be looked upon as experimental. 
Digitalmum crystallatum or digitin is commonly affirmed to be physiologically inactive, though 
Laffon asserts that it is as powerful as digitoxin. 
Digitonin is asserted by authorities to be similar in its physiological action to saponin, which 
has, on the other hand apparently been demonstrated to be the physiological antagonist of Digitalis.—Dulcamara. 
487 
PAET I. 
digitalis. It is evident, therefore, that digitonin, so far as our present knowledge is concerned, 
cannot be used as the representative of digitalis. 
Of digitalein, it is asserted that when given in doses of from 0-001 to 0.002 Gm., two to four 
times a day, it acts as a heart tonic and diuretic similarly to digitalis. According to Merck & 
Co., the average yield of digitalein is 1 per cent., which would make the dose contained in 
one grain of digitalis the one-hundredth of a grain. It, however, represents at best such a 
small fraction of the activities of digitalis that a much larger dose would seem to be required. 
In this case the dose given by authorities evidently is below that whicli by calculation would 
appear to be safe. It is not probable, however, that digitalein nearly represents digitalis. 
Of all these active principles, crystallized digitoxin is probably the most influential for good. 
Wenzel affirms that it acts more quickly and favorably in cardiac disease than does the infu- 
sion of digitalis, a conclusion whicli is practically confirmed by Potain, Pottiez, Starck, Masius, 
Corin, and others; whilst Kiliani (Archiv d. Pharm., 1892-1896) alleges that it is the only 
important constituent of digitalis,—a conclusion, however, which seems to be gainsaid by the fact 
that digitoxin is insoluble iu water, and therefore cannot exist in the infusion of digitalis unless 
it is made soluble by the presence in the digitalis leaf of digitalic or antirrhinic acid. The diffi- 
culty of the situation is shown by the fact that the same authority in one publication asserts 
that digitoxin is the most active of the digitalis preparations, and a complete substitute for 
digitalis ; and in another publication affirms that the German digitalin is the most complete 
non-official representative of the drug, although it does not contain digitoxin. Merck & Co. 
inform us that the average yield of crystallized digitoxin is about four-tenths of one per cent. ; 
supposing that digitoxin were the only active principle in digitalis, the dose of digitoxin equiv- 
alent to digitalis would be from one-two-hundred-and-fiftieth to one-two-hundredth of a grain 
(0-00025 to 0-00032 Gm.), which is practically the dose of digitoxin usually given in the books. 
As, however, digitoxin is not the only active principle of the digitalis, it would appear that its 
equivalent dose should be larger than that named. 
The action of digitoxin appears to be very slow under any circumstances. Pottiez prefers 
exhibiting it by enemata, stating that in this way the vomiting which it often produces when 
ingested may be avoided. Wenzel also prefers administration by the rectum, using 15 Gm. of 
the following solution—digitoxin, -01 Gm.; alcohol, 10 Gm.; water to make 200 Gm.—in 100 
Gm. of lukewarm water, at first thrice, then twice, and lastly once daily. The single dose thus 
given was -00075 Gm. digitoxin. In two cases only was an unpleasant result noted,— namely, 
vomiting,—and this soon ceased. When there is no haste, digitoxin may be given in granules. 
It is stated that under any circumstances its action is developed with extreme slowness, and it 
seems possible that it may be reprecipitated in the alimentary c-anal from its solution and 
accumulate in mass, to be absorbed subsequently and possibly produce unexpected effects; in- 
deed, the fact naturally suggests itself that in some such way the cumulative action of the 
official preparations of digitalis may be accounted for. Corin affirms (Les Nouveaux Pemedes, 
1895, 200) that the addition of water, or physiological fluid, or serum, whilst it will precipitate 
alcoholic solutions of 20 per cent, strength of digitoxin, will not affect a solution made in 
accordance with the following formula : Digitoxin, 2 to 3 milligrammes ; Chloroform, 0-6 C.c.; 
Alcohol (90 per cent.), 12 C.c.; Water, a sufficient quantity to make 150 Gm. To be taken 
in three doses. 
DULCAMARA. U. S. Dulcamara. [Bittersweet.] 
(DUL-CA-MA'RA.) 
“ The young branches of Solanum Dulcamara, Linne (nat. ord. Solanaceae).” U. S. 
Stipites Dulcamara?, P. G.; Tiges de Douce-am&re (de Nevrelle grimpante), Douce-amere, Fr.; Bittersiiss, Bitter- 
siiss-Stengel, Alpranken, G.; Dulcamara, It., Sp. 
This genus includes numerous species, of which several have been used in medicine. Besides 
S. dulcamara, which is the only official species, a few others merit notice. 1. Solanum nigrum, 
the common garden or black nightshade, is an annual plant from one to two feet high, with an 
unarmed herbaceous stem, ovate, angular-dentate leaves, and white or pale violet flowers, 
arranged in peduncled nodding umbel like racemes, and followed by clusters of spherical black 
berries, about the size of peas. There are numerous varieties of this species, one of which 
is a native of the United States. The leaves are the part employed. They are said to pro- 
duce diaphoresis, sometimes diuresis and moderate purging, and in large doses nausea and 
giddiness. As a medicine they have been used in cancerous, scrofulous, and scorbutic dis- 
eases, and other painful ulcerous affections, being given internally, and applied at the same 
time to the parts affected in the form of poultice, ointment, or decoction. A grain of the 488 
Dulcamara. 
PAKT I. 
dried leaves may be given every night, and gradually increased to ten or twelve grains, or till 
some sensible effect is experienced. The medicine, however, is scarcely used at present. By 
some persons the poisonous properties ascribed to the common nightshade 
are doubted. M. Dunal, of Montpellier, states, as the result of numerous 
experiments, that the berries are not poisonous to man or the inferior ani- 
mals ; and the leaves are said to be consumed in large quantities in the 
Isles of France and Bourbon as food, having been previously boiled in 
water. In the latter case the active principle of the plant must have been 
extracted by decoction. 2. The leaves, stalks, and unripe berries of So- 
lanum tuberosum, or the common potato, are asserted to be narcotic; and 
an extract prepared from the leaves has been employed in cough and 
spasmodic affections, in which it is said to act like opium. ( Geiger.) Dr. 
Latham, of London, found the extract to produce favorable effects in pro- 
tracted cough, chronic rheumatism, angina pectoris, cancer of the uterus, 
etc. On the other hand, Dr. Worsham, of Philadelphia, found the ex- 
tract, in the quantity of nearly one hundred grains, to cause no sensible 
effect. (Phila. Joum. of the Med. and Phys. Sciences, vi. 22.) We can 
reconcile these opposite statements only upon the supposition that the 
properties of the plant vary with the season, or with the place and 
circumstances of culture. Dr. Julius Otto found solanine in the germs 
of the potato. He was induced to make the investigation by observing 
that cattle were destroyed by feeding on the residue of germinating pota- 
toes used for the manufacture of brandy. A case of death in a girl of 
fourteen, from eating the unripe fruit of the potato, is recorded in the 
British Med. Joum. for Sept. 3, 1859. The prominent symptoms were 
partial stupor, speechlessness, jactitation, hurried breathing, lividness of 
the skin, cold sweats, very frequent and feeble pulse, and a constant spit- 
ting through the closed teeth of viscid frothy phlegm. Death occurred 
on the second day. C. Haaf has found the same alkaloid in old potatoes 
which had begun to germinate, in the proportion of 0-16 in 500 parts; 
and in very young potatoes, deprived of their coating, precisely the same 
quantity. Fully ripe potatoes, which had not begun to sprout, gave a 
negative result. (Neues Repert. fur Pharm., 1864, p. 559.) 3. The well- 
known tomato, so much used as a vegetable at the table, and so advanta- 
geous through its nutritive, laxative, and antiscorbutic properties, is the 
fruit of a species of Solanum, denominated S. lycopersicum. The juice 
of the fruit is free from solanine, but contains several acids. Mr. T. D. 
McElhenie demonstrated the presence of citric, malic, and oxalic acids. 
(See A. J. P., 1872, p. 198.) The seeds probably contain the alkaloid, 
as their alcoholic extract has a bitter, pungent taste. (See A. J. P., xxxiv. 
519.) Solanine has been obtained from the leaves and herbaceous part 
of the plant generally, by Mr. Geo. W. Kennedy. (P. J. Tr., 1873, p. 
606.) An infusion of the leaves is strongly recommended by M. Stanis- 
laus Martin as a diuretic. (Am. Joum. Med. Sci., 1873, 246.) 4. Several 
instances of poisoning are on record from the fruit of S. pseudocapsicum, 
or Jemsalem cherry, which, from its resemblance to the common cherry, 
is liable to be eaten by children. 5. In the Edin. Med. Joum. (1867, 
398) several cases are recorded by Dr. Manners, of Jamaica, W. I., of 
poisoning by the susumber berries, of which one proved fatal, and several 
others recovered, probably in consequence of the early evacuation of the 
stomach by a mustard emetic. The symptoms recorded were anxious 
countenance, dilated pupil, cold skin, and difficult articulation. The fatal 
case was not seen by Dr. Manners till after death. The susumber berries 
are the fruit of a Solanum, denominated by Lunnan, in his “ Hortus 
Jamaicensis,” S. bacciferum, of which there appear to be two varieties, 
one relatively innocent, as its fruit is habitually used by the natives, the 
other poisonous, as would be inferred from the cases here noticed. 6. The Solanum paniculatum, 
called jembeba in Brazil, is said to be largely used in South America in affections of the liver 
and spleen, catarrh of the bladder, anaemia, and amenorrhoea. The leaves, fruit, and root are 
Section of Dulcamara, r, 
medullary rays; sp, ducts; 
x, woody tissues; n, cam- 
bium layer; q, bast-tissue; 
g, bast-cells. Dulcamara. 
489 
PART I. 
employed, externally in the form of a plaster, internally in the form of syrup, wine, and extract. 
(.London Lancet, 1866, 158.) Solanum jacquinii Willd. is used in India as a diaphoretic and 
expectorant. Solanum aculeatissimum is indigenous to Brazil; the fruit yields traces of solanine. 
Solanum dulcamara. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1028; Woodv. Med. Pot. p. 237, t. 84; Bigelow, 
Am. Med. Bot. i. 169. The bittersweet or woody nightshade is a climbing shrub, with a slender, 
roundish, branching, woody stem, which, in favorable situations, rises six or eight feet in height. 
The leaves are alternate, petiolate, ovate, pointed, veined, soft, smooth, and of a dull green 
color. Many near the top of the stem are furnished with lateral projections at their base, 
giving them a hastate form. Some have the projection only on one side. Most of them are 
quite entire, some cordate at the base. The flowers are disposed in elegant clusters, somewhat 
analogous to cymes, and standing opposite to the leaves. The calyx is very small, purplish, 
and divided into five blunt, persistent segments. The corolla is wheel-shaped, with five pointed, 
reflected segments, which are of a violet-blue color, with a darker purple vein running longitu- 
dinally through their centre, and two shining greenish spots at the base of each. The filaments 
are very short, and support large, erect, lemon-yellow anthers, which cohere in the form of a 
cone around the style. The berries are of an oval shape and a bright scarlet color, and 
continue to hang in beautiful bunches after the leaves have fallen. This plant is common to 
Europe and North America. In the United States it extends from New England to Ohio, and 
is in bloom from June to August. The root and stalk have medicinal properties, though the 
latter only is official. A case, however, of death caused by the use of the berries by a child 
has been recorded. (See P. J. Tr., 1861, p. 436.) Bittersweet should be gathered in autumn, 
after the fall of the leaf; and the extreme twigs should be selected. That grown in high and 
dry situations is said to be the best. 
The dried twigs, as brought to the shops, are of various lengths, cylindrical, about as thick 
as a goose-quill, externally wrinkled, and of a grayish-ash color, consisting of a thin bark, an 
interior ligneous portion, and a central pith. They are inodorous, though the stalk in the 
recent state emits, when bruised, a peculiar, rather nauseous smell. Their taste, which is at 
first bitter and afterwards sweetish, has given origin to the name of the plant. “ About 5 Mm., 
or less, thick, cylindrical, somewhat angular, longitudinally striate, more or less warty, usually 
hollow in the centre, cut into short sections. The thin bark is externally pale greenish, or light 
greenish-brown, marked with alternate leaf-scars, and internally green; the greenish or yellow- 
ish wood forms one or two concentric rings. Odor slight; taste bitter, afterwards sweet.” U. S. 
Boiling water extracts all their virtues. These are supposed to depend, at least in part, upon 
an alkaloid called solanine or solania, which was originally discovered by M. Desfosses, of 
Besangon, in the berries of Solanum nigrum.* Winckler (1841) first observed that the alka- 
* Solanine is most conveniently obtained from the sprouts of the common potato, hy Wackenroder’s process, which 
may he found detailed in the 16th edition of the U. S. Dispensatory. Its formula is variously given by various 
authorities: according to Delffs, it is C40JI32O14; according to Kletzinsky, it is C42H55NO14; according to Zwenger 
and Kind, it is C42H75NO15; according to R. Firbas, it is C52H93NO18; and Hilger states that it is C42H87NO15. Adrian 
asserts that it is a glucoside, and by heating with sulphuric or chlorbydric acid it breaks up into glucose and a second 
base, solanidine. This was confirmed by Zwenger and Kind, who give to solanidine the formula C26H41NO2. The 
salts which solanine forms with acids are mostly amorphous in character. The oxalate, chromate, and phosphate 
form cystalline crusts. The acid sulphate is said to be very stable, and is not decomposed by water even on 
heating, in contradistinction to the neutral salt. It is amorphous and very bitter. The physiological action of 
solanine has been studied by several investigators, with not altogether concordant results. Geneuil (Bull, de Therap., 
tome iii.) finds that it has a depressing influence upon the medulla, spinal cord, and both motor and sensory nerve- 
trunks. In an elaborate investigation, Max Perles (Arch.f. Exper. Path. u. Pharm., Leipzig, 1889, xxvi.) has de- 
termined that solanine acts as a powerful poison upon all forms of living protoplasm. When mixed with the blood out- 
side of the body it causes rapid coagulation with alteration of the blood-corpuscles. In the frog it produces a centric 
paralysis, with later paralysis of the heart. When injected intravenously it caused in mammals violent dyspnoea, 
with cramp, arrest of respiration, and the presence of thrombi in the blood-vessels. Toxic doses given by the mouth 
produce excitement, with tremors, fibrillary contractions, cramp followed by central paralysis, collapse, and death in 
deep coma, preceded by a fall of temperature which is so great as to be almost characteristic. Vomiting and 
diarrhoea were frequently observed, and after death inflammation of the gastro-intestinal mucous membranes, and 
also a parenchymatous and even hemorrhagic nephritis. During life the urine was albuminous, containing casts, 
and not rarely was dark red from haemoglobin, or sometimes meta-haemoglobin. According to Capparoni, minute 
doses of solanine, whilst diminishing the rapidity of the heart’s action, increase the arterial pressure. 
In the researches of Max Perles, the action of solanidine was very similar to that of solanine, the chief difference 
between the two being that solanine is a violent local irritant, whilst solanidine seems free from local irritant 
properties. The two poisons are stated to belong physiologically to the sapotoxine group. 
Solanine has been used by Geneuil, Capparoni, Vulpian, and others with asserted good results in asthma, to relieve 
the cough of bronchitis, to quiet the irritation of cystitis in the old, and for the relief of gastralgia, pruritus, 
sciatica, and other neuralgic or rheumatic pains. Capparoni (Bull. Gin. de Thera])., May, 1888) affirms that it is 
an excellent analgesic, calming ataxic pains, and that it is even capable of controlling the tremors of lateral sclerosis. 
Solanine has, however, been tried by various clinicians without results favorable to its use in practical medicine. 
(Consult B. & F. Med.-Chir. Rev., July, 1854, Am. ed., p. 189; Arch. Gin. de Med., Mars, 1859, p. 360; Bull. Gin. 490 
Dulcamara. 
PART I. 
loid of dulcamara stems can be obtained only in an amorphous state, and that it behaves 
to platiuic and mercuric chlorides differently from the solanine of potatoes. Moitessier (1856) 
confirmed this observation, and obtained only amorphous salts of the solanine of bittersweet. 
Wittstein (1852) supposed another alkaloid, dulcamarine, to be present, but Geissler (1875) 
showed that this substance was a glucoside, and not an alkaloid, yielding on decomposition with 
dilute acids dulcamaretin and sugar. He assigned the formula C2 dulcamarine, and 
Ci0H26Oe to dulcamaretin. (Fltickiger, Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 451.) Solanine is in the 
form of a white opaque powder, or of delicate acicular crystals, somewhat like those of quinine 
sulphate, though finer and shorter. It is inodorous, of a bitter taste, fusible at from 235°- 
240° F., decomposing at a slightly higher temperature with an odor of caramel, a sublimate of 
solanidine forming. It is scarcely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, and capable of 
neutralizing the acids. It is distinguished by the deep brown or brownish-yellow color which 
iodine imparts to its solution, and by its reaction with sulphuric acid, which becomes first 
reddish yellow, then purplish violet, then brown, and, lastly, again colorless, with the deposition 
of a brown powder* In regard to the physiological action of solanine the statements of the 
earlier and later observers are at such variance that they must have worked with different 
substances. J. Otto found one grain sufficient to kill a rabbit in six hours ; whilst Dr. Gaignard 
found five grains insufficient. The symptoms produced by solanine are said to be spasmodic 
labored respiration, dilatation of the pupils, intense dyspnoea, convulsions, paraplegia. Besides 
solanine, the stalks of S. dulcamara contain, according to Pfaff, a peculiar principle to which 
he gave the name of picroglycion, indicative of the taste at once bitter and sweet which it is 
said to possess. This was obtained by Blitz, in the following manner. The watery extract was 
treated with alcohol, the tincture evaporated, the residue dissolved in wTater, the solution pre- 
cipitated with lead subacetate, the excess of this salt decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, the 
liquor then evaporated to dryness, and the residue treated with acetic ether, which yielded the 
principle in small isolated crystals by spontaneous evaporation. Pfaff found also in dulcamara 
a vegeto-animal substance, gummy extractive, gluten, green wax, resin, benzoic acid, starch, 
lignin, and various salts of lime. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Dulcamara possesses feeble narcotic properties, with 
the power of increasing the secretions, particularly those of the kidneys and skin. Dr. Geo. 
B. Wood observed, when the system was under its influence, a dark purplish color of the face 
and hands, and at the same time considerable languor of the circulation. In overdoses it pro- 
duces nausea, vomiting, faintness, vertigo, and convulsive muscular movements. A man took 
from three to four quarts of a decoction made from a peck of the stalks, and was attacked with 
pain in the joints, numbness of the limbs, dryness of the mouth, and palsy of the tongue, with 
consciousness unimpaired, the pulse quiet, but small and rather hard, and the skin cool; fol- 
lowed by recovery. (Lond. Med. Gaz., 1850.) Dulcamara has been recommended in various 
diseases, but is now chiefly employed in the treatment of cutaneous eruptions, particularly 
those of a scaly character, as lepra, psoriasis, and pityriasis. In these complaints it is often 
beneficial, especially in combination with minute doses of the antimonials. It is said to have 
been beneficially employed in chronic rheumatism and chronic catarrh. Antaphrodisiac proper- 
ties have been ascribed to it. The usual form of administration is that of decoction, of which 
two fluidounces may be taken four times a day, and gradually increased till some slight disorder 
of the head indicates the activity of the medicine. A fluid extract is official. The dose of the 
extract is from five to ten grains (0'33—0'65 Gm.), of the fluid extract thirty minims to a 
fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). That of the powder would be from thirty grains to a drachm 
de TherapJuly 15, 1887.) The dose of solanine, as given by different writers, varies. Fronmiiller has seen as 
much as O'5 gramme (7'5 grains) taken without producing anything more serious than marked malaise, general 
weakness, giddiness, and sleep. Clarus gives the medium dose for adults as 0*01 to 0'06 Gm. (£ to gr.) of the 
acetate, and has seen 0*4 Gm. (6gr.)of the same salt produce general cephalic distress, with occipital pain, dyspnoea, 
increase of the frequency and loss of the force of the pulse; followed after some hours by sudden vomiting, diar- 
rhoea, great weakness, and marked dyspnoea. Capparoni administered from 0'25 to 0'30 Gm. (3| to 4$ gr.) during 
the twenty-four hours in divided doses. It is probable that much of the solanine that has been used by investigators 
has been impure; and it would hardly be safe to begin with the pure alkaloid in the dose of more than J of a grain, 
increasing the dose pro re nata. Cases of poisoning by potatoes in poor condition have been reported in Germany. 
{Arch. f. Exper. Path. u. Pharm., xxxvi.) The symptoms have been vomiting and diarrhoea with abdominal pain, 
headache, giddiness, and pronounced fever (39° C.); it is probable, however, that these manifestations were due to 
decomposition products rather than to solanine. 
* The following reaction is proposed as a test for solanine. Equal measures of concentrated sulphuric acid and 
alcohol are mixed. A trace of solanine added to the mixture, while warm, produces a rose-red color; larger quan- 
tities, a cherry-red color, which disappears after live or six hours, and the intensity of which is not affected by the 
presence of morphine even in large quantities. (A. J. P., 1873, 484.) Elastica. 
491 
PART I. 
(1-95-3-9 Gm.). In cutaneous affections, a strong decoction is often applied to the skin at the 
same time that the medicine is taken internally. (See Extractum Dulcamarse Fluid um.) 
ELASTICA. U. S. (Br.) India-Rubber. [Caoutchouc.] 
“ The prepared milk-juice of various species of Hevea (nat. ord. Euphorbiaceae), known in 
commerce as Para Rubber.” U. S. “ The prepared milk-juice of Hevea brasiliensis, Muell. 
Arg.,and probably other species; known in commerce as pure Para rubber.” Br. 
Caoutchouc, Br.; Resina elastica, Gummi elasticum; Caoutchouc, Fr.; Kautschuk, Federharz, G. 
India-rubber has been made official in the U. S. P. 1890 because of its use in making mus- 
tard paper. Considerable amounts of india-rubber fiud their way to Europe from the west coast 
of Africa, especially from the region of the Gambia and from Sierra Leone. Although various 
plants appear to yield this product, the chief supply is said to come from the Landolphia 
fiorida and the Landolphia owariensis.* The great bulk of caoutchouc still enters commerce 
from South America and India, the finest quality being the Para rubber from Brazil. The 
chief caoutchouc plant of India is the Ficus elastica. This is a very large tree, whose seed 
usually germinates in the fork of a tree, and gives off as it grows aerial roots, which sink into 
the ground; by a continuation of this process at last a single tree will be possessed of a great 
many trunks and cover a large extent of ground. The apocynaceous creeper Chavannesia escu- 
lenta of India is said to yield caoutchouc, and the milky juice of a Jamaican vine, Forsteronia 
floribunda, is affirmed to yield 22 ounces of excellent caoutchouc for every quart of juice. The 
most important india-rubber trees of South America belong to the genera Castilloa and Hevea. 
The first genus belongs to the Artocarpaceae, and is represented by two or more species (C. elas- 
tica and C. markhamiana), which are scattered over all the equatorial western portions of 
South America. The genus Hevea occupies the valley of the Amazon, extending up to the 
Cordilleras. It is composed of large trees with alternate, long-petiolate, digitate, 3-foliolate 
leaves; the folioles are sessile, or petiolulate penni-nerved, patellar-grandulose at base; the 
flowers occur in axillary or terminal ramified cymiferous racemes. There are eight species of 
the genus enumerated by Mr. J. Collins. The commercial caoutchouc is yielded chiefly by 
11. guianensis (== Siphonia elastica Pers.) and LI. brasiliensis (H. B. K.) Miill.-Arg., and comes 
from Guiana and the Brazilian provinces of Para, Alto Amazonas, Ceara, and Rio Grande. 
In the southern Brazilian province of Ceard, Mr. Cross, whilst collecting india-rubber plants 
for the British government, discovered a new tree (Manihot glagiovii), resembling in appear- 
ance the birch, and yielding to commerce much caoutchouc. Whilst all the other South 
American rubber plants grow in an excessively moist climate, it flourishes in a dry district. 
(See Appendix to Markham’s Peruvian Bark, London, 1880.) 
In the Guianas and neighboring countries india-rubber is largely obtained from the Mi- 
musops balata, a very large tree, the beauty and permanency of whose wood causes it to be 
sought after by the cabinet-makers. The cutting down of the tree is said, however, to be in 
both British and French Guiana forbidden by law. Rubber is now largely produced in 
Mexico,f being obtained, it is asserted, from eight different species of trees, several of which 
are largely cultivated. 
On being wounded, the various rubber trees emit a milky juice, which concretes on exposure 
and constitutes the substance in question. In the preparation of the rubber in Mexico, to each 
barrel of the milk or sap of the tree is added a solution of five ounces of sodium chloride or 
carbonate in sufficient water to cover the whole mass. After the lapse of from twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours, with occasional agitation, the water is drawn off from the coagulated rubber, 
about 44 per cent, of solid material being finally left. 
Properties. India-rubber occurs in large flat pieces, or moulded into various shapes. The 
latter are formed by applying successive layers of the juice upon moulds of clay, which are 
broken and removed when the coating has attained a sufficient thickness and consistence. In the 
drying of these layers they are exposed to smoke, which gives to the concrete mass a blackish 
color. India-rubber is officially described as “ in cakes, balls, or hollow, bottle-shaped pieces, 
(e-lXs'ti-ca.) 
* For a very elaborate monograph upon the genus Landolphia, with much discussion of india-rubber Economics, 
see paper by A. de Wevre. (Am. Soc. Sci. Bruxelles, t. xix.) 
| The statements of the profits obtained in the cultivation of rubber seem fabulous. In a plantation the prepara- 
tion and setting out of 100,000 trees is said to cost $25,000, and the first year of harvesting is to be expected to pay 
this cost and all expenses up to the harvest, and yield a net profit of $95,000; while each of the succeeding harvests 
for twenty or thirty years will bring a steady income of over $100,000. (Journal of the Soc. of Arts.) Elastica. 
492 
PART I. 
externally brown to brownish black, internally brownish or of lighter tint; very elastic; insoluble 
in water, diluted acids, or diluted solutions of alkalies ; soluble in chloroform, carbon disulphide, 
oil of turpentine, benzin, and benzol. When heated to about 125° C. (257° F.) it melts, re- 
maining soft and adhesive after cooling. Odor faint, peculiar ; nearly tasteless. When pure, 
or nearly pure, india-rubber floats on water.” U. S. “ In elastic masses of varying thickness, 
brownish black externally and mottled with a pale tint internally; insoluble in water, ethylic 
alcohol, alkaline solutions, or dilute acids, soluble in chloroform, oil of turpentine, carbon bisul- 
phide, benzol, and petroleum spirit. When heated to about 257° F. (125° C.) it melts, remain- 
ing soft and adhesive after cooling. Odor characteristic, somewhat empyreumatic; nearly 
tasteless.” Br. 
Chemical Constitution. The juice of the india-rubber trees, when it concretes by 
exposure to the air, assumes on the outer surface a yellowish-brown color, while the mass remains 
white or yellowish white within. It is said that a little alum facilitates the coagulation, while 
ammonia retards it; so that a little of the latter maybe advantageously added, when it is 
desired to keep the milky juice in the liquid state. (R. Spruce, P. J. Tr., xv. 118.) The recent 
juice contains, according to Faraday, T9 per cent, of vegetable albumen, traces of wax, 7-13 
per cent, of a bitter nitrogenous substance soluble in water and alcohol, 2-9 of a substance 
soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, 56-37 of water with a little free acid, and only 3T7 
of the pure elastic principle to which chemists have given the name of caoutchouc. Besides 
these principles, the concrete juice, as it reaches us, generally contains soot, derived from the 
smoke used in drying it. Pure caoutchouc, or india-rubber, is nearly colorless, and in thin layers 
transparent. It is highly elastic, lighter than water, without taste and smell, fusible at about 
120° C. (248° F.), remaining unctuous and adhesive upon cooling, inflammable at a higher 
temperature, insoluble in water, alcohol, the weak acids, and alkaline solutions, soluble in ether 
when entirely freed from alcohol, soluble also in chloroform and most of the fixed and volatile 
oils, though, in the latter, at the expense of its elasticity. It is said, however, that the oils of 
lavender and sassafras dissolve it without change, and that when precipitated by alcohol from 
its solution in oil of cajuput it is still elastic. But its best solvents, for practical purposes, are 
coal-naphta or benzin, the empyreumatic oil obtained by distilling caoutchouc itself, and pure 
oil of turpentine. According to Dr. Bolley, the best method of effecting its solution, for the 
preparation of a varnish, is first to digest it, cut in small pieces, in carbon disulphide, which 
converts it into a jelly, and then to treat this jelly with benzin. A larger proportion is thus 
taken up than by any other method. (See A. J. P., 1862, p. 414.) India-rubber is not affected 
by atmospheric air, chlorine, hydrochloric or sulphurous acid gas, or ammonia. Caoutchouc 
chemically is composed of a mixture of polyterpenes. When destructively distilled, it yields 
isoprene, C6H8, and dipentene, C10H16. When vulcanized, it may contain from 2 to 20 per cent, 
of sulphur, of which, however, not more than the lower amount is chemically combined, the 
rest being held mechanically, and capable of removal by treatment with caustic alkalies. 
Bouchardat succeeded in preparing from isoprene an artificial caoutchouc by acting upon it 
with saturated hydrochloric acid in sealed tubes* 
Medical Properties and Uses, India-rubber is so insoluble that it cannot be absorbed 
in any form into the blood. It is used enormously in the arts for an infinite variety of pur- 
poses. In chemistry and surgery it has also numerous applications.f 
* By the action of sulphur, india-rubber acquires properties which greatly increase its value in the arts. It either 
becomes pliable, soft, and tough, or, if the amount of sulphur be increased, of a horny consistence, but preserves its 
elasticity under the influence both of heat and cold, is oompressible with great difficulty, and resists the ordinary 
solvents, such as petroleum and oil of turpentine. In this state it is said to be vulcanized. The discovery of the 
process of vulcanization is ascribed to Mr. Charles Goodyear, of New York. (Chetn. Gaz., x. 193.) It consists in sub- 
mitting india-rubber in thin sheets to the action of a mixture composed of 40 parts of carbon disulphide and 1 
of sulphur chloride. For fuller details the reader is referred to the Journ. de Pharrn. (3e s6r., xvii. 205.) But 
the same object may be effected by other methods. When thin layers of india-rubber are immersed for two or three 
hours in melted sulphur at the heat of 116° C. (240° F.), they are penetrated by the sulphur, but undergo no change 
of properties. If now heated in an inert medium to a temperature of from 135° C. (275° F.) to 160° C. (320° F.), 
a chemical reaction takes place, and the vulcanized product is obtained. The same result takes place if the india- 
rubber be first pounded with from 12 to 20 per cent, of finely-powdered sulphur, and then heated to the temperature 
requisite for vulcanization. In either case a portion of uncombined sulphur remains mechanically mixed with the 
vulcanized india-rubber, from which it may be separated by various solvents, such as solutions of caustic soda or 
potassa, carbon disulphide, oil of turpentine, anhydrous ether, etc. The deaulphurated product thus obtained, while 
exempt from the disadvantages arising from the reaction of free sulphur, is more porous than before. (Ibid., xxi. 366d 
For details of these two processes,—viz., vulcanization by heat with sulphur or metallic sulphides, and cold vul- 
canization with solutions of sulphur chloride,—see Sadtler’s Industrial Organic Chemistry, pp. 99-101. 
t An excellent glue may be made by dissolving, with the aid of heat and agitation, 3 parts of india-rubber in 30 
of naphta, and adding 64 parts of finely-powdered shellac. It may be obtained in sheets by pouring it when hot 
on plates of metal. (A. J. P., 1867.) J PART I. 
Elaterinum. 
493 
ELATERINUM. U. S., Br. Elaterin. 
C20 H28 05; 347*20. (Sl-A-TE-RI'NUM.) C20 H28 05; 348. 
“ A neutral principle obtained from Elaterium, a substance deposited by the juice of the 
fruit of Ecballium Elaterium (Linne), A. Richard (nat. ord. Cucurbitaeeae).” U. S. “ Elaterin, 
C2oH2806, is the active principle of Elaterium.” Br. 
This preparation was introduced into the Pharmacopoeias on account of the well-known 
variability in quality of commercial elaterium. (See Elaterium and Trituratio Elaterini.) Care 
must be taken to examine the elaterin, which is itself liable to be adulterated. It is in “ minute, 
white, hexagonal scales, or prismatic crystals, without odor, and having a slightly acrid, bitter 
taste; permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 4250 parts of water, and in 337 
parts of alcohol; in 1820 parts of boiling water, and in 34 parts of boiling alcohol; also soluble 
in 543 parts of ether, or in 2-4 parts of chloroform. At 190° C. (374° F.) the crystals begin 
to agglutinate, and at about 209° C. (408-2° F.) they melt, forming a yellowish-brown liquid. 
When ignited, they are consumed without leaving a residue. Elaterin is neutral to litmus 
paper. Elaterin is dissolved by solutions of the alkalies, and reprecipitated on supersaturating 
with an acid. When dissolved in cold, concentrated sulphuric acid, it causes the latter to be- 
come yellow at first, which color gradually changes to scarlet. An alcoholic solution of Elaterin 
should not be precipitated by tannic acid test-solution, mercuric chloride test-solution, or platinic 
chloride test-solution (absence of, and difference from, alkaloids).” U. S. “ With melted phenol 
it yields a solution which, on the addition of sulphuric acid, acquires a crimson color, rapidly 
changing to scarlet.” Br. Ernst Johannson (Inaug. Biss., Dorpat, 1884) gives the following 
reactions for elaterin besides those mentioned in the Pharmacopoeia. In all of them elaterin is 
held in alcoholic solution. Froehde’s reagent gives a green color passing into brown which 
fades away. Vanadinsulphuric acid with the fortieth of a milligramme produced a splendid 
blue color passing into a clear green, finally into reddish brown. After mixing with selenic 
acid and an addition of sulphuric acid, in a few minutes a red-brown color develops, which is 
not so deep as that which is produced by sulphuric acid. Kohler’s reaction is made by dis- 
solving elaterin in a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid, evaporating the acid in a 
water-bath, washing the white, amorphous residue with boiling water, and adding some concen- 
trated sulphuric acid, when an amaranth-red color develops. By means of these reactions 
Johannson has been able to find elaterin in large quantities in the faeces of animals poisoned 
by it, but no trace in the blood or urine or any part of the organism. It may be procured 
by evaporating an alcoholic tincture of elaterium to the consistence of thin oil, and throwing 
the residue while yet warm into a weak boiling solution of potassa. The potassa holds the 
green resin in solution, and the elaterin crystallizes as the liquor cools. Mr. Hennell obtained 
it by treating with ether the alcoholic extract procured by the spontaneous evaporation of the 
tincture. This consists of elaterin and the green resin, the latter of which, being much more 
soluble in ether than the former, is completely extracted by this fluid, leaving the elaterin pure. 
But, as elaterin is also slightly soluble in ether, a portion of this principle is wasted by Mr. 
Hennell’s method. By evaporating the ethereal solution, the green resin is obtained separate. 
Mr. Hennell says that this was found to possess the purgative property of elaterium, as it acted 
powerfully in a dose less than one-third of a grain. But the effect was probably owing to the 
presence of a portion of elaterin which had been dissolved by the ether. Fliickiger prefers to 
exhaust elaterium with chloroform, and add to the percolate ether, which precipitates elaterin. 
The precipitate may be dissolved in chloroform and recrystallized. This process was adopted 
by the Br. Pharm. 1885. 
Mr. Morries obtained 26 per cent, from the best British elaterium, 15 per cent, from the 
worst, and only 5 or 6 per cent, from the French; while a portion procured according to the 
directions of the London College yielded to Mr. Hennell upwards of 40 per cent. The Br. 
Pharmacopoeia directs that the proportion of elaterin should not be less than 20 per cent. 
Experiments by Mr. John Williams satisfactorily prove that the fruit, exhausted of the free 
juice from which elaterium is obtained, contains very little if any elaterin, certainly not enough 
to compensate for the cost of its extraction. ( Chem. News, 1860, p. 124.) 
Medical Properties. Elaterin represents all the activities of elaterium. It would scarcely 
be safe to begin with more than of a grain (0-003 Gm.) ; the doses of the Br. Ph. are from 
to of a grain (0-0016-0-006 Gm.). (See Trituratio Elaterini.') Elaterium. 
494 
PART I. 
ELATERIUM. Br. Elaterium. 
(EL-A-TE'KI-UM.) 
“ A sediment from the juice of the fruit of Ecballium Elaterium.” Br. 
Extractum Elaterii; Elaterium, Elaterion, Fr.; Elaterium, G.; Elaterio, It., Sp. 
Momordica elaterium. Willd. tip. Plant, iv. 605; Woodv. Med. Bot. 192, t. 72.—Ecbalium 
agreste. llichard; Lindley, Med. and CEcon. Bot. 95.—Ecbalium offtcinarum. Br.—Ecbalium 
elaterium. French Codex, 1837. The wild or squirting cucumber is a perennial plant, with a 
large fleshy root, from which rise several round, thick, rough stems, branching and trailing 
like the common cucumber, but without tendrils. The leaves are petiolate, large, rough, irreg- 
ularly cordate, and of a grayish-green color. The flowers are yellow, and proceed from the 
axils of the leaves. The fruit has the shape of a small oval cucumber, about an inch and a 
half long, an inch thick, of a greenish or grayish color, and covered with stiff hairs or prickles. 
When fully ripe, it separates from the peduncle, and throws out its juice and seeds with con- 
siderable force through an opening at the base, where it was attached to the footstalk. The 
name of squirting cucumber was derived from this circumstance, and the scientific and official 
title is supposed to have had a similar origin; though some authors maintain that the term 
elaterium was applied to the medicine rather from the mode of its operation upon the bowels 
than from the projectile property of the fruit * 
This species of Momordica is a native of the south of Europe, and is cultivated in Great 
Britain, where, however, it perishes in the winter. Elaterium is the substance spontaneously 
deposited by the juice of the fruit, when separated and allowed to stand. From the experi- 
ments of Dr. Clutterbuck, it has been supposed that only the free juice about the seeds, which 
is obtained without expression, affords the product. The substance of the fruit itself, the 
seeds, as well as other parts of the plant, have been thought to be nearly or quite inert. From 
the statements made by Mr. Bell (see note below), these opinions must probably be somewhat 
modified; but there is no doubt that strong expression injures the product. When the fruit 
is sliced and placed upon a sieve, a perfectly limpid and colorless juice flows out, which soon 
becomes turbid, and in the course of a few hours begins to deposit a sediment. This, when 
collected and carefully dried, is very light and pulverulent, of a yellowish-white color, slightly 
tinged with green. It is the genuine elaterium, and was found by Clutterbuck to purge vio- 
lently in the dose of one-eighth of a grain. But the quantity contained in the fruit is very 
small. Clutterbuck obtained only six grains from forty cucumbers. Commercial elaterium is 
often a weaker medicine, owing in part, perhaps, to adulteration, but much more to the mode 
in which it is prepared. In order to increase the product, the juice of the fruit is often 
expressed with great force; and there is reason to believe that it is sometimes evaporated so as 
to form an extract, instead of being allowed to deposit the active matter. The French elate- 
Tium is prepared by expressing the juice, clarifying it by rest and filtration, and then evapo- 
rating to a suitable consistence. As the liquid remaining after the deposition of the sediment 
is comparatively inert, it will be perceived that the preparation of the French Codex must be 
relatively feeble. The following are the directions of the British Pharm. (1885): “ Cut the 
fruit lengthwise, and lightly press out the juice. Strain it through a hair sieve, and set aside 
to deposit. Carefully pour off the supernatant liquor ; pour the sediment on a linen filter, and 
dry it on porous tiles, in a warm place. The decanted fluid may deposit a second portion of 
sediment, which can be dried in the same way.” The latter portion deposited is of a lighter 
color. (Pereira.) The slight pressure directed is necessary for the separation of the juice 
from the somewhat immature fruit employed. The perfectly ripe fruit is not used, as, in conse- 
quence of its disposition to part with its contents, it cannot be carried to market. In the 
British Pharmacopoeia, the former name of Extractum Elaterii off the London College has 
been very properly abandoned, as the preparation is in no correct sense of the word an extract. 
Elaterium is brought chiefly from England; but it is probable that a portion of the elaterium 
of which Dr. Pereira speaks as coming from Malta reaches our market also.f 
* From the Greek i\avvai, I drive, or iKarqp, driver. The word elaterium was used by Hippocrates to signify any 
active purge. Dioscorides applied it to the medicine of which we are treating. 
f The following notice of the cultivation of the elaterium plant and the preparation of the drug at Mitcham, in 
Surrey, England, condensed from a paper by Mr. Jacob Bell in the P. J. Tr. for October, 1850, may have some interest 
for the American reader. The seeds are sown in March, and the seedlings planted in June. In iuxuriant plants the 
stem sometimes acquires an extraordinary breadth. In one instance, though not thicker than the forefinger where 
it issued from the earth, it was in its broadest part four inches wide and half an inch thick. A wet season inter- 
feres with the productiveness of the plant. At the spontaneous separation of the fruit, it throws out its juice some- 
times to the distance of twenty yards; and hazard of injury to the eyes is incurred by walking among the plants at 
their period of maturity. A bushel of the fruit weighs 40 pounds, and the price varies from 7 to 10 shillings sterling. PART I. 
Elaterium. 
495 
Properties. The best elaterium is in thin flat or slightly curled cakes or fragments, often 
bearing the impression of the muslin upon which it was dried, of a greenish-gray color be- 
coming yellowish by exposure, of a feeble odor, and a bitter somewhat acrid taste. It is 
pulverulent and inflammable, and so light that it swims when thrown upon water. When of 
inferior quality, it is sometimes dark-colored, much curled, and rather hard, breaking with 
difficulty, or presenting a resinous fracture. “ In light, friable, flat or slightly curved, opaque 
cakes, about one-tenth of an inch (two and a half millimetres) thick; pale green, grayish 
green, or yellowish gray in color; fracture finely granular; odor faint, tea-like; taste bitter 
and acrid. It should not give the characteristic reactions with the tests for carbonates or for 
starch, and should yield half its weight to boiling alcohol (90 per cent.). When exhausted 
with chloroform, the solution evaporated, the residue washed with ether, and the process of 
solution, evaporation, and washing repeated, Elaterium should yield 25 per cent., or not less 
than 20 per cent., of Elaterin.” Br. The Maltese elaterium is in larger pieces, of a pale color, 
sometimes without the least tinge of green, destitute of odor, soft, and friable, and not infre- 
quently gives evidence of having been mixed with chalk or starch. It sinks in water, and 
usually contains so little elaterin that it should be employed only as a source of that principle.* 
Dr. Clutterbuck first observed that the activity of elaterium resided in the portion of it sol- 
uble in alcohol and not in water. This fact was afterwards confirmed by Dr. Paris, who found 
that the alcoholic extract, treated with boiling distilled water, and afterwards dried, had the 
property of purging in minute doses, while the remaining portion of the elaterium was inactive. 
The subsequent experiments of Mr. Hennell, of London, and Mr. Morries, of Edinburgh, 
which were nearly simultaneous, demonstrated the existence of a crystallizable matter in ela- 
terium which is the active principle, and has been named elaterin.f (See Elaterinum.) Ac- 
cording to Mr. Hennell, 100 parts of elaterium contain 44 of elaterin, 17 of a green resin 
(chlorophyll), 6 of starch, 27 of lignin, and 6 of saline matters. The alcoholic extract which 
Dr. Paris called elatin is probably a mixture of elaterin and the green resin or chlorophyll.| 
In the manufacture of elaterium, which begins early in September, the fruit, having been washed, if necessary, to 
cleanse it from earthy matters, is sliced longitudinally into halves, and then submitted to expression, wrapped in a 
hempen cloth, in a common screw-press. Considerable force is used in the expression. The juice is then strained 
through hair, cypress, or wire sieves, and set aside for deposition. The deposit usually takes place in three or four 
hours. When this part of the process is completed, the supernatant liquor is carefully poured off, the deposit is 
placed on calico cloths resting on hair sieves, and allowed to drain for about twelve hours, after which it is removed 
by a knife, spread over small cloths, and dried on canvas frames in the drying-stove. About half an ounce of fine 
elaterium is obtained from a bushel of fruit. Some obtain more; but the product is inferior, in consequence of the 
use of too much force in the expression. Good elaterium has a pale pea-green tint; that of inferior quality is of a 
duller hue. The juice expelled in bursting is said to undergo very little change in the air, while thart expressed from 
the ripe fruit immediately afterwards becomes milky, and deposits elaterium. The recently burst fruit, therefore, is 
Dearly if not quite as good for the preparation of the drug as that collected before perfect maturity. For a paper on 
the cultivation of the elaterium plant at Hitchin, Herts, England, see A. J. P., 1860, p. 163; at Market Deeping, 
P. J. Tr., Sept. 1881, p. 239. 
* In the analyses of T. A. Elwood, the average yield of English elaterium was 21‘5 per cent., of Maltese elaterium 
15*3 per cent. {P. J. Tr., Nov. 1891.) 
j" H. W. Jones and F. Ransom detail an improved method of assaying elaterium in the Year-Book of Pharmacy, 
1886, p. 442 : it is as follows: “ Macerate 1 gramme of finely powdered elaterium with chloroform in a covered dish 
fora few hours, then transfer to a miniature glass percolator (e.g., the barrel of a small glass syringe) plugged with 
cotton, and wash with chloroform, allowing about 10 C.c. to pass through the marc after the menstruum has begun to 
pass in a colorless condition. Place the percolate in a small dish, and evaporate off the chloroform at a gentle heat. 
Treat the residue with a small quantity of pure, absolute ether, and transfer to a small percolator or funnel, plugged 
with cotton. Wash with pure ether until at least 10 C.c. have passed through colorless, and reserve the ethereal wash- 
ings. Redissolve the elaterin, so obtained, by passing chloroform through it whilst still in the funnel or percolator, 
and evaporate the chloroformic solution once more to dryness in a small dish. Treat the residue so obtained with ether, 
exactly as before. Allow the united ethereal washings to evaporate spontaneously until the bulk is reduced to about 
3 C.c. Transfer this liquid to a small cylinder {e.g., a 10 C.c. measure), and allow the separated elaterin to deposit. 
Carefully decant the colored supernatant liquid, add 4 C.c. of pure ether to the residue, and again decant after depo- 
sition has taken place. Finally dissolve the elaterin in the cylinder with the aid of chloroform, and wash out the 
larger amount previously collected in the funnel with the same solvent. Unite the chloroformic solutions, evaporate 
in a tared dish, dry on a water-bath, and weigh.” 
J Chlorophyll. The substance to which Pelletier gave this name, under the impression that it was a peculiar prox- 
imate principle, was subsequently supposed by that chemist to be a mixture of wax and a green fixed oil. (Journ. de 
Pharm., xix. 109.) Afterwards, M. Fremy succeeded, by the joint action of a menstruum composed of two parts of 
ether and one of hydrochloric acid diluted with a little water, in separating chlorophyll into two coloring principles, 
one yellow and the other blue; the former being dissolved by the ether, and the latter by the hydrochloric acid. The 
yellow, M. Fremy proposed to name phylloxanthin, the blue phyllocyanin. {Ibid., Avril, 1860.) 
Phylloxantliin is neutral, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, and crystallizable, sometimes in yellow 
plates, sometimes in reddish prisms, resembling potassium bichromate, and possessing dyeing powers analogous to 
those of chromic acid. 
Phyllocyanic acid is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, giving to these an olive-like color, with bronze-red or violet 
reflections. All its salts are brown or green ; but only the alkaline are soluble in water. This acid dissolves in sul- 
phuric and hydrochloric acids, giving rise to solutions which, according to their strength, are green, reddish, violet, or 496 
Elaterium.—Elixiria. 
PART I. 
Walz (1859) found in the juice of the fruits and herb of Ecballium, as well as in that of 
Oucumis prophet arum, L., a second crystallizable bitter principle, prophetin, and the amorphous 
substances ecballin or elateric acid, hydro-elaterin, and elateride, all of which require further 
examination. 
Choice of Elaterium. The inequality of elaterium depends probably more on diversities in 
the mode of preparation than on adulteration. Sometimes, however, it is greatly sophisticated ; 
and large quantities are said to have been imported into this country consisting mainly of 
chalk colored green artificially. (B. Canavan, N. Y. Journ. of Pharm., iii.) It should possess 
the sensible properties above indicated as characterizing good elaterium, should not effervesce 
with acids, and should yield from one-sixth to one-fourth of elaterin. (See Elaterinum.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Elaterium is a powerful hydragogue cathartic, and in 
a large dose generally excites nausea and vomiting. If too freely administered, it operates with 
great violence upon both the stomach and bowels, producing inflammation of these organs, 
which has in some instances eventuated fatally. It also increases the flow of urine. The fruit 
was employed by the ancients, and is recommended in the writings of Dioscorides as a remedy 
in mania and melancholy. Sydenham and his contemporaries considered elaterium highly use- 
ful in dropsy; but, in consequence of some fatal results from its incautious employment, it fell 
into disrepute, and was generally neglected till again brought into notice by Dr. Ferriar. It is 
now considered one of the most efficient hydragogue cathartics in the treatment of dropsy. 
The full dose of commercial elaterium as formerly found in commerce was often from one to 
two grains (0-065-0-13 Gm.) ; but, as the quality has greatly improved, this dose might now 
be much too large, and the best plan is to give it in the dose of a sixth to a quarter of a grain 
(0-01 to 0-016 Gm.), repeated every hour till it operates, and increased if necessary. It should 
be observed that these doses are inapplicable to the very old and feeble and those prostrated by 
disease. Two-fifths of a grain proved fatal by purging in an ill and feeble lady of 70 years. 
(A. J. P., 1868, p. 373.) The dose of Clutterbuck’s elaterium is the eighth of a grain (-008 
Gm.), that of elaterin is from the twentieth to the sixteenth of a grain (0-003 to 0-004 Gm.). 
One grain may be dissolved in a fluidounce of alcohol with four drops of nitric acid, and from 
25 to 30 minims may be given diluted with water, but the granule affords a preferable method. 
ELIXIRIA. Elixirs. 
(El-ix-ir'i-a.) 
Elixirs as they are known in modern American pharmacy are aromatic, sweetened, spirituous 
preparations, containing small quantities of active medicinal substances. They differ greatly 
from the liquids formerly termed elixirs, from the fact that the first object sought for in the 
modern elixir is an agreeable taste, and usually this is attained only by such sacrifices as to 
render the effect of the medicine almost nil, whilst the principal activity is due to the alcohol, 
which has proved in many cases very injurious. These considerations have heretofore prevented 
an official recognition of elixirs, and the U. S. Pharm. 1890 recognizes but two, one of which, 
the Aromatic Elixir, has been introduced merely as a vehicle. Owing to their extensive use 
by practitioners all over our country, it became necessary to notice some of the most important 
in this commentary, and in the 15th edition of the Dispensatory a number of formulas for 
elixirs were inserted in Part I.; but, as an extensive list is now to be found in the National 
Formulary, and as these have a semi-official standing, it has been deemed best to group all the 
elixirs together under their proper titles in Part II., q. v. Elixir of Orange, official in the 
U. S. Pharm. 1880, may be made by the formula in the foot-note* 
beautifully blue. This M. Frfimy considers the important fact of the investigation, as it explains the various tints 
which chlorophyll offers in vegetation. 
Several quite thorough studies of chlorophyll color have been made since, notably that of Tschirch. (P. J. Tr. [2], 21, 
pp. 370-376.) The crude extract of chlorophyll always contains, associated with the two coloring matters phyllocy- 
amn and phylloxanthin, chlorophyllan, an oxidation product of the crude chlorophyll. The purest chlorophyll is pre- 
pared by heating an alcoholic solution of the chlorophyllan with zinc dust. Thus obtained, it yields an emerald-green 
solution with alcohol, which fluoresces red quite strongly and shows the same absorption spectrum as the living plant. 
The treatment of chlorophyllan with alcoholic potash changes it into chlorophyllanic acid; heating with strong 
hydrochloric acid, on the other hand, changes either chlorophyll or chlorophyllan into phyllocyanic acid and phyl- 
loxanthin. r 
* Ehxir Aurantti. U. S. Elixir of Orange. Simple Elixir. “ Oil of Orange Peel, one part [or two and a half 
ttuidrachmsj ; Cotton, two parts [or half an ounce av.]; Sugar, in coarse powder, one hundred parts [or twenty-five 
ounces av.J ; Alcohol, Hater, each, a sufficient quantity, To make three hundred parts [about four pintsl. Mix Al- 
coho1 and Water in the proportion of one part [or one pint] of Alcohol to three parts [or two and a half pints] of 
Water. Add the Oil of Orange to the Cotton, in small portions at a time, distributing it thoroughly by picking the PART I. 
Elixir Aromaticum.—Emplastra. 
497 
ELIXIR AROMATICUM. U. S. Aromatic Elixir. 
“ Compound Spirit of Orange, twelve cubic centimeters [or 195 minims] ; Syrup, three hundred 
and seventy-five cubic centimeters [or 12 fluidounces, 326 minims] ; Precipitated Calcium Phos- 
phate, fifteen grammes [or 231 grains]; Deodorized Alcohol, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 J fluidrachms]. To the Com- 
pound Spirit of Orange add enough Deodorized Alcohol to make two hundred and fifty cubic 
centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 minims]. To this solution add the Syrup in several portions, 
agitating after each addition, and afterwards add, in the same manner, three hundred and seventy- 
five cubic centimeters [or 12 fluidounces, 326 minims] of Distilled Water. Mix the Precipitated 
Calcium Phosphate intimately with the liquid, and then filter through a wetted filter, returning 
the first portions of the filtrate until a transparent liquid is obtained. Lastly, wash the filter 
with a mixture of one volume of Deodorized Alcohol and three volumes of Distilled Water, until 
the product measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official preparation. It takes the place of the former elixir of orange, and by 
many is regarded as more agreeable. Its introduction grew out of the necessity for some offi- 
cial action which would enable pharmacists readily to furnish elixirs when called for by an 
extemporaneous or speedy process. The aromatic elixir is, of course, merely a base or vehicle, 
and in many cases the medicinal substance may be simply dissolved in the elixir. It may be 
necessary to add some insoluble, inert powder, like precipitated chalk, magnesium carbonate, 
etc., to the liquid before filtering, in order to obtain a perfectly transparent elixir, and it is 
customary in many parts of the country to color the preparation with cochineal or caramel. 
(See Part II. for formulas for various elixirs.) 
(E-LIX'IR XR-O-MXt'I-CUM.) 
ELIXIR PHOSPHORI. U. S. Elixir of Phosphorus. 
“ Spirit of Phosphorus, two hundred and ten cubic centimeters [or 7 fluidounces, 48 minims] ; 
Oil of Anise, two cubic centimeters [or 32 minims] ; Glycerin, Jive hundred and fifty cubic centi- 
meters [or 18 fluidounces, 287 minims] ; Aromatic Elixir, a sufficient quantity, To make one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 2 fluidrachms]. To the Spirit of Phosphorus, 
contained in a graduated bottle, add the Oil of Anise and Glycerin, and mix them by repeatedly 
inverting the bottle, until they form a clear liquid. Then add Aromatic Elixir, in several 
portions, gently agitating after each addition, until a transparent liquid is obtained, and the 
product measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms]. Keep the 
product in dark amber-colored, well-stoppered bottles, in a cool and dark place.” U S. 
Each cubic centimeter of this new official preparation represents about one-fourth milligramme 
(0,00025 Gm., or grain) of phosphorus. A teaspoonful of the recently-made elixir con- 
tains about grain (0-001 Gm.) of phosphorus. Dose, from twenty to forty minims. 
(E-LIX'IR PHbS'PHO-Rf.) 
EMPLASTRA. Plasters. 
Empl&tres, Fr.; Pilaster, G. 
Plasters are solid compounds intended for external application, adhesive at the temperature 
of the human body, and of such a consistence as to render the aid of heat necessary in spread- 
ing them. Spread plasters having rubber in their composition are most largely used; they 
are usually perforated. Some plasters have as their basis a compound of olive oil and litharge, 
constituting the Emplastrum Plumbi of the Pharmacopoeias. Others owe their consistence 
and adhesiveness to resinous substances, or to a mixture of these with wax and fats. 
In the preparation of' the plasters, care is requisite that the heat employed be not sufficiently 
elevated to produce decomposition, nor so long continued as to drive off any volatile ingredient 
upon which the virtues of the preparation may in any degree depend. After having been pre- 
pared, they are usually shaped into cylindrical rolls, and wrapped in paper to exclude the air. 
Plasters should be firm at ordinary temperatures, should spread easily when heated, and, after 
being spread, should remain soft, pliable, and adhesive, without melting, at the heat of the 
human body. When long kept, they are apt to change color and to become hard and brittle; 
(EM-PJjAS'TKA.) 
Cotton apart after each addition; then pack tightly in a conical percolator, and gradually pour on the mixture of 
Alcohol and Water, until two hundred parts [or three and a quarter pints] of filtered liquid are obtained. In this 
liquid dissolve the Sugar by agitation, without heat, and strain.” U. S. 498 
Emplastra. 
PART I. 
and, as this alteration is most observable upon their surface, it must depend chiefly upon the 
action of the air, which should therefore be as much as possible excluded. The defect may 
usually be remedied by melting the plaster with a moderate heat and adding a sufficient quan- 
tity of oil to give it the due consistence. 
Plasters are prepared for use by spreading them upon leather, linen, or muslin, according to the 
particular purposes they are intended to answer. Leather is most convenient when the applica- 
tion is made to the sound skin, linen or muslin when the plaster is used as a dressing to ulcerated 
or abraded surfaces, or with the view of bringing and retaining together the sides of wounds. 
The leather usually preferred is white sheepskin, or the kind known commercially as “ hem- 
lock splits.” A margin about a quarter or half an inch broad should usually be left uncovered, 
in order to facilitate the removal of the plaster, and to prevent the clothing in contact with 
its edges from being soiled. An accurate outline may be obtained by pasting upon the leather 
a piece of paper so cut as to leave in the centre a vacant space of the required dimensions, 
and removing the paper when no longer needed. The same object may often be accomplished 
by employing two narrow rulers of sheet tin graduated in inches, and so shaped that each of 
them may form two sides of a rectangle. These may be applied in such a manner as to en- 
close within them any given rectangular space, and may be fixed by weights upon the leather, 
or preferably adjusted by set-screws, while the plaster is spread. For any other shape, as in 
the instance of plasters for the breast, pieces of tin may be employed having a vacuity within, 
corresponding to the required outline. The spreading of the plaster is most conveniently ac- 
complished by the use of a spatula or plaster-iron. This may be heated by means of a spirit- 
lamp. Care must be taken that the instrument be not so hot as to discolor or decompose the 
plaster; and special care is requisite in the case of those plasters which contain a volatile in- 
gredient. A sufficient portion of the plaster should first be melted by the heated instrument, 
and, having been received on a piece of coarse stiff paper, or in a shallow tin tray open on one 
side, should, when nearly cool, be transferred to the leather, and applied quickly and evenly 
over its surface. By this plan the melted plaster is prevented from penetrating the leather, as 
it is apt to do when applied too hot. Before removing the paper from the edge of the plaster, 
if this has become so hard as to crack, the iron should be drawn over the line of junction. 
When linen or muslin is used, and the dimensions of the portion to be spread are large, as is 
often the case with adhesive plaster, the best plan is to pass the cloth “ on which the plaster 
has been laid through a machine formed of a spatula fixed by screws at a proper distance from 
a plate of polished steel.” A machine for spreading plasters is described by M. Herent in the 
Journ. de Pharm. (3e ser., ii. 403).* (See also N. R., 1879, p. 337.) 
The spreading of plasters has become to a great extent a lost art to the pharmacist of 
this country, owing to the introduction of machine-spread plasters, which contain india-rubber 
* It has been customary with apothecaries to employ an apparatus, such as that shown in the illustration, for 
spreading quantities of plasters. An oblong rectangular block of hard wood (a e) has its upper surface (c) slightly 
convex. To this is attached by a movable joint (at r) a sheet-iron frame (b), with an opening (n) of the dimensions 
of the plaster to be spread, and clasps (d) at the other end, by which this may be fixed to the block. Another portion 
of the apparatus is a sheet-iron or tin frame (m), by which the leather is cut out, and the margin marked. The 
leather thus prepared is laid on the convex surface of the block (c); the sheet-iron frame is brought down on it evenly 
(as at h i); the plaster, previously melted, but not too hot, is poured on the leather in the centre, and, by means of an 
iron instrument (g) previously heated by a spirit-lamp, is spread uniformly over the surface, the thickness being regu- 
lated by the frame against which the iron is pressed. Any excess of plaster is thus pressed over upon the frame. The 
point of a sharp instrument (l) is then drawn along the interior edge of the frame so as to separate the plaster from 
it, after which the clasps are unfastened and the plaster removed. PART I. 
Emplastra.—Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro. 
499 
in the adhesive composition. These are reasonably permanent, and do not require the applica- 
tion of heat. When made by reliable manufacturers they are in many cases to be preferred; 
but the introduction of immense quantities of worthless ones by unscrupulous makers has 
caused many practitioners to direct plasters to be spread by the pharmacist from oflicial 
plaster. The perforation or “ porousing” of plasters is usually accomplished on a large scale by 
expensive apparatus. Prof. J. P. Remington has devised an inexpensive apparatus whereby 
the apothecary can perforate those spread by himself. (A. J. P., 1878, p. 171.)* Dr. J. J. 
Edmondson read a paper before the Pennsylvania Pharmaceutical Association in 1887 giving 
the process for manufacturing rubber-mass plasters as carried on by Johnson & Johnson, of 
New York. It is as follows. The ingredients employed are—rubber, two parts; Burgundy 
pitch, one part; gum olibanum, one part. This may vary with some special plasters, but they 
constitute the component parts of the mass used for the majority. 
The crude rubber is at first steeped in hot water, to cleanse and soften it, then the rubber is 
passed through the washer and crusher, where it is subjected to severe pressure between two 
corrugated rolls, eight inches in diameter and one foot wide, while a stream of water falling 
continually washes it thoroughly, and it comes out in sheets somewhat softened. After these 
sheets are dried, which requires a number of days, they are passed through the grinder, where 
they are crushed between two smooth rollers, fourteen inches in diameter and thirty-six inches 
across. This thoroughly softens the rubber and makes it plastic, so that it can be readily 
worked up with the other ingredients. The principal operation, the mixing, then takes place. 
The medication must be carefully combined, and the whole manipulation so managed that the 
plaster will be uniform, so that age or varying temperature shall not affect it. This operation 
is performed by means of rollers, sixteen inches in diameter, arranged so that one revolves at 
twice the speed of the other. Between these large rollers the mass is passed with whatever 
medication is required: e.g., when a belladonna mass is to be made, a certain amount of the 
stock mass is taken and of extract of belladonna in proportions corresponding to the formula 
in the Pharmacopoeia. These are repeatedly passed through the rollers until the extract of 
belladonna is thoroughly mixed with the mass, care being taken to keep the temperature from 
rising high enough to decompose or affect the alkaloids. The spreading is also done by rollers, 
into which the thoroughly-mixed mass is fed at the same time that the cloth is fed, the thick- 
ness of the plasters being governed by adjusting-screws on the side of the machine. The 
rubber base is pliable, adhesive, will not become too hard or too soft, will yield up the medica- 
tion to the absorbents of the skin, and will retain its properties indefinitely.f 
EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO. U. S., Br. Am- 
moniac Plaster with Mercury. 
Ammoniacum and Mercury Plaster; Emplatre de Gomme Ammoniaque mercuriel, Fr.; Quecksilber- und Am- 
moniak-Pflaster, G. 
11 Ammoniac, seven hundred and twenty grammes [or 25 ounces av., 173 grains] ; Mercury, 
one hundred and eighty grammes [or 6 ounces av., 153 grains] ; Oleate of Mercury, eight 
grammes [or 123 grains] ; Diluted Acetic Acid, one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 61 fluidrachms] ; Lead Plaster, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 
35 ounces av., 120 grams]. Digest the Ammoniac with the diluted Acetic Acid, in a suitable 
(EM-PLXS'TKUM XM-MO-Ni'A-CI CUM HY-DRAR'<JY-R5.) 
* Emplastrum Aconiti. Aconite Plaster. (Emplatre cl’Aconit, Fr.; Aeonit-Pflaster, G.) “Takeof Aconite Root, 
in fine powder, sixteen troyounces ; Alcohol, Resin Plaster, each, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the Aconite Root with 
six fluidounces of Alcohol, and pack it in a conical percolator. Cover the surface with a disk of paper, and pour upon 
it ten fluidounces of Alcohol. When the liquid begins to drop, cork the percolator, and, having closely covered it to 
prevent evaporation, set it aside in a moderately warm place for four days. Then remove the cork, and gradually 
pour on Alcohol until two pints of tincture have been obtained or the Aconite Root is exhausted. Distil off a pint 
and a half of alcohol, and evaporate the residue to a soft uniform extract by means of a water-bath. Add to this 
sufficient Resin Plaster, previously melted, to make the mixture weigh sixteen troyounces, and then mix them thor- 
oughly.” U. S. 1870. 
This plaster was introduced into the Pharmacopoeia of 1870. The formula is a modification of that proposed by 
Prof. Procter. (A. J. P.f xxv. 202.) Aconite Plaster may be used whenever it is desired to produce a very powerful 
local anodyne effect. 
f Unna’s Plaster Mulls. Plaster mulls have been introduced as superior to spread plasters; fine gauze is covered 
with the thinnest possible layer of gutta-percha or rubber, on which the medicament is evenly spread, properly dis- 
solved in or mixed with a small quantity of vehicle or base. Their pliability, thinness, adhesiveness, porosity, and 
rapidity of action are the chief advantages. Dr. Unna, under the name of paraplast (1898), proposes to use a fine, 
thick cotton web, spread with a mixture of the medicating agent and rubber, lanolin, resin, and dammar, in proper 
proportions. 500 
Emplastrum, Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro.—Emplastrum Belladonnse. 
part i. 
vessel, avoiding contact with metals, until it is entirely emulsified; then strain, and evaporate 
the strained liquid by means of a water-bath, stirring constantly, until a small portion, taken 
from the vessel, hardens on cooling. Triturate the Oleate of Mercury with the Mercury 
gradually added, until globules of the metal cease to be visible. Next add, gradually, the 
Ammoniac, while yet hot; and finally, having added enough Lead Plaster, previously melted 
by means of a water-bath, to make the mixture weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 
120 grains], mix the whole thoroughly.” U. S. 
“Ammoniacum, 12 ounces (Imperial) or 328 grammes; Mercury, 3 ounces (Imp.) or 82 
grammes; Olive Oil, 56 grains (Imp.) or 3-5 grammes; Sublimed Sulphur, 8 grains (Imp.) or 
0-5 gramme. Heat the Olive Oil; add the Sulphur to it gradually, stirring until they are 
uniformly blended; with this mixture triturate the Mercury until metallic globules are no 
longer visible; add the Ammoniacum, previously purified by boiling with successive portions 
of water, passing the resulting emulsions through, while rubbing the residues on, a hair sieve, 
and, after mixing, evaporating the emulsions to a suitable consistence.” Br. 
Ammoniac plaster (Emplastrum Ammoniaci, U. S. P., 1880) is not recognized in the last 
U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias. (See U. S. D., 17th ed., 492.) Ammoniac plaster with mercury 
does not differ materially from that produced by the formula of the last Pharmacopoeia. The 
use of diluted acetic acid to facilitate the straining of the ammoniac is an improvement over 
the water formerly used. The use of lead plaster to bring up the weight is needless, in our 
opinion. The only use of the oleate of mercury is to aid in the extinguishment of the mer- 
cury ; the compound formed by it probably adds to the efficiency. When ammoniac not 
previously prepared is used, as it is not fusible by heat, it must he brought to the proper con- 
sistence by softening it in a small quantity of hot water, straining, and evaporating. This 
plaster unites with the stimulant power of the ammoniac the specific properties of the mercury, 
which is sometimes absorbed in sufficient quantity to affect the gums. It is used as a discu- 
tient in enlargement of the glands, tumefaction of the joints, nodes, and other indolent 
swellings, especially when dependent on a venereal taint. It is also sometimes applied over 
the liver in chronic hepatitis* 
EMPLASTRUM ARNICA. U. S. Arnica Plaster. 
(EM-PIilS'TKUM AR'NI-QAi—ar'nj-ge.) 
Emplatre d’Arnique, Fr.; Arnicapfiaster, G. 
“ Extract of Arnica Root, three hundred and thirty grammes [or 11 ounces av., 280 grains]; 
Resin Plaster, six hundred and seventy grammes [or 23 ounces av., 277 grains], To make one 
thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Add the Extract to the Resin Plaster, 
previously melted by means of a water-bath, and mix them thoroughly.” U. S. 
These ingredients incorporate readily, and form a good plaster. The preparation was intro- 
duced into the Pharmacopoeia to enable the apothecary to meet the demand for a convenient 
preparation of arnica for external use. It is supposed to be useful in sprains and bruises, and 
sometimes probably acts beneficially by its stimulant properties in chronic rheumatism and 
other chronic external inflammations. 
EMPLASTRUM BELLADONNA. U. S., Br. Belladonna Plaster. 
Emplatre de Belladone, Fr.; Belladonna-Pflaster, G. 
“ Alcoholic Extract of Belladonna Leaves, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains]; 
Resin Plaster, four hundred grammes [or 14 ounces av., 48 grains] ; Soap Plaster, four hundred 
grammes [or 14 ounces av., 48 grains]. To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains]. Melt the plasters on a water-bath ; then add the Extract of Belladonna Leaves, and 
continue the heat, stirring constantly, until a homogeneous mass results.” U. S. 
“ Liquid Extract of Belladonna, 4 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 100 cubic centimetres; 
Resin Plaster, 5 ounces (Imp.) or 125 grammes. Evaporate the Liquid Extract of Belladonna 
on a water-bath until it is reduced in weight to one ounce (Imp.) or twenty-five grammes); 
(KM-PLAS'TRITM BEL-IiA-DON'NjE.) 
* Emplastrum, Antimonii. Antimonial Planter. (Emplastrum Stibiatum, s. Antimoniale; Emplatre (Poix) 
6mctisee, Emplatre antimonial, Fr.; Brechweinstein-Pflaster, G.) “ Take of Tartrate of Antimony and Potassium, 
in fine powder, a troyounce ; Burgundy Pitch four troyounces. Melt the Pitch by means of a water-bath, and 
strain; then add the powder, and stir them well together until the mixture thickens on cooling.” U. S. 1870. 
This is a useful formula, although no longer official. It affords one of the most convenient methods of obtain- 
ing the local pustulating effects of tartar emetic. For its effects and uses, see Antimonii et Potassii Tartras. PART I. 
Emplastrum Belladonnse.—Emplasti-um Ferri. 
501 
add the Resin Plaster previously melted ; mix. This Plaster contains 0-5 per cent, of the alka- 
loids of Belladonna Root.” Br. 
This plaster was formerly prepared, in both Pharmacopoeias, with the extract made from 
the inspissated juice of the leaves; but in the U. S. P. 1880 an alcoholic extract of the root 
was substituted, with the effect of rendering the plaster easier to be spread and more adhesive, 
and giving it a light yellowish-brown color, without a shade of green. The official prepara- 
tion is now of a brownish-green color, due to the extract of belladonna leaves. It is a useful 
anodyne application in neuralgic and rheumatic pains, and in dysmenorrhoea. We have seen 
the constitutional effects of belladonna result from its external use. Mr. T. W. Worthington 
proposes a formula for making belladonna plaster with caoutchouc in the A. J. P., xliii. 153. 
(See page 499.) Machine-spread belladonna plaster can be found in the market which was 
admitted by a representative of the manufacturer to contain no extract of belladonna whatever. 
For methods of assaying belladonna plasters, see A. J. P., 1898, 182, 293. 
EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS. Br. Cantharides Plaster. 
See Ceratum Cantharidis. U. S. 
(EM-PLlS'TRUM CAN-THXR'I-DIs.) 
EMPLASTRUM CAPSICI. U. S. Capsicum Plaster. 
(EM-I’LAS'TRUM CAP'SI-CI.) 
“ Oleoresin of Capsicum, Kesin Plaster, each, a sufficient quantity. Melt the Resin Plaster 
at a gentle heat, spread a thin and even layer of it upon muslin, and allow it to cool. Then, 
having cut off a piece of the required size, apply a thin coating of Oleoresin of Capsicum, by 
means of a brush, leaving a narrow, blank margin along the edges. A space of ten centimeters 
[3i|- inches] square should contain about twenty-five centigrammes [or 4 grains] of Oleoresin 
of Capsicum.” U. S. 
This affords a convenient way of obtaining the rubefacient effects of capsicum; of course 
the practice will be for the pharmacist to employ machine-spread adhesive plaster as the base; 
although, with a little experience, very good work can be done by hand. 
EMPLASTRUM FERRI. U. S. Iron Plaster. [Strengthening Plaster.] 
(EM-PLlS'TRUM FEIi'RX.) 
Emplastrum Roborans, Br. 1867; Chalybeate Plaster; Emplastrum Ferratum, s. Martiale; Emplatre d’Oxyde 
rouge de Fer, Emplatre de Canet, Fr.; Eisenpflaster, Starkendes Pflaster, G. 
“ Ferric Hydrate, dried at a temperature not exceeding 80° C. (176° F.), ninety grammes 
[or 3 ounces av., 76 grains] ; Olive Oil, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Burgundy 
Pitch, one hundred and forty grammes [or 4 ounces av., 410 grains] ; Lead Plaster, seven hun- 
dred and twenty grammes [or 25 ounces av., 173 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 
35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt the Lead Plaster and Burgundy Pitch by means of a water- 
bath, and add the Olive Oil; then add the Ferric Hydrate, and stir constantly until the mix- 
ture thickens on cooling.” U. S. 
The U. S. P. 1880 preparation differed from that official in 1870 in the substitution of ferric 
hydrate for ferrous subcarbonate, and of Canada turpentine for a portion of the Burgundy 
pitch. This latter change proved of questionable utility, the object having been to render the 
plaster more adhesive and flexible, whereas it was found to be too soft, and the Canada tur- 
pentine was irritant. The same end has been accomplished in the U. S. P. 1890 by the addi- 
tion of olive oil. The use of ferric hydrate in the place of ferrous subcarbonate is an improve- 
ment, and in this respect the plaster is in accord with the British formula. 
This preparation has enjoyed some popular celebrity, under the impression that it strengthens 
the parts to which it is applied; whence it has derived the name of strengthening plaster. 
It is used in those conditions of the loins, larger muscles, and joints which, though usually 
ascribed to debility, are in fact most frequently dependent on rheumatic or other chronic in- 
flammatory affections, and, if relieved by the plaster, are so in consequence of the gentle 
excitation produced by it in the vessels of the skin, or of the exclusion of the air. It may 
also, in some instances, give relief by affording mechanical support; but neither in this nor in 
any other respect can it be deemed very efficient, because the ingredients composing it have 
no useful properties that are capable of being taken up by the absorbents. 502 
Emplastrum Hydrargyri.—Emplastrum Ichthyocollse. 
PART I. 
EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI. U. S., Br. Mercurial Plaster. 
(EM-PLXS'TRUM HY-DRAR'qY-RI.) 
Emplastrum Mercuriale; Emplatre mercuriel, Fr.; Quecksilber-Pflaster, G. 
“ Mercury, three hundred grammes [or 10 ounces av., 254 grains] ; Oleate of Mercury, twelve 
grammes [or 185 grains] ; Lead Plaster, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Triturate the Mercury with the Oleate of Mercury in a tared 
capsule until globules of metal are no longer visible. Then place the capsule on a water-bath, 
add enough Lead Plaster, previously melted, to make the contents weigh one thousand grammes 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains], and mix the whole thoroughly.” U. S. 
u Mercury, 3 ounces (Imperial) or 82 grammes ; Olive Oil, 56 grains (Imp.) or 3-5 grammes; 
Sublimed Sulphur, 8 grains (Imp.) or 0-5 gramme; Lead Plaster, 6 ounces (Imp.) or 164 
grammes. Heat the Olive Oil; add the Sulphur to it gradually ; stir until they are uniformly 
blended; with this mixture triturate the Mercury until metallic globules are no longer visible; 
add the Lead Plaster previously melted; mix.” Br. 
The present official process differs from that of the U. S. Pliarm. 1880 in employing oleate 
of mercury for the purpose of extinguishing the mercury; this it does effectually, and at the 
same time increases the efficiency of the mercurial constituent. The quantity of mercury is 
30 per cent. The British preparation is stronger, containing nearly 50 per cent. 
The U. S. and former British processes may be considered identical in their results. The 
sulphuretted oil which was employed in the process of the London College to facilitate the 
extinguishment of the mercury was abandoned in the first British Pharmacopoeia, as just in 
proportion to the increased facility of the process it lessened the efficacy of the resulting 
plaster, mercury sulphide being wholly inert. Nevertheless, the Br. Pharmacopoeia has in its 
last revision retained the old London formula. Mr. Thomas Blunt has found it almost impos- 
sible to divide the mercury sufficiently by trituration with oil and resin, and the resulting 
plaster was so crumbly that it could not be formed into rolls; but on substituting a weight of 
Venice turpentine equal to that of the oil and resin combined, he found it to answer completely. 
An objection, however, to the turpentine is, that it might render the plaster too irritant for 
susceptible skins. (73. J. Tr., 1864, p. 56.) 
This plaster is employed to produce the local effects of mercury upon venereal buboes, nodes, 
and other chronic tumefactions of the bones or soft parts, dependent on a syphilitic taint. In 
these cases it sometimes acts as a powerful discutient. It is frequently also applied to the side 
in chronic hepatitis or splenitis. In peculiarly susceptible persons it occasionally affects the gums. 
From observations made in France by M. Serres and others, it appears that the mercurial 
plaster of the Codex (Emplastrum de Vigo cum Mercurio) has the power, when applied over the 
eruption of small-pox, before the end of the third day from its first appearance, to check its 
progress and prevent suppuration and pitting. This operation of the plaster, so far from being 
attended with an increase of the general symptoms, seems to relieve them in proportion to the 
diminution of the local affection. It is also thought that the course of the disease is favorably 
modified when the mercurial impression is produced upon the system. That the local effect is 
not ascribable to the mere exclusion of the air is proved by the fact that the use of lead plaster 
was not followed by the same results. It is probable that other mercurial preparations would 
answer the same purpose; and the common mercurial ointment has, in our own hands, proved 
effectual in rendering the eruption upon the face to a considerable extent abortive, in one bad 
case of small-pox. But, as the most successful results were obtained with the plaster above 
mentioned, we give in a foot-note the formula of the French Codex* 
EMPLASTRUM ICHTHYOCOLL/E. U. S. Isinglass Plaster. [Court Plaster.] 
“ Isinglass, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Alcohol, forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; 
Glycerin, one gramme [or 15 J grains] ; Water, Tincture of Benzoin, each, a sufficient quantity. 
(EM-PLXSrTRUM IflH-THY-O-COL’L.E.) 
* Emplastrum de Vigo cum Mercurio. “ Take of simple plaster [lead plaster] forty ounces; yellow wax two 
ounces ; resin two ounces ; ammoniac, bdellium, olibanum, and myrrh, each, five drachms ; saffron three drachms; 
mercury twelve ounces ; turpentine [common European] two ounces ; liquid storax six ounces ; oil of lavender two 
drachms. Powder the gum-resins and saffron, and rub the mercury with the storax and turpentine in an iron 
mortar until completely extinguished. Melt the plaster with the wax and resin, and add to the mixture the powders 
and volatile oil. When the plaster shall have been cooled, but while it is yet liquid, add the mercurial mixture, and 
incorporate the whole thoroughly.” This should be spread upon leather or linen cloths, and applied so as effec' 
tually to cover the part to be protected. Emplastrum Ichthyocollse.—Emplastrum Picis. 
503 
PART I. 
Dissolve the Isinglass in a sufficient quantity of hot Water to make the solution weigh one 
hundred and twenty grammes [or 4 ounces av., 102 grains]. Spread one-half of this, in suc- 
cessive layers, upon taffeta (stretched on a frame), by means of a brush, waiting after each 
application until the layer is dry. Mix the second balf of the Isinglass solution with the 
Alcohol and Glycerin, and apply it in the same manner. Then reverse the taffeta, coat it on the 
back with Tincture of Benzoin, and allow it to become perfectly dry. Cut the plaster in pieces 
of suitable length and preserve them in well-closed vessels. The above-directed quantities are 
sufficient to cover a piece of taffeta thirty-eight centimeters [or about 15 inches] square.” U. S. 
This official preparation will probably be seldom made by the pharmacist. The introduction 
of a formula will, however, be of service by indicating the manner in which isinglass plaster 
can be made by those who desire to furnish a good preparation. The addition of glycerin pre- 
vents it from becoming brittle, and the tincture of benzoin is intended to render it water-proof. 
This it only partially accomplishes. Castor oil and weak collodion have been used instead with 
better results. 
EMPLASTRUM MENTHOL. Br. Menthol Plaster 
(EM-PLAS'TKUM MEN'THOL.) 
“Menthol, 1\ ounces (Imperial) or 30 grammes; Yellow Beeswax, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 20 
grammes ; llesin, 7i ounces (Imp.) or 150 grammes. Melt the Beeswax and Ilesin together; 
when the mixture approaches the temperature of 160° or 170° F. (7P10 or 76-7° in 
the Menthol until dissolved.” Br. 
This is an official plaster of the British Pharmacopoeia, having been introduced in the addi- 
tions in 1885 ; the present plaster is, however, 5 per cent, weaker in menthol than that formerly 
official. It is a mild counter-irritant, intended especially for relief in localized neuralgia and 
rheumatic pains. 
EMPLASTRUM OPII. U. S., Br. Opium Plaster. 
(EM-PLAS'TRUM O'PI-I.) 
Emplastrum Opiatum, P. G.; Emplastrum Cephalicum, s. Odontalgicum; Emplatre d’Opium, Emplatre cSpha- 
lique (temporal, odontalgique, calmant), Fr.; Opiumpflaster, Hauptpflaster, G. 
“ Extract of Opium, sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Burgundy Pitch, one hun- 
dred and eighty grammes [or 6 ounces av., 153 grains] ; Lead Plaster, seven hundred and sixty 
grammes [or 26 ounces av., 353 grains] ; Water, eighty cubic centimeters [or 2 fluidounces, 
338 minims], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Rub the Ex- 
tract of Opium with the Water, until it is uniformly soft, and add it to the Burgundy Pitch 
and Lead Plaster melted together by means of a water-bath; then continue the heat for a 
short time, stirring constantly, until the moisture is evaporated.” TJ. S. 
“ Opium, in very fine powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 10 grammes ; Resin Plaster, 9 ounces 
(Imp.) or 90 grammes. Melt the Resin Plaster on a water-bath; stir in the Opium grad- 
ually.” Br. 
We decidedly prefer the extract of opium, as employed in the present U. S. process, to the 
opium itself of the British formula. It not only forms a better plaster, but, being soluble, is 
more likely to produce the anodyne effect desired, by being brought by the perspiration to the 
liquid state necessary for its absorption. The use of water in the former process is also an 
advantage, as it enables the opium to be more thoroughly incorporated with the other ingre- 
dients ; but care should be taken that the moisture be well evaporated. The opium plaster 
is intended to relieve rheumatic and other pains in the parts to which it is applied. 
EMPLASTRUM PICIS. Br. Pitch Plaster. 
“ Burgundy Pitch, 26 ounces (Imperial) or 520 grammes ; Frankincense [Terebinthina, U. S.], 
13 ounces (Imp.) or 260 grammes; Resin, 4£ ounces (Imp.) or 90 grammes; Yellow Beeswax, 
4£ ounces (Imp.) or 90 grammes; Olive Oil, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 40 grammes; Distilled Water, 
2 ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 40 cubic centimetres. Add the Olive Oil and the Water to the 
Frankincense, Burgundy Pitch, Resin, and Beeswax, previously melted together; evaporate 
with constant stirring to a proper consistence.” Br. 
This is a rubefacient plaster, which closely resembles the Burgundy pitch plaster of the 
U. S. P. 1890. (See the next article). The expressed oil of nutmeg directed in the Br. Pharm. 
of 1885 was not retained in the present British authority; it is an unnecessary addition. It 
(EM-PLAS'TBUM PI'CIS.) 504 
Emplastrum Picis Burgundicse.—Emplastrum Picis Cantharidatum. 
part i. 
is applicable to catarrhal and other pectoral affections, chronic inflammation of the liver, and 
rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles. It often keeps up a serous discharge, which re- 
quires that it should be frequently renewed. The irritation which it sometimes excites is so 
great as to render its removal necessary. 
EMPLASTRUM PICIS BURGUNDIC/E. U. S. Burgundy Pitch Plaster. 
(EM-PLiS'TRUM PI'CIS BUR-GCN'DI-Q^E.) 
Emplastrum Picatum, F. P.; Empl&tre de Poix de Bourgogne, Fr.; Burgunder Pech-Pilaster, G. 
“ Burgundy Pitch, eight hundred grammes [or 28 ounces av., 96 grains] ; Olive Oil, fifty 
grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains]; Yellow Wax, one hundred and fifty grammes [or 5 
ounces av., 127 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt 
together the Burgundy Pitch and Yellow Wax, then incorporate the Olive Oil, and stir con- 
stantly, until the mass thickens on cooling.” U. S. 
In the former revision of the Pharmacopoeia the quantity of wax in this plaster was dimin- 
ished 3 per cent. This was done to round up the formula, but was undoubtedly a step in the 
wrong direction. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia 1890 process makes a better plaster: 15 per cent, 
of wax has been directed instead of 10, whilst the addition of 5 per cent, of olive oil still 
further improves it. The object of the wax and olive oil is to give a proper consistence to the 
Burgundy pitch, and to prevent its great tendency to become brittle. M. Lavigne proposes to 
obviate the tendency of Burgundy pitch plaster to crack by incorporating with it caoutchouc, 
in the following method. Soften 35 parts, by weight, of caoutchouc, in small pieces, by 
warming it with 13 parts of petroleum in a close vessel. Melt together 300 parts of Burgundy 
pitch and 25 parts of white wax. Warm the solution of caoutchouc in a suitable vessel, add 
gradually, with constant stirring, the melted pitch and wax, and finally incorporate thoroughly 
with the mass 3 parts of glycerin. (Joum. de Pharm., 4e s6r., ix. 131.) 
EMPLASTRUM PICIS CANTHARIDATUM. U. S. (Br.) Cantharidal 
Pitch Plaster. [Warming Plaster.] 
(EM-PLAS'TRUM PI'CIS CAN-THAR-I-DA'TUM.) 
Emplastrum Calefaciens, Br.; Warm Plaster; Emplatre de Poix cantharide, Fr.; Peehpflaster mit Canthariden, G. 
“ Cerate of Cantharides, eighty grammes [or 2 ounces ay., 359 grains] ; Burgundy Pitch, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt the 
Cerate of Cantharides on a water-bath containing boiling water, and continue the heat for fif- 
teen minutes; then strain it through a piece of muslin of close texture so that the Cantharides 
will be retained on the muslin. To the strained liquid add a sufficient quantity of Burgundy 
Pitch to make the whole weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains], render 
the mixture homogeneous by stirring, remove the heat, and stir the mass until it thickens on 
cooling.” U S. 
“ Cantharides, in coarse powder, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Yellow Beeswax, 4 
ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; Resin, 4 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; Resin Plaster, 31 
pounds (Imp.) or 1300 grammes; Soap Plaster, 2 pounds (Imp ) or 800 grammes; Distilled 
Water, boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 500 cubic centimetres. Infuse the Cantharides in the 
Distilled Water for six hours; squeeze strongly through calico ; evaporate the expressed liquid 
on a water-bath till reduced to one-third; add the other ingredients; melt on a water-bath; 
stir until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed.” Br. 
This plaster is an excellent rubefacient, more active than Burgundy pitch, yet in general not 
sufficiently so to produce vesication. As prepared by the U. S. 1870 process it occasionally 
blistered ; and the proportion of cantharides was, therefore, considerably diminished in the U. S. 
1880 and 1890 formulas. This is unfortunate; for, while such a reduction may render the 
plaster insufficiently active in most cases, it does not entirely obviate the objection, as the 
smallest proportion of flies, or even the Burgundy pitch alone, would vesicate in certain persons. 
In whatever mode, therefore, this plaster may be prepared, it cannot always answer the expecta- 
tions which may be entertained; and the only plan, when the skin of any individual has been 
found to be very susceptible, is to accommodate the proportions to the particular circumstances 
of the case. Much, however, may be accomplished by care in the preparation of the plaster, 
towards obviating its tendency to blister. If the flies of the Ceratum Cantharidis have been 
coarsely pulverized, the latter particles, coming in contact with the skin, will exert upon the 
particular part to which they may be applied their full vesicatory effect, while if reduced to a PART I. 
Emplastrum Picis Canthandatum.—Emplastrum Plumbi. 
505 
very fine powder they would be more thoroughly enveloped in the other ingredients, and thus 
have their strength much diluted. Hence the cerate when used as an ingredient of the warming 
plaster should contain the cantharides as minutely divided as possible; and the direction given 
in the U. S. 1890 process to strain it through cloth of fine texture should be carefully observed. 
The plan of keeping the cerate used in this preparation for a considerable time at the temperature 
of 100° C. (212° F.), and then straining it so as to separate the flies, is a good one, but it would 
be better yet to substitute cerate of the extract of cantharides for the cerate of cantharides. 
(See Ceratum Cantharidis.) The mode frequently pursued of preparing the warming plaster 
by simply sprinkling a very small proportion of powdered flies upon the surface of Burgundy 
pitch is altogether objectionable. It has been objected to the U. S. plaster that it is apt to be 
too soft in hot weather. Mr. Gr. C. Close, ascribing this inconvenience to the proportion of lard 
in the cerate employed, proposes to obviate it by substituting Burgundy pitch plaster for Bur- 
gundy pitch, and powdered cantharides for the cerate, and offers a formula in accordance with 
this suggestion. (See A. J. P., 1867, p. 20 ; from Proc. A. P. A., 1866.) 
The warming plaster is employed in chronic rheumatism, and in chronic internal diseases 
attended with inflammation or an inflammatory tendency, such as catarrh, asthma, pertussis, 
phthisis, hepatitis, and the sequelae of pleurisy and pneumonia. 
EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI. U. S., Br. Lead Plaster. [Diachylon Plaster.] 
(EM-PLlS'TRUM PLUM'BI.) 
Emplastrum Lithargyri, Br. 1864; Emplastrum Lithargyri Simplex, P. G.; Emplastrum Simplex, F. PEm- 
plastrum Diachylon Simplex, Emplastrum Album Coctum; Litharge Plaster; Emplatre simple, Empl&tre de Plom'D 
(de Litharge), Fr.; Emplastrum Cerusae, Froschlaichpflaster, Bleipflaster, Diachylon-Pflaster, G. 
“Lead Oxide, three thousand two hundred grammes [or 112 ounces av., 383 grains]; Olive 
Oil, six thousand grammes [or 211 ounces av., 282 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix 
the Lead Oxide, previously passed through a No. 80 sieve, intimately with about one-half of 
the Olive Oil, by trituration, and add the mixture to the remainder of the Oil contained in a 
bright copper boiler of a capacity equal to at least four times the bulk of the ingredients. 
Then add one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms] of boiling Water, 
and boil the whole together, over a fire, constantly stirring with a wooden spatula, until a small 
portion, when dropped into cold water, is found to be pliable and tenacious. From time to 
time add a little Water to replace that lost by evaporation. When the contents of the boiler 
have acquired a whitish color and are perfectly homogeneous, transfer them to a vessel con- 
taining warm Water, and as soon as the mass has sufficiently cooled, knead it well with the 
Water so as to remove the glycerin, renewing the Water from time to time, as long as it may 
be necessary. Finally divide the mass into rolls of suitable size.” U. S. 
“ Lead Oxide, 1 pound (Imperial) or 400 grammes ; Olive Oil, 2 pounds (Imp.) or 800 
grammes; Distilled Water, 16 ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 400 cubic centimetres ora sufficient 
quantity. Boil all the ingredients together gently by the aid of a steam-bath ; keep them sim- 
mering for four or five hours, stirring constantly until the product acquires a proper consist- 
ence for a plaster; add more of the Distilled Water during the process if necessary.” Br. 
The importance of this plaster, as the basis of most of the others, requires a somewhat 
detailed account of the principles and manner of its preparation. An improvement will be 
observed in the U. S. P. 1890 process for this plaster in the washing out of the glycerin and 
the subsequent separation of the liquids by kneading the plaster. 
A reaction takes place between the oil and water, resulting in the development of glycerin, 
and of two acid bodies, oleic and palmitic acids, to which, when animal fat is employed instead 
of olive oil, a third is added,—namely, stearic acid. The plaster is formed by a union of these 
acids with the oxide, and, prepared according to the directions of the Pharmacopoeias, is in 
fact a lead oleo-palmitate, and if the olive oil contained stearin it would be a lead oleo-stearo- 
palmitate. The glycerin remains dissolved in the water, or mechanically mixed with the 
plaster. That such is the correct view of the nature of this compound is evinced by the fact 
that, if the lead oxide be separated from tbe plaster by digestion at a moderate heat in very 
dilute nitric acid, the fatty matter which remains will unite with litharge with the greatest 
facility, without the intervention of water. According to the modern chemical views, the 
fixed or fatty oils are compounds of the free fatty acids mentioned and the radical glyceryl. 
When boiled with the lead oxide and water, the fatty acids combine with the metallic 
oxide to form the plaster, and the glyceryl unites with the liberated hydrogen and becomes 
glycerin. 506 
Emplastrum Plurnbi. 
PART I. 
The reaction for olein and lead oxide is as follows : 2C3H6(CJ8H3a05!)g -j- 3PbO -f- 3H20 
olein litharge water 
= 3Pb(C.8H3302)2 + 2C3H.(OH)3. The radical glyceryl (C3H6) is a triad, and combines 
lead oleate glycerin 
with three groups of a fatty acid or three groups of hydroxyl (OH). 
Other oleaginous substances and other metallic oxides are susceptible of the same combina- 
tion, and some of them form compounds having the consistence of a plaster; but, according 
to M. Henry, of Paris, no oily matter except animal fat can properly be substituted for olive 
oil, and no metallic oxide, not even one of the other oxides of lead, for litharge. He ascer- 
tained, moreover, that the English litharge is preferable for the formation of lead plaster to 
the G-erman. From more recent experiments of Soubeiran, it appears that massicot or even 
minium may be substituted for litharge, and a plaster of good consistence be obtained, but 
that a much longer time is required for completing the process than when the official formula 
is followed. Owing to the necessity for its partial deoxidation, the use of minium requires a 
longer continuance of the process than when massicot is employed. According to M. Daval- 
lon, Professor in the School of Medicine and Pharmacy at Lyons, it is important that the 
olive oil employed should be pure; for when adulterated, as it frequently is, it yields an im- 
perfect product. Mr. N. S. Thomas prepared a good plaster by substituting lard for olive oil, 
in the proportion of eight pounds of lard to five of litharge {A. J. P., xix. 175) ; and we are 
told that it is a common practice in this country to make lead plaster with a mixture of lard 
oil and olive oil. Mueller uses equal parts of lard, olive oil, and litharge, having previously 
heated the litharge until a small sample causes no effervescence when dropped into nitric acid, 
showing the absence of carbonate. {Pharm. Ztg., 1879, p. 70 ; A. J. P., 1879, p. 190.) It is 
said that the English plaster-makers rarely follow the Br. Pharm. direction, preferring the 
recipe of the old London Pharmacopoeia, which contains more litharge and yields a much 
firmer and less adhesive product* {P. J. Tr., 3d ser., v. 701, 716.) Lead plaster has also been 
prepared by double decomposition between soap and lead acetate or subacetate; but the re- 
sults have not been so advantageous as to lead to the general adoption of this process. (See 
A. J. P., ix. 727, and Journ. de Pharm., xxiii. 163 and 322.) f 
Preparation. The vessel in which the lead plaster is prepared should be of such a size 
that the materials will not occupy more than two-thirds of its capacity.| The oil should be 
first introduced, and the litharge then sprinkled in by means of a sieve, the mixture being 
constantly stirred with a spatula. The particles of the oxide are thus prevented from coales- 
cing in small masses, which the oil would not easily penetrate, and which would therefore de- 
lay the process. While the water exerts an important chemical agency in the changes which 
occur, it is also useful by preventing too high a temperature, which would decompose the oil, 
and cause the reduction of the oxide. The waste must, therefore, be supplied by fresh addi- 
tions as directed in the process; and the water added for this purpose should be previously 
heated, as otherwise it would not only delay the operation, but by producing explosion might 
endanger the operator. During the continuance of the boiling, the material should be con- 
stantly stirred, and the spatula should be repeatedly passed along the bottom of the vessel, 
from side to side, so as to prevent any of the oxide, which is disposed by its greater density 
to sink to the bottom, from remaining in that situation. The materials swell up considerably, 
in consequence partly of the vaporization of the water, partly of the escape of carbonic acid 
gas, which is liberated by the oily acids from some lead carbonate usually contained in the 
litharge. The process should not be continued longer than is sufficient to produce complete 
union of the ingredients, and this may be known by the color and consistence of the mass. 
The color of the litharge gradually becomes paler, and at length almost white when the plaster 
is fully formed. The consistence increases with the progress of the boiling, and is sufficiently 
* Schwarze’s Mutterpflaster, Emplastrum Fuscum of the German Pharmacopoeia, is made by boiling 64 parts of 
olive oil with 32 parts of very finely powdered red lead in a copper kettle until the mass is dark brown, and then 
adding 16 parts of yellow wax. Emplastrum Fuscum Gamphoratum is the same, with the addition of 1 per cent, of 
camphor. 
t Zinc Plaster. M. de Mussey, having witnessed inconveniences from lead plaster in consequence of the absorp- 
tion of the lead, substituted for it a plaster with a basis of zinc oxide, which he has found to answer very well in 
practice. It cannot be made by direct combination of the oxide; and it is necessary to have recourse to the method 
of double decomposition. Solutions of white olive oil soap and of zinc sulphate being mixed, a copious precipitate 
takes place of zinc oleo-palmitate, which, after being washed and dried, may be combined with resins, oil, and wax, 
to give it the necessary consistence. (Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 100.1 
+ The method of triturating the litharge with a portion of the oil (see U. S. P. 1890 process above) is applicable 
to small operations, but will not be found necessary in making lead plaster on the scale usually employed by manu- 
facturers. Emplastrum Plumbi.—Emplastrum Plumbi Iodidi. 
PART I. 
507 
thick when a portion of the plaster, taken out and allowed to cool upon the end of a spatula, 
or thrown into cold water, becomes solid, without adhering in this state to the fingers. The 
portion thus solidified should not present, when broken, any red points, which would indicate 
the presence of a portion of uncombined litharge. When the plaster is formed, it should be 
removed from the fire, and after a short time cold water should be poured upon it. Portions 
should then be detached from the mass, and, having been well kneaded under water, in order 
to separate the viscid solution of glycerin contained in the interior, should be formed into 
cylindrical rolls, and wrapped in paper. Such, at least, has been the course of proceeding usu- 
ally recommended. But M. Davallon maintains that the presence of glycerin in the plaster is 
useful by keeping it in a plastic state, and that washing and kneading are injurious, the former 
by removing the glycerin, the latter by introducing particles of air and moisture into the 
mass, which is thus rendered more disposed to rancidity. (A. J. P., xv. 274; from Journ. de 
Chim. Med.) By employing steam heat in the preparation of this plaster, the risk of burn- 
ing it is avoided. For a good arrangement for this purpose, see Mohr and Redwood's Phar- 
macy, edited by Prof. Procter, p. 420. Bernbeck found that lead plaster could be preserved 
from hardening and oxidation if kept in air-tight canisters. (Pharm. Zeitung, 1881, p. 589.) 
Lead plaster is officially described as “ a yellowish-white, pliable, and tenacious, but not 
greasy mass, gradually acquiring a brownish tint on the outside. On treating 5 Gm. of Lead 
Plaster with 25 C.c. of benzol, a somewhat viscid and slightly turbid solution will result, which 
will separate into a clear and gelatinous layer after some time, but which should not deposit 
any sediment (absence of uncombined lead oxide).” U. S. 
Mr. C. Lewis Diehl found it almost impossible, in following the U. S. directions of 1860, to 
obtain a plaster wholly free from uncombined litharge. He obviated the difficulty by first rub- 
bing the sifted litharge with about half its weight of oil, then stirring the mixture with the 
remainder of the oil, in a tinned copper kettle, adding the water, and heating to 212° F. until 
a uniform plaster was formed. (A. J. P., 1867, p. 385.) Kremel states that when lead plaster 
is made from oleic acid, the product is almost entirely soluble in ether; when made with olive 
oil or lard, it contains lead stearate and palmitate, and thus a larger proportion is insoluble in 
ether. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 405.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. This plaster, which has long been known under the 
name of diachylon, is used as an application to excoriated surfaces and to slight wounds, 
which it serves to protect from the action of the air. It may also be beneficial by the seda- 
tive influence of the lead which enters into its composition. A case is on record in which lead 
colic resulted from its long-continued application to a large ulcer of the leg. (Am. Journ. of 
Med. Sci., xxiii. 246.) Dr. J. M. Bigelow reports a case of excessive sweating of the feet 
cured by putting the patient in bed for thirteen days and keeping the feet enveloped in strips 
of lead plaster. (iV! R., Oct. 1875.) Its chief use is in the preparation of other plasters.* 
EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI IODIDI. Br. Lead Iodide Plaster 
Emplatre d’lodure de Plomb, Fr.; Jodblei-Pflaster, G. 
“ Lead Iodide, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Lead Plaster, 1 pound (Imp.) or 400 
grammes ; Resin, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 50 grammes. Finely powder the Lead Iodide ; mix it with 
the Lead Plaster and Resin previously melted together at as low a temperature as possible.” Br. 
This is a local discutient plaster, which may also be used with other means to affect the 
,system. (See Plumbi Iodidumf) 
(EM-PLAS'TRUM PLUM'BI I-OD'I-DI.) 
* Logan’s Plaster. Take of Litharge, Lead Carbonate, each, a pound ; Castile Soap, twelve ounces ; Butter (fresh), 
four ounces ; Olive Oil, two and a half pints ; Mastic, in powder, two drachms. It is to be understood that the 
pound and ounce are of the avoirdupois weight. Having mixed the Soap, Oil, and Butter, add the Litharge, and 
boil the mixture gently, constantly stirring, for an hour and a half, or until it shall assume a pale brown color; then 
increase the heat somewhat, and continue to boil, until a portion of the liquid, dropped on a smooth board, is found 
not to adhere to it on cooling; then remove it from the fire, and mix the Mastic with it. Logan’s plaster has long been 
in popular use in Philadelphia, and is yet employed by regular practitioners as a protective and discutient application. 
Plaster of Lead Carbonate. This was originally introduced into our Pharmacopoeia as a substitute for Mahy’s 
plaster, at one time much employed in some parts of the United States, but was omitted in the edition of 1840. It 
is a good application to surfaces inflamed or excoriated by friction, and may be resorted to with advantage in those 
troublesome cases of cutaneous irritation, and even ulceration, which are apt to occur upon the back and hips during 
long-continued confinement to one position. We give the process as contained in the Pharmacopoeia of 1830. “Take 
of Carbonate of Lead a pound; Olive Oil two pints ; Yellow Wax four ounces ; Lead Plaster a pound and a half; 
Florentine Orris, in powder, nine ounces. Boil together the Oil and Carbonate of Lead, adding a little water and con- 
stantly stirring, till they are thoroughly incorporated; then add the Wax and Plaster, and, when these are melted, 
sprinkle in the Orris, and mix the whole together.” By this process a good plaster may be prepared, rather too soft 
at first, but soon acquiring the proper consistence. Emplastrum Resinas.—Emplastrum Saponis. 
508 
part 1. 
EMPLASTRUM RESIN.®. U. S., Br. Resin Plaster. [Adhesive Plaster.] 
(EM-PLXS'TRUM KE-§I'NjE.) 
Emplastrum Adhesivum, P. G.; EmplStre resineux (adhesif), Fr.; Heftpflaster, G. 
“ Resin, in fine powder, one hundred and forty grammes [or 4 ounces av., 410 grains] ; Lead 
Plaster, eight hundred grammes [or 28 ounces av., 96 grains] ; Yellow Wax, sixty grammes [or 
2 ounces av., 51 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt 
the Lead Plaster and Yellow Wax together with a gentle heat; then add the Resin, and, when 
it is melted, mix the mass thoroughly.” U. S. 
“ Resin, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Lead Plaster, 2 pounds (Imp.) or 800 
grammes; Hard Soap, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 50 grammes. Melt each ingredient separately at 
as low a temperature as possible; mix.” Br. 
Resin plaster differs from the lead plaster in being more adhesive and somewhat more stim- 
ulating. It is the common adhesive plaster of commerce, and is much employed for retaining 
the sides of wounds in contact, and for dressing ulcers according to the method of Baynton, 
by which the edges are drawn towards each other and a firm support is given to the granula- 
tions. As prepared by the Dublin College it contained soap, which gave it greater pliability, 
and rendered it less liable to crack in cold weather, without impairing its adhesiveness; and 
the process of that College has been adopted in the British Pharmacopoeia. It is usually 
spread upon muslin; and the spreading is best accomplished, on a large scale, by means of a 
machine, as described in the general observations upon plasters. It is kept ready spread by 
the pharmacist; but, as the plaster becomes less adhesive by long exposure to the air, the sup- 
ply should be frequently renewed. When the skin is very delicate, it occasionally excites some 
irritation, and under these circumstances a plaster may be substituted containing a smaller 
proportion of resin. That originally employed by Baynton contained only six drachms of resin 
to the pound of lead plaster. To obviate the same evil, M. Herpin recommends the addition 
of lead tannate, the proportion of which, when adhesiveness is required in the plaster, should 
not exceed one-twentieth, but under other circumstances may be increased to one-twelfth. 
(Bull, de Therap., xlviii. 155.) 
In order to render the plaster more adhesive, and less brittle in cold weather, it is customary 
with many manufacturers to employ a considerable proportion of Burgundy pitch or turpen- 
tine in its preparation; but these additions are objectionable, as they greatly increase the lia- 
bility of the plaster to irritate the skin, and thus materially interfere with the purposes for 
which the preparation was chiefly intended.* 
EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS. U. S., Br. Soap Plaster. 
Emplastrum.Saponatum, P. G.; Emplastrum cum Sapone, F. P.; Emplatre de Savon, Fr.; Seifenpflaster, G. 
“ Soap, dried and in coarse powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Lead 
Plaster, nine hundred grammes [or 31 ounces av., 326 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. 
Rub the Soap with enough Water to reduce it to a semi-liquid state ; then mix it with the Lead 
Plaster, previously melted, and evaporate to the proper consistence.” U. S. 
“ Hard Soap, 6 ounces (Imperial) or 150 grammes; Lead Plaster, 2± pounds (Imp.) or 900 
grammes; Resin, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 25 grammes. Melt each ingredient separately at a low 
temperature ; mix ; evaporate, with constant stirring, to a proper consistence.” fir. 
The present U. S. formula is an improvement upon that of a former edition of the Pharma- 
copoeia. By directing the soap to be in powder instead of sliced, it may be more thoroughly 
incorporated with the plaster. Greater plasticity is accomplished, in some degree, in the British 
process by the resin. In preparing the U. S. plaster, Mr. C. Lewis Diehl has found some diffi- 
culty in rubbing the soap up perfectly and rapidly with the water, and has, therefore, adopted 
the plan of first rubbing the soap with its weight of water, then straining the mixture through 
coarse muslin, and lastly reducing the residue with a proportionate quantity of water, before 
stirring the whole into the melted plaster. (A. J. P., 1867, p. 386.) Soap plaster is considered 
(KM-PLAS'TRUM SA-PO'NIS.) 
An adhesive plaster exempt from oxide of lead is prepared by Pettenkofer. It consists of calcareous soap in- 
corporated with turpentine and suet, and may be prepared in the following manner. A solution of soap is decomposed 
f . 0 ®a'cnim chloride. The precipitate, having been expressed and dried, is powdered with half its 
weight ot turpentine dried by heat; and the mixture is melted, along with an eighth part of suet, in boiling water. 
Ihe mixture is boiled until the mass melts into a homogeneous fluid, when it is worked bv the hand, in the ordinary 
manner, m cold water. Should portions of the calcareous soap not melt, they should be separated by straining through 
flannel. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e s6r., x. 358.) r J Emulsa.—Emulsum Ammoniaci. 
PART I. 
discutient, and is sometimes used as an application to tumors, where a dressing is required. 
Somewhat softer in its character, the soap cerate,* formerly official, may be found useful. 
EMULSA. Emulsions. 
Under this head are included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1890 liquid preparations in which 
oleaginous substances are suspended in watery fluids by the intervention of gum, the yolk of 
egg, or other viscid matter. The preparations forming the present class of emulsions were 
termed Mixtures in former pharmacopoeias, and it is to be regretted that under this indefinite 
term are still grouped liquids of many kinds: the separation of these into proper classes is 
only a question of time, and the introduction of this new class into the Pharmacopoeia of 1890 
marks the first step in the direction of greater accuracy in defining pharmaceutical preparations, 
and more system in classification. The object of emulsions is usually to facilitate the adminis- 
tration, to conceal the taste, or to obviate the nauseating effects of unpleasant medicines; and 
their perfection depends upon the intimacy with which the ingredients are blended. Some 
skill and care are requisite for the production of uniform and perfect emulsions. As a rule, 
the body to be suspended should be thoroughly mixed by trituration with the substance 
intended to act as the intermedium, before the watery vehicle is added. In the case of the 
liquid balsams and oils, if gum arabic be employed as the intermedium it should be previously 
brought to the state of mucilage of the consistence directed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
When a fixed oil or balsam is to be made into an emulsion, the method most employed abroad 
is to add one part of gum to two or three of the oil, in a mortar, triturate until the mixture 
is complete, and then add at once twice as much water as gum used, and triturate rapidly until 
the oil is completely emulsified, then gradually add the remainder of the vehicle with constant 
trituration. Agitation in a bottle is sometimes substituted for trituration. The plan most 
largely used in this country is to make the emulsion with mucilage. Having a broad flat pestle 
and a mortar perfectly free from grease, put in a little mucilage, rub it around the mortar, add 
about half as much oil, triturate from the centre so as to emulsify this, then add more mucilage, 
then oil, and so on until the operation is completed. Care is required never to get the oil in 
excess of the mucilage. This plan seems to accord with the principle laid down by R. Rother 
(Chicago Pharmacist, 1872, p. 25), that the most perfect and rapid emulsifier is a perfect 
emulsion. The proportion of gum and water necessary to make a good emulsion with the 
fixed oils varies with the oil. Thus, while castor oil requires only two drachms of the gum 
and three drachms of water to the ounce, most other fixed oils require half their weight of 
gum, and a weight of water equal to half that of the oil and gum united. These quantities 
being well rubbed together, any desirable amount of water may afterwards be gradually added, 
and will readily incorporate with the other ingredients. The white of egg has been frequently 
ordered by physicians as the suspending substance; but it is inferior for this purpose to the 
yolk, or to gum arabic. When the white is used it should be well beaten, and incorporated 
with the oleaginous or balsamic substances before the water is added. Quillaja, saponin, and 
other substances having similar properties have been proposed as emulsifying agents, but they 
are objectionable on account of their physiological activity. Emulsifying agents should be inert. 
(¥-MUL'SA.) 
EMULSUM AMMONIACI. U. S. (Br.) Emulsion of Ammoniac. 
[Mistura Ammoniaci, Pharm. 1880.] 
(E-MUL'SUM AM-MO-NI'A-C!.) 
Mistura Ammoniaci, Br.; Ammoniac Mixture; Emulsio Ammoniaci, Lac Ammoniaci; Ammoniacum Mixture, 
Milk of Ammoniac ; Mixture de Gomme ammoniaque, Lait ammoniacal, Fr.; Ammoniak-Emulsion, G. 
“ Ammoniac, forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fiuidrachms]. Rub the Ammoniac, in a 
warmed mortar, with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces] of Water, at first very 
gradually added, until a uniform emulsion results. Then strain the mixture into a graduated 
vessel, and wash the mortar and strainer with enough Water to make the product measure one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6\ fiuidrachms].” TJ. S. 
“ Ammoniacum, in coarse powder, \ ounce (Imperial) or 5 grammes; Syrup of Tolu, 4 fl. 
drachms (Imp. meas.) or 10 cubic centimetres ; Distilled water, 7£ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 150 
* Ceratum Saponin. U. S. 1870. Soap Cerate. (Cerat de Savon, Fr.; Seifencerat, G.) “Take of Soap Plaster two 
troy ounces ; White Wax two troyounces and a half; Olive Oil four troy ounces. Melt together the Plaster and Wax, 
add the Oil, and, after continuing the heat a short time, stir the mixture until cool.” U. S. 1870. 
Soap cerate is thought to be cooling and sedative, and is used in scrofulous swellings and other instances of chronio 
external inflammation. 510 
Emulsum Amygdalae.—Emulsum Asafoetidae. 
PART I. 
cubic centimetres. Triturate the Ammoniacum thoroughly with a little of the Distilled Water so 
as to form a thin paste; gradually add the remainder of the Distilled Water and the Syrup of Tolu, 
triturating until the mixture assumes a uniform milky appearance ; strain through muslin.” Br. 
In this emulsion the resinous and oily constituents are suspended by means of the gum of the 
ammoniac, imparting a milky appearance to the preparation, which from this circumstance was 
formerly called lac ammoniaci, or milk of ammoniac. The greater portion of the resin subsides 
upon standing. The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) process directs the addition of a small 
quantity of syrup of Tolu, doubtless as a flavoring agent. The emulsion is slightly curdled by 
acids. The dose is from one to two tablespoonfuls (15 to 30 C.c.). 
EMULSUM AMYGDALA. U. S. (Br.) Emulsion of Almond. 
[Mistura Amygdalae, Pharm. 1880. Milk of Almond.] 
(E-MUL'SUM A-MYG'DA-L2E.) 
Mistura Amygdalae, Br.; Almond Mixture; Emulsio Amygdalae, s. Amygdalarum, Emulsio Simplex; Milk of 
Almonds, Simple Emulsion; Lait d’Amandes, Fr.; Mandelemulsion, Mandelmilch, G. 
“ Sweet Almond, sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Acacia, in fine powder, ten 
grammes [or 154 grains] ; Sugar, thirty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 25 grains] ; Water, a suf- 
ficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. 
Having blanched the Almond, add the Acacia and Sugar, and beat them, in a mortar, until 
they are thoroughly mixed. Then rub the mass with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluid- 
ounces] of Water, at first very gradually added, until a uniform mixture results. Strain this 
into a graduated vessel, and wash the mortar and strainer with enough Water to make the 
product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix the 
whole thoroughly.” U. S. 
“ Compound Powder of Almonds, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Distilled Water, 16 
fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 160 cubic centimetres. Triturate tbe Powder with a little of the 
Distilled Water so as to form a thin paste ; gradually add the remainder of the Distilled Water; 
strain through fine muslin.” Br. 
These preparations are essentially the same, the gum and sugar which enter into the U. S. 
formula directly being ingredients of the compound powder of almonds of the British. The 
gum arabic in these formulas is introduced not so much for its demulcent properties as to assist 
in the suspension of the insoluble ingredients of the almonds. The same formula will answer 
for the preparation of an emulsion of bitter almonds. The oleaginous matter of the almonds is 
suspended in the water by means of their albumen, gum, and sugar, forming a milky emulsion. 
When the almonds themselves are employed, as in the U. S. process, care should be taken to 
reduce them to the consistence of a paste previously to the addition of the water; and with 
each successive portion of fluid a uniform mixture should be formed before another portion is 
added. Common water, when pure, may be properly substituted for the distilled. Great care 
should be taken to select the almonds perfectly free from rancidity. The emulsion is not per- 
manent.* Upon standing, the oil rises like thick cream to the surface, and the separation is 
effected more quickly by heat, alcohol, and the acids, which coagulate the albumen. The 
preparation is closely analogous to milk in chemical relations and appearance. In warm weather 
it soon becomes sour. 
Emulsion of almond lias a bland taste, and may be used as an agreeable, nutritive demulcent 
in catarrhal and dysenteric affections and irritation of the urinary passages. To be of service 
it must be freely employed. From two to eight fluidounces (60 to 236 C.c.) may be taken at 
once. It is occasionally employed as the vehicle of less agreeable medicines, but should not be 
used with any considerable quantity of tinctures, acidulous salts, or other acid substances. 
EMULSUM ASAFCETIDA. U. S. Emulsion of Asafetida. [Mistura Asa- 
fcetidae, Pharm. 1880. Milk of Asafcetida.] 
Asafetida Mixture; Mistura (Lac) Asafoetidse; Mixture (Lait) d’Asafoetida, Fr.; Asafoetida-Emulsion, Stink- 
asantmilch, G. 
“ Asafetida, in selected tears, forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; Water, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Rub the 
(E-MUL'SyM AS-A-FCET’I-DiE—iis-a-fet'j-de.) 
* Concentrated Emulsion of Almonds. H. P. Reynolds prepares a permanent preparation which, when mixed 
with three times its hulk of water, makes an emulsion which cannot be distinguished from the official, by using the 
following formula. Take of Sweet Almonds [blanched], Sugar, Glycerin (“ C. P.”), each, one ounce; Powdered Gum 
Arabic one drachm; Water two ounces. Rub to a uniform paste, strain through muslin, evaporate by a heat not ex- 
ceeding 150° F. to the consistency of a fresh solid extract, flavor to suit. PART I. 
Emulsum Asafoetidse.—Ergota. 
511 
Asafetida, in a warmed mortar, with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces] of Water, 
at first very gradually added, until a uniform emulsion results. Then strain the mixture into 
a graduated vessel, and wash the mortar and strainer with enough Water to make the product 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms]. Mix the whole 
thoroughly.” U. S. 
The present 4-per-cent, official emulsion slightly exceeds in strength the mixture of the U. S. P. 
1870, which contained but 3 per cent, of asafetida. This emulsion is less stimulant than the 
tincture, and more prompt in its action than the pill. Its excessively disagreeable smell and 
taste are, however, objections, which induce a frequent preference for the last-mentioned prep- 
aration. It is very often employed as an enema. The dose is from one to two tablespoonfuls 
(15 to 30 C.c.), frequently repeated. From two to four fluidounces (60 to 118 C.c.) may be 
given by the rectum. Mr. D. Ackerman prepares a concentrated emulsion of asafetida, which 
will keep if excluded from the light, by using a mixture of three-fourths of pure water and one- 
fourth of dilute acetic acid as the menstruum. For cleaning mortars in which asafetida has 
been rubbed, he recommends liquor potassse, followed by bitter almond water or paste, and 
soap and water. (A. J. P., 1874, p. 268.) 
EMULSUM CHLOROFORMI. U. S. Emulsion of Chloroform. [Mistura 
Chloroformi, Pharm. 1880.] 
Chloroform Mixture; Emulsio Chloroformi; Emulsion de Chloroforme, Fr.; Chloroform-Emulsion, G. 
“ Chloroform, forty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 170 minims] ; Expressed Oil of Almond, 
sixty cubic centimeters [or 2 fluidounces, 14 minims] ; Tragacanth, in very fine powder, fifteen 
grammes [or 231 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters 
[or 33 fluidounces, fluidrachms]. Introduce the Tragacanth into a perfectly dry bottle of 
sufficient capacity, add the Chloroform, and shake the bottle thoroughly, so that every part of 
the surface may become wetted. Then add about two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 
8 fluidounces, 217 minims] of Water, and incorporate it by vigorous shaking. Next add the 
Expressed Oil of Almond, in several portions, shaking after each addition, and when the Oil 
has been thoroughly emulsified, add enough Water, in divided portions, shaking after each ad- 
dition, until the product measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ flui- 
drachms].” U. S. The chloroform mixture of the U. S. P. 1880* was an excellent preparation ; 
the new emulsion is not quite identical, there being no camphor in it. The expressed oil of 
almond renders the emulsion more permanent; and the proportion of chloroform is slightly 
less than in the U. S. P. 1880 chloroform mixture, being 4 per cent, instead of 5 per cent, as 
formerly. This emulsion affords an easy and agreeable method of administering chloroform ; 
the emulsion is permanent and does not separate on standing. The chloroform makes it keep 
long unchanged. Dose, one or two tablespoonfuls (15 or 30 C.c.). 
(e-mOl'sum chlo-ko-fok'mi.) 
ERGOTA. U. S., Br. Ergot. [Ergot of Rye.] 
“The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea (Fries), Tulasne (class, Fungi), replacing the grain 
of rye, Secale cereale, Linne (nat. ord. Gramineae). Ergot should be only moderately dried. 
It should be preserved in a close vessel, and a few drops of chloroform should be dropped upon 
it from time to time to prevent the development of insects. When more than one year old, it 
is unfit for use.” U S. “ The sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea, Tulasne, originating in the 
ovary of Secale cereale, Linn.” Br. 
Secale Cornutum, P.G.; Secale Clavatum, Mater Secalis, Clavus Secalinus; Spurred Rye; Ergot, Seigle ergots 
(noir), Bl<3 cornu, Fr.; Mutterkorn, Kornmutter, Lapfenkorn, G. 
In all the Gramineae, or grass tribe, and in some of the Cyperaceae, the place of the seeds 
is sometimes occupied by a morbid growth which, from its resemblance to the spur of a cock, 
has received the name of ergot, adopted from the French. This product is most frequent 
in the rye, Secale cereale, and from that grain was adopted in the first edition of the U. S. Phar- 
macopoeia, under the name of secale cornutum, or spurred rye. In the edition of 1840 the 
name was changed to ergota. It is probable that this morbid growth has similar properties 
from whatever plant derived; and the fact has been proved in relation to the ergot of wheat. 
(ER'GO-TA.) 
* “Purified Chloroform, eight parts [or two fluidrachms] ; Camphor, two parts [or forty-five grains]; Fresh Yolk 
of Egg, ten parts [or half a fluidounce] ; Water, eighty parts [or four fluidounces], To make one hundred parts [or 
about five fluidounces]. Rub the Yolk of Egg in a mortar, first by itself, then with the Camphor, previously dis- 
solved in the Chloroform, and lastly, with the Water, gradually added, so as to make a uniform mixture.” U. S. 512 
Ergota. 
PART I. 
(See Am. Journ. Med. Set., N. S., xxxii. 479.) Indeed, in a case reported by Dr. D. L. 
McGugin (Iowa Med. Journ., iv. 93), this variety of ergot is said to have succeeded promptly 
when that of rye, previously tried, had failed.* A short thick ergot produced upon the wild 
rice of Minnesota is said to be used as an abortifacient and dur- 
ing labor by the Indian women.f M. Leperdriel, Jr., of Mont- 
pellier, in France, affirms that the ergot of wheat is destitute of 
the poisonous properties of that of rye, and is less liable to 
change. The former point is, to say the least, very uncertain. 
Prof. Bentley, of London, found that of two specimens, one of 
the ergot of rye, the other of wheat, which had been kept under 
similar circumstances for ten years, the former was quite de- 
stroyed, while the latter was apparently unchanged. Ergot is 
rarer in wheat than in rye ; and in the head of the former there 
is generally but one and very rarely more than two of the dis- 
eased grains. It is produced usually in wheat in wet seasons, 
and on that side of the head most exposed to the dampness. It 
is shorter and much thicker than the ergot of rye, being about 
half an inch long and three quarters of an inch or more in circum- 
ference, and cleft into two or three divisions. In color and smell 
it resembles the spurred rye. (P. J. Tr., March and April, 1863.) 
The very beautiful and praiseworthy investigations of M. 
Tulasne have shown that ergot is not the diseased grain of the 
rye, but is the sclerotium of‘ a fungus, the Claviceps purpurea, 
Tulasne. This fungus has three stages in its life-history. The 
development of the sphacelia, or first stage, commences with 
that of the pistil, which serves as a soil for it. The ovary of 
the rye consists of a cellular membrane of two coats, the outer 
of which has a thick parenchyma, white and gorged with juice; 
the inner is very delicate and green. The sphacelia, when it 
takes possession of the ovary, identifies itself with the outer 
parenchyma, and in some measure replaces it, being as it were 
borne by the inner membrane. It rapidly increases, taking the 
form of the ovary, and almost obliterating its cavity. The 
ovule is either entirely wanting, or may be seen, on a careful 
examination, in an imperfect form. For some time the parasite 
is represented entirely by the sphacelia, which is an oblong, fun- 
gous mass, almost homogeneous, soft and tender, marked on its 
surface by numerous sinuous furrows, and having within many 
irregular cavities, which, as well as the outer coat, are uniformly 
covered with linear parallel cells. From the summits of these 
peripheric cells, internal as well as external, issue oval capsules, 
from -005 to •007 Mm. in length, which spread upon neighboring 
objects, and especially the glumes of the flowers they inhabit. 
They are a kind of reproductive cells, called conidia, which are 
produced by many fungi long before the perfect plant is developed. M. Tulasne calls them 
“ spermatie:' In the early stage the sphacelia does not affect the top of the ovary, and the 
stigmas attached. The stamens often abort; but the filaments and anthers may sometimes be 
Ergot. A, head of rye with ergot (a) 
growing in it; B, young ergot, show- 
ing the growing sclerotium carrying 
upon its top the old diseased ovary. 
(After Berg.) 
* For the various views that have been held in regard to the nature of ergot, see 15th edition U. S. D.: the sketch 
is omitted here, as being solely of historic interest. 
t There is, indeed, reason for believing that this ergot is specifically identical with the official one, since Tulasne 
has cultivated the dissimilar sclerotia obtained from twelve species of grasses, and found the fructification in each case 
identical with that of the ergot of rye. Moreover, from time to time of late years epidemics of abortion in cows have 
been reported as produced by the use of various ergots. This is a strong indication that all the ergots are similar in 
medical properties. The ergot of oats is said to be of a black color, measuring from ten to twelve millimeters in length 
and three to four in thickness, and to have been used in Algeria as a substitute for rye ergot. (Lond. Med. Rec., 
March, 1888.) The ergot of diss, an Algerian reed, Ampelodesmos tennx, has appeared in commerce to some extent. 
It is, when small, slightly curved, but when long (6-9 centimeters) it takes a spiral turn from right to left, the longi- 
tudinal furrows being present on the inner face. It is thinner, dryer, and more brittle than the ergot of rye, and 
has been used for the preparation of an ergotine or extract closely resembling the official one, but said to be of a 
clearer red or brown color. M. Lallemand asserts that the ergot of diss is twice as strong as the ergot of rye. and 
states that it is abundant and readily collected. It is also stated to be less hygroscopic and less apt to be attacked by 
acari than is the official article. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 684, 1886.) Et'gota. 
513 
PART I. 
seen buried in the tissue of the sphacelia, and altered by its action. Sometimes the ovule is 
not completely aborted, but it is certainly never developed into a monster grain. In all ergotized 
plants, the pistils and stigmas, when they remain, are often covered with a mouldiness, consist- 
ing of spores and entangled filaments, which end by covering the parts with an abundant ashy 
or sooty powder. This is a different fungus, and was confounded by Mr. Quekett with the 
ergot plant. It is found as well in the non-ergotized as in the ergotized flowers, and in those 
of plants which do not bear ergot. At a somewhat advanced period of the development of 
the sphacelia, there exudes, especially from the summit, a very adhesive juice, which spreads 
over that structure, bearing along with it an immense number of the seedlets or “ spermaties.” 
This leaves on the surface when dry an oily appearance, and afterwards the spots, where it 
remains, become brownish or blackish. But this exudation does not appear until the sphacelia 
has ceased to constitute the whole plant. 
At the base of the sphacelia is produced a compact body, violet-black without and white 
within, which is the ergot in a rudimentary state. With this commences the second stage in 
the development of the fungus. The young ergot is everywhere invested by the tissue of the 
sphacelia (which Tulasne calls also spermagonia, from its office) ; but, as it increases, it seems 
to be placed below the spermatopherous apparatus, and raises it steadily out of the floral 
bracts which concealed it, ending by supporting it wholly at its summit. Sometimes it carries 
with it the atrophied ovary, which still shows the hairs that crowned it, and some remains of 
the stigmas. It results that the ergot, which is technically the sclerotium of the fungus, re- 
mains for some time concealed in the sphacelia, so that this seems to constitute the whole 
plant. But, when the function belonging to this has been fulfilled, it begins to become dry, 
and is much deformed. The ergot, on the contrary, increases in all directions, and soon appears 
above the glume. As it augments, the thin coating which it has received from the sperma- 
topherous tissue, especially below, gradually becomes thinner, and seems to disappear, so that 
its surface, instead of being uniformly violet-black, is only here and there covered with the 
remains of the tissue, or with a deposit of the conidia or “ spermatie.” Nevertheless, the 
sphacelia, deformed, shrunken, and worn away by rains and other causes, remains long at the 
top of the ergot, along with the abortive ovary, etc., and may even continue to adhere when the 
ergot is detached from the plant. The time required for the full development of the sphacelia 
and the ergot or sclerotium varies. In an example under the observation of M. Tulasne, at 
least a month elapsed after the appearance of the sphacelia before the growth was completed. 
Ergot has absolutely nothing in common with normal grain. The anatomical structure and 
all the physical characters of ergot are those of the mushrooms, or rather of a sclerotic my- 
celium. The parenchyma, which is whitish, dry, and brittle, consists in all its parts of irregu- 
lar, globular, or polyhedric tliick-walled cells, intimately united, and filled with a limpid oil, but 
feebly colored by iodine. The superficial utricles, which alone are colored, have an outer wall 
thicker than the inner, and the color of these is what gives its characteristic hue to ergot. Not 
the least trace of starch is to be detected. If ergot be planted in a suitable soil, evidences of 
germination are seen in about three months. Little globular prominences appear on its sur- 
face, which gradually enlarge, and raise themselves upon cylindrical stems, and finally become 
perfect pilei or fruiting fungi, producing elongated, rod-like spores in flask-shaped cavities 
which open by a little pore. These little fungi belong to the genus Sphseria. As they in- 
crease, the interior of the ergot becomes exhausted, by contributing to their growth. Falling 
to the ground, in its natural course, the ergot in the soil germinates, and produces pilei, the 
spores of which, carried up with the juices of rye, become lodged in the ovary, where they 
begin the course of life and progress which has been delineated. Different grains are probably 
infested with different species of Claviceps; but there is no reason to think that any other 
species is concerned in the product of any official variety of ergot. (Annales des Sciences Na- 
turelles, 3e ser., xx. 5, 1853.) The ergot usually projects out of the glume or husk beyond the 
ordinary outline of the spike or ear. In some spikes the place of the seeds is wholly occupied 
by the ergot, in others only two or three spurs are observed. It is said to be much more ener- 
getic when collected before than after harvest. Rye has generally been thought to be most 
subject to the disease in poor and wet soils, and in rainy seasons; and intense heat succeeding 
continued rains has been said to favor its development, especially if these circumstances occur 
at the time the flower is forming. It is now, however, asserted that moisture has little or 
nothing to do with its production. It should not be collected until some days after it has begun 
to form; as, according to M. Bonjean, if gathered on the first day it does not possess the 
poisonous properties wThich it exhibits when taken on the sixth day. (See A*. J. TV., Jan. 1842.) 514 
Ergota. 
PART I. 
Ergot chiefly enters commerce from Russia, Germany, and Spain. Of the three varieties the 
Spanish ergot is considered the best, yielding usually from 13 to 15, sometimes as high as 18, 
per cent, of extractive. It is somewhat darker-colored, rather shorter, and more uniform than 
is the German ergot. An ergot of excellent quality has been sent from the Canary Islands to 
England. 
Properties. Ergot is in solid, brittle yet somewhat flexible grains, from a third of an inch 
to an inch and a half long, from half a line to three lines in thickness, cylindrical or obscurely 
triangular, tapering towards each end, obtuse at the extremities, usually curved like the spur 
of a cock, marked with one or twro longitudinal furrows, often irregularly cracked or fissured, 
of a violet-brown color and often somewhat glaucous externally, yellowish white or violet-white 
within, of an unpleasant smell when in mass resembling that of putrid fish, and of a taste which is 
at first scarcely perceptible, but ultimately disagreeable and slightly acrid. “ Somewhat fusiform, 
obtusely triangular, usually curved, about 2 or 3 Cm. long, and 3 Mm. thick; three-furrowed, 
obtuse at both ends, purplish-black, internally whitish with some purplish striae, breaking with a 
short fracture ; odor peculiar, heavy, increased by trituration with potassium or sodium hy- 
drate test-solution; taste oily and disagreeable. Old Ergot, which breaks with a sharp snap, 
is almost or entirely devoid of a pinkish tinge upon the fracture, is hard and brittle between 
the teeth, and is comparatively odorless and tasteless, should be rejected.” U. S. Ergot yields 
its virtues to water and alcohol. The aqueous infusion or decoction is claret-colored, and has 
an acid reaction. It is precipitated by lead acetate and subacetate, silver nitrate, and tincture 
of galls, but affords with iodine no evidence of the presence of starch. Long boiling impairs 
the virtues of the medicine. 
Ergot has been analyzed by Vauquelin, Winckler, Wiggers, Wright, Legrip, Wenzell, Tanret, 
Dragendorff, and several others. Dr. Wright supposed the virtues of ergot to reside in the 
fixed oil, which he therefore recommended as a substitute for the medicine. The oil of ergot, 
when obtained from grains recently collected, is, according to Dr. Wright, often quite free from 
color; but as usually prepared it is reddish brown. It has a disagreeable, somewhat acrid taste, 
is lighter than water, and is soluble in alcohol and alkaline solutions. It is prepared by form- 
ing an ethereal tincture of ergot by the process of displacement, and evaporating the ether 
with a gentle heat. It may be more cheaply prepared by substituting benzin for ether. Ex- 
perience has shown that, though the oil thus prepared with ether may have produced effects 
analogous to those of ergot, they were to be ascribed rather to some principle extracted along 
with the oil by the menstruum than to the oil itself; for, when procured by expression, this 
has been found to be inactive, although Prof. Procter has ascertained that it contains a little 
secalin, one at least of the active principles of ergot, which may be separated from it by washing 
with acidulated water. According to Mr. T. R. Baker, the oil has a taste and smell similar to 
those of castor oil, with which it also agrees in ultimate composition, and yields analogous 
results in saponification. (A. J. P., xxiv. 101-2.) Dr. T. C. Herrmann investigated specially 
the chemical constitution of the oil of ergot. As obtained by means of ether, it was brownish 
yellow, of an aromatic smell and acrid taste, viscid, of the sp. gr. 0-9249, and without the drying 
property. It consists of 22-703 per cent, of palmitic acid, 69-205 of oleic acid, and 8-091 of 
glycerin. (W. R., 1872, p. 238; from Buchners Repertorium, 1871, p. 283.) The sugar of 
engot was found by Mitscherlich to be peculiar, and was named by him mycose. He described 
it as crystallizable, very soluble in water, almost insoluble in cold but dissolved by about 100 
parts of boiling alcohol, quite insoluble in ether, and without the action of glucose on the salts 
of copper. Its formula is C12 ”f" 2HsO, allying it to cane sugar, and possibly making it 
identical with trehalose. According to Wenzell (A. J. P., May, 1864), ergot of rye contains 
two peculiar alkaloids, which he designated ecboline and ergotine, and claimed to be the active 
principles of the drug. The two bases of ergot are, according to Wenzell, combined with ergotic 
acid, the existence of which has been further admitted by Ganser. It is said to be a volatile 
body yielding crystallizable salts. 
A crystallized, colorless alkaloid, ergotinine, C36H40N406, which is probably identical with 
Wenzell’s ergotine, was isolated (1877-78) by Tanret. He obtained it to the amount of 0-04 
per cent., some amorphous ergotinine, moreover, being present. The solutions of ergotinine turn 
greenish and red very soon; they are fluorescent. Sulphuric acid imparts to it a red, violet, 
and finally blue hue. The u ecboline" of Wenzell was named by Robert cornutine. C. C. 
Keller asserts that picrosclerotine, cornutine, and Tanret’s ergotinine are identical, and that ergot 
contains but one alkaloid which persists in it for one year unaltered. This alkaloid is crystal- 
line, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and chloroform, slightly soluble in ether; by sul- Ergota. 
515 
PART I. 
phuric acid it is colored violet blue. ( Chern. Zeit., 1894,105.)* C. Jakoby (Pharm. Centralh., 
1897, 58) believes that he has isolated from ergot three chemically different bodies, chryso- 
toxin, secalintoxin, and sphacelotoxin. All of these are, however, therapeutically similar. It 
is affirmed that chrysotoxin fully represents ergot pharmacologically, and retains its activity 
unaltered for years, whereas sphacelotoxin and secalintoxin do not. 
Dragendorff and several of his pupils believe that they have isolated the following amorphous 
principles of the drug: 1, sclerotic acid, said to be a very active substance, used chiefly in 
subcutaneous injections ; about 4 per cent, of colorless acid may be obtained from good ergot of 
rye; 2, scleromudn, a mucilaginous matter which may be precipitated by alcohol from aqueous 
extracts of the drug; 3, sclererythrin, the red coloring matter probably allied to anthrachinon 
and the coloring substances of madder, chiefly to purpurin ; 4, scleroiodin, a bluish-black 
powder soluble in alkalies; 5, fusco-sclerotinic acid; 6, picrosclerotine, apparently a highly 
poisonous alkaloid ; lastly, 7, scleroxanthin, C7H703 HaO, and 8, sclerocrystallin, C7H703, 
have been obtained in crystals; their alcoholic solution is but little colored, yet assumes a violet 
hue on addition of ferric chloride. 
Tanret also observed in ergot of rye a volatile camphoraceous substance. 
When ergot or its alcoholic extract is treated with an alkali, it yields as products of the 
decomposition of the albuminoid matters ammonia or ammonia bases, according to Ludwig 
and Stahl, methylamine; according to others, trimethylamine. Wenzell states that phosphate 
of trimethylamine is present in an aqueous extract of ergot, but Ganser ascertained that no 
such base pre-exists in ergot. Fliickiger found that the crystals which abound in the extract 
after it has been kept for some time are an acid sodium and ammonium phosphate, with a small 
proportion of sulphate. 
We quote from Dilg’s summary of the “ active constituents of ergot” (A. J. P., 1878, p. 335) 
Dragendorff’s process for the two most active constituents of ergot, sclerotic or sclerotinic acid 
and scleromudn. “ Digest ergot, previously exhausted by ether and absolute alcohol, with 
water, dialyse, evaporate the dialysate to a syrupy consistence, and treat with sufficient alcohol 
to obtain a mixture containing 40 to 45 per cent, alcohol, which precipitates the potassium 
phosphate, while more alcohol added until the strength is increased to 75 or 80 per cent, pre- 
cipitates the salts of sclerotic acid, which are soluble in dilute but insoluble in stronger alcohol, 
and leave about 19 per cent, of ash. The filtrate, upon which alcohol has no further effect, 
produces with ether a slight precipitate, which after a few days’ standing forms a syrupy, 
brown mass, which has scarcely any medicinal virtue. The filtrate from this precipitate, in 
which the reactions still distinctly indicate the presence of Wenzell’s alkaloids, after evapo- 
rating the ether and alcohol, does not produce the specific action of ergot. The dark liquid 
remaining on the dialysator, when mixed with sufficient alcohol to bring it to 45-50 per cent., 
precipitates the scleromudn, which while moist forms a mucilaginous solution with water, but 
after drying is only partially soluble, differing in this respect from sclerotic acid, which is solu- 
ble in all proportions, before and after drying. 
“ Sclerotic add is obtained in an early pure state by kneading the mixed sclerotates, as obtained 
above, with 80 per cent, alcohol, and afterwards dissolving them in 40 per cent, alcohol; the 
solution is mixed with an excess of hydrochloric acid, and after several hours precipitated with 
absolute alcohol, whereby the ash is reduced to about 3 per cent., and consists mainly of some 
silica, magnesia, and phosphates of iron and potassium. The acid is not a glucoside, and yields 
no precipitates with the reagents for alkaloids, except with phosphomolybdic acid a yellow, and 
with tannin a nearly colorless one. Sclerotic acid is obtained as a yellowish brown, tasteless, 
and inodorous substance, which has a very slight acid reaction, and is hygroscopic without 
being deliquescent. It is very well adapted for subcutaneous applications, in doses of 
0-03-0-045 Gm. Scleromudn is darker in color, slightly hygroscopic, gummy, inodorous, and 
tasteless, yields 26-8 per cent, of ash, and, like sclerotic acid, contains nitrogen, is not a gluco- 
side, and is precipitated by tannin and phosphomolybdic acid. Good ergot yields about 4 to 
4£ per cent, of sclerotic acid, and about 2 to 3 per cent, of scleromucin.” 
For an improved process for making sclerotic acid, by Podwissotzky, see N. R., 1883, p. 271. 
Yoswinkel obtained from ergot a brown amorphous substance, which he proved by hydrolysis 
to yield mannose. The body is a hemi-cellulose, and the name mannan has been given to it. 
He states that Dragendorffs sclerotic acid and scleromucin are identical with mannan. (Pharm. 
Centralhalle, 1891, p. 531.) 
*' Keller gives a very full account of this single alkaloid, its color reactions, yield from commercial samples, and 
method for the analysis of ergot and assay of its value. (Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 542.) 516 
Ergota. 
PART I. 
Robert (Pharm. CentraThaUe, 1884, p. 607 ; All, Das Mutterkorns, Leipzig, 1884) found 
three physiologically active principles: 1st, ergotic acid, which he considers the principal con- 
stituent of the sclerotic acid of DragendorfF and Podwissotzky, and which is isolated by pre- 
cipitation with ammoniaeal lead subacetate , 2d, sphacelic acid, which can be isolated by taking 
advantage of the insolubility of the free acid in water and its solubility in alcohol; 3d, the 
alkaloid cornutine, which is not identical with the crystalline or with the amorphous ergotinine 
of Tanret; it is readily soluble in alcohol, and is obtained from an alkaline aqueous solution 
by agitation with ether. This alkaloid is said to be very poisonous. Dr. Robert’s conclusions 
have been questioned by Tanret (P. J. Tr., 1885, p. 889), but the former reaffirms his state- 
ments and believes that ergotinine is worthless, and that the activity of fresh ergot is due to 
sphacelic acid and cornutine as above described: the important fact, however, is noted that 
these latter principles entirely lose their properties on keeping; he therefore proposes that they 
be made into pills and coated to protect them. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1886, p. 597.) Robert’s 
process for cornutine we append in a foot-note.* For assay of ergot by Dr. Dohme, see Proc. 
A. P. A., 1895, 263. 
The odor of ergot is no doubt owing to the liberation of its volatile alkaloid, probably in con- 
sequence of a slow decomposition of the native salt. A method of detecting ergot in a mixed 
powder, rye flour for example, is thus afforded. If, on the addition of solution of potassa, the 
odor of ergot be perceived, its presence is sufficiently proved. 
Ergot, when perfectly dry and kept in well-stopped bottles, will retain its virtues for a con- 
siderable time, but exposed to air and moisture it speedily undergoes chemical change and 
deteriorates. M. Globley kept for more than ten years, perfectly sound, some ergot which he 
had selected from the year’s harvest, carefully sifted, wiped with linen, then exposed to a heat 
of from 50° to 60° C. for three or four hours, and finally put into small boxes, holding each 
about 30 Grin, (a troy ounce), previously heated with the ergot, and finally closed air-tight with 
pitch. (Journ. de Pharm., Mar. 1873, p. 216.) It is, moreover, apt to be attacked by a minute 
worm, which consumes the interior of the grain, leaving merely the exterior shell and an excre- 
mentitious powder. This insect is sometimes found in the ergot before removal from the plant. 
In the state of powder the medicine still more readily deteriorates; but Prof. DragendorfF 
believes that the decay is due to oxidization of the fatty principles of the ergot, and can be 
prevented by depriving the ergot of its oil before powdering. (A. P. S., xxv.) This has since 
been confirmed by Zschiesing, who preserved ergot for two years, and Bombelon, who kept ergot 
in good condition for nine years, by previously removing the fixed oil with ether. (Phar. Zeitung, 
No. 49, p. 51; A. J. P., 1881, p. 457.) It is best, as a rule, to renew it every year or two. 
M. Viel recommends that it should be well dried at a gentle heat, and incorporated with 
double its weight of loaf sugar, by means of which, if protected from moisture, it will retain 
its virtues for many years. According to M. Zanon, the same result is obtained by stratifying 
it with well-washed and perfectly dried sand, in a bottle from which air and light are excluded. 
Camphor and powdered benzoin are said to prevent injury from worms. Aymoiner immerses 
fresh ergot in an ethereal solution of Tolu, dries it, and preserves in tightly closed bottles. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Given in small doses to men or non-pregnant women, 
ergot produces no obvious effect. In the quantity of half a drachm or a drachm it may occa- 
sion nausea or vomiting, but in order to produce very distinct symptoms enormous doses must 
be taken. We have given the fluid extract in doses of three ounces, daily, for one or more 
weeks without perceiving any marked effect. In some cases, after very large doses the pulse 
is distinctly reduced in frequency, and Dr. Hardy has noted that the foetal cardiac pulsations 
are rendered infrequent by it. But one instance of fatal poisoning has occurred, except when 
abortion has been produced. A case is recorded in which ergot produced great prostration, 
with an almost absent pulse, paleness and coldness of the surface, partial palsy, with pricking 
of the limbs, and great restlessness, without stupor or delirium. ( Gazette Mid. de Paris, Juillet 
25,1857.) The symptoms in another case, recorded by Dr. Oldright, were very similar to those 
just detailed. The most characteristic is the intense coldness of the surface, which has also 
* Exhaust the drug with water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, neutralize the aqueous solution nearly with 
sodium carbonate, evaporate in vacuo at a very low temperature to a syrupy consistence, and treat with alcohol. 
Filter, distil off the alcohol carefully, and treat the nearly dry product with anhydrous ether, which removes any 
ergotinine present. After making the residue alkaline with sodium carbonate it is treated with acetic ether, and the 
solution shaken with water containing a little citric acid, which removes the cornutine in an almost pure state. This 
process is repeated, and it is finally precipitated from its acetic ether solution by anhydrous ether. Prepared in this 
way, cornutine will, if kept dry, and not exposed to light, remain unchanged. (The author kept some for three 
years.) ( Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1891, p. 190.) PAET I. 
Et'gota. 
517 
been noted in the lower animals. In the fatal case narrated hy Dr. Pratschke, uneasiness in 
the head, oppression of stomach, diarrhoea, urgent thirst, burning pains in the feet, tetanic 
spasms, violent convulsions, and death ensued upon eating freely of ergotized grain. (Lon. 
Med. Gaz., Oct. 1850, p. 579.) The long-continued and free use of ergot is highly dangerous, 
even when no immediate effects are perceptible. Fatal epidemics in different parts of the con- 
tinent of Europe, particularly in certain provinces of France, have long been ascribed to the 
use of bread made from rye contaminated with this fungus* Dry gangrene, typhus fever, 
and disorder of the nervous system attended with convulsions, are the forms of disease which 
have followed the use of this unwholesome food. It is true that ergot has been denied to be 
the cause; but accurate investigations made by competent men upon the spot where the epi- 
demics have prevailed, together with experiments upon inferior animals,f leave no room for 
reasonable doubt that at least the gangrenous affection alluded to has resulted from it. 
Upon the lower animals ergot acts as upon man. Besides its influence upon the uterus, 
the most important physiological action of the drug is upon the vaso-motor nervous system. 
It has been abundantly proved that in full therapeutic dose it raises remarkably the arterial 
pressure by producing a general vaso-motor spasm. This spasm is almost certainly the result 
of a stimulation of the vaso-motor nerve-centres, but there are still some authorities who be- 
lieve that the drug acts peripherally upon the muscular coats of the vessels or upon the nerves 
connected therewith. 
On the continent of Europe, in Germany, France, and Italy, ergot has long been empirically 
employed by midwives for promoting the contraction of the uterus ; and its German name of 
mutterkorn implies a popular acquaintance with its peculiar powers. But the attention of the 
medical profession was first called to it by Dr. Stearns, of Saratoga County, N.Y. (Mew York 
Medical Repository, 1807.) In its operation upon the pregnant uterus, it produces a constant 
unremitting contraction and rigidity, rather than that alternation of spasmodic effort and re- 
laxation which is observable in the natural process of labor. Hence, unless the os uteri and 
external parts are sufficiently relaxed, the medicine is apt to produce injury to the foetus by 
the incessant pressure which it maintains; and the death of the child is thought not unfre- 
quently to have resulted from its injudicious employment. The cases to which it is thought to 
be especially adapted are those of lingering labor, when the os uteri is sufficiently dilated and 
the external parts sufficiently relaxed, when no mechanical impediment is offered to the passage 
of the child, and the delay is ascribable solely to want of energy in the uterus. Other cases 
are those in which the death of the foetus has been ascertained, and when great exhaustion or 
dangerous constitutional irritation imperiously calls for speedy delivery. The medicine may 
also be given to promote the expulsion of the placenta, to restrain inordinate hemorrhage after 
delivery, and to hasten the discharge of the foetus in protracted cases of abortion. In women 
subject to dangerous flooding, a dose of ergot given immediately before delivery is said to have 
the happiest effects. Ergot is also much used to cause the expulsion of coagula of blood, 
polypi, and hydatids from the uterine cavity, and even a number of successful cases of its em- 
ployment for the destruction by strangulation of fibroid tumors of the uterus have been reported. 
In uterine hemorrhage, unconnected with pregnancy, the medicine is very useful; and it is 
probably the most used and most efficient of all remedies in pulmonary and other similar in- 
ternal hemorrhages. Its action in these cases is no doubt the result of the contracting power 
it has over the smaller vessels. This action of ergot upon the blood-vessels suggests its em- 
ployment in those cases in which there is local or general dilatation of the blood-vessels. It has 
been used in pulmonic congestion with apparent good results, and it has been highly lauded in 
the first stages of pneumonia by several clinicians, especially by Dr. J. E. Kelly (Med. Register, 
1887, vol. x.), as giving immediate relief when injected hypodermically in low forms of pul- 
monary hyperaemia such as occur in typhoid fevers. It will probably also be found of service 
as a vaso-motor stimulant in surgical shock, and has been much used against cerebral con- 
gestion., in spinal congestion, in colliquative sweats, and in diabetes insipidus. In apoplexy, owing 
to its pronounced tendency to increase the blood-pressure, it must be given with the greatest 
caution, if at all. The best preparation of ergot for internal administration, except when an im- 
mediate influence is desired, is the official solid extract given in capsules. The fluid extract is 
perhaps absorbed a little more quickly, but it is much more apt to sicken the stomach. The 
dose of solid extract is 5 to 30 grains (0-33-1-95 Gm.) ; of the fluid extract, half a fluidrachm 
* Dr. Hofmann states that per cent, of ergot can be detected in bread by macerating 30 grains of coarsely grated 
bread in 40 grains of ether and 20 drops of diluted sulphuric acid for 24 hours, straining, shaking with solution of 
sodium bicarbonate and allowing to stand, when the solution separates and is of a violet color. (See also N. R., 1883.) 
f An epidemic among sheep was caused by eating ergotized grain. (See P. J. Tr., x. 195.) 518 
Ei'gota.—Eriodictyon. 
PART I. 
to two fluidrachms (1-8—7-4 C.c.). In hemorrhoids, and in varicose veins of the leg, it has 
been injected into the diseased tissue with success, but probably acts only by producing a 
severe local inflammation. 
Under the name of Bonjean's ergotine, a purified extract is sometimes used in the dose of 
from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gin.). It is made by exhausting ergot with water, evapo- 
rating to the consistence of syrup, precipitating the albumen, gum, etc., by a large excess of 
alcohol, decanting the clear liquid, and evaporating to the consistence of a soft extract. When 
promptness and certainty of action are required, ergot may be used hypodermically. Solu- 
tions of extract of ergot are very prone to undergo speedy decomposition, and, as such altered 
solutions are very irritating, it is important that solutions for hypodermic use be made freshly, 
especially as the experiments of M. Engelmann (Deutsch. Med. Wochen., Sept. 30, 1886) have 
shown that the addition of ordinary antiseptic agents to such solutions, unless in very large 
amount, simply delays decomposition, and that the changes may be far advanced although the 
preparations seem to the eye unaltered. Notwithstanding all possible precautions, the hypo- 
dermic injections of ergot have a tendency to produce local inflammations and abscesses, but 
the danger may be reduced to a minimum by absolute obedience to the following directions: 
Extract of ergot, five grains, should be dissolved in twenty minims of recently boiled water, 
and two or three drops of glycerin and half a drop of carbolic acid be added. This solution 
should be filtered to remove any solid particles, and then at once be thrown deeply into the 
cellular tissues. 
Dujardin-Beaumetz gives the dose of Tanret’s crystallized ergotine for hypodermic use as 5 
milligrammes (Tfo grain). (Bull. Thtrap., xciv. 236.) Sclerotic acid does not represent ergot, 
as was, so far as concerns the commercial article, shown by experiments made in the laboratory 
of the University of Pennsylvania ; indeed, the research of Nikitin, who claims that it is the 
active principle, affords abundant evidence that it is not so. (Bond. Med. Record, 1879, p. 21.) 
ERIODICTYON. U.S. Eriodictyon. 
(er-i-o-dic'ty-5n.) 
“ The leaves of Eriodictyon glutinosum, Bentham (nat. ord. Hydrophyllaceae).” U. S. 
Yerba Santa; Mountain Balm, Consumptive’s Weed, Bear’s Weed. 
Gen. Ch. Low shrubs (California to New Mexico), with alternate pinnately veined and 
finely reticulated leaves of firm or coriaceous texture, their margins mostly beset with rigid 
teeth, at base tapering into more or less of a petiole; the flowers scorpioid-cymose, forming a 
terminal usually naked thyrsus. Sepals narrow, not enlarging upwards. Corolla violet or pur- 
ple, or sometimes white. Filaments adnate variably and sometimes very extensively to the tube 
of the corolla, usually sparsely hirsute. Ovary nearly or completely two-celled by the meeting 
of the dilated placentae in the axis. Capsule small (a line or two long), globose-ovate, pointed. 
E. glutinosum grows upon dry hills abundantly in California. It is glabrous, resinous to the 
feeling, with lanceolate leaves from three to six inches long, irregularly more or less serrate, some- 
times entire, whitened beneath, between the reticulations, by a minute and close tomentum, 
above glabrous. The corolla is half an inch long, tubular funnel-form ; the calyx is about one- 
sixth of an inch long, and slightly, sparsely hirsute. The leaf structure has been studied by 
F. W. Bitter. (See A. J. P, 1895, 5G5.) 
E. tomentosum, which grows often along with E. glutinosum, especially in the southern part 
of California, is readily distinguished by its dense coat of short villous hairs, whitish or rusty- 
colored with age. It is also a larger shrub than glutinosum, has its corolla somewhat salver- 
form, and its leaves oblong or oval, and obtuse. 
Properties. The Eriodictyon leaves have already been sufficiently described, hut they 
are further characterized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia as “ oblong-lanceolate, 5 to 10 Cm. long, 
acute at the apex, and below narrowed into a short petiole, the margin sinuately toothed to 
nearly entire; upper surface green, smooth, and covered with a brownish resin; lower surface 
reticulate and minutely white-tomentose; odor somewhat aromatic; taste balsamic and sweet- 
ish.” U. S. H. S. Wellcome (Pharmacist, 1876, p. 73) found the drug to contain two aromatic 
resins, whilst an aqueous infusion of leaves which had been exhausted by alcohol yielded an 
intensely bitter extract. According to the analysis of Chas. Mohr (A. J. P., 1879, 549), it 
contains tannic acid and 8 per cent, of an acrid, bitter resin, upon which its activity is be- 
lieved to depend, also a minute quantity of volatile oil. R. Rother describes (A. J. P., 1887, 
p. 225) an acid resin which forms with bases quite soluble salts. The acid resin was obtained 
after spontaneous volatilization of the several solvents as a green-yellow transparent mass. 
Thai (Pharm. Zeit. Russl., 1883, p. 209) showed the presence of ericolin, C34H66021. Eucalypti Gummi.—Eucalyptol. 
519 
PAET I. 
Medical Properties. The yerba santa has long been used in California as a bitter 
tonic, and also as a stimulant balsamic expectorant. There is considerable testimony to its 
usefulness in asthma, chronic bronchitis, and allied conditions; also in chronic inflammation 
of the genito-urinary tract. Attention has been called by Dr. Kier to its remarkable power 
of disguising the taste of quinine. It is best exhibited in the form of the official fluid ex- 
tract, the dose of which is one-half to one drachm (1-8 to 3-69 C.c.) ; a solid extract has been 
made, which may be given in doses of from five to fifteen grains (0-324 to 0-972 Gm.). In 
cases of asthma eriodictyon is often used by smoking. The aromatic syrup is well adapted as 
a vehicle for quinine. (See Syrupus Eriodictyi Aromaticus, National Formulary.) 
EUCALYPTI GUMMI. Br. Eucalyptus Gum. 
(EU-CA-LYP'TI GUM'M I—yu-ka-lip'tl.) 
“ A ruby-colored exudation, or so-called red gum, from the bark of Eucalyptus rostrata, 
Schlechtendal, and some other species. Imported from Australia.” Br. 
A kino-like exudation is obtained in Australia from various species of Eucalyptus, but the 
commercial is chiefly yielded by E. rostrata, which occurs over a wide area along watercourses 
in Australia and New South Wales. It is a large, gregarious tree, with almost linear-pointed 
leaves and shining bark, and is especially characterized by the long beak upon the operculum 
of its seed-vessel. The gum is obtained by cutting the tree, inserting a piece of bent tin, and 
catching the red, thick liquid in a vessel. The average yield is said to be about one quart per 
tree. In a few days the liquid hardens into a kino-like mass. 
Bed gum occurs in commerce in grains or small masses of a purplish-red, ruby-red, or garnet 
color, closely resembling ordinary kino, but somewhat more brilliant, with a distinctly bitterish 
taste, tough, and adhering to the teeth. It does not equal kino in astringency. From 80 to 
90 per cent, of it is soluble in cold water, forming a neutral solution. It is almost entirely 
soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.). For further description, see “ Australian Kino,” under Kino. 
In the analyses made by J. II. Maiden red gum yielded about 4-5 per cent, of tannic acid. 
(A. J. P., 1897.) It is used for diarrhoeas of relaxation, and other affections for which kino 
has been employed, and is also largely employed as the basis of lozenges and gargles.* Dose, 
from two to ten grains (0-13 to 0-65 Gm.). 
EUCALYPTOL. U. S. Eucalyptol. 
“ A neutral body obtained from the volatile oil of Eucalyptus globulus, Labillardiere, and of 
some other species of Eucalyptus (nat. ord. Myrtacese). Eucalyptol should be kept in well- 
stoppered bottles, in a cool place, protected from light.” U. S. 
This is a new official liquid of the U. S. P. 1890. In the distillation of eucalyptus leaves, 
the portion which comes over between 170° C. (338° F.) and 178° C. (352,4° F.) is set aside 
as crude eucalyptol To obtain it pure a redistillation from caustic potash or calcium chloride 
is necessary. It is very liquid, nearly colorless, with a strong, aromatic, camphoraceous odor, 
is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol. Nitric acid produces with it a crystal- 
lizable acid; by the action of phosphoric anhydride (Journ. de Pharm., 4e s&r., xii. 204) it is 
converted into eucalyptene, C10Hie, a substance allied to cymene, and eucalyptolen. 
The presence of cymene, C10H14, was asserted by Faust and Homeyer (1874), but its presence 
in the oil of Eucalyptus globulus is denied by H. Schulz (1881), who made a careful study of 
this variety, although eucalyptol may be converted into cymene by the action of P2S6. 
C. Jahns (A. J. P., 1885, p. 237) gave the formula C10H180 to eucalyptol, and showed it 
to be identical with cajuputol, or, as it is now generally known, cineol. Wallach (Ann. der Ch. 
und Phar., 248, pp. 278-283) showed that the oil from E. globulus contained cineol (eucalyptol) 
and dextro-pinene, while that from E. amygdalina contained cineol and Isevo-phellandrene. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes it as follows : “ A colorless liquid, having a characteristic, 
aromatic, and distinctly camphoraceous odor, and a pungent, spicy, and cooling taste. Specific 
gravity: 0-930 at 15° C. (59° F.). Boiling point: 176° to 177° C. (348-8° to 350-6° F,). 
CioHisO; 153*66. (EU-CA-LYP'TOL—yu-ka-llp'tbl.) 
* Eucalyptus Tooth-Wash. The following formula was devised by Jos. W. England. As alum is destructive 
to the teeth, it is preferable to omit it. Potassium chlorate, 120 grains; boiling water, 4 fluidounees; powdered 
alum, 60 grains; stronger rose water, 2 fluidounees, 5 fluidrachms; glycerin, 4 fluidrachms; syrup, 4 fluidrachms; 
fluid extract of eucalyptus rostrata (red gum), 3 fluidrachms. Dissolve the potassium chlorate in the boiling water, 
cool, and reserve. Dissolve the alum in the stronger rose water, add the glycerin, syrup, and fluid extract of red 
gum in the order named, and then add this to the reserved portion. The product is a transparent ruby-red liquid, 
of a very agreeable odor and taste, which may be used pure or diluted with equal bulk of water. 520 
Eucalyptol.—Eucalyptus. 
PART I. 
It is optically inactive (distinction from the oil of Eucalyptus and many other volatile oils). 
When exposed to a temperature some degrees below 0° C. (32° F.), or placed in a freezing 
mixture, it solidifies to a mass of colorless, needle-shaped crystals, which liquefy at —1° C. 
(30-2° F.). Soluble, in all proportions, in alcohol, carbon disulphide, and glacial acetic acid. 
If a portion of Eucalyptol be shaken with an equal volume of sodium hydrate test-solution, it 
should not diminish in volume. Its alcoholic solution should be neutral to litmus-paper, and 
should not assume a brownish or violet color on the addition of a drop of ferric chloride test- 
solution (absence of phenols')." 
Medical Properties. Eucalyptol has been used with very good results, instead of oil of 
eucalyptus, as a stimulant expectorant in catarrhal pneumonia, chronic bronchitis, bronchorrhoea, 
and other catarrhal conditions of the respiratory mucous membranes. It has also been em- 
ployed in chronic inflammation of the genito-urinary mucous membranes, and locally as an anti- 
septic dressing to ulcers, and as a counter-irritant in neuralgia and rheumatism. It may be 
given in doses of from 5 to 10 minims (03 to 0‘6 C.c.) four to six times a day, best admin- 
istered in capsules; and its solution in fatty oil has been used hypodermically. 
EUCALYPTUS. U. S. Eucalyptus. 
“ The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, Labillardiere (nat. ord. Myrtaceae), collected from the 
older parts of the tree.” U S. 
Eucalyptus Leaves; Feuilles d’Euealyptus, Fr.; Eucalyptus-Blatter, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx obovate or globose cupulaeform, the tube persistent, the limb deciduous, 
dehiscing by a circular irregular line from the operculiform base. Stamen free. Capsule 4- 
loeulate or by abortion 3-loculate, dehiscent at the apex, many-seeded. De Candolle, Prodromus, 
iii. 220. 
The genus Eucalyptus affords one of the most characteristic features of the Australian 
and Tasmanian landscapes. There are about one hundred and thirty-five described species, all 
evergreens, and most of them large trees, popularly known as Gum trees, Woolly butts, Iron barks, 
etc * The most important of them is the E. globulus. 
E. globulus. Labill. B. & T. ii. 109. The young operculum conical, the length of the four- 
sided cupule, the adult depressed and mucronate in the middle; axillary peduncles very short, 
one-flowered ; leaves alternate, lanceolate, subfalcate. 
This is one of the largest known trees, attaining sometimes a height of 300 or even 350 feet, 
with a smooth, ash-colored bark; leaves a foot in length, and varying, according to age, from a 
glaucous white to a bluish-green color; and large pinkish-white axillary flowers, sometimes 
single, sometimes in clusters. Although its wood is very resinous, hard, and durable, the tree 
is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth, reaching, under favorable circumstances, fifty feet 
of height in five or six years. It flourishes best in valleys having a rich, moist soil, and has 
very largely been naturalized in semi-tropical countries, partly on account of its economic value, 
but chiefly because of the reputation it enjoys as a means of overcoming malaria. It does not 
seem to require great heat for its perfection, but is exceedingly sensitive to frost. Large forests 
of it have been planted in Algeria and Southern Europe, and its culture is spreading to Cali- 
fornia, Florida, and other of our Southern States. Its sanitary powers appear to be established, 
numerous notoriously miasmatic stations and districts having been rendered healthful by its 
growth. It is probable that the destruction of the miasma is due not so much to emanations 
from the tree as to the fact that it evaporates water so rapidly from its innumerable large 
leaves as to drain the swamps and marshes in which it is planted. It is possible, however, 
that the large amount of volatile oil which must escape from it has some effect, and it is even 
affirmed (A. J. P., 1875, p. 423) that the parasitic phylloxera will not attack grape-vines 
growing near it. 
The eucalyptus trees afford a number of products besides the official oil. The eucalyptus oil 
of commerce is, indeed, composed chiefly of the oils of E. amygdalina and E. dumosa, which 
yield a very much larger product than does the official species. The oils of E. piperita and 
E. hsemastoma, have a peppermint odor, and that of E. citriodora a citron-like odor, whilst the 
oil of E. staigeriana exactly resembles the oil of verbena : it is probable that these oils will come 
into commerce for the purposes of the perfumer. 
( EU-CA-L YP' TU S—y u-ka-lip' tys.) 
* Descriptions and accurate figures of most of this species may be found in Baron Ferd. von Mueller’s Eucalyp- 
tographia: a Descriptive Atlas of the Eucalypts of Australia and the Adjoining Islands, London and Melbourne, 
1879-1884. Eucalyptus. 
521 
PART 1. 
Properties. The leaves are the official portion of the plant: they are “ petiolate, lanceolately 
scythe-shaped, from 15 to 30 Cm. long, rounded below, tapering above, entire, leathery, grayish- 
green, glandular, feather-veined between the midrib and marginal veins; odor strongly cam- 
phoraceous ; taste pungently aromatic and somewhat cooling, bitter and astringent.” U. S. 
In March, 1870, M. Cloez (Joum. de Pharm., 4e ser., xii. 201) reported an elaborate chemical 
study of the eucalyptus leaves, and his results have been substantially confirmed by Debray 
{De TEucalyptus Globulus, Paris, 1872), M. Rabuteau {Mem. de VAcademie, Nov. 1872), and 
Mr. Broughton {P. J. Tr., 3d ser., iii. 463). M. Cloez found, besides chlorophyll, resin, 
tannin, and inert substances, an essential oil, upon which the virtues of the drug appear to 
depend. Of this oil the fresh leaves afforded 2-75 parts per hundred, the recently dried leaves 
6 parts; leaves which had been kept some time yielded a much smaller percentage. In the 
distillation, the oil for a time comes over freely at from 170° C. (338° F.) to 178° C. (352-4° 
F.); subsequently another portion of oil distils at 188° C. (370-4° F.) to 190° C. (374° F.), 
and finally a very minute portion does not volatilize until the temperature reaches 200° C. (392° 
F.). M. Cloez believes the oil to be composed of two camphors, differing in their volatility. 
The bulk of the oil yielded is the portion first distilled: to this Cloez has given the name of 
eucalyptol, or, as it is now also called, cineol, C10HlsO. (See previous article.) Many of the 
oils yielded by species of Eucalyptus do not contain eucalyptol.* Any oil intended for medical 
use should have in it from 60 to 70 per cent, of pure eucalyptol crystallizing at —1° C. 
According to M. Duquesnel, the oil of eucalyptus is adulterated—with alcohol, to be detected 
by means of fuchsin, which is insoluble in the pure oil but soluble in that containing even a 
very small percentage of alcohol; with fixed oil, to be detected by boiling with water, when the 
fixed oil remains on the surface; with essential oil of copaiba or turpentine, to be detected by 
means of the boiling point, that of eucalyptol being 170° C. (338° F.), that of oil of turpen- 
tine 155° C. (311° F.), that of oil of copaiba 260° C. (500° F.). {Joum. de Pharm., 4e ser., 
xvi. 45.) 
Medical Properties. Eucalyptus was originally recommended as a remedy in intermit- 
tent fever, but experience has failed to establish its value as an antiperiodic. Whatever medi- 
cal virtues it possesses beyond astringency reside in the volatile oil. This when applied locally 
acts as a powerful irritant. When taken internally in doses of from 20 to 30 drops, it causes 
increased rapidity of pulse and general excitation, with restlessness and increased venereal ap- 
petite, usually followed by a feeling of calmness and repose, ending in sleep. In some cases, 
disturbance of the bowels, fever, constitutional disturbance, and even symptoms of cerebral 
congestion have been produced. In animals small doses produce the same effect as in man, 
and after large doses symptoms of general depression are manifested by falling of the arterial 
pressure, progressive diminution of temperature, muscular weakness deepening into paralysis, 
loss of sensibility, irregular respiration, and finally death from failure of respiration. Upon man, 
when taken in sufficient quantity, the oil exerts a similar influence. In a case noted by M. Gim- 
bert, 80 drops of the oil produced in an old man a feeling of great internal heat, followed by 
almost complete loss of power and of feeling in the limbs; and after 75 drops Prof. Binz noted 
somewhat similar phenomena. The palsy produced by toxic doses is due to a direct action 
upon the spinal cord. Taken internally, it is eliminated by the breath, to which it imparts its 
odor, and also, in a condition of oxidation, by the kidneys, to the secretion of which it gives 
a strong smell of violets. M. Gimbert found that in rabbits it augmented to a marvellous 
extent the excretion of urea. As a stimulating narcotic the oil of eucalyptus has been used 
with asserted success in migraine and other forms of neuralgia. As an antispasmodic it has 
been highly lauded in asthma. In this affection it is best given by inhalation. Cigarettes 
may be made by rolling up the dried leaves, or the vapor from boiling water containing the oil 
may be inhaled. In chronic or subacute bronchitis it may often be employed with advantage, 
especially where there is a tendency to spasm. In subacute or chronic inflammation of the 
genito-urinary organs it is said to exert a very happy influence. The experiments of Binz and 
of Gimbert have shown that it acts very positively upon the infusoria and other low forms of 
life. Gimbert even claims superiority for it as an antiseptic over carbolic acid. Externally it 
may be used in chronic skin affections and ulcerations when a stimulant antiseptic application 
is indicated. Various formulas have been published for tinctures, fluid extracts, etc., but either 
the oil or eucalyptol should be preferred. Dose of the oil, five to ten drops (0-25 to 0-5 C.e.). 
* Schimmel & Co.’s Semi-Annual Report for April, 1897, on pages 18 to 21, gives the composition of the oils from 
numerous species of Eucalyptus, showing quite a variety of components. 522 
Euonymus. 
PART I. 
EUONYMUS. U. S. (Br.) Euonymus. [Wahoo.] 
(EU-ON'Y-MUS—ya-dn'g-m&s.) 
Euonymi Cortex, Br.; Euonymus Bark. 
“ The bark of the root of Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacquin (nat. ord. Celastrineae).” U. S. 
“ The dried root bark of Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacquin.” Br. 
Gen. Ch. Floivers perfect. Sepals 4 or 5, united at the base, forming a short and flat 
calyx. Petals 4-5, rounded, spreading. Stamens very short, inserted on the edge or face of 
a broad and flat 4-5-angled disk, which coheres with the calyx and is stretched over the ovary, 
adhering to it more or less. Style short or none. Pod 3-5-lobed, with 1-3 seeds in each cell 
in a red arillus. 
Euonymus atropurpureus. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1132; Gray’s Manual, p. 81 ; figured in 
Griffith’s Med. Bot., p. 219. The plant has been named variously voahoo, spindle-tree, and 
burning-hush. It is a tall, erect shrub, with quadrangular branchlets, and opposite, petiolate, 
oval-oblong, pointed, serrate leaves. The flowers, which stand in loose cymes on axillary 
peduncles, are small and dark purple, with sepals and petals commonly in fours. The capsule 
or pod is smooth and deeply lobed. The plant is indigenous, growing throughout the Northern 
and Western States, and sometimes cultivated for the beauty of its crimson fruit. 
The plants belonging to this genus are shrubs or small trees, presenting in the autumn a 
striking appearance from the rich red color of their fruit, which has obtained for them the 
name of burning-bush. E. americanus and E. europseus have been cultivated in gardens as 
ornamental plants. Two or more of the species have been used in medicine. Their properties 
are probably similar, if not identical. Grundner, who experimented with the fruit of E. 
europseus, found it to have no other effect than that of a diuretic. (Pharm. Centralbl., 1847, 
p. 873.) An oil expressed from the seeds is used in Europe for the destruction of vermin in 
the hair, and sometimes also as an application to old sores. (Ibid., 1851, p. 641.) Dr. Griffith 
says that the seeds of this and other species are purgative and emetic, and that the leaves are 
poisonous to sheep and other animals feeding on them. He states also that the inner bark of 
E. tingens is beautifully yellow, and used in India for dyeing, and in diseases of the eye. (Med. 
Bot., p. 220.) It is probable that much of the wahoo of our drug-stores has been obtained 
from E. americanus, which is distinguished from E. atropurpureus by its rough, warty, depressed 
pods, and almost sessile, thickish leaves. This bark was introduced into the last British Phar- 
macopoeia in the supplement. 
Properties. The dried bark is in thin pieces, whitish with a darker grayish epidermis, 
brittle, of a feeble, peculiar, not disagreeable odor, and a bitterish slightly sweetish taste, and 
somewhat pungent after-taste. “In quilled or curved pieces, from 2 to 5 Mm. thick; outer 
surface ash-gray, with blackish patches, detached in thin and small scales ; inner surface whitish 
or slightly tawny, smooth; fracture smooth, whitish, the inner layers of a laminated appear- 
ance ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweetish, somewhat bitter and acrid.” U. S. It imparts its vir- 
tues to water and alcohol. Analyzed by Mr. Wm. T. Wenzell, it was found to contain a bitter 
principle which he named euonymin, asparagin, a soft resin, a crystallizable resin, a yellow resin, 
a brown resin, fixed oil, wax, starch, albumen, glucose, pectin, and various salts of organic and 
inorganic acids. Euonymin was obtained by agitating with chloroform a tincture made with 
diluted alcohol, separating the chloroformic solution and allowing it to evaporate spontaneously, 
treating the residue with ether, dissolving what was left in alcohol, adding lead acetate to 
the solution, filtering, precipitating the lead with hydrogen sulphide, and evaporating. The 
euonymin obtained was uncrystallizable, intensely bitter, soluble in water and alcohol, and 
neutral in its reactions. It was abundantly precipitated from its solution by lead subacetate 
and phospliomolybdic acid. (A. J. P., 1862, p. 387.) Mr. W. P. Clothier found the bark to 
yield no volatile oil on distillation. According to the same writer, if a concentrated tincture 
be poured into water, a dark yellow substance will be thrown down, containing resin and fixed 
oil, which is the euonymin of the eclectics* very improperly so named, as, though it contains 
a portion of the active principle, it is a very complex substance. Mr. Clothier found it to purge 
actively without griping. (Ibid., 1861, p. 491.) Frank V. Cassaday (A. J. P., 1889, p. 284) 
found 1-30 per cent, of volatile oil and resin, 1-48 per cent, of euonic acid and resin, 2-16 per 
cent, of euonymin and resin, together with the usual plant constituents. Kubel has discovered 
in the fresh inner bark of E. europseus a saccharine, crystallizable substance, closely resembling 
mannite, but differing in its crystalline form and in its melting point. He calls it euonymite. 
(Journ. de Pharm., Dec. 1862, 523.) 
* For an examination of commercial euonymin (the eclectic resinoid) by Paul Thibault, see N. R., 1883, 294. Eupatorium. 
523 
PART I. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This bark was first introduced into notice, as a remedy 
for dropsy, under the name of Wahoo* by Mr. George W. Carpenter. In some cases it acts 
as a mild cathartic, but at other times it fails to produce purgation. We have also seen dis- 
tinct evidences of an irritant influence upon the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane. Chola- 
gogue properties have been ascribed to it, and probably with correctness, as in the experiments 
of Prof. Butherford it was found to act most powerfully in causing hepatic secretion in dogs, 
and in some clinical studies we have made it seemed to have a similar action on man. The 
fluid extract of it is an efficient preparation, and may be given in doses, as a purgative, of one 
to two fluidrachms (S-IS-I’S C.c.) ; as a laxative, of half a fluidrachm to one fluidrachm (1-9 
-3'75 C.c.) (See also Extractum Euonymi, U. S., and Extractum Euonymi Siccum, Br.) 
EUPATORIUM. U.S. Eupatorium. [Thoroughwort.] 
(EU-PA-TO'RI-UM—yu-pj-to'rj-um.) 
“ The leaves and flowering tops of Eupatorium perfoliatum, Linn6 (nat. ord. Composite).” 
U.S. 
Herba Eupatorii Perfoliati; Boneset, Indian Sage; Herbe d’Eupatoire perfoliee, Herbe a FiSvre, Herbe parfaite, 
Fr.; Durchwachsener Wasserhanf, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx simple or imbricate, oblong. Style long and semi-bifid. Receptacle naked. 
Pappus pilose, or more commonly scabrous. Seed smooth and glandular, quinquestriate. Nut- 
tall. 
Of this numerous genus, comprising not less than thirty species within the limits of the 
United States, most of which probably possess analogous medical properties, E. perfoliatum 
alone now holds a place in our national Pharmacopoeia, E. purpureum and E. teucrifolium 
having been discarded at the revision of 1840. They merit, however, a brief notice, if only 
for their former official rank. 
Eupatorium purpureum, or gravel root, is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a purple stem, 
five or six feet in height, and furnished with ovate-lanceolate, serrate, rugously veined, slightly 
scabrous, petiolate leaves, placed four or five together in the form of whorls. The flowers are 
purple, and consist of numerous florets contained in an eight-leaved calyx. It grows in swamps 
and other low grounds, from Canada to Virginia, and flowers in August and September. The 
root has, according to Dr. Bigelow, a bitter aromatic and astringent taste, and is said to be 
diuretic. Its vulgar name indicates the popular estimation of its virtues. Prof. J. U. Lloyd 
found in it an apparently new, yellow, neutral, crystalline principle, euparin. (A. J. P., 1890.) 
This euparin, with a number of derivatives, has been prepared by C. C. Manger (A. J. P., 
1894, 120) and analyzed. The formula is given as its composition. 
Eupatorium teucrifolium. (Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1753), E. pilosum (Walt. Flor. Car. 199), 
E. verbensefolium (Mich. Flor. Am. ii. 98), commonly called wild horehound, is also an indige- 
nous perennial, with an herbaceous stem, which is about two feet high, and supports sessile, 
distinct, ovate, acute, scabrous leaves, of which the lower are coarsely serrate at the base, the 
uppermost entire. The flowers are small, white, composed of five florets within each calyx, 
and arranged in the form of a corymb. The plant grows in low wet places from New England 
to Georgia, and abounds in the Southern States. It is in flower from August to November. 
The whole herb is used. In sensible properties it corresponds with E. perfoliatum, though less 
bitter and disagreeable, and has been used for similar purposes and in like manner. E. incar- 
natum and E. aromaticum are said to contain an aromatic principle similar to if not identical 
with coumarin, obtained by Guibourt from Coumarouna odorata, or Tonka bean. (See P. J. 
Tr., Oct. 1874, 303.) The roots of E. aromaticum are said to be sold in the Western United 
States under the name of white snakeroot. E. cannabinum, of Europe, the root of which was 
formerly used as a purgative, and E. aya-pana, of Brazil, the leaves of which at one time en- 
joyed a very high reputation, have fallen into neglect. The aya-pana is an aromatic bitter, 
like E. perfoliatum, but weaker, and is said to be still occasionally met with in European com- 
merce. (A. J. P., 1887, 154; Pharm. Era, 1898, 293.) E. villosum is used in Jamaica, 
under the name of bitter-bush, in the preparation of beer, as a tonic, and as a stimulant in low 
zymotic diseases. (P. J. Tr., Oct. 1866; A. J. P., 1887, 155.) E. collinum is included in the 
Mexican Pharmacopoeia. 
Eupatorium perfoliatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1761; Bigelow, Am. Med. Pot. i. 33; Bar- 
ton, Med. Pot. ii. 125. Thoroughwort, or boneset, is an indigenous perennial plant, with 
* The name of Wahoo or Waahoo (pronounced Wawhoo) was given to it by the Indians. The same name has also 
been applied to Ulmua alata, of the Southern States, and has thus led to mistakes. 524 
Eupatorium.—Extracta. 
PART I. 
numerous herbaceous stems, which are erect, round, hairy, from two to five feet high, simple 
below, and trichotomously branched near the summit. “ Leaves opposite, united at the base, 
lanceolate, from 10 to 15 Cm. long, tapering, crenately serrate, rugosely veined, rough above, 
downy and resinous-dotted beneath; flower-heads corymbed, numerous, with an oblong in- 
volucre of lance-linear scales, and with from ten to fifteen white florets, having a bristly pappus 
in a single row; odor weak and aromatic ; taste astringent and bitter.” U. S. The leaves 
serve to distinguish the species at the first glance. They may be considered either as perfo- 
rated by the stem, perfoliate, or as consisting each of two leaves, joined at the base, connate. 
In the latter point of view, they are opposite and in pairs, which decussate each other at regu- 
lar distances upon the stem ; in other words, the direction of each pair is at right angles with 
that of the pair immediately above or beneath it. They are narrow in proportion to their 
length, broadest at the base where they coalesce, gradually tapering to a point, serrate, much 
wrinkled, paler on the under than on the upper surface, and beset with whitish hairs, which 
give them a grayish-green color. The uppermost pairs are sessile, not joined at the base. The 
flowers are white, numerous, supported on hairy peduncles, in dense corymbs, forming a flat- 
tened summit. The calyx, which is cylindrical and composed of imbricated, lanceolate, hairy 
scales, encloses from twelve to fifteen tubular florets, having their border divided into five 
spreading segments. The anthers are five, black, and united into a tube, through which the 
bifid filiform style projects. 
This species of Eupatorium inhabits meadows, the banks of streams, and other moist places, 
growing generally in bunches, and abounding in almost all parts of the United States. It 
flowers from the middle of summer to the end of October. All parts of it are active; but 
the herb only is official. It has a faint odor, and a strongly bitter, somewhat peculiar taste. 
The virtues of the plant are readily imparted to water and alcohol. Mr. W. Peterson found 
it to contain a peculiar bitter principle, chlorophyll, resin, a crystalline matter of undetermined 
character, gum, tannin, yellow coloring matter, extractive, lignin, and salts. (A. J. P., xxiii. 
210.) Mr. Bickley found also albumen, gallic acid, and signs of volatile oil. (Ibid., xxvi. 
495.) Dr. Peter Collier, chemist of the Department of Agriculture, recently submitted it to 
analysis, finding 18-84 per cent, of bitter extractive, which he considers the constituent of 
medicinal importance, 2-87 per cent, of an indifferent crystalline substance, obtained from the 
alcoholic extract, and traces only of a volatile oil. (Ibid., 1879, p. 342.) George Latin (A. 
J. P., Aug. 1880) found a glucoside, eupatorin, and a crystallizable body of the nature of a 
wax. 0. F. Dana, Jr., obtained 3-80 per cent, of extract with benzin ; 4-60 per cent, with 
ether ; 33-80 per cent, with alcohol; 24-80 per cent, with water; 5-80 per cent, with alkali. 
(A. J. P., 1887, p. 229.) A number of analyses of E.perfoliatum have been published in the 
last few years by Dana, Latin, Franz, and Kaercher, but neither the crystalline principle nor 
any of its salts had been analyzed until Shamel (Amer. Chem. Jonm., 1892, p. 224) pub- 
lished an analysis of the nitrate. He gives for it the formula C20H20036HNOg. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Eupatorium is tonic, diaphoretic, and in large doses 
emetic and aperient, and was at one time employed as an antiperiodic. Given in warm infu- 
sion, so as to produce vomiting or copious perspiration, at the commencement of catarrh, of 
influenza, or of that form of muscular rheumatism known as a general cold, it will sometimes 
abort the attack. As a tonic it is given with advantage in dyspepsia, general debility, and 
other cases in which the simple bitters are employed. Dr. H. S. Wilkins has found the infu- 
sion useful in the expulsion of tapeworm. (A. J. P., 1874, p. 295.) 
With a view to its tonic effects, it is best administered in substance, or cold infusion. The 
dose of the powder is twenty or thirty grains (1-3-1-95 Gm.), that of the infusion a fluidounce 
(30 C.c.), frequently repeated. (See Infusum Eupatoriii) The aqueous extract has been used 
with advantage. When the diaphoretic operation is required in addition to the tonic, the in- 
fusion should be administered warm, and the patient remain covered in bed. As an emetic 
and cathartic, a strong decoction, prepared by boiling an ounce with three half-pints of water 
to a pint, may be given in doses of from four fluidounces to a half-pint (118 to 236 C.c.), or 
more. (See Extractum Eupatorii Fluidum.) 
EXTRACTA. Extracts. 
(EX-TRlC'TA.) 
Extraits, Fr.; Extrakte, G. 
Extracts, as the term is employed in the Pharmacopoeias, are solid preparations, resulting 
from the evaporation of the solutions of vegetable principles, obtained either by exposing a Extracta. 
525 
PART I. 
dried drug to the action of a solvent, or by expressing the juice from a fresh plant. A dis- 
tinction was formerly made between those prepared from the infusions, decoctions, or tinctures, 
and those from the expressed juices of plants, the former being called Extracta, the latter 
Sued Spissati; but the distinction has been generally abandoned. There is no such essential 
difference between these two sets of preparations as to require that they should be separately 
classed ; and something is gained in the simplicity of nomenclature, as well as of arrangement, 
which results from their union. We shall consider them under the same head, taking care, 
however, to detail distinctly whatever is peculiar in the mode of preparing each. 
The composition of extracts varies with the nature of the vegetable, the character of the 
solvent, and the mode of preparation. The object is generally to obtain as much of the active 
principle of the plant with as little of the inert matter as possible; though sometimes it may 
be desirable to separate two active ingredients from each other, when their effects upon the 
system are materially different; and this may be accomplished by employing a menstruum 
which, while it dissolves one, leaves the other untouched. The proximate principles most 
commonly present in extracts are gum, sugar, starch, tannin, extractive, coloring matter, salts, 
and the peculiar principles of plants; to which, when a spirituous solvent is employed, may 
usually be added resinous substances, fatty matter, and frequently more or less essential oil; 
gum and starch being excluded when the menstruum is pure alcohol. Of these substances, as 
well as of others which, being soluble, are sometimes necessarily present in extracts, we have 
taken occasion to treat under various heads in this commentary. There is one, however, which, 
from its supposed almost uniform presence in this class of preparations, and from the influence 
it is thought to exert upon their character, deserves particular consideration in this place. We 
allude to extractive, or, as it is sometimes called, extractive matter. 
It has long been observed that in most vegetables there is a substance, soluble both in water 
and alcohol, which, in the preparation of extracts, undergoes chemical change during the pro- 
cess of evaporation, imparting to the liquid, even if originally limpid, first a greenish, then a 
yellowish brown, and ultimately a deep brown color, and becoming itself insoluble. This sub- 
stance, originally called saponaceous matter by Scheele, afterwards received the more expressive 
name of extractive, derived from its frequent presence in extracts. Its existence as a distinct 
principle is denied, or at least doubted, by some chemists, who consider the phenomena sup- 
posed to result from its presence as depending upon the mutual reaction of other principles; 
and in relation to Peruvian bark it appears to have been proved that the insoluble matter 
which forms during its decoction in water is a compound of starch and tannin. A similar 
compound must also be formed in other cases when these two principles coexist; but they are 
not always present in the same vegetable, nor can all the changes which have been attributed 
to extractive be accounted for by their union, even when they are present; so that, until fur- 
ther light is shed on the subject, it is best to admit the existence of a distinct class of sub- 
stances, which, though not the same in all plants, possess sufficient identity of character to be 
entitled, like sugars, resins, etc., to a generic name. The most important property of extrac- 
tive is its disposition to pass, by the influence of atmospheric air at a high temperature, into 
an insoluble substance. If a vegetable infusion or decoction be evaporated in the open air to 
the consistence of an extract, then diluted, filtered, and again evaporated, and the process re- 
peated so long as any insoluble matter is formed, the whole of the extractive will be separated 
from the liquid, while the other ingredients may remain. If chlorine be passed through an 
infusion or decoction, a similar precipitate is formed with much greater rapidity. The change 
is usually ascribed to the absorption of oxygen by the extractive, which has, therefore, been 
called, in its altered condition, oxidized extractive; but De Saussure ascertained that, though 
oxygen is absorbed during the process, an equal measure of carbonic acid gas is given out, and 
the oxygen and hydrogen of the extractive unite to form water in such a manner as to leave 
the principle richer in carbon than it was originally. The name of oxidized extractive is, 
therefore, obviously incorrect; and Berzelius proposed to substitute for it that of apotheme, 
synonymous with deposit. According to Berzelius, apotheme is not completely insoluble in 
water, but imparts a slight color to that liquid when cold, and is rather more soluble in boiling 
water, which becomes turbid upon cooling. It is still more soluble in alcohol, and is freely 
dissolved by solutions of the alkalies and alkaline carbonates, from which it is precipitated by 
acids. It has a great tendency, when precipitated from solutions, to unite with other princi- 
ples, and to carry them along with it, thus acquiring properties somewhat different according 
to the source from which it is obtained. In this way also, even when the extractive of a plant 
is itself medicinally inert, its conversion into apotheme may be injurious by causing a precipi- 526 
Extrada. 
" PAET I. 
tation of a portion of the active principle; and in practical pharmaceutical operations this 
change should always, if possible, be avoided. With these preliminary views, we shall proceed 
to the consideration of the practical rules necessary to be observed in the preparation of ex- 
tracts. We shall treat of the subject under the several heads of—1, the extraction of the solu- 
ble principles from the plant; 2, the method of conducting the evaporation ; 3, the proper con- 
dition of extracts, the changes they are liable to undergo, and the best method of preserving 
them. 
1. Extraction of the Soluble Principles. 
There are two distinct modes of obtaining, in a liquid state, the principles which we wish to 
extract: 1, by expression alone ; 2, by the agency of a solvent, with or without expression. 
1. By Expression. This method is applicable to recent vegetables. All plants cannot 
be usefully treated in this way, as many have too little juice to afford an appreciable quantity 
upon pressure, and of the succulent a considerable portion do not yield all their active principles 
with their juice. Succulent fruits, and various acrid and narcotic plants, are proper subjects 
for this treatment. The plants should be operated upon, if possible, immediately after collec- 
tion. Mr. Battley, of London, recommended that, if not entirely fresh, they should be revived 
by the immersion of the stalks in water for twelve or eighteen hours, and those only used which 
recover their freshness by this management. They should then be cut into pieces, and bruised 
in a stone mortar till brought to a pulpy consistence. When the plant is not very succulent, it 
is necessary to add a little water during this part of the process, in order to dilute the juice. 
After sufficient contusion, the pulp is introduced into a linen or canvas bag, and the liquid 
parts expressed. Mr. Brande states that light pressure only should be employed, as the extract 
is thus procured greener, of a less glutinous or viscid consistence, and, in his opinion, more 
active than when considerable force is used in the expression. (.Practice of Pharmacy.) The 
juice thus obtained is opaque, and usually green, in consequence of the presence of green wax 
or chlorophyll, and of a portion of the undissolved vegetable fibre in minute division. By 
heating the juice to about 71'1° C. (160° F.) the albumen contained in it coagulates, and, in- 
volving the chlorophyll and vegetable fibre, forms a greenish precipitate. If the liquid be now 
filtered, it becomes limpid and nearly colorless, and is prepared for evaporation. The clarifi- 
cation, however, is not absolutely necessary, and is generally neglected. Sometimes the pre- 
cipitate carries with it a considerable portion of the active principle ; in which case it should 
be subsequently incorporated with the juice, when reduced by evaporation to the consistence of 
syrup* Ether added to the expressed juices of plants enables them to be kept long without 
injurious change. M. Lepage, of Gisors, France, has kept the juice of belladonna in this way 
more than ten years, and found it, at the end of that time, to yield an extract identical in 
physical, chemical, and physiological properties with that obtained from the fresh juice. If 
this fact is found to be of general applicability, it will be of considerable importance, as en- 
abling the pharmaceutist to supply himself at pleasure with extracts to be relied on, without 
reference to the season. 
2. By Solution. The active principles of dried vegetables can be extracted only by means 
of a liquid solvent. The menstruum usually employed is either water or alcohol, or a mixture 
of the two. Water, on account of its cheapness, is always preferred, when circumstances do 
not strongly call for the use of alcohol. It has the advantage, moreover, that it may be assisted 
in its action, if necessary, by a higher degree of heat than the latter. Pump water is often 
unfit for the purpose, in consequence of the quantity of its saline matter, which in some 
instances may exert an unfavorable influence on the active principle, and must always be left 
in the extract. Bain, river, or distilled water should be preferred. Alcohol is employed when 
the principles to be extracted are insoluble or but slightly soluble in water, as in the case of the 
resins; when it is desirable to avoid in the extract inert substances, such as gum and starch, 
which are dissolved by water and not by alcohol; when the heat required to evaporate the 
aqueous solution would dissipate or decompose the active ingredients of the plant, as the volatile 
oils or the active principle of sarsaparilla; when the reaction of the water itself upon the 
vegetable principles is injurious ; and, finally, when the nature of the substance to be exhausted 
requires so long a maceration in water as to endanger spontaneous decomposition. The aqueous 
solution requires to be soon evaporated, as this fluid rather promotes than counteracts chemical 
changes; while an alcoholic tincture may be preserved unaltered for an indefinite period. An 
addition of alcohol to water is sufficient to answer some of the purposes for which the former 
* See the process for inspissated juices under Extractum Belladonnas, Br., p. 545. Extracta. 
527 
PAET I. 
is preferable ; and the employment of both fluids is essential, when the virtues of the plant 
reside in two or more principles, all of which are not soluble in either of these menstrua. In 
this case it is usually better to submit the vegetable to the action of the two fluids successively 
than of both united. Extracts obtained by the agency of water are called aqueous extracts; 
those by means of alcohol, undiluted or diluted, alcoholic or spirituous extracts. Sometimes the 
term hydro-alcoholic is applied to extracts obtained by the joint agency of alcohol and wrater. 
The method of preparing the solution is not a matter of indifference. The drug should be 
thoroughly bruised, or reduced to a coarse powder, so as to allow the access of the solvent to all 
its parts, and yet not so finely pulverized as to prevent a ready precipitation of the undissolved 
and inactive portion. When water is alone employed, it has been customary to boil the medi- 
cine for a considerable time, and, if the first portion of liquid does not completely exhaust it, to 
repeat the operation with successive portions till the whole of the active matter is extracted. 
This may be known by the sensible properties of the liquid, and by its influence upon reagents. 
But the boiling temperature produces the decomposition of many vegetable principles, or at 
least so modifies them as to render them inert; and the extracts prepared by decoction are 
usually less efficient than those made with a less degree of heat. From numerous experiments 
upon extracts, Orfila concluded that their virtues were less in proportion to the heat employed. 
It has, therefore, been recommended to substitute for decoction the process of maceration, 
digestion, or hot infusion; in the first of which the liquid acts without heat, in the second is 
assisted by a moderately increased temperature sustained for a considerable time, and in the 
third is poured boiling hot upon the vegetable matter and allowed to stand for a short period in 
a covered vessel. When the active principles are readily soluble in cold water, maceration is 
often preferable to the other modes, as starch, which is inert, is thus left behind ; but in many 
instances the preparation would spoil before the extraction would be completed. By digestion, 
though the solvent power of water is moderately increased, the advantage is often more than 
counterbalanced by the increased disposition to spontaneous decomposition. Hot infusion, there- 
fore, is to be preferred where the vegetable does not readily yield its virtues to cold water. It 
has the advantage, moreover, in the case of albuminous substances, that the albumen is coagu- 
lated, and thus prevented from increasing the bulk of the extract, without adding to its virtues. 
A convenient mode of performing this process is to introduce the solid material into a vessel 
with an opening near the bottom temporarily closed, or into a funnel with its mouth loosely 
stopped, then to pour on the boiling water, and, having allowed it to remain a sufficient length 
of time, to draw it off through the opening. This operation may be repeated till the water 
comes away without any obvious impregnation. It is always desirable to obtain the solution in 
the first place as concentrated as possible, so as to prevent the necessity of long-continued 
evaporation, which injures the extract. It is better, therefore, to incur the risk, both when 
decoction and infusion are employed, of leaving a portion of the active matter behind, than to 
obtain a very weak solution. When successive portions of water are employed, those which 
are least impregnated should be brought by evaporation to the strength of that first obtained 
before being mixed with it, as the latter thus escapes unnecessary exposure to heat. 
Sometimes the filtering of a turbid infusion or decoction, before evaporation, causes the re- 
sulting extract to keep better, by removing substances which, besides undergoing decomposition, 
may act as a ferment, and occasion the decomposition of the active matter of the extract. 
When alcohol is employed as a menstruum, the vegetable should be macerated in it for one 
or two weeks, and care should be taken that the tincture be as nearly saturated as possible. 
The extraction may be hastened by substituting digestion for maceration ; as the moderate heat 
employed, while it facilitates the action of the alcohol, has in this case no effect in promoting 
decomposition, and the influence of the atmospheric air may be excluded by performing the 
process in close vessels. When alcohol and water are both used, it is best, as a rule, to 
exhaust the substance with each separately, as the two menstrua require different modes of 
treatment. In whichever of these'modes the extraction is effected, it requires the assistance 
of occasional agitation; and when the vegetable matter is very porous, and absorbs a large 
quantity of the solvent, expression must be resorted to. 
Acetic acid has been introduced into use as a menstruum in the preparation of extracts. It 
is supposed to be a better solvent of the active principles of certain substances than either 
water or alcohol alone. According to Girolamo Ferrari, the acrid narcotics, such as aconite, 
hemlock, hyoscyamus, and stramonium, yield much stronger extracts with distilled vinegar 
than with water, and still stronger with alcohol to which strong acetic acid has been added. 
('Joum. de Pharm., 3e ser., i. 239.) This acid is used in the preparation of the extract of 528 
Extracta. 
PART I. 
colchicum. Recent experiments have shown that strong acetic acid (60 per cent.) is a powerful 
solvent for the active properties of various drugs, particularly those which contain volatile oils, 
and in many cases a 10 per cent, acetic acid is an excellent menstruum for making extracts; 
for these the name acetract has been proposed. (Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 416.) Dr. E. R. Squibb 
has used acetic acid largely for extracts. ( West. Druy., 1897, 123.) 
Ether also is now used to a considerable extent in the preparation of certain extracts. Having 
the property of dissolving volatile oil and resin, and of evaporating at a temperature insuffi- 
cient to volatilize the oil, it is admirably adapted for the preparation of extracts from those 
substances the virtues of which reside in the two principles referred to. An ethereal tincture 
is first prepared by the process of percolation, and the ether is then either allowed to escape by 
spontaneous evaporation, or distilled off at a very moderate heat. The oleoresinous extracts 
thus obtained are usually of a thick fluid or semi-fluid consistence. Several of them are now 
ranked among the official preparations, in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, under the title of Oleoresins. 
The process of percolation has in this country been very advantageously applied to the prep- 
aration of extracts, both with water and spirituous menstrua. It has the following great ad- 
vantages: 1, that it enables the soluble principles to be sufficiently extracted by cold water, 
thereby avoiding the injury resulting from heat in decoction and hot infusion ; 2, that it effects 
the extraction much more quickly than can be done by maceration, thereby not only saving 
time, but also obviating the risk of spontaneous decomposition ; and, 3, that it affords the op- 
portunity of obtaining highly concentrated solutions, thus diminishing the injurious effects of 
the subsequent evaporation. While thus advantageous, it is less liable in this particular case 
than in others to the objection of yielding imperfect results if not well performed ; for, though 
an inexpert or careless operator may incur loss by an incomplete exhaustion of the substance 
acted on, and the extract may be deficient in quantity, it may still be of the intended strength 
and quality, which is not the case with infusions or tinctures unskilfully prepared upon this 
plan. In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, all the extracts to which the process is applicable are pre- 
pared by percolation, and with merely sufficient previous maceration or digestion to thoroughly 
soften the extractive. In the British Pharmacopoeia, the process is applied, as it were, hesi- 
tatingly to a portion of the extracts, and withheld in others to which it seems equally appro- 
priate. The first requisite in performing the process of percolation is to have the drug reduced 
to the proper degree of fineness. The U. S. Pharm. gives the following directions on the subject. 
Fineness of Powder. “ The fineness of powder is expressed, in the Pharmacopoeia, either 
by descriptive words (generally so in the case of brittle or easily pulverizable substances), or 
in terms expressing the number of meshes to a linear inch of the sieve through which the 
powder will pass. The corresponding values, in terms of metric measures of length, are added 
below in parentheses, but it has not been deemed advisable, in this revision, to substitute them 
in the text of the Pharmacopoeia for those at present in use. 
“ These different forms of expression correspond to each other as follows: 
should pass through a sieve having 80 or’ 
more meshes to the linear inch (30 meshes 
to the centimeter) 
A very fine powder 
= No. 80 powder. 
should pass through a sieve having 60 
meshes to the linear inch (24 meshes to 
the centimeter) 
A fine powder 
= No. 60 powder. 
A moderately fine powder 
' should pass through a sieve having 50" 
meshes to the linear inch (20 meshes to 
[the centimeter) 
= No. 50 powder. 
A moderately coarse powder 
' should pass through a sieve having 40 
meshes to the linear inch (16 meshes to 
the centimeter) 
= No. 40 powder. 
A coarse powder 
should pass through a sieve having 20 
meshes to the linear inch (8 meshes to the 
centimeter) 
= No. 20 powder. 
“ In certain cases, powders of a different degree of fineness (e.g., No. 30, No. 12) are directed 
to be taken. When a substance is directed to be in powder of a limited degree of fineness, as PART I. 
Extradci. 
529 
specified by the number of meshes to the linear inch in the sieve, not more than one-fourth of 
the powder should pass through a sieve having ten meshes more to the linear inch.” U. S. 
Percolation. “ The process of percolation, or displacement, directed in this Pharmacopoeia, 
consists in subjecting a substance or a mixture of substances, in powder, contained in a vessel 
called a percolator, to the solvent action of successive portions of a certain menstruum in such a 
manner that the liquid, as it traverses the powder in its descent to the receiver, shall be charged 
with the soluble portion of it, and pass from the percolator free from insoluble matter. 
“ When the process is successfully conducted, the first portion of the liquid, or percolate, 
passing through the percolator, will be nearly saturated with the soluble constituents of the 
substance treated; and if the quantity of menstruum be sufficient for its exhaustion, the last 
portion of the percolate will be nearly free from color, odor, and taste, other than those of the 
menstruum itself. 
“ The percolator most suitable for the quantities contemplated by this Pharmacopoeia should 
be nearly cylindrical, or slightly conical, with a funnel-shaped termination at the smaller end. 
The neck of this funnel-end should be rather short, and should gradually and regularly become 
narrower towards the orifice, so that a perforated cork, bearing a short glass tube, may be 
tightly wedged into it from within until the end of the cork is flush with the outer edge of the 
orifice. The glass tube, which must not project above the inner surface of the cork, should 
extend from 3 to 4 Cm. beyond the outer surface of the cork, and should be provided with a 
closely fitting rubber tube, at least one-fourth longer than the percolator itself, and ending in 
another short glass tube, whereby the rubber tube may be so suspended that its orifice shall 
be above the surface of the menstruum in the percolator, a rubber band holding it in 
position. 
“ The shape of a percolator should be adapted to the nature of the drug to be operated upon. 
For drugs which are apt to swell, particularly when a feebly alcoholic or an aqueous menstruum 
is employed, a conical percolator is preferable. A cylindrical or only slightly tapering perco- 
lator may be used for drugs which are not liable to swell, and when the menstruum is strongly 
alcoholic, or when ether or some other volatile liquid is used for extraction. The size of the 
percolator selected should be in proportion to the quantity of drug extracted. When properly 
packed in the percolator, the drug should not occupy more than two-thirds of its height. The 
percolator is best constructed of glass or stone-ware, but, unless otherwise directed, may be 
made of any suitable material not affected by the drug or menstruum. 
“ The percolator is prepared for percolation by gently pressing a small tuft of cotton into the 
neck above the cork, a thin layer of clean and dry sand being then poured upon the surface of 
the cotton to hold it in place. 
“ The powdered substance to be percolated (which must be uniformly of the fineness directed 
in the formula, and should be perfectly air-dry before it is weighed) is put into a basin, the 
specified quantity of menstruum is poured on, and it is thoroughly stirred with a spatula, or 
other suitable instrument, until it appears uniformly moistened. The moist powder is then 
passed through a coarse sieve—No. 40 powders, and those which are finer, requiring a No. 20 
sieve, whilst No. 30 powders require a No. 15 sieve for this purpose. Powders of a less degree 
of fineness usually do not require this additional treatment after the moistening. The moist 
powder is now transferred to a sheet of thick paper and the whole quantity poured from this into 
the percolator. It is then shaken down lightly and allowed to remain in that condition for a period 
varying from fifteen minutes to several hours, unless otherwise directed ; after which the powder 
is pressed, by the aid of a plunger of suitable dimensions, more or less firmly, in proportion to 
the character of the powdered substance and the alcoholic strength of the menstruum ; strongly 
alcoholic menstrua, as a rule, permitting firmer packing of the powder than the weaker. The 
percolator is now placed in position for percolation, and, the rubber tube having been fastened 
at a suitable height, the surface of the powder is covered by an accurately fitting disk of filter- 
ing paper, or other suitable material, and a sufficient quantity of the menstruum poured on 
through a funnel reaching nearly to the surface of the paper. If these conditions be accurately 
observed, the menstruum will penetrate the powder equally until it has passed into the rubber 
tube and has reached, in this, a height corresponding to its level in the percolator, which is now 
closely covered to prevent evaporation. The apparatus is then allowed to stand at rest for the 
time specified in the formula. 
“ To begin percolation, the rubber tube is lowered and its glass end introduced into the neck 
of a bottle previously marked for the quantity of liquid to be percolated, if the percolate is 
to be measured, or of a tared bottle, if the percolate is to be weighed; and by raising 530 
Extracta. 
PART I. 
or lowering this receiver the rapidity of percolation may be increased or decreased as may be 
desirable, care being taken, however, that the rate of percolation, unless the quantity of 
material be largely in excess of the pharmacopoeial quantity, shall not exceed the limit of ten 
to thirty drops in a minute. A layer of menstruum must constantly be maintained above the 
powder, so as to prevent the access of air to its interstices, until all has been added, or the 
requisite quantity of percolate has been obtained. This is conveniently accomplished, if the 
space above the powder will admit of it, by inverting a bottle containing the entire quantity 
of menstruum over the percolator in such a manner that its mouth may dip beneath the surface 
of the liquid, the bottle being of such shape that its shoulder will serve as a cover for the percolator. 
When the dregs of a tincture, or of a similar preparation, are to be subjected to percolation, 
after maceration with all or with the greater portion of the menstruum, the liquid portion 
should be drained off as completely as possible, the solid portion packed in a percolator, as 
before described, and the liquid poured on, until all has passed from the surface, when imme- 
diately a sufficient quantity of the original menstruum should be poured on to displace the 
absorbed liquid, until the prescribed quantity has been obtained. 
“ Repercolation. Authority is given to employ, in the case of Fluid Extracts, where it may 
be applicable, the process of Bepercolation, without change of the initial menstruum.” U. S. 
For an account of Dr. Squibb’s process of repercolation, see Extracta Fluida. 
Some prefer the mode of expression to that of percolation. This also is applicable both to 
aqueous and to alcoholic menstrua. The substance to be acted upon is mixed with the menstruum, 
cold or hot according to circumstances ; and the mixture is allowed to stand from twelve to 
twenty-four hours. The liquid part is then filtered off, and the remainder submitted to strong 
pressure, in a linen bag, by means of a common screw-press, or other convenient instrument. 
Another portion of the menstruum may then be added, and pressure again applied, and, if the 
substance is not sufficiently exhausted, the same operation may be performed a third time. 
Frequently only a single expression is required, and very seldom a third. The quantity of 
menstruum added must vary with the solubility of the principles to be extracted. According 
to Mohr, the method of expression has the advantages over that of percolation, that it yields 
solutions of more uniform concentration, that it does not require the materials to be so care- 
fully powdered, or otherwise so skilfully managed, in order to insure favorable results, and, 
finally, that it occupies less time. 
2. Mode of Conducting the Evaporation. 
In evaporating the solutions obtained in the modes above described, attention should always 
be paid to the fact that the extractive matter is constantly becoming insoluble at high tempera- 
tures with the access of air, and that other chemical changes are going on, sometimes not less 
injurious than this, while the volatile principles are expelled with the vapor. The operator 
should, therefore, observe two rules : 1, to conduct the evaporation at as low a temperature as 
is consistent with other objects ; 2, to exclude atmospheric air as much as possible, and, when 
this cannot be accomplished, to expose the liquid the shortest possible time to its action. The 
injurious influence of atmospheric air is much greater at the boiling point of water than at a 
less heat, even allowing for the longer exposure in the latter case ; and therefore a slow evapo- 
ration at a moderate heat is preferable to the more rapid effects of ebullition. Bearing these 
principles in mind, we shall proceed to examine the different modes in practice. First, how- 
ever, it is proper to observe that decoctions generally let fall, upon cooling, a portion of insolu- 
ble matter ; and it is a question whether this should be rejected, or retained so as to form a part 
of the extract. Though it is undoubtedly in many instances inert, as in that of the insoluble 
substance formed during the decoction of certain vegetable substances, yet, as it frequently also 
contains a portion of the active principle which a boiling saturated solution necessarily deposits 
on cooling, and as it is difficult to decide with certainty when it is active and when otherwise, 
the safest plan, as a rule, is to allow it to remain. 
The method of evaporation formerly resorted to in the case of aqueous solutions is rapid 
boiling over a fire. The more quickly the process is conducted, the better, provided the liquid 
is to be brought to the boiling point; for the temperature cannot exceed this, and the length 
of exposure is diminished. But, where this method is employed, it should never be continued 
till the completion of the evaporation ; for when most of the water has escaped, the tempera- 
ture can no longer be kept down to the boiling point, and the extract is burnt. The caution, 
therefore, should always be observed of removing the preparation from the fire before it has 
attained the consistence of thick syrup, and completing the evaporation, either by means of a Extrcida. 
531 
PART I. 
water-bath, or in shallow vessels at a moderate heat. When large quantities of liquid are to 
be evaporated, it is best to divide them into portions and evaporate each separately, for, as each 
portion requires less time for evaporation than the whole, it will thus be a shorter time exposed 
to heat. (Mohr.) But the mode of evaporation by boiling is always objectionable, and should 
be employed only in cases where the principles of the plant are so fixed and unchangeable as 
to authorize their extraction by decoction. 
Evaporation by means of the water-bath, from the commencement of the process, is safer 
than the plan just mentioned, as it obviates all danger of burning the extract; but, as the heat 
is not supplied directly from the fire, the volatilization of the water cannot go on so rapidly, 
and, the temperature being nearly the same, when the water-bath is kept boiling, there is 
greater risk of injurious action from the air. The liquid should be stirred during the process. 
The use of the steam-bath has become very general in this country, as it requires a smaller 
consumption of fuel, and the heat imparted to the liquid, while sufficient to evaporate it, is 
less than 100° C. (212° F.). The apparatus consists of an ordinary boiler, containing water, 
the vapor of which is conducted through a pipe into the evaporating vessels, communicating 
with each other by means of iron steam pipes. These vessels have the form of an ordinary 
copper basin, to the inside of which is riveted a shallow tinned copper evaporating basin, in- 
tended to contain the liquid to be evaporated. The vapor from the boiler circulates between 
these vessels, and the water into which it condenses is allowed to escape through a steam valve 
attached to the bottom of each vessel. The liquid to be evaporated is first distributed in two 
or three basins, but when considerably concentrated is transferred to a single one, where it is 
stirred towards the close of the process to hasten the evaporation. The heat applied to the 
liquid can be easily regulated by the steam valves. 
As the heat capable of being applied by boiling water to the evaporating liquid does not 
exceed 93‘3° C. (200° F.), while that by steam can, by a moderate pressure, be increased 
to the boiling point or beyond it, the evaporation by the latter agency may be much more 
rapid than by the former, when the pressure is from ten to twenty pounds to the square inch; 
so that there is a temptation to raise the heat to a degree seriously injurious to the product. 
Evaporation, therefore, by steam heat always requires caution, while the water-bath is much 
less liable to be abused. In this respect the latter method has the advantage. 
A good plan of evaporation, though slow, is to place the liquid in a broad, shallow vessel, 
exposed in a stove or drying-room to a temperature of about 100° F., or a little higher, taking 
care that the air have free access in order to facilitate the evaporation. This mode is particu- 
larly applicable to those cases in which maceration or infusion is preferred to decoction for ex- 
tracting the active principles. Berzelius says that we may thus usually obtain the extract in 
the form of a yellowish transparent mass, while extracts prepared in the ordinary way are 
almost black, and are opaque even in very thin layers. Even when the liquid is boiled at first, 
the process may often be advantageously completed in this manner. It has been proposed to 
effect the evaporation at the common temperature, by directing a strong current of air, by 
means of a pair of smith’s bellows, over the surface of the liquid; and in reference to sub- 
stances which are injured by heat and not by atmospheric air the plan will be found useful. 
Plans have been proposed and carried into execution for performing evaporation without 
the admission of atmospheric air. The apparatus for evaporation in vacuo, now largely used 
by manufacturing pharmacists, is well calculated to meet this object, at the same time that, 
by removing the atmospheric pressure, it enables the water to rise in vapor more rapidly, and 
at a comparatively low temperature* 
A convenient plan of excluding the air, though it does not at the same time meet the object 
of reducing the degree of heat, is to distil off the water in close vessels. Berzelius says that 
this is the best mode of' concentration next to that in vacuo. Care, however, must be taken 
that the fire be not too long applied, lest the extract should be burnt. The process should, 
therefore, be completed by means of the water-bath. 
* A very ingenious apparatus for evaporating in vacuo on a small scale has been invented by Prof. A. B. Prescott 
(A. J. P., xlii. 349). Two vessels are required: a small one, for evaporation ; a large one, which is best made of 
copper, and should be so arranged as to be readily heated or refrigerated at will. The two are to be connected by 
glass tubing, through rubber corks, and into the cork of the evaporating dish is to be set a short straight glass tube 
with a piece of rubber tubing fitted to it so that it can be tightly closed with a glass rod at will. An ounce or two of 
water having been put in the receiver, and the material in the evaporating vessel, a gentle heat is, by means of 
water, applied to the evaporating vessel, but a strong heat to the receiver. The water in this latter boils furiously, 
and the vapor escapes through the opened tube in the evaporating vessel. When the water is exhausted the tube is 
closed and the receiver refrigerated. Of course a vacuum results, and is maintained by the continuous condensation 
of vapor in the receiver. 532 
Extracta. 
PART I. 
In the concentration of alcoholic solutions, distillation should always be performed, as not 
only is the atmospheric air thus excluded, but the alcohol is recovered, if not absolutely pure, 
certainly fit for the purpose to which it was originally applied. Here also the water-bath should 
be employed, to obviate any possible risk of injury from the fire. When the decoction or in- 
fusion and the tincture of the same vegetable have been made separately, they should be sepa- 
rately evaporated to the consistence of syrup, and then mixed together while they are of such 
a consistence as to incorporate without difficulty. The object of this separate evaporation is 
that the spirituous extract may not be exposed to the degree of heat, or lengthened action of 
the air, which is necessary in the ordinary mode of concentrating the infusion or decoction. 
In every instance, care should be taken to prevent any portion of the extract from becoming 
dry and hard on the sides of the evaporating vessel, as in this state it will not readily incorpo- 
rate with the remaining mass. The heat, therefore, should be applied to the bottom and not 
to the sides of the vessel. 
Inasmuch as the yield of extracts is largely dependent on the character of the menstruum 
used in the percolation, it follows that there must necessarily be a great variation in the 
strength of commercial extracts. C. H. Lawall has prepared a valuable table giving the 
yield of extract by various drugs. (Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 414.) For methods of assay, see 
Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 415. 
Extracts may be prepared of two different degrees of consistence: soft so that they may 
be readily made into pills, and hard in order that they may be pulverized. The soft ex- 
tracts always contain a notable percentage of water. In astringent extracts, the evaporation 
should be carried to dryness. Those obtained from the expressed juices of plants are apt to 
attract moisture from the air, in consequence of the deliquescent nature of the salts existing 
in the juice. They are thus rendered softer, and more liable to become mouldy upon the sur- 
face. Others, especially such as contain much chlorophyll, harden by time, in consequence of 
the escape of their moisture; and it not unfrequently happens that small crystals of saline 
matter are formed in their substance; sodium chloride in small cubes is sometimes found in 
certain old extracts, having slowly crystallized as they hardened. Prof. John Attfield, of 
London, has made a chemical examination of the crystals found in numerous extracts, and 
ascertained that in a large number they consisted of potassium chloride, and in a compara- 
tively few of potassium nitrate* The air, moreover, exercises an unfavorable chemical influ- 
ence over the softer extracts, which are enfeebled, and ultimately become nearly inert, by the 
same changes which they undergo more rapidly in the liquid state at an elevated temperature. 
If an extract be dissolved in water, and the liquid be saturated with common salt or any other 
very soluble salt of difficult decomposition, the greater part of it will be precipitated, in conse- 
quence of the insolubility of this class of substances in saline solutions. The precipitate may 
be again dissolved in pure water. 
Abstracts, which were official in the U. S. P. 1880, were not re-introduced into the present 
revision, as they did not come into general use: this is unfortunate, as they had many advan- 
tages, and as they are used in certain sections of the country. A description and a typical 
formula, with comments, are appended.f Abstracts of the following eleven drugs were official 
3. Condition and Preservation of Extracts. 
* Thus, potassium chloride was detected in the extracts of belladonna, hemlock, sarsaparilla (compound), colchicum 
seeds, stramonium seeds, and aconite; potassium nitrate in the extracts of belladonna, hyoscyamus, and lettuce; and 
sodium sulphate in extract of stramonium seeds. (P. J. Tr., March, 1862, p. 448.) 
f Abstracta. Abstracts. Abstracts are solid powdered preparations containing the soluble constituents of the 
drugs from which they are made, and to which they bear a definite and uniform relation. These preparations were 
first introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880, and have many advantages over ordinary extracts. They are 
prepared by evaporating an alcoholic tincture of a drug spontaneously and at a low temperature, mixing it with a 
sufficient quantity of dried sugar of milk to make the final product when dry weigh one-half the weight of the drug, 
and then powdering it. The following general formula exhibits the typical official process. 
General Formula. Drug, in No. 60 powder, two hundred, parts [or four ounces av.] ; Sugar of Milk, recently 
dried and in fine powder, Alcohol, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred parts [or two ounces av.]. Moisten 
the drug with eighty parts [or one and three-quarter fluidounces] of Alcohol, and pack firmly in a cylindrical glass 
percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the drug is exhausted. Reserve 
the first one hundred and seventy parts [or three and one-half fluidounces] of the percolate, evaporate the remainder 
to thirty parts [or half a fluidounce] at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), and mix with the reserved 
portion. Place the mixture in an evaporating dish, and, having added fifty parts [or one ounce av.] of Sugar of 
Milk, cover it with a piece of thin muslin gauze, and set aside in a warm place, where the temperature will not rise 
above 50° C. (122° F.J, until the mixture is dry. Lastly, having added enough Sugar of Milk to make the mixture PAET I. 
Extrada. 
533 
in 1880: aconite, belladonna root, conium, digitalis, hyoscyamus, ignatia, jalap, nux vomica, 
podophyllum, senega, and valerian. Prof. Hallberg favors the use of a menstruum of three 
measures of alcohol with one of chloroform for abstracts, and prefers the term “ quatract” to 
“ abstract.” (Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 245.) 
Extracts, in order that they may keep well, should be placed in glazed earthenware, glass, or 
porcelain jars, and completely protected from the access of the air. This may be effected by 
covering their surface with a layer of melted wax, or with a piece of paper moistened with 
strong spirit, then closing the mouth of the vessel with a cork, spreading wax or rosin over 
this, and covering the whole with leather or a piece of bladder. (Duncan.) The dry extracts, 
being less liable to be affected by atmospheric oxygen, do not require so much care. The ap- 
plication of alcohol to the surface has a tendency to prevent mouldiness. A method of pro- 
tecting extracts from the action of the air, frequently resorted to, is to cover them closely with 
oiled bladder; but this, though better than to leave them uncovered, is not entirely effectual. 
Should the extract become too moist, it may be dried by means of a water-bath; should it, on 
the contrary, be too dry, the proper consistence may be restored by softening it in the same 
manner and incorporating with it a little distilled water. Martin (1880) proposes to preserve 
extracts in a soft condition by surrounding the vessel containing the extract by another of 
larger diameter, which is furnished with a tight cover, the space between the two vessels being 
filled with crystallized sodium sulphate, which gradually parts with its water of crystallization 
and prevents the extract from becoming hard and dry. 
When extracts which are too soft are subjected to a moderate temperature, fermentation 
may set in: E. Cocardas describes the various forms of “ Penicillium-ferment” which grow 
in such extracts, and concludes that the ferment causes them to undergo changes similar to 
those effected by heat,—viz., the absorption of oxygen and the disengagement of carbon dioxide. 
(P. J. Tr., 1886, p. 590.) 
Some extracts when powdered have a tendency to cohere again. According to Geiseler, this 
may be obviated by the addition of sugar of milk or powdered liquorice-root; two or three 
parts of the former and one part of the latter to one of the extract being sufficient for the pur- 
pose. (Pharm. Centralbl., 1850, p. 238.) Mohr recommends the following plan of drying and 
preserving extracts. Take equal parts of powdered liquorice-root and of the extract, rub them 
well together in a mortar, put the resulting paste into an earthen vessel with a flat bottom, place 
this in another of iron, a little deeper, containing calcium chloride thoroughly dried by heat 
insufficient to melt it; then enclose the whole with a cover fitted to the iron vessel, and allow 
them to stand for a day or more. When the mixture is quite dry, powder it, and add so much 
of the powdered root as to make the weight double that of the original extract.* (Ibid., p. 119.) 
Four parts of extract are now mixed with three parts of finely powdered liquorice-root, and 
dried in a porcelain capsule at 40°-50° C. (104°-122° F.) until the mixture ceases to lose 
weight. The mass is then rubbed to powder, and sufficient powdered liquorice-root added to 
make the whole weigh eight parts, or double the weight of extract used. In our opinion, this 
method is not so good as that formerly adopted for abstracts. The G-erman powdered extracts 
are always half the strength of the extracts, no relation whatever with the drug is established, 
and the variations in the yield of extract from different drugs have been repeatedly shown to 
be great. Kirchmann proposes exsiccated sodium sulphate as a diluent instead of dextrin, 
liquorice-root, etc. (Pharm. Zeitung, 1881, 116.) Dr. A. B. Lyons, of Detroit (1898), has 
introduced scale extracts. These do not, as a class, bear a definite relation to the drug; they 
are assayed, however, and acacia is used as a means of preserving their dry condition; they 
are easily pulverized, and are very convenient for dispensing. 
The plan of incorporating a little glycerin with extracts has been recommended for such 
weigh one hundred parte [or two ounces av.], reduce it to a fine, uniform powder. Preserve the powder in a well- 
stopped bottle. 
The advantages possessed by abstracts may be briefly stated as follows; 
1. Each abstract represents twice the strength of the drug or fluid extract from which it is prepared. 
2. They are dry powders, if properly made, and thus are permanent and portable ; not subject to precipitation as 
fluid extracts are; not liable to become hard, tough, and variable in strength, a3 is the case with extracts. 
3. Injurious exposure to heat is entirely avoided, and the official process requires no apparatus but such as either 
is at hand in the pharmacy or can be easily obtained by a pharmacist operating upon the small scale. 
4. The final thorough trituration of the dry powder reduces the soluble and active constituents of the drug to a 
pulverulent condition, the diluent is soluble, and the fine state of division of abstracts is the most favorable condi- 
tion that a powder can possess to secure efficient medication. (Remington’s Practice of Pharmacy, p. 427.) 
* This process was substantially adopted in the German Pharmacopoeia (1882). The old process of using dextrin 
as a diluent was found very objectionable, principally on account of the tendency of the extracts to reabsorb moisture. 534 
Extracta Fluida. 
PART I. 
extracts as require it, 10 per cent, of glycerin being added to the liquid extract before evaporation 
to a pilular consistence. By its unchangeable liquid character, glycerin keeps the extract soft, 
so that it can be readily made into pills, and it also exercises a favorable influence through its 
chemical properties. It is preferable to add a definite weight of the glycerin to the percolate. 
If it were added to the menstruum, owing to the variation in the yield of extracts from plants, 
some would be too soft, and at another time, in the case of a large yield of extract, the quan- 
tity of glycerin would be insignificant. 
Extracts from recent plants should be prepared at the season when the plant is medicinally 
most active; and a good rule is to prepare them once a year.* 
EXTRACTA FLUIDA. Fluid Extracts. 
(BX-TEAC'TA FLU'I-DA.) 
Extracta Liquida, Hr.; Extraits liquides, Fr.; Fliissige Extrakte, G. 
These were first introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1850 as a distinct class of prep- 
arations ; the fluid extract of sarsaparilla being the only one previously directed, either in our 
own official code or by the British Colleges. Since then they have increased so rapidly in 
favor that at the present time eighty-eight are official, and in addition large quantities of non- 
official fluid extracts are annually produced. They are now perhaps the most important class 
of liquid preparations in use. Their distinctive character is the concentration of the active 
ingredients of medicinal substances into a small bulk, in the liquid form, a cubic centimeter 
or fluigrarnme of any one of them now representing a gramme of the crude drug. Inde- 
pendently of the greater convenience of administration, the advantage of this class of prep- 
arations is thatr the evaporation not being carried so far as in the ordinary extracts, the active 
principles are less liable to be injured by heat. Formerly the main difficulty in relation to 
them was the liability of substances in the liquid state to undergo spontaneous decomposition. 
In the Pharmacopoeia of 1850 this was counteracted by means of sugar and of alcohol, but in 
1865 (A. J. P., 1865, p. 50) Mr. Alfred B. Taylor proposed the use of glycerin, and in the 
revision of the Pharmacopoeia for 1870 his suggestion was adopted. Glycerin, while it exerts 
a powerful preservative influence, possesses the very valuable property of dissolving matters 
which were deposited by some of the fluid extracts when made with sugar, as in the old official 
recipes. Consequently these fluid extracts were much clearer and more elegant preparations 
than were the old ones. Subsequent experience with these fluid extracts showed that the 
use of glycerin should be circumscribed, and that it had been employed too freely in the for- 
mulas of the fluid extracts of the U. S. P. 1870. The solvent powers of glycerin are so great 
that the fluid extracts were frequently loaded with many inert principles, which it dissolved, 
giving them a dense, rich appearance, without increasing their activity. As the primary object 
of fluid extracts is concentration, suitable menstrua should in each case be selected with the 
single object of dissolving and retaining permanently the active constituents of the drug. 
The present fluid extracts are of the same strength as those formerly official, and the formu- 
las are based upon the theory that from a given weight of drug an amount of fluid extract shall 
be made equal in measure to the bulk of the same weight of distilled water; iu other words, 
upon the relation of gramme to cubic centimetre.f Although the metric system is admirable 
in practice, some may prefer to use ordinary weights and measures; in such cases, to make 20 
fluidounces of a fluid extract 19 troyounces of drug will be required, whilst if avoirdupois weight 
is preferred, the most convenient relation to recollect will be that 50 avoirdupois ounces are 
• M. Lepage, of Gisors, gives the following method of testing the quality of the narcotic extracts and determining 
whether they contain any of the alkaloids to which they owe their efficiency. Take a gramme (15'5 gr.) of the ex- 
tract, dissolve it in twice its weight of distilled water, introduce the solution into a test-tube, and add from 25 to 30 
centigrammes (4 or 5 gr.) of powdered potassium bicarbonate. When effervescence has ceased, add to the mixture 5 
or 6 times its bulk of pure ether, cork the tube, and shake briskly three times in 2 or 3 minutes. Then let the mixture 
rest; and when the ether has become transparent, decant, and allow it to evaporate spontaneously. Dissolve the 
residue in 6 or 8 grammes (f 3 iss to of water acidulated with a drop or two of hydrochloric acid. If the ex- 
tract be good, the solution will be rendered very turbid by a few drops of a solution of the double iodide of mercury 
and potassium, and will give a flocculent precipitate with solution of tannic acid. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1863, p. 
362.) The test is applicable to the extracts of aconite, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and conium. 
t The following table shows the relation of the crude drug to the fluid extract when made by the process of the 
U. S. P. 1890 and when made by that of the U. S. P. 1870: 
Pharm. 1890. 
100 grammes of drug make 100 C.c. 
100 troyounces of drug make 105'3 fluidounces. 
100 avoirdupois ounces of drug make 96 fluidounces. 
Weight of Drug. 
Measure of Fluid Extract. 
Pharm. 1870. 
94-9 C.c. 
100 fluidounces. 
91*1 fluidounces. PART I. 
Extrada Fluida. 
535 
required to make 48 Jiuidounces, or three pints, of a fluid extract. It has been repeatedly pro- 
posed to make 50 per cent, tinctures or half-strength fluid extracts, the main object being to 
secure more representative preparations when made on the small scale. Experiments by Profs. 
Sayre, Gregory Patch, and others prove that half-strength fluid extracts possess no advan- 
tages over those of official strength. (Drug. Circ., 1897, 119, 147.) The general formula for 
the preparation of fluid extracts does not differ materially from that formerly official; the 
length of time required for maceration has been judiciously reduced, whilst the quantity re- 
served has been generally slightly increased, although the formulas are not uniform in this 
respect. The fact cannot escape observation that there has been a close study of the solubili- 
ties, physical properties, and individuality of each drug, whilst uniformity among the formulas 
has not been sought for, so much as the best method of producing the fluid extract. The 
general formula may be expressed as follows. 1000 Gm. of the powdered drug are moistened 
with a certain quantity of menstruum, packed in a suitable percolator, and enough menstruum 
added to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it; the lower orifice of the perco- 
lator is closed when the liquid begins to drop, and the percolator is closely covered to prevent 
evaporation and permit maceration for a specified time; additional menstruum is poured on 
and percolation continued until the drug is exhausted. Usually from seven- to nine-tenths of 
the first portion of the percolate are reserved, and the remainder evaporated to a soft extract; 
this is to be dissolved in the reserved portion, and enough menstruum added to make the fluid 
extract measure 1000 C.c. The precipitation experienced heretofore when the evaporated 
weak percolate was added to the reserved portion is considerably diminished by causing the 
former to be evaporated to a soft extract. This precipitation, formerly noticed more particu- 
larly in alcoholic fluid extracts, was due to the greater volatility of the alcohol in the weak 
percolates, which, when evaporated, left the residue to a great extent aqueous; when this was 
added to the strongly alcoholic reserved portion, a precipitation of resinous and frequently active 
matter took place, which necessitated the storing of the fluid extract until precipitation ceased, 
and subsequent filtration. This is almost altogether avoided by evaporating to a soft extract, 
and the loss of activity through precipitation is thus greatly diminished. 
A useful distillatory apparatus has been contrived by Prof. Jos. P. Remington for recovering 
alcohol from weak percolates, and for general pharmaceutical uses. The still shown in the cut 
is the new form. It is made of tinned copper, the still body holding about 
three gallons; the condenser has seven straight tubes surrounded with 
the cold water introduced by a rubber tube from a hydrant or bucket of 
water placed higher than the still, and carried off as it becomes warmed 
by another tube as indicated by the arrows. By the siphon arrangement 
shown in the cut, the still can be fed from a reservoir whilst distilla- 
tion is in progress, thus using a three-gallon still where otherwise a much 
larger one would have been necessary. The joints are carefully ground, 
and troublesome lutes and water-joints are en- 
tirely superseded. The condenser, having straight 
tubes instead of a spiral one, is easily cleaned, 
and is powerful enough to condense a gallon of 
alcohol in thirty minutes. The still may be set 
into a kettle partly filled with water and thus 
used as a water-bath, or a shallow tinned-copper 
dish with flat rim, which accompanies the still, 
may be placed between the two brass ring bands 
and clamped securely. (A. J. P., May, 1879.) 
For valuable papers on percolation and fluid 
extracts, by Prof. Procter, Dr. Squibb, Alonzo 
Robbins, and others, see Proc. A. P. A., 1859, 
p. 265 ; 1863, p. 222 ; A. J. P., 1878, pp. 209, 
329 ; 1873, pp. 85, 189. 
Several methods have been suggested for 
preparing fluid extracts more economically. The most important is the plan of repercolation, 
as proposed by Dr. E. R. Squibb, for this class of preparations as well as the dry extracts. 
Repercolation. In consequence of the existing high price of alcohol, it is important to 
adopt some plan by which, while the ends aimed at are attained, the consumption of the 
menstruum used in percolation may be diminished. This object has been accomplished, to a 536 
Extracta Fluida. 
PART I. 
considerable extent, by Dr. E. R. Squibb, of Brooklyn, N. Y.,bya modification of the process 
of percolation to which he has given the name at the head of the present paragraph. As 
defined by the author, repercolation consists in the successive application of the same percolating 
menstruum to fresh portions of the substance to be percolated. The result is that the same 
menstruum, acting repeatedly on unexhausted portions of the substance, becomes concentrated 
to the greatest possible extent, so that much of the menstruum is saved, while subsequent 
evaporation is avoided, which is itself an object of great importance in the preparation of 
extracts. It is obvious that repercolation is not applicable to the preparation of infusions, 
decoctions, tinctures, etc., in which the object in general is less a high degree of concentration 
than precision in the strength of the preparation, and consequently in the dose. It is to the 
extracts and fluid extracts that the process is peculiarly adapted, and there now remains no 
doubt whatever of the great value of the improvement. One of its disadvantages is that the 
substance treated is less completely exhausted than when the proceeding is inverted, and fresh 
portions of menstruum are made to act on the same material until the latter is deprived of all 
its soluble matter. But the loss in this way is trifling, compared with the gain when a 
menstruum as high-priced as alcohol is at the present time is employed. Another practical 
disadvantage is the inconvenience of keeping the weak percolates, as these have to be labelled, 
numbered, and stored away for use until the same operation is repeated. In deciding when to 
adopt it, the operator will of course be influenced by the relative value of the drug and the 
menstruum. In order to secure the most favorable results in repercolation, certain methods of 
proceeding are advisable in various steps of the process, differing with the character of the 
substance to be acted on ; and these can be determined only by a careful study, confirmed by 
repeated experiment. Dr. Squibb uses repercolation exclusively on the large scale in the man- 
ufacture of extracts and fluid extracts, and has applied it especially to the preparation of fluid 
extract of cinchona; and since his first paper, which was reproduced in the 14th revision of 
the U. S. Dispensatory, p. 1164, he has introduced several improvements, which are intended 
to make the process useful to the apothecary in his every-day work. By presenting in a note 
below an abstract of his plan of proceeding in this case, we can impress on the mind of the 
pharmaceutical student the lessons applicable to the case more forcibly than could be done by 
a general description.* 
The plan of 5lr. N. Spencer Thomas consists in exposing the substance to be acted on to 
successive expressions, by means of a press, with the menstruum divided into different portions, 
so that fresh portions of liquid are brought to act on the same solid body in different stages 
of exhaustion, and then mixing the expressed liquids. The due proportion between the 
weight of the medicine and the bulk of the ultimate fluid extract is secured by regulating the 
measure of the last-added portion of menstruum, which, in the process as described by Mr. 
Thomas, is the third. Whatever may be the advantages of this method,—and it is not without 
its recommendations,—it is liable to the objections of loss of alcohol through exposure during 
expression, and of being patented. (A. J. P., 1866.) Another method of limiting the quantity 
of alcohol used has been proposed by Mr. S. P. Duffield, of Detroit. It consists in macer- 
* Dr. Squibb’s Process for Extract of Cinchona by Repercolation : “ Take of Yellow Cinchona, in powder No. 50, 
32 parts; Stronger Alcohol, sp. gr. '819, 2 parts; Glycerin, sp. gr. T250, 1 part; Water, 2 parts, or a sufficient quan- 
tity of menstruum. Weigh the Stronger Alcohol, Glycerin, and Water in succession, in any convenient quantity at 
a time, into a tared bottle, and mix them thoroughly for a menstruum. 
“ Moisten 8 parts of the Cinchona with eight parts of the menstruum, by thoroughly mixing them, and allow the 
mixture to stand 8 hours in a closely-covered vessel. Then pass the moist powder through a No. 8 sieve, and pack 
it firmly in a percolator. Pour menstruum on top until the mass is filled with liquid and a stratum remains on top 
unabsorbed; cover the percolator closely and macerate for 48 hours. Then arrange the percolator for an automatic 
supply of menstruum, and start the percolation at such a rate as to give 1 part of percolate in about 4 hours. Re- 
serve the first 6 parts of percolate, and continue the percolation until the Cinchona is exhausted, separating the 
percolate received after the reserved portion into fractions of about 8 parts each. Moisten a second portion of 8 parts 
of the Cinchona with 8 parts of the weak percolate,—the first portion that was obtained next after the reserved per- 
colate,—and allow the moist powder to stand for 8 hours in a vessel closely covered. Then pack it moderately in a 
percolator, and supply the percolator automatically with the remaining fractions of the weak percolate in the order 
in which they were received, and finally with fresh menstruum until the Cinchona is exhausted. Percolate in the 
same manner and at the same rate as with the first portion of Cinchona, and, reserving 8 parts of the first percolate, 
separate the weaker percolate into fractions of about 8 parts each. Percolate the third and fourth portions of 8 parts 
each of the Cinchona in the same way as the second portion. Finally mix the four reserved percolates together to 
make 30 parts of finished fluid extract; and having corked, labelled, and numbered the bottles containing the frac- 
tions of weak percolate, set them away until the process for Cinchona is to be resumed. 
“ When this fluid extract is to be again made, repeat the process as with the second portion, and reserve 8 parts 
of the first percolate as finished fluid extract from each 8 parts of Cinchona from that time forward so long as the 
fractions of weak percolate are carried forward with which to commence each operation.” See also Dr. Squibb’# 
percolator, 16th edition U. S. D., p. 600. PART I. 
Extrada Fluidct.—Extradum Aconiti. 
537 
ating, for from six to ten days, the medicine to he acted on, previously deprived, by means of a 
vacuum apparatus, of all the air, and of all readily volatilizable matter contained in its pores, 
with a certain volume of the menstruum, which is forced through a tube into the vacuum-pan 
by atmospheric pressure, and thus brought into the most intimate contact with all parts of the 
powder. The process is completed by submitting the mass thus impregnated to hydraulic 
pressure, and, after allowing the liquid to settle in glass carboys, drawing oft" the clear liquid 
into bottles. (See also Parke, Davis & Co.’s method, with illustrations, Remington's Practice of 
Pharmacy, pp. 364, 365.) It is obviously inapplicable to substances whose virtues depend in 
any considerable degree upon readily volatilizable constituents. Mr. Campbell (A. J. P., xlii. 
17) has proposed a method for doing away with the use of heat, which, however, although in 
some cases it may do well, cannot be relied upon for the complete exhaustion of all drugs. 
In carrying it out, mix with sixteen troyounces of the powder four to six fluidounces of the 
menstruum (usually alcohol), and pack it in a glass funnel moderately but uniformly tightly, a 
piece of sponge having previously been put in the beak of the funnel ; then cover the surface 
of the powder with a disk of paper, and pour on twelve fluidounces of menstruum. When 
the sponge becomes saturated, cork tightly the beak of the funnel, and set the whole aside for 
four days, at the end of which time the percolation may be allowed to proceed. Mr. James 
W. Mill has called attention to the advantage of separating the powder into fine and coarse 
parts by means of sieves and packing the finer powder at the bottom. 
II. Biroth (Pharmacist, April, 1877) proposes the method which he terms “ insuccation," for 
making non-alcoholic fluid extracts: the advantages claimed for it are simplicity and economy. 
Colaz prepares fluid extracts from fresh plants by bruising and crushing them, and placing the 
mass in a dialyzer suspended in 90 per cent, alcohol; when the dialysis is completed, the 
liquid is evaporated to free it from alcohol, the remaining aqueous liquid retaining the active 
constituents in the proportions in which they are found in the plant. (Pharm. Post, xxix. 271.) 
Haussmann (A. J. P., 1895, 291), after examining a large number of commercial fluid 
extracts, records his results in tabular form, and considers that there is great variation in the 
quality, due to deviation from pharmacopoeial processes. 
Prof. J. U. Lloyd proposes to recover the alcohol which remains absorbed by the residue after 
percolation by mixing the wet residues with an equal bulk or less of dry sawdust, and then 
percolating this with water. (A. J. P., June, 1877.) Wm. M. Thomson, of Philadelphia, devised 
a very complete method of preparing fluid extracts on a large scale ; the principles of his process 
are maceration and percolation in vacuo, and although the principles which have been applied 
have been long known, and similar apparatus used by Duffield and others, there are many useful 
practical points which merit a notice in detail. The percolators are egg-shaped, and made of 
tinned copper; they are capable of being tightly covered, and communicate by means of stop- 
cocks above and below, and iron and stout rubber tubing, with a very efficient double-acting air- 
pump. The moistened powder is packed tightly in the percolator, and the cover securely bolted 
on. The stopcock in the cover is now opened, which communicates with the air-pump and a 
partial vacuum created in the space above the moistened drug; the stopcock is now closed and 
another stopcock in the cover opened, which communicates by a tube with the reservoir con- 
taining the menstruum. The menstruum, of course, quickly penetrates the powder, taking the 
place of the interstitial air, and when the powder is saturated it is permitted to macerate in 
vacuo a sufficient length of time. To start percolation, a receiver is connected with the beak of 
the percolator, and, the air being exhausted from it, the percolate at once makes its appearance. 
When the flow slackens, if desired, air may be forced by the pump in the space above the 
powder, and the receiver again exhausted below. In this way, it can be seen, entire control 
of these powerful physical forces may be secured. The advantages are very apparent in pre- 
venting the loss of volatile principles and alcohol, whilst protecting from chemical change caused 
by exposure to the air. It is quite possible to make many official fluid extracts without recourse 
to subsequent evaporation of weak percolate. For a cut of this apparatus, see A. J. P., 1882. 
EXTRACTUM ACONITI. U. S. Extract of Aconite. 
(BX-TKAC'TUM XC-O-NI'TT.) 
Extract of Aconite Root; Extrait de Racine d’Aconit, Fr.; Eisenhutknollen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Aconite, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 538 
Extractum, Aconiti.—Extractum Aconiti Fluidum. 
PART I. 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until three thou- 
sand cubic centimeters [or 100 fluidounces] of tincture are obtained, or the Aconite is exhausted. 
Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, 
evaporate the remainder in a porcelain capsule, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], add the reserved portion, and 
evaporate, at or below the above-mentioned temperature, until an extract of a pilular consistence 
remains.” U. S. 
The Br. Ph. (1898) no longer recognizes extract of aconite. (See U. S. D.. 17th ed., 533.) 
The extract from the fresh leaves of aconite was abandoned in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia in 
1870 in favor of one made by means of alcohol from the dried plant, probably because the 
plant was not generally cultivated in this country. But the present preparation is very much 
stronger than either, aconite root having been substituted for the leaves, which are no longer 
official, and alcohol for diluted alcohol as a menstruum. It is greatly to be regretted that 
the title of this Extract is not Extractum Aconiti Badicis; there will be likely to be three 
extracts of Aconite in use, of varying strengths,—i.e., the present official alcoholic extract 
made from the root, the former hydro-alcoholic extract made from the leaves, and the English 
extract made from the fresh leaves. Great care should be taken to call as much attention to 
the alteration as possible. The use of tartaric acid in the menstruum for U. S. P. 1880 was 
in accordance with the views of Duquesnel and C. B. Alder Wright. It has been shown, how- 
ever, that the acid was of no practical advantage, and it is no longer employed. The exhaus- 
tion of the aconite in the U. S. process is indicated by the absence of its peculiar taste in the 
liquid which passes. To save the alcohol at the low temperature at which the evaporation is 
directed, would require the aid of a vacuum apparatus. The attempt to save the alcohol by 
ordinary distillation would imply an elevation of the heat above that officially ordered, and 
thus endanger the decomposition of the active principle of the aconite; and views of economy 
should never be allowed to interfere with the efficiency of medicines. 
If made from recently dried leaves, which have not yet been impaired by time, the extract 
official in 1870 was a good preparation of aconite; and it was believed to be more powerful, 
and to keep better, than the inspissated juice. According to Prof. Schroff, of Vienna, it had 
four times the strength of that preparation. The dose is half a grain or a grain (0-03 to 0 065 
Gm.), to be gradually increased if necessary. The alcoholic extract of the U. S. P. 1890 is 
stronger, and may be given in the dose of one-sixth or one-quarter of a grain (0-01 to 0 016 
Gm.),to be gradually increased until its effects are experienced ; and it would be well to specify 
on the prescription U. S. P. 1890 when that preparation is desired. 
When properly prepared, the Br. Ph. 1885 extract has a greenish-brown color, with a 
disagreeable narcotic odor and the acrid taste of the plant. It may be given in the dose of 
one or two grains (0-065 to 013 Gm.), night and morning, to be gradually increased till the 
system is affected. Twenty grains (1*3 Gm.) or more have been given in the course of a day. 
EXTRACTUM ACONITI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Aconite. 
(EX-TRlC'TUM XC-O-NI'TI FLU'I-DUM.) 
Fluid Extract of Aconite Root; Extrait liquide de Racine d’Aconit, Fr.; Fliissiges Eisenhutknollen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Aconite, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, 
using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Aconite is exhausted. 
Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the perco- 
late, and evaporate the remainder, in a porcelain capsule, at a temperature not exceeding 50° 
C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum 
to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| 
fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This preparation of aconite root will be found useful as a basis for making the other prepa- Extractum Aloes.—Extractum Anthemidis. 
539 
PART I. 
rations of Aconite,—the plaster, extract, tincture, or liniment. The fluid extract is of a bright 
deep reddish-brown color ; it may be given internally in doses of one-half to one minim (0 03 to 
0-06 C.c.), but on account of its very powerful character should always be used with caution, 
beginning with the smallest dose. It will doubtless be frequently employed as an addition to 
liniments for obtaining the peculiar effects of aconite. 
(ex-trXc'tum Xl'o-e§.) 
Extrait d’Alo£s, Fr.; Aloe-Extrakt, G. 
“ Socotrine Aloes, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains]; Boiling Distilled 
Water, one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms]. Mix the Aloes with 
the Water in a suitable vessel, stirring constantly, until the particles of Aloes are thoroughly dis- 
integrated, and let the mixture stand for twelve hours ; then pour off the clear liquor, strain the 
residue, mix the liquids, and evaporate to dryness by means of a water- or steam-bath.” U. S. 
The object of this preparation is to afford an aloes purified from mechanical impurities. The 
process is based upon the British formulas for extract of Barbadoes aloes and Socotrine aloes, 
which are treated of in the two articles following this. With an official purified aloes, the neces- 
sity for this preparation is not obvious.* An extract made with cold distilled water was 
formerly official in the German Pharmacopoeia, as was also the vitriolated extract, “Extractum 
Aloes Acido Sulfurico Correctum,” made by suspending eight parts of extract of aloes in 
thirty-two parts of distilled water, adding drop by drop one part of pure sulphuric acid, and 
evaporating in a porcelain vessel to dryness. The dose is from two to ten grains (0-13-0-65 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM ALOES. U. S. Extract of Aloes. 
EXTRACTUM ALOES BARBADENSIS. Br. Extract of Barbados Aloes. 
Extrait d’AloSs de Barbade, Fr.; Barbadoes Aloe-Extrakt, G. 
“ Barbados Aloes, in small fragments, 1 pound (Imperial) or 1000 grammes ; Distilled Water, 
boiling, 1 gallon (Imp. meas.) or 10 litres. Add the Barbados Aloes to the Distilled Water 
and stir well until they are thoroughly mixed; set the mixture aside for twenty-four hours; 
decant; strain ; evaporate the strained liquid to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 140° 
F. (60° C.j.” Br. 
The revised direction, to evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 140° F. (60° C.), instead 
of “ by a current of warm air,” is an improvement. The dose of this extract is from two to 
six grains (0T3-0-4 Grin.). Extract of Socotrine Aloes, made by a similar process, was dropped 
at the last revision of the British Pharmacopoeia. 
(EX-TKAC'TUM iL'0-E§ BAR-BA-DEN'SIS.) 
EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS. Br. Extract of Chamomile 
Extrait de Camomille romaine, Fr.; Extractum Chamomillae Roman®; Romisch-Kamillen-Extrabt, G. 
“ Chamomile Flowers, 1 pound (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Oil of Chamomile, 15 minims 
(Imp. meas.) or 2 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, 1 gallon (Imp. meas.) or 10 litres. Boil 
the Chamomile Flowers with the Distilled Water until the volume is reduced to one-half; 
strain; press; filter; evaporate the filtrate to the consistence of a soft extract; add the Oil 
of Chamomile towards the end of the process.” Br. 
According to Mr. Brande, one cwt. of dried chamomile flowers affords upon an average 48 
pounds of extract. 
This extract has a deep brown color, with the bitter taste and aroma of chamomile. It much 
better represents the chamomile than did the old Edinburgh extract, which, being obtained by 
(EX-TRAC'TUM AN-THEM'T-DIS.) 
* Glycerate of Aloes. Glycerole of Aloes. Under the latter name, M. Chausit brought to the notice of the pro- 
fession a preparation consisting of an alcoholic extract of aloes dissolved in glycerin. Mr. Haselden prepared this by 
the following method. Macerating half an ounce of aloes in four fluidounces of alcohol until dissolved, he filtered the 
tincture through bibulous paper, evaporated it to the consistence of molasses, and, while it was still warm, added 
enough glycerin to make four fluidounces. Finding that the aloes was wholly dissolved, with the exception of a little 
impurity, he concluded that the spirit might very well be dispensed with, and the aloes used directly in the process. 
Accordingly he proposes to substitute the following method. Mix well in a mortar half an ounce of Socotrine aloes, 
in fine powder, and four fluidounces of glycerin; transfer the mixture to a bottle, and agitate occasionally for several 
days; if the aloes be not now dissolved, heat for fifteen minutes by a water-bath, and strain through linen to separate 
impurities. The resulting liquid is of a bright mahogany color, and of the consistence of glycerin. The preparation 
has been recommended as an external remedy in lichen agrius and the excoriations of eczema, applied by means of a 
camel’s-hair brush. (P. J. Tr., 1859, p. 322.) For the mode of preparing a fluid extract of aloes with the aid of 
glycerin, by Prof. Procter, see Proc. A. P. A., 1863, p. 240. 540 
Extractum Apocyni Fluidum.—Extractum Arnicse Radicis Fluid,um. 
part i. 
decoction and inspissation, contained none of the volatile oil of the plant. In the present 
British process care is taken not only to avoid boiling, but also to supply any possible loss of 
oil during the cautious evaporation, by the addition of a small portion near the close of the 
process. The extract may he given for the same purpose as the flowers, but is most used as a 
vehicle for other tonics in the pilular form. The dose is from two to ten grains (0-13 to 065 
Gm.). An extract may be prepared having the peculiar flavor as well as bitterness of chamo- 
mile, by macerating the flowers in water, and evaporating the infusion in vacuo. 
EXTRACTUM APOCYNI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Apocynum. 
“ Apocynum, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Gly- 
cerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with six hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 21 fluidounces, 470 minims] 
of Alcohol and two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of 
the menstruum, and afterwards a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of 
six hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 21 fluidounces, 470 minims] of Alcohol to three hun- 
dred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] of Water, until the Apocynum 
is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] 
of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract: it represents apocynum in a very satisfactory manner. 
The dose is five minims (0-3 C.c.) ; as an emetic, fifteen to twenty minims (0-9 to 1-25 C.c.). 
(EX-TRXC'TUM A-P(JQ'Y-Nl flu'i-dum.) 
EXTRACTUM ARNICA RADICIS. U. S. Extract of Arnica Root. 
Extrait de Racine d’Arnique, Fr.; Arnika-Extrakt, G. 
“ Arnica Root, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 
fluidounces, 252 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then 
add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for twenty-four hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Arnica Root is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hun- 
dred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate ; evaporate the remainder 
to one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], at a temperature not exceeding 
50° C. (122° F.), mix the residue with the reserved portion, and evaporate, at or below the 
above-mentioned temperature, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
The extract does not differ from the extract formerly official: it very well represents the 
virtues of arnica, and is a convenient form for its administration. The dose is from three to 
five grains (0-20 to 0-33 Gm.). But the chief employment of the extract is in the preparation 
of the plaster. (See Emplastrum Arnicse.') 
(EX-TRAC'TUM AR'NI-Q.® RA-DI'CIS.) 
EXTRACTUM ARNICA RADICIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Arnica Root. 
Extrait liquide de Racine d’Arnique, Fr.; Fliissiges Arnicawurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Arnica Root, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 62 fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 
173 minims] of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 
(ex-trXc'tum AR'NI-CTE ra-d!'cis flu'i-dum.) part i. 
Extradum Aromaticum Fluidum.—Extradum Aspidospermatis Fluidum. 
541 
minims] of Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 
13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then 
add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the 
Arnica Root is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 
207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder at a temperature not exceeding 
50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough men- 
struum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is of a clear, reddish-brown color, possessing little odor, and having an 
acrid taste. It well represents the virtues of the root, and will probably be used as a basis 
for preparing the extract when wanted for the plaster. The dose, if desired for internal ad- 
ministration, would be from five to ten minims (0-3-0-6 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM AROMATICUM FLUIDUM. U. S. Aromatic Fluid 
Extract. 
(EX-TRlC'TUM AR-O-MAT'I-CUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide aromatique, Fr.; Fliissiges Aromatisches Extrakt, G. 
“ Aromatic Powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, a suffi- 
cient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms]. 
Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 min- 
ims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough Alcohol to 
saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Aro- 
matic Powder is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 
fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a valuable fluid extract; it is an excellent aromatic in concentrated form, and will be 
found very useful not only as an addition to liquids when an aromatic is desired, but its con- 
centrated form will permit its use in small quantities with dry powders, like pepsin, bismuth 
subnitrate, etc., when desired for administration. It will probably be rarely used alone. Dose, 
ten to twenty minims (0-6-1-25 C.c.), diluted with water, or dropped on sugar. 
EXTRACTUM ASCLEPIADIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Asclepias. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM AS-CLE-PI-A'DIS FLU'I-DUM.) 
“ Asclepias, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Diluted 
Alcohol, until the Asclepias is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 
30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract; it has a deep brownish-red color. The dose is from 
twenty minims to a fluidrachm (1-25 to 3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM ASPIDOSPERMATIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract 
of Aspidosperma. 
“ Aspidosperma, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Glycerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, 
(EX-TRAC'TIJM AS-PT-DO-SPER'MA-TIS FLU'I-DUM.) 542 
Extractum, Aurantii Amari Fluidum. 
PART I. 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 60 fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alcohol 
and three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 minims] of Water, and, having moist- 
ened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the 
mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum to saturate the 
powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 48 hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, 
and then a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of two hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Alcohol to one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluid- 
ounces, 183 minims] of Water, until the Aspidosperma is exhausted. Reserve the first eight 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the 
remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in 
the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thou- 
sand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This preparation, which has been largely used under the name of fluid extract of quebracho, 
well represents the drug. The dose is fifteen minims to a fluidrachm (0-9 to 3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM AURANTII AMARI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Bitter Orange Peel. 
(EX-TRiC'TUH AU-RXN'TI-I A-MA'RI FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide d’Ecorce d’Oranges ameres, Fr.; Fliissiges Pomeranzenschale-Extrakt, G. 
“ Bitter Orange Peel, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of 
Alcohol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 minims] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 
400 minims] of the mixture, pack it moderately in a conical percolator ; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, 
using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Orange Peel is ex- 
hausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 65 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is another fluid extract which will be found useful as a tonic; the bitter orange peel 
having very little oil present in its dry condition, there is necessarily very little agreeable orange 
flavor to the fluid extract. Monroe Bond recommends a Fluid Extract of Sweet Orange Peel, 
made with a menstruum of seven parts of alcohol and one of glycerin. (A. J. P., 1873, p. 482.) 
Dose, fifteen to thirty minims (0-9-1-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM BELLADONNA FOLIORUM ALCOHOLICUM. U. S. 
(Br.) Alcoholic Extract of Belladonna Leaves. 
(EX-TRXC'TIJM BEL-LA-DON'NiE FO-LI-O'RUM AL-CO-HOL'l-OUM.) 
“ An Extract containing one per cent, of the alkaloids of Belladonna Root.” Br. 
Extractum Belladonnae Alcoholicum, Br.; also U. S., 1880; Extrait de Belladone alcoolique, Fr.; Spirituoses 
Tollkirschen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Belladonna Leaves, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluid- 
ounces, 5 fluidrachms] of Alcohol with one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 
fluidrachms] of Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 
13 fluidounces, 252 fluidrachms] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then 
add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until three thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 3£ fluidrachms] of tincture are obtained, or the' Belladonna 
Leaves are exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 PART I. 
Extractum Belladonnse Foliorum Alcoholicum. 
543 
minims] of the percolate, evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. 
(122° F.),to one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], mix the residue with 
the reserved portion, and evaporate at or below the above-mentioned temperature to a pilular 
consistence.” U S. 
“ Evaporate one fluid ounce (Imperial measure) or fifty cubic centimetres of Liquid Extract 
of Belladonna, in a counterpoised basin, on a water-bath, to the consistence of a moderately 
firm extract; weigh. The difference between the weight of the residue and three-quarters of 
an ounce (Imp.) or thirty-seven and a half grammes gives the weight of Milk Sugar to be used 
as a diluent for each fluid ounce (Imp. meas.) or fifty cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract. 
“ Evaporate twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of Liquid 
Extract of Belladonna to the consistence of a thin syrup; add to it the required quantity of 
Milk Sugar determined from the data obtained from the foregoing experiment; continue the 
evaporation until the extract weighs fifteen ounces (Imp.) or seven hundred and fifty grammes. 
This Alcoholic Extract of Belladonna contains one-third the proportion of alkaloids present 
in average samples of the Alcoholic Extract of Belladonna of the British Pharmacopoeia of 
1885.” Br. 
The alcoholic extracts of belladonna of the U. S. P. 1880 and 1890 were made from the 
leaves, in deference to a prejudice which seems to have a strong following. The British Phar- 
macopoeia introduced in the 1885 revision for the first time an alcoholic extract of belladonna, 
but it differed from the U. S. extract in being made from the root instead of the leaves. (See 
Extractum Bella,donnse Viride, p. 545.) The British alcoholic (root) extract (1898) is 66 per 
cent, weaker than the Br. Pharm. 1885 extract; it now contains 1 per cent, of the alkaloids of 
belladonna root, and is only one-fourth stronger than the liquid extract. Whilst the advantage 
of establishing a definite relation between the two is apparent, in our opinion it would have 
been better not to have reduced the strength so enormously as 66 per cent.; but the extract 
could have been made to contain 1£ per cent, of alkaloids, and, besides, this would have con- 
veniently made the extract just double the strength of the liquid extract. The reduction in 
strength was no doubt made for the purpose of avoiding accidents in dispensing due to having 
two official Extracts of Belladonna. The dose of both British extracts is now the same. (P. J. 
Tr., 1895, 795.) The absence of chlorophyll in an extract made from the root would cause 
ointments, cerates, plasters, etc., made from it to be deficient in the characteristic green color 
so much prized, but there can be no question of the greater uniformity in strength of the root* 
For a method of assaying Extract of Belladonna, by Beckurts, see Pharm. Era, 1887, 447. 
The formula for this extract does not differ essentially from that official in the former revis- 
ion : it is a good preparation, and is official in the French Codex. It is much used externally. 
Thus, in rigidity of the os uteri, it is applied at intervals to the neck of the uterus, mixed with 
simple ointment in the proportion of one drachm to an ounce; but care must be taken not to 
affect the system too powerfully; and the preparation, therefore, should be used in a small 
quantity at first. In irritability of the bladder, chordee, spasm of the urethra or of the rectum, 
it may either be rubbed in the form of ointment upon the perineum, or be used in the form 
* Standard Extract of Belladonna. This preparation has been proposed by Profs. Dunston and Ransom as a 
type of a class of standardized solid extracts having a definite alkaloidal strength: whilst resembling an extract, 
it has the advantage over it of being based upon a certain percentage of alkaloid instead of representing a given 
amount of a variable drug. “Take of belladonna root, in No. 20 powder, 1 pound; rectified spirit, 48 fluidounces; 
distilled water, 12 fluidounces. Mix the spirit with the water. Macerate the belladonna in 2 pints of this mixture 
for forty-eight hours, agitating occasionally; then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, continue 
the percolation with the remainder of the diluted spirit. Afterwards subject the contents of the percolator to 
pressure, filter the product, mix the liquids, and measure the exact volume of the mixture (a). Estimate the alka- 
loidal nature of this solution by the following method. Evaporate 50 C.c. of the liquid over a water-bath with a 
gentle heat until all the alcohol is dispelled. Dissolve the extract thus obtained in about 5 C.c. of warm distilled 
water acidulated with a few drops of diluted hydrochloric acid; filter, if necessary, through a small fragment of 
cotton-wool; pour into a stoppered glass separator, and add ammonia until the solution is distinctly alkaline. Agitate 
for a few minutes with 5 C.c. of chloroform, separate, and again wash the aqueous liquid with 3 C.c. of chloroform. 
Agitate the mixed chloroformic solutions with 5 C.c. of diluted hydrochloric acid, separate, again wash with 3 
C.c. of the diluted acid, mix the acid solutions, render alkaline with ammonia, and agitate with 5 C.c. of chloro- 
form. After separation, wash the alkaline solution with 3 C.c. of chloroform, mix the chloroformic solutions, evap- 
orate in a dish of known weight, and dry the residue, which should be nearly colorless at a temperature of 200° F. 
(93° C.). The weight of the residue thus obtained multiplied by 2 will give the parts by weight of the alkaloids in 
100 fluid parts of the liquid. The exact volume of the liquid being known, and the strength having been thus 
ascertained, the total amount of alkaloid present therein can be calculated. Evaporate to dryness over a water- 
bath, and add sufficient sugar of milk to make the mixed product exactly fifty times the weight of the total alkaloid 
found to have been present in the liquid (a), allowing for that quantity which was used for the estimation. Mix 
intimately, powder as quickly as possible in a dry atmosphere, and transfer at once to a well-stoppered bottle. This 
extract will contain 2 per cent, of total alkaloid.” (P. J. Tr., 1887, p. 844.) 544 
Extractum, Belladonnae Radicis Fluidum. 
PART I. 
of suppository; but care is requisite not to introduce it too freely into the bowel. It is some- 
times smeared upon the bougie, mixed with oil, in the treatment of stricture of the urethra. 
In the form of ointment it has been beneficially employed in phimosis and paraphimosis, and in 
that of plaster or ointment, in local neuralgic or rheumatic pains. (See Emplastrum Belladonnae.) 
Internal dose, from one-sixth to one-third of a grain (0-010 to 0-021 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM BELLADONNA RADICIS FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid 
Extract of Belladonna Root. [Extractum Belladonnae Fluidum, Pharm. 1880.] 
“ A Liquid Extract containing f grain of the alkaloids of Belladonna Root in 110 minims 
(0-75 gramme in 100 cubic centimetres).” Br. 
Extractum Belladonnae Liquidum, Br., Liquid Extract of Belladonna; Extrait liquide de Racine de Bella- 
done, Fr.; Fliissiges Tollkirsehenwurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Belladonna Root, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grainsj] 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 
400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, 
using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Belladonna Root is ex- 
hausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“ Moisten eight ounces (Imperial) or three hundred and twenty grammes of Belladonna Root, 
in No. 20 powder, with six fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and forty cubic centi- 
metres of a mixture of seven volumes of Alcohol (90 per cent.) and one volume of Distilled 
Water; set aside for six hours; pack firmly in a percolator; pour over the powder six fluid 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and forty cubic centimetres of the same alcoholic men- 
struum ; when the liquid begins to drop, close the lower orifice of the percolator ; set aside for 
twenty-four hours; percolate slowly, adding more of the menstruum as required; collect the 
percolate in small portions. Moisten a second quantity of eight ounces (Imp.) or three hundred 
and twenty grammes of Belladonna Root, in No. 20 powder, with the first six fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or two hundred and forty cubic centimetres of percolate; proceed to extract this 
portion of the Belladonna Root in the manner directed for the first portion, but use as the 
menstruum the liquid collected from the first percolator. This method of repercolation is to 
be carried out through two more quantities each of eight ounces (Imp.) or three hundred and 
twenty grammes of Belladonna Root, the third portion being extracted with the liquid from 
the second percolator, and the fourth portion with the liquid from the third percolator. Col- 
lect twelve and a half fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the strong 
percolate from the fourth percolator. 
“ Determine the proportion of alkaloids in the resulting strong percolate by the following 
analytical process. 
“ Introduce 10 cubic centimetres into a separator, add 10 cubic centimetres of chloroform, 50 
cubic centimetres of water, and a decided excess of solution of ammonia; agitate; set aside; 
separate the chloroformic solution. Twice repeat the agitation with chloroform and the sepa- 
ration. Shake the mixed chloroformic solutions with 5 cubic centimetres of diluted sulphuric 
acid, mixed with twice its volume of warm water ; separate the chloroformic liquid and repeat 
the agitation with acidulated water. Wash the mixed acid liquids with 3 cubic centimetres 
of chloroform ; then agitate with 10 cubic centimetres of chloroform and an excess of solution 
of ammonia. Separate the chloroformic solution; twice repeat the agitation with chloroform 
and the separation ; wash the mixed chloroformic solutions with 5 cubic centimetres of water 
containing one drop of solution of ammonia; draw off the chloroformic layer into a counter- 
poised dish; evaporate on a water-bath; dry the residue below 212° F. (100° C.) ; weigh. 
Dissolve the residue in 10 cubic centimetres of a deciuormal solution of hydrochloric acid 
(3-619 grammes of the acid, HC1, per litre) and add centinormal solution of soda (0-3976 
(EX-TItXc'TUM RA-DI'CIS FLU'T-DUM.) PART I. 
Extradum Belladonnse Radicis Fluidum.—Extradum Buchu Fluidum. 
545 
gramme of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, per litre) until the liquid is neutral, using Tincture of 
Cochineal as an indicator. Deduct the measure of soda solution thus required, from 100 
cubic centimetres, and multiply the remainder by 0-00287 ; the product will be the weight in 
grammes of alkaloids present in the quantity of the percolate operated upon. 
“ From this weight calculate the amount of alkaloids in the bulk of strong percolate, and add 
to the latter sufficient of the alcoholic menstruum to produce Liquid Extract of Belladonna 
containing 0-75 gramme of alkaloids in 100 cubic centimetres, or f grain in 110 minims.” Br. 
The British liquid extract represents several radical improvements in British pharmacy,—i.e., 
the use of repercolation with absence of heat in the process, and standardization, thus making 
the end product bear a definite relation towards the quantity of active constituents found in 
the root (0-75 per cent.). It is based upon the formula proposed by R. A. Cripps. (P. J. Tr., 
1895, 795.) The fluid extract of the root is a good preparation, of reddish-brown color, very 
different in appearance from the deep-green fluid extract of the leaves which is often seen in 
the market. Dose, from one to two minims (0-06-012 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM BELLADONNA VIRIDE. Br. Green Extract of 
Belladonna. 
“ Bruise the fresh leaves and young branches of Atropa Belladonna, Linn., in a mortar; 
press out the juice and heat it to 130° F. (54-4° C.) ; separate the green coloring matter by 
a calico filter; heat the strained liquid to 200° F. (93-3° C.) ; filter. Flvaporate the filtrate 
on a water-bath to the consistence of a thin syrup ; add to it the green coloring matter pre- 
viously separated and passed through a hair sieve, stir the whole together, and evaporate at a 
temperature not exceeding 140° F. (60° C.) to the consistence of a soft extract.” Br. This 
extract is identical with the Br. Pharm. 1885 extract of belladonna leaves made from the 
recent plant. The dose is from one-quarter to one grain (0-016 to 0-06 Gm.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM BEL-LA-DON'SME VIR'I-DE.) 
EXTRACTUM BUCHU FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Buchu. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM BU'gHU FLU'I-DUM—bu'ku.J 
Extrait liquide de Bueco, Fr.; Fliissiges Bucco-Extrakt, G. 
“ Buchu, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluiclounces, 6J fluidrachms]. 
Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of 
Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Buchu is exhausted. 
Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved por- 
tion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters 
[or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The old menstruum (alcohol) for this fluid extract has been restored, experience having 
shown that with the weaker alcohol used in the U. S. P. 1880 formula it was impossible to perco- 
late satisfactorily some samples of buchu leaves, the quantity of water present being sufficient 
to cause swelling to such an extent as to clog and entirely prevent percolation; with alcohol as 
a menstruum this cannot occur. 
In consequence of the peculiar structure of the leaves, it is somewhat difficult to powder 
them in a mortar, and it will be convenient to resort to a mill for the purpose. As the most 
active ingredient of buchu is volatile, the direction in the formula to set aside the first portion 
of tincture obtained, which is a highly concentrated solution, is peculiarly important; for, if it 
were subjected to evaporation, much of the volatile oil would necessarily escape. The tincture 
subsequently obtained probably contains a large proportion of the fixed ingredients of the 
leaves, and will, therefore, allow of concentration without material loss. 
This fluid extract is clear, greenish black, and possessed in a high degree of the sensible 
properties of the leaves. It acquires the odor of mint when long kept, showing that some 
change takes place in its volatile oil. This fluid extract affords the best means at our command 
for the exhibition of buchu. It is often combined with Liquor Potassae with excellent results. 
Dose, from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (1-9-3-8 C.c.), three to five times a day. 546 
Extradum Calami Fluidum.—Extradum Cannabis Indicse. 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM CALAMI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Calamus. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM CXL'A-MI FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide d’Acore vrai, Fr.; Fliissiges Kalmuswurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Calamus, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 65 fluidrachmsT 
Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] 
of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Calamus is exhausted. 
Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, 
and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add 
enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract which has been introduced with the view of bringing into use an 
excellent indigenous aromatic stimulant. It will probably be most frequently used in com- 
bination with tonics in dyspepsia and gastric disorders to relieve flatulence, etc. Dose, from 
five to fifteen minims (0-3-0-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CALUMBA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Calumba. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM FLUfI-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Colombo, Fr.; Fliissiges Kolombo-Extrakt, G. 
“ Calumba, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 minims] hf Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Calumba is exhausted. Reserve 
the first seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] of the percolate. Distil 
off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a 
soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The formula for fluid extract of calumba of the U. S. P. 1870 was faulty, in directing the 
root to be in fine powder: the large quantity of mucilage present swelled under the influence of 
the menstruum, and frequently prevented the passage of the percolate ; indeed, the powder will 
probably still be found to give trouble, as there will be some difficulty in thoroughly exhausting 
it; it should be slowly percolated. This extract is a dark-brown liquid, of an intense and purely 
bitter taste. The absence of tannin makes it a very desirable tonic, in combination with cha- 
lybeates. Dose, from fifteen to thirty minims (0-9-1 9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICES. U. S., Br. Extract of Indian 
Cannabis. 
(ex-trXc'tum cXn'na-bis 
Extract of Indian Hemp; Extrait de Chanvre indien, Fr.; Indischer Hanf-Extrakt, G. 
“ Indian Cannabis, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 
fluidounces, 70 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add 
enough Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alco- 
hol, until the Cannabis is exhausted. Distil off- the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a 
water-bath, and evaporate the residue, in a porcelain capsule, on a water-bath, to a pilular 
consistence.” U. S. 
“ Exhaust Indian Hemp, in coarse powder, with Alcohol (90 per cent.) by percolation; 
evaporate the percolate to the consistence of a soft Extract.” Br. JExtractum Cannabis Indicse.—Extradum Capsid Fluidum. 
PART I. 
547 
It will be noticed that the English name of the drug has been changed in the U. S. Phar- 
macopoeia to Indian Cannabis, to prevent its being mistaken for the root of Apocynum Can- 
nabinum, which is also called Indian Hemp. Several mistakes have occurred through this 
unfortunate confusion of nomenclature. 
Although there is some difference in the details of the two processes, the preparations of the 
U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias are practically identical. Prof. Procter investigated the subject 
of the tests for the purified extract or resin, and came to the following conclusions. Its pecu- 
liar odor when moderately heated, its indifference to alkalies, and its solubility in alcohol, ether, 
chloroform, benzol, and oil of turpentine are characteristic though not entirely distinctive prop- 
erties. The best test, he found, was nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-38), which acts slowly when cold, 
but- with heat rapidly, evolving red fumes, and converting the resin into an orange-red resi- 
noid substance which, when washed and dried, closely resembles gamboge in color. (.Proc. A. 
P. A., 1864.) Care should be observed in selecting the drug for making this extract, and old 
cannabis indica should be rejected. The limit of age in India is said to be three years. (P. J. 
Tr., 1894, 246 ; Rep. de Pharm., 1894, 257.) The preparation varies exceedingly in strength, 
so that it is wisest to begin with a small dose, one-quarter of a grain (0-016 6m.), and rapidly 
increase the amount given until some effect is produced. 
EXTRACTUM CANNABIS INDICT FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract 
of Indian Cannabis. 
Extrait liquide de Chanvre Indien, Fr.; Fliissiges Indischer Hanf-Extrakt, G. 
“ Indian Cannabis, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 
minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the 
Indian Cannabis is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluid- 
ounces, 207 minims] of the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of 
a water-bath, and evaporate the residue, in a porcelain capsule, to a soft extract; dissolve this 
in the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract which has come into use because of its convenience, and probably on 
account of the impression that heat injures the activity of the drug, and that the extract owes its 
inactivity sometimes to the influence of heat. (See Cannabis Indica and the previous article.) 
The fluid extract is of a dark green color, having the characteristic odor of the drug. Dose, 
from one-half to one minim (0-03-0-06 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM CXN'NA-BIS IN'DI-Q.® FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM CAPSICI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Capsicum. 
Extrait liquide de Capsique, Fr.; Fliissiges Spanischer Pfefl'er-Extrakt, G. 
“ Capsicum, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ flui- 
drachms]. Moisten the powder with Jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 
minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Cap- 
sicum is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the 
reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The necessity for an official fluid extract of capsicum is not apparent, as the oleoresin and 
tincture are preparations which are well known and established. It will probably be rarely 
necessary to administer it internally. Dose, from one-half to one minim (0-03-0-06 C.c.). 
(EX-TBAC'TUM CXP'SI-CI FLU'I-DUM.) 548 
Extractum Cascarse Sagradse.—Extractum Chimaphilee Fluidum. 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM CASCAR.E SAGRADiE. Br. Extract of Cascara Sagrada. 
[Extractum Rhamni Purshiani.] 
“ Moisten Cascara Sagrada, in No. 20 powder, with Distilled Water, and let it remain a few 
hours to soften and swell; then place it loosely in a percolator and percolate with more Dis- 
tilled Water until it is exhausted. Evaporate on a water-bath to dryness.” Br. 
The selection of the title is not above criticism : the title of the bark is “ Rhamni Purshi- 
ani Cortex,” and the extract should be termed “Extractum Rhamni Purshiani,” or, to be 
uniform, the title of the bark itself changed. The present British preparation (1898) is a 
dry extract. This preparation well represents the virtues of the bark, and furnishes a ggod 
means of administering this purgative in pilular form. Dose, from two to eight grains 
(0-13-0-52 Gm.). 
CAS'CA-RyE SA-GRA'D^E.) 
EXTRACTUM CASCARjE LIQUIDUM. Br. Liquid Extract 
Of Cascara Sagrada. [Extractum Rhamni Purshiani Liquidum.] 
(EX-TRAC'TUM SA-GRA'DTE LIQ'UI-DUM—llk'wg-dGm.) 
Extractum Rhamni Purshianae Fluidum, U. S. 
“ Cascara Sagrada, in No. 20 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (90 
per cent.) 4 Jl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 200 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient 
quantity. Moisten the Cascara Sagrada with fifteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or seven hundred 
and fifty cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water, and set the mixture aside for six hours; 
then place it loosely in a percolator and percolate with more of the Distilled Water until the 
powder is exhausted; evaporate the percolate to twelve fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or six hun- 
dred cubic centimetres; add the Alcohol, previously mixed with four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or two hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water or with sufficient to make up the volume 
of the mixed liquids to twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of 
the Liquid Extract.” Br. This process has been improved by the adoption of percolation in 
the Br. Ph. 1898 in place of evaporating decoctions, and preserving the residue with alcohol 
as directed by the Br. Ph. 1885. Dose, from one-half to two fluidrachms (1-9—7-5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CASTANET FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Castanea. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM ClS-TA'NB-iE FLU'l-Df?M.) 
Extrait liquide de Feuilles de Chataignier, Fr.; Fliissiges Kastanienblatter-Extrakt, G. 
“ Castanea, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Glycerin, 
one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Pour 
five thousand cubic centimeters [or 169 fluidounces, 33 minims] of boiling Water upon the 
powder, allow it to macerate for two hours, then express the liquid, transfer the residue to a 
percolator, and pour Water upon it until the powder is exhausted. Evaporate the united 
liquids, on a water-bath, to two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms], 
allow this to cool, and add six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of 
Alcohol. When the insoluble matter has subsided, separate the clear liquid, filter the re- 
mainder, evaporate the united liquids to seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 
minims], allow this to cool, add the Glycerin, and enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The object of the special process is to obtain and retain the mucilaginous principle, and it 
will be observed that the preparation is an aqueous fluid extract with only sufficient alcohol to 
preserve it. It is a thick reddish-brown liquid, having an astringent taste. Dose, from one 
to two fluidrachms (3-75-7-5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CHIMAPHILiE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
(EX-TRXO'TUM (3HI-MAPII'I-LJ5 FLU'I-DUM.) 
Chimaphila. 
Extrait liquide de Pyrole ombellee, Fr.; Fliissiges Doldenbliithiges Harnkraut-Extrakt, G. 
“ Chimaphila, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, Extraction Chiratse Fluidum.—Extractum Cimidfugse Fluidum. 
549 
PART I. 
252 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually add- 
ing Diluted Alcohol, until the Chimaphila is exhausted. Reserve the first seven hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a 
soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make 
the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” 
u.s. 
This is a rather thick, dark brownish-green fluid extract, and may be given in the dose of 
a fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CHIRATiE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Chirata. 
Extrait liquide de Chirette, Fr.; Fliissiges Chiretta-Extrakt, G. 
“ Chirata, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces ay., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alcohol with 
three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 minims] of Water, and, having moistened 
the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] of the 
mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the same proportions 
of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Chirata is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hun- 
dred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate. Distil oflF the 
Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a useful addition to the list of fluid extracts. The menstruum has been made more 
alcoholic to reduce precipitation, and the use of glycerin abandoned. This extract is a clear, 
reddish-brown liquid, of an intensely bitter taste. The dose is half a fluidrachm (1-9 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM J3HI-RA'TjE FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM CIMICIFUGiE. U. S. Extract of Cimicifuga 
(EX-TRAC'TUM CIM-I-CIF'U-<^.) 
c‘ Cimicifuga, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 
fluidounces, 217 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add 
enough Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alco- 
hol, until the Cimicifuga is exhausted. Distil off the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a 
water-bath, and evaporate the residue, on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
This is a new official extract; its introduction is due to the fact that although the fluid 
extract and tincture represent the virtues of cimicifuga, the alcohol present in both is thera- 
peutically contra-indicated, and the exceedingly disagreeable taste of the drug is entirely 
masked if the extract he prescribed in the form of a pill, with proper additions, such as extract 
of liquorice, or if the pill be coated or enclosed in a capsule. The dose of the extract is from 
three to ten grains (0-194 G-m. to 0-648 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM CIMICIFUGAE FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Cimicifuga. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM CIM-I-CIF'U-(?JE FLU'T-DUM.) 
Extraction Cimicifugae Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Cimicifuga; Liquid Extract of Actaea Racemosa; 
Extrait liquide d’Actee a Grappes, Fr.; Fliissiges Cimicifuga-Extrakt, 0. 
“ Cimicifuga, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms]. 
Moisten the powder with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 minims] 550 
Extraction Cimicifugse Fluidum.—Extractum Cinchonse Fluidum. 
PART I. 
of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Cimicifuga 
is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] 
of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved 
portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centi- 
meters [or 33 fluidounces, 6z fluidrachms].” TJ. S. 
“Cimicifuga, in No. 60 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (90 per 
cent.), a sufficient quantity. Mix the Cimicifuga with two pints (Imp. meas.) or two thousand 
cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; set aside in a closed vessel for forty-eight hours; transfer to 
a percolator; when the fluid ceases to pass, continue the percolation with more Alcohol, until 
the Cimicifuga is exhausted. Reserve the first fifteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or seven hun- 
dred and fifty cubic centimetres of the percolate; evaporate the remainder to the consistence 
of a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion ; add enough of the Alcohol to produce 
twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract.” Br. 
This formula does not differ essentially from that of the U. S. Pharm. 1870. The British 
preparation has been modelled after that of the United States. There probably cannot be two 
opinions about the menstruum, although it has been asserted that a good fluid extract can be 
made with a menstruum of three parts alcohol and one part water. The probabilities are, how- 
ever, that a portion of the resinous principle would precipitate on standing. This fluid extract 
is of a deep reddish-brown color, and thoroughly represents the drug. The dose is from thirty 
minims to one fluidrachm (1-9 to 3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CINCHONA. U. S. Extract of Cinchona 
(EX-TRACrTUM CIN-GHO'N.®.) 
Extractum Chinae; Extrait de Quinquina jaune, Fr.; China-Extrakt, G. 
“ Cinchona, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 212 minims] ; Water, one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. 
Mix the Alcohol and Water, and having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindri- 
cal percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above 
it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having 
closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to 
proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then Diluted Alcohol, 
until four thousand cubic centimeters [or 135 fluidounces, 122 minims] of tincture are obtained, 
or the Cinchona is exhausted. Distil off the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a water- 
bath, and evaporate the residue, on a water-hath, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
The present official process is an excellent one, and if proper care be taken in executing the 
process, both in relation to the percolation and the avoidance of too high a temperature, the 
extract will fully represent the virtues of the bark. 
The former extracts of cinchona of the British Colleges are all omitted in the British Phar- 
macopoeia, which directs in their place a fluid extract, under the name of Extractum Cinchonas 
Liquidum. (See next article.) 
Medical Uses. The extract of Peruvian hark is at present much less employed than 
before the discovery of quinine. It is still, however, occasionally prescribed as a tonic in 
combination with other medicines. The dose is from ten to thirty grains (0 65-1 -95 Gm.), 
equivalent to about a drachm (3-9 Gm.) of the powdered bark. 
EXTRACTUM CINCHONA FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Cinchona. 
(EX-TRXe'TUM CIN-BHO'NiE FLU'I-DUM.) 
“ A Liquid Extract containing 5 grains of the alkaloids of Red Cinchona Bark in 110 
minims (5 grammes in 100 cubic centimetres).” Br. 
Extraction Cinchonse Liquidum, Br., Liquid Extract of Cinchona; Extractum Chinae Calisayae Fluidum; Ex- 
trait liquide de Quinquina jaune, Fr.; Fliissiges Kalisayarinden-Extrakt, O. 
“ Cinchona, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Gly- 
cerin, two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a Extractum Cinchonse Fluidum. 
551 
PART I. 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 J fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of Alco- 
hol. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator, and pour on the remainder 
of the menstruum. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower ori- 
fice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow 
the percolation to proceed, and, when the liquid in the percolator has disappeared from the 
surface, gradually pour on a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of eight 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 34 minims] of Alcohol to two hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and continue the percolation until the Cin- 
chona is exhausted. Reserve the first seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluid- 
ounces, 173 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve 
this in the reserved portion, and add enough of a mixture of Alcohol and Water, using the 
same proportions as before, to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters 
[or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“ Red Cinchona Bark, in No. 60 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 640 grammes; Hydrochloric 
Acid, 5 fl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 20 cubic centimetres; Glycerin, 2\ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 80 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), Distilled Water, of each a sufficient quantity. 
Mix the Red Cinchona Bark with five pints (Imp. meas.) or three thousand two hundred cubic 
centimetres of the Distilled Water, to which the Hydrochloric Acid and Glycerin have been 
added; set aside in a covered vessel for forty-eight hours, stirring frequently; transfer to a 
percolator'; when the liquid ceases to pass, and the contents of the percolator have been prop- 
erly packed, continue the percolation with Distilled Water until fifteen pints (Imp. meas.) or 
nine thousand six hundred cubic centimetres of liquid have passed, or until that which is pass- 
ing has ceased to give a precipitate on the addition to it of an excess of solution of potassium 
hydroxide. Evaporate the percolate in a porcelain or enamelled iron vessel at a temperature 
not exceeding 180° F. (82-2° C.), until it is reduced to twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or six 
hundred and forty cubic centimetres of liquid. 
“ Determine the proportion of alkaloids in the liquid product by the following analytical 
process: 
“ Put 5 cubic centimetres of the liquid, together with 25 cubic centimetres of water, into a 
stoppered glass separator; add 30 cubic centimetres of benzolated amylic alcohol* and 15 cubic 
centimetres of solution of potassium hydroxide ; shake them together thoroughly and repeatedly ; 
allow them to remain at rest until the spirituous solution of the alkaloids shall have separated 
and formed a distinct stratum over the dark-colored alkaline liquid. Run off the latter by the 
stop-cock into another separator; agitate it thoroughly with 30 cubic centimetres of benzolated 
amylic alcohol; allow the liquids to separate; draw off and reject the lower layer; add the 
alcoholic layer to the liquid in the first separator ; wash the mixture with a little water ; agitate 
thoroughly with 30 cubic centimetres of a warm mixture of 1 volume of diluted hydrochloric 
acid and 5 volumes of water; allow the liquids to separate; draw off the lower acid layer 
into another separator; agitate the alcoholic layer with a second quantity of 30 cubic centi- 
metres of the mixture of water and diluted hydrochloric acid ; when separated draw this off into 
the other portion of acid liquid; to the mixture add 10 cubic centimetres of chloroform and 
sufficient solution of ammonia to impart a strongly alkaline reaction; shake thoroughly; allow 
the liquids to separate; draw off the lower chloroformic layer into a weighed dish; repeat the 
agitation and separation with two successive quantities of 10 cubic centimetres of chloroform, 
and add the chloroformic liquids to that in the dish. Allow the chloroform to evaporate 
slowly; dry the residue in the dish at a temperature of about 230° F. (110° C.). The weight 
of the dish and its contents, after deducting the known weight of the dish, will give that of the 
alkaloids. 
“ Having thus ascertained the alkaloidal strength of the twenty fluid, ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 640 cubic centimetres of liquid product, every volume of it containing 5 grammes of 
total alkaloids is first to be brought to 85 cubic centimetres either by evaporation or, if neces- 
sary, by dilution with Distilled Water, then a volume of 12-5 cubic centimetres of the Alcohol 
is to be added, and the final adjustment of the volume to 100 cubic centimetres is to be effected 
by the addition of Distilled Water. The finished Liquid Extract will thus contain 5 grammes 
of the alkaloids of the Bark in every 100 cubic centimetres, or 5 grains in 110 minims.” Br. 
* Made by mixing together three measures of benzol and one measure of amylic alcohol. 552 
Extractum Cinclionae Fluidum.—Extractum Cocae Fluidum. 
PART I. 
Of these two formulas, the first is decidedly preferable. It is based upon that of Mr. Alfred 
B. Taylor, of Philadelphia. (A. J. P., Jan. 1865.) The British Pharmacopoeia uses acidulated 
water with glycerin as a solvent, while it adds alcohol to the liquid to preserve it. In the U. S. 
process a mixture of alcohol and glycerin is used as the menstruum. Now, it is well known that 
cinchona cannot be properly exhausted by the British solvent; and, though by its use as a 
menstruum the resin and cinchonic red are mainly left behind, so also is a considerable propor- 
tion of the alkaloids. By using alcohol and glycerin, the U. S. Pharmacopoeia extracts all the 
virtues of the bark, though it may also take up some of the resin and cinchonic red. The 
process of the British Pharmacopoeia yields a preparation which would be more appropriately 
termed an “ alkaloidal solution of cinchonas.” The U. S. fluid extract, like others ot its class, is 
a preparation which represents all of the soluble active constituents of cinchona; the British 
liquid extract, although an improvement on the former process, is simply a “ preserved infusion’ 
made by prolonged evaporation; the improvement consists in the addition of acid to the 
menstruum and the assaying of a portion of the evaporated percolate by a process similar to 
that adopted by the British Pharmacopoeia for cinchona and making the finished product con- 
tain 5 per cent, of mixed alkaloids; thus any imperfections in the manipulation are overcome 
by the check of the assay; but it is doubtful whether a better preparation, and one involving 
much less complication, could not be made by dissolving definite quantities of the commercial 
alkaloids in a mixture of water, alcohol, acid, and glycerin. In this there would be the 
advantage of knowing the exact proportion of each constituent.* The U. S. fluid extract of 
cinchona is a moderately thin, dark reddish brown, translucent fluid, of a bitter, astringent 
taste. The dose equivalent to a drachm (3-9 Gm.) of the bark is one fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.); 
and to produce an antiperiodic effect at least two fluidounces (60 C.c.) should be taken between 
the paroxysms. The dose of the British liquid extract is from five to ten minims (0-3-0-6 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CO CM FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of Coca. 
Extractum Cocae Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Coca; Extrait liquide de Coca, Fr.; Fliissiges Cocablatter- 
Extrakt, G. 
“ Coca, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6? 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 15 fluid- 
ounces, 103 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then 
add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the 
percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Coca is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centi- 
meters (or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims) of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” (J. S. 
“ Coca Leaves, in No. 20 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (60 per 
cent.), a sufficient quantity. Mix the powdered Coca Leaves with two pints (Imp. meas.) or 
two thousand cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; set aside in a closed vessel for forty-eight 
hours; transfer to a percolator; when the fluid ceases to pass, continue the percolation with 
more of the Alcohol until the Coca Leaves are exhausted. Reserve the first fifteen fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or seven hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of the percolate; evaporate the 
remainder, at a temperature below 176° F. (80° C.), to the consistence of a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion ; add enough of the Alcohol to produce twenty fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract.” Br. 
This fluid extract is one of the most useful of the preparations of coca. L. F. Kebler 
prefers as a menstruum 65 per cent, alcohol and No. 60 powder in making this fluid extract. 
(Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 339; see also A. J. P., 1896, 609; P. J. Tr., 1896, 306.) It is of a 
dark greenish-brown color, of an agreeable tea-like taste, but with little odor. The dose is 
from twenty minims to a fluidrachm (1-25-3*75 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
* Liquid Extract of Cinchona (simplified). Take of Quinine 75 grains, Cinchonidine 35 grains, Cinchonine 20 
grains, Hydrochloric Acid 40 minims, Glycerin 5 fluidrachms, Alcohol 1 fluidrachm. Dissolve the alkaloids in the 
alcohol and glycerin mixed with 5 fluidounces of water, add the acid, agitate until dissolved, and add sufficient 
water to make 6 fluidounces. If the color and flavor of the bark are desired, add 60 grains of Red Cinchona in 
powder to the solution, allow it to stand 24 hours, then filter. PART I. 
Extractum Colchid.—Extractum Colchid Radictis Fluidum. 
553 
EXTRACTUM COLCHICI. Br. Extract of Colchicum. 
Extrait de Colchique, Fr.; Zeitlosen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Crush fresh Colchicum Corms, deprived of their coats; press out the juice; allow the 
feculence to subside; decant; heat the clear liquid to 212° F. (100° C.) ; strain through 
flannel, and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 160° F. (7T1° C.) to the consistence of 
a soft extract.” Br. 
There scarcely seems to be occasion for both this and the following extract. The dose is 
from one to two grains ((M)65-013 Grin.). 
In Great Britain a preparation called preserved juice of colchicum is given in the dose of five 
minims (0-3 C.c.) or more. It is made by expressing the fresh bulb, allowing the juice to 
stand for forty-eight hours that the feculent matter may subside, then adding one-quarter of 
its bulk of alcohol, allowing it again to stand for a short period, and ultimately filtering. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM COI/0HI-CI.) 
EXTRACTUM COLCHICI RADICIS. U. S. Extract of Colchicum Root. 
(EX-TRlC'TUM cOl/jSHI-Ci RA-BI'OIS.) 
Acetic Extract of Colchicum; Extrait de Colchique acetique, Fr.; Zeitlosen Essigextrakt, G. 
“ Colchicum Root, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Acetic Acid, three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] ; Water, 
a sufficient quantity. Mix the Acetic Acid with fifteen hundred cubic centimeters [or 50 fluid- 
ounces, 346 minims] of Water, and, having moistened the powder with five hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of the mixture, pack it moderately in a cylindrical glass 
percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. 
When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely 
covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, 
gradually adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then Water, until the Colchicum 
Root is exhausted. Evaporate the percolate in a porcelain vessel, by means of a water-bath, at 
a temperature not exceeding 80° C. (176° F.), to a pilular consistence.” IT. S. 
As the fresh colchicum bulb is rarely to be had in this country, the U. S. Pharmacopoeia em- 
ploys the dried bulb ; and its process, if properly conducted, will afford a very efficient extract. 
In preparing this extract according to the British process, by expression from the recent bulb, 
there will be experienced some inconveniences, which would seem to render the U. S. process 
under all circumstances preferable. (P. J. Tr., xiii. 62.) The acetic extract of colchicum made 
from fresh corms was abandoned by the Br. Ph. 1898. The acetic acid in the U. S. preparation 
is a good solvent for colchicine. Dose, from one to two grains (0-065-0T3 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM COLCHICI RADICIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Colchicum Root. 
(ex-trXc'tum C5l'£HI-CI ra-d!'cis flu'i-dum.) 
Extrait liquide de Bulbe de Colchique, Fr.; Fliissiges Zeitlosenknollen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Colchicum Root, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Al- 
cohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alco- 
hol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, and, having 
moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 
minims] of the mixture, pack it moderately in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, 
using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Colchicum Root is ex- 
hausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the 
reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is not essentially different from that formerly official. The present men- 
struum jvill thoroughly exhaust the root, and this fluid extract is now a good preparation. It 
is of a reddish-brown color and bitter taste. Dose, from two to eight minims (0T2-0‘5 C.c.). 554 
Extractum Colchici Seminis Fluidum.—Extractum Coloeynthidis. 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM COLCHICI SEMINIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Colchicum Seed. 
Extrait liquide de Semenees de Colchique, Fr.; Fliissiges Zeitlosensamen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Colchicum Seed, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6J fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] 
of Alcohol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 minims] of Mater, and 
having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 min- 
ims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to 
saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using 
the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Colchicum Seed is exhausted. 
Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved por- 
tion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The use of glycerin in this fluid extract (U. S. P. 1870) was even more objectionable than in 
that of the root, as the fixed oil contained in the seeds was always thrown out of solution, and was 
usually found floating on the fluid extract, rendering the preparation unsightly. L. I. Morris 
(A. J. P., 1881, 7) believes that it is unnecessary to grind the colchicum seeds, and that if the 
whole seeds are digested with diluted alcohol at 80° C. (176° F.) the colchicine is easily extracted. 
Considering that we had one tincture, two wines, and two extracts of colchicum, all efficient 
preparations requiring small doses, these additions to our pharmacy might have been spared, 
unless some peculiar advantage could have been gained from them. They are, however, efficient, 
concentrated preparations. Dose, from two to eight minims (0-12-0-5 C.c.). 
(EX-TRXC'TUM COL'CHI-C! SEM'I-NIS FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS. U. S. Extract of Colocynth. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM CbL-O-CYN'THI-DIS.) 
Extrait de Coloquinte, Fr.; Koloquinten-Extrakt, G. 
“ Colocynth, dried, and freed from the seeds, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Reduce the Colocynth to a coarse powder by 
grinding or bruising, and macerate it in thirty-Jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 118 fluidounces, 
167 minims] of Diluted Alcohol for four days, with occasional stirring; then express strongly, 
and strain through flannel. Pack the residue, previously broken up with the hands, firmly in 
a cylindrical percolator, cover it with the strainer, and gradually pour Diluted Alcohol upon 
it until the tincture and expressed liquid, mixed together, measure Jive thousand cubic centi- 
meters [or 169 fluidounces, 33 minims]. Distil off the Alcohol from the mixture by means 
of a water-bath, evaporate the residue to dryness, and reduce the dry mass to powder. Ex- 
tract of Colocynth should he kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Colocynth should be deprived of its seeds, as directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, before 
being submitted to the action of the menstruum. Dr. Duncan found half a pound of colocynth 
to contain 2770 grains of seeds, which, boiled by themselves, yielded almost nothing to water. 
Dr. Squibb found selected fruits to yield from 25-8 to 34 per cent, of medullary part, and 
this, when well exhausted by diluted alcohol, to yield 60-7 to 60-8 per cent, of dry extract; 
while from the whole fruit, including pulp and seeds, from 15-69 to 20-6 per cent, was ob- 
tained, according to the degree of dryness. (A. J. P., 1857, p. 98.) Boiling water extracts so 
much pectin and mucilage from colocynth that either the decoction or hot infusion gelatinizes 
on cooling; and the extract made by means of it is loaded with inert matter, and, besides, is 
apt to become mouldy, or so tough and hard as to resist trituration and formation into pills. 
Hence the London College, following in this respect the French Codex, directed, in the last 
edition of its Pharmacopoeia, maceration with cold water; but diluted alcohol has been found 
to be a much better menstruum, and has been adopted in the U. S. process; while in the 
British Pharmacopoeia the simple extract has been discarded altogether. The chief, if not 
exclusive, use of the alcoholic extract is in the preparation of the compound extract. 
This preparation should never be substituted for an extract prepared with a more aqueous 
menstruum, because water extracts a large quantity of mucilaginous and inert matter. Commer- 
cial extract of colocynth may be often found in the market made writh an aqueous menstruum. PAHT I. 
Extradum Colocynthidis Compositum.—Extradum Conii. 
555 
EXTRACTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITUM. U. S., Br. Com- 
pound Extract of Colocynth. 
Extrait de Coloquinte compose, Fr.; Zusammengesetztes Ivoloquinten-Extrakt, G. 
“ Extract of Colocyntli, one hundred and sixty grammes [or 5 ounces ay., 282 grains] ; Puri- 
fied Aloes, five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av.,278 grains] ; Cardamom, in No. 60 powder, 
sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Resin of Scammony, in fine powder, one hundred 
and forty grammes [or 4 ounces av.,410 grains] ; Soap, dried and in coarse powder, one hundred 
and forty grammes [or 4 ounces ay., 410 grains] ; Alcohol, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 
fluidounces, 183 minims]. Heat the Aloes, contained in a suitable vessel, on a water-bath, until 
it is completely melted; then add the Alcohol, Soap, Extract of Colocynth, and Resin of 
Scammony, and heat the mixture at a temperature not exceeding 120° C. (248° F.), until it is 
perfectly homogeneous, and a thread taken from the mass becomes brittle when cool. Then 
withdraw the heat, thoroughly incorporate the Cardamom with the mixture, and cover the 
vessel until the contents are cold. Finally, reduce the product to a fine powder. Compound 
Extract of Colocynth should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” TJ. 8. 
“Colocynth Pulp, 6 ounces (Imperial) or 150 grammes; Extract of Barbados Aloes, 12 
ounces (Imp.) or 300 grammes; Scammony Resin, 4 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; Curd 
Soap, in shavings, 4 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; Cardamom Seeds, in the finest powder, 
1 ounce (Imp.) or 25 grammes; Alcohol (60 per cent.) 1 gallon (Imp. meas.) or 4 litres. 
Macerate the Colocynth Pulp in the Alcohol for four days; press out the tincture; remove the 
alcohol by distillation; add the Extract of Aloes, Scammony Resin, and Soap; evaporate to 
the consistence of a firm extract, adding the Cardamoms towards the end of the process.” Br. 
The Br. Pharm. (1898) substituted Barbados aloes for the Socotrine variety, and increased 
the proportion of soap from three ounces to four ounces. The object of the soap is to improve 
the consistence of the mass, which, when hardened by time, it renders more soluble in the liquors 
of the stomach. It may possibly also serve the purpose of qualifying the action of the aloes. In 
the U. S. process the extract is in the form of powder, which is very convenient for admixture 
with other substances ; while if given uncombined, it may be readily made into pills by suitable 
additions. The alternative of using the scammony or its resin, in the first British formula, which 
appeared to us very objectionable, has been abandoned in the present edition, and the resin only 
directed. It was objected to the U. S. compound extract of 1860 that it was apt to gripe in 
consequence of deficiency in the proportion of the aromatic ingredient, and the addition of 
some aromatic oil, as oil of cloves, was recommended : this was remedied in the revision of 1870 
by increasing the proportion of cardamom. The plan of having the powders simply mixed was 
liable to the objection that the mixture was not apt to be so thoroughly effected as to obtain a 
uniform result; and hence the U. S. Pharm. of 1880 adopted Dr. Squibb’s suggestion, to melt 
together all the ingredients unpowdered, except the cardamom, add a little alcohol, and, when 
the mixture is thoroughly made, to stir in the powdered aromatic, and finally to reduce the 
whole to a fine powder. The active principle of the cardamom (the volatile oil) is thus not 
dissipated, but absorbed by the other ingredients, and one of the objections to the British 
process is avoided,—i.e., the necessity for directing cardamom in “ the finest” powder, the pre- 
vious desiccation of the cardamom, a requisite if a fine powder is desired, being very wasteful 
of the volatile oil. 
This extract is an energetic and safe cathartic, possessing the activity of its three purgative 
ingredients, with comparatively little of the drastic character of the colocynth and scammony. 
It may be still further and advantageously modified by combination with rhubarb, jalap, calo- 
mel, etc., with one or more of which it is often united in prescription. In the dose of from 
one to two grains it is a good laxative. The purgative dose is from five to thirty grains 
(0-33-1-95 Gm.). We are informed that much of the extract sold in this country is made with 
inferior scammony and aloes and an insufficient proportion of colocynth, so that it is compara- 
tively inert. Compound extract of colocynth should be looked on with suspicion when cheap, 
and the pharmacist should always prepare it for himself. (See Amer. Drug., 1896, 152.) 
(EX-TRAC'TUM COL-O-CYN'THI-DIS COM-PO§'l-TUM.) 
EXTRACTUM CONII. U. S. Extract of Conium. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM CO-NI'I.) 
Extract of Hemlock; Extrait de Cigue, Fr.; Schierlings-Extrakt, G. 
“ Conium, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Acetic 
Acid, twenty cubic centimeters [or 324 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Mix the 556 
Extractum Conii.—Extractum Conii Fluidum. 
PART I. 
Acetic Acid with nine hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 66 minims] of 
Diluted Alcohol, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 
fluidounces, 70 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually add- 
ing Diluted Alcohol, until three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 212 minims] of 
tincture are obtained, or until the Conium is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, in 
a porcelain capsule, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to one hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], mix this with the reserved portion, and evaporate, 
at or below the above-mentioned temperature, to a pilular consistence.” TJ. S. 
Under the present name two extracts are now found in commerce, one, that of the U. S. P. 
(1890), an alcoholic extract made from conium fruit, the other, the British (1885) extract, 
made from the fresh leaves and young branches of the plant. In the U. S. extract acetic 
acid is used to fix the alkaloid coniine. 
The most important point in making the Br. Ph. (1885) extract is to evaporate the juice with- 
out an undue degree of heat. At a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.), or upwards,-its active 
principle undergoes rapid decomposition, being converted into resinous matter and ammonia. 
This is detected by the operator by the ammoniacal odor mixed with that which is peculiar to 
the plant. The juice always to a certain extent undergoes this decomposition when evaporated 
over a fire, and is not exempt from it even when the heat is regulated by a water-bath. Hence 
the propriety of the directions in the Br. Ph. (1885). An excellent plan in the evaporation 
is to conduct it first in a vacuum, and afterwards in shallow vessels with a current of air 
at common temperatures. By the direction to heat the juice to the boiling point, or 93-3° 
C. (200° F.) (Br.), and then to filter, whereby the inert albumen is coagulated, and, with the 
equally inert chlorophyll and vegetable fibre, is separated from the liquid before evaporation, 
the extract is procured in a more concentrated state, and, besides, deprived of substances which 
might favor its decomposition. Long-continued exposure to the air is productive of the same 
result as too much heat, so that old extracts are frequently destitute of activity. (Joum. de 
Pharm., xxii. 416.) No one of the extracts is more variable in its qualities than this. The 
season at which the herb is collected, the place and circumstances of its growth, the method 
of preparing the extract, are all points of importance, and are all too frequently neglected. 
(See Conium.) In this country the process lias often been carelessly conducted; and large 
quantities of an extract prepared by boiling the plant in water and evaporating the decoction 
have been sold as genuine extract. The apothecary should always prepare the extract him- 
self, or procure it from persons in whom he can have confidence. That imported from London 
has usually been considered the best. It is not improbable that, as suggested by Prof. Procter, 
the addition of a portion of acetic acid to the juice, before evaporation, might tend to fix the 
coniine, and enable it better to resist the influence of heat, than in its native combination. 
The activity of any specimen of the extract may be in some measure judged of by rubbing it 
with potassa, which, disengaging the coniine and rendering it volatile, gives rise to the peculiar 
mouse-like odor of that principle. If no odor be evolved under these circumstances, the extract 
may be deemed inert. 
The extract of hemlock prepared without separating the chlorophyll has a fresh olive or 
green color. It should have a strong narcotic, somewhat fetid odor, and a bitterish saline taste. 
According to Brande, from three to five pounds are obtained from one cwt. of the leaves. M. 
Recluz got rather more than an ounce from sixteen ounces. Dose of the U. S. P. 1890 extract, 
from one-half to one grain (0-03-0-065 Gm.), of the British extract, two grains (0-13 Gm.), 
two, three, or four times a day, to be gradually increased pro re nata ; in pill or solution. 
EXTRACTUM CONII FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Conium. 
Extractum Conii Fructfis Fluidum, U. S. 1870 ; Fluid Extract of Conium Seed; Extrait'liquide de Fruit de Cigue, 
Fr.; FlUssiges Schierlingsfrucht-Extrakt, G. 
“ Conium (fruit) in No. 40 powder, one thousand, grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Acetic Acid, twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To 
make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms]. Mix the Acetic Acid 
with nine hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 66 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, 
(EX-TRlC'TtTM CO-NI'I FLU'I-DXTM.) PART I. 
Extractum Convallarise Fluidum.—Extractum Cubebse Fluidum. 
557 
and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Diluted Alcohol, 
until the Conium is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluid- 
ounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, in a porcelain capsule, at a 
temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved 
portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The fluid extract of conium of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1860 was prepared from the 
leaves, and was, therefore, of necessity a very uncertain, if not for the most part inert, prepa- 
ration. The alkaloid coniine is contained in very unequal proportions in the fresh leaves, and 
is so very volatile and destructible that in the dried leaves it may be altogether wanting. Dr. 
Wm. Manlius Smith (A. J. P., xl. 459), as the result of an elaborate investigation, found that 
the immature fruits of conium are not only richer in the alkaloids than are the leaves, but are 
less variable in the proportion they contain, and have the coniine in them in such form that 
drying does not dissipate it. The superiority of the fluid extract of conium seed over the 
same preparation of the leaves was shown by Dr. Smith, and has been since abundantly con- 
firmed by experience. The revisers of the Pharmacopoeia of 1870 acted very wisely in aban- 
doning the old for the new preparation. The present fluid extract is a dark brownish-green 
liquid having the mouse-urine odor and emitting a still stronger conium smell on the addition 
of potassa ; any sample which fails to do this should be rejected as wanting in the alkaloid. Dr. 
Smith found sixteen minims (1 C.c.) of a fluid extract of the seed prepared by Dr. Squibb to 
produce violent symptoms. Dr. L. Wheeler, however, took thirty minims (1-9 C.c.) without 
experiencing any result. (Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., June, 1870.) Dangerous results have 
followed from the administration of much smaller doses, and it would seem hardly safe to 
begin with a dose of more than five minims (0-3 C.c), to be increased pro re nata. 
EXTRACTUM CONVALLARLffi FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Convallaria. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
“ Convallaria, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6g fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
Diluted Alcohol, until the Convallaria is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a 
soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract which well represents the activity of convallaria. The 
dose is from five to fifteen minims (O3-0-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CUBEBE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Cubeb. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM CU-BE'BiE FLTJ'1-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Cubebe, Fr.; Fliissiges Cubeben-Extrakt, G. 
“ Cubeb, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces ay., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms]. 
Moisten the powder with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Alcohol, 
and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate the powder 
and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the 
lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then 
allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Cubeb is exhausted. Re- 
serve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, 558 
Extractum Cusso Fluidum.—Extractum Digitalis. 
PART I. 
and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add 
enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounees, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
Notwithstanding the fact that the oleoresin of cubeb thoroughly represents in a concentrated 
liquid form all the virtue of this drug, the alcoholic fluid extract is a useful preparation : it 
permits the administration of cubeb in aqueous or hydro-alcoholic mixtures where the oleo- 
resin would not be admissible except in emulsion. It is a dark olive, translucent fluid, with 
the sensible properties of the drug. Dose, from ten to forty minims (0-6-2-5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM CUSSO FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Kousso. 
(EX-TItXC'TUM CUS'SO FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extractum Brayerae Fluidum, U. S. 1880 ; Fluid Extract of Brayera; Fluid Extract of Kousso; Extrait liquide 
de Kousso, Fr.; Fliissiges Kosso-Extrakt, G. 
“ Kousso, in No. 40 powder, erne thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fluidraehms]. 
Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of 
Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Kousso is 
exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] 
of the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and 
evaporate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough 
Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
62 fluidraehms].” JJ. S. 
This fluid extract, although possessing a very disagreeable bitter taste, well represents the 
activity of kousso: the bitter resinous principle upon which the anthelmintic virtues are now 
believed to depend is readily extracted by alcohol. This preparation should be of a dark green 
color. The objection to it is the large dose and the considerable quantity of strong alcohol which 
the patient gets: as it is best to give the remedy fasting, the stimulating action of the alcohol 
would be apt to be apparent. The dose is from one-half to one fluidounce (15-30 C.c.). An 
extract made by evaporating the fluid extract spontaneously would be a good preparation, and 
the objection to the alcohol could be thus overcome. 
EXTRACTUM CYPRIPEDII FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Cypripedium. 
(BX-TRXC'TUM gYP-RI-PE'DI-I flu'i-dum.) 
Extrait liquide de Cypripede jaune, Fr.; Fliissiges Gelbfrauenschuh-Extrakt, G. 
“ Cypripedium, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Di- 
luted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6A fluidraehms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; 
then add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When 
the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely cov- 
ered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, 
gradually adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Cypripedium is exhausted. Reserve the first 
eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add 
enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6J fluidraehms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract well represents the drug, although its use is at present very limited. It 
is very dark reddish brown in color, and may be given in doses of fifteen minims (0-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM DIGITALIS. U. S. Extract of Digitalis. 
(EX-TRXc'TUM Dlg-I-TA'LIS.) 
Extrait alcoolique de Digitale, Fr.; Fingerhut-Extrakt, G. 
“ Digitalis, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters £or 20 fluidounces, 138 PART I. 
Extractum Digitalis Fluidum.—Extractum Dulcamarse Fluidum. 
559 
minims] of Alcohol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluid- 
ounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until three 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 212 minims] of tincture are obtained, or the 
Digitalis is exhausted. Distil ofl" the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a water-bath, 
and evaporate the residue, on a water-bath, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
This was first introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1860, though less needed than 
many others ; because the dose of digitalis itself is small, and very little can be gained on the 
point of strength, as the really valuable part of digitalis constitutes but a small proportion 
even of the extract, and might be altogether wanting without observably affecting the bulk. 
The same caution is used, in preparing this extract, against the injurious effects of heat as in 
the instance of the extract of conium. The extract now official does not differ essentially 
from that of U. S. P. 1870, with this exception, that, instead of percolating first with alcohol 
and then with diluted alcohol, a menstruum of two parts alcohol and one part water is now 
used, finishing with diluted alcohol. The alcoholic extract of digitalis contains all the virtues 
and may be used for all the purposes of the powdered leaves. According to Messrs. Vielguth 
and Nentwich, the amount of alcoholic extract obtained from dried digitalis by cold displace- 
ment is 27‘1 per cent. (A. J. P, May, 1859.) Dose, one-fourth of a grain (0-016 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM DIGITALIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Digitalis. 
Extrait liquide de Digitale, Fr.; Fliissiges Fingerhut-Extrakt, G. 
“ Digitalis, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6j 
fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alcohol 
with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, and, having mois- 
tened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the 
mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum to saturate the 
powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the same 
proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Digitalis is exhausted. Reserve the first 
eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; 
dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is dark greenish black in color, and represents the drug thoroughly. The 
dose is from one to two minims (0-06-0-12 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM DI<J-I-TA'LIS FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM DULCAMARA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Dulca- 
mara. 
Extrait liquide de Douce-Amere, Ft.; Fliissiges Bittersiiss-Extrakt, G. 
“ Dulcamara, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Diluted 
Alcohol, until the Dulcamara is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; 
(EX-TRXC'TUM DUL-CA-MA'RiE flu'i-dum.) 560 
Extractum Ergotse.—Extractum Ergotse Fluidum. 
PART r. 
dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms]. ’ U. S. 
The present formula differs from that of the U. S. P. 1870 in the absence of glycerin. This 
fluid extract is a rather thick, dark brown liquid. The dose is from thirty minims to a 
fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.), three or four times a day, gradually increased if necessary. 
EXTRACTUM ERGOTS. U. S., Br. Extract of Ergot. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM iili'GO-T/E.) 
Ergotin, Br. (1898); Extrait de Seigle ergots, Fr.; Mutterkornextrakt, G. 
“ Fluid Extract of Ergot, one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 35 
minims]. Evaporate the Fluid Extract of Ergot in a porcelain capsule, by means of a water- 
bath, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), constantly stirring until it is reduced 
to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Ergot, in No. 40 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (60 per cent.), 
a sufficient quantity ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity; Diluted Hydrochloric Acid, 7 \ fl. 
drachms (Imp. meas.) or 47 cubic centimetres; Sodium Carbonate, 175 grains (Imp.) or 20 
grammes. Moisten the powdered Ergot with ten fluidounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred 
cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; pack the damp powder in a percolator; percolate with the 
Alcohol until the Ergot is exhausted. Evaporate the percolate to five fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres; add five fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hun- 
dred and fifty cubic centimetres of Distilled Water; filter when cold, washing the residue 
with a little Distilled Water. Add the Diluted Hydrochloric Acid to the filtrate; set aside 
for twenty-four hours; filter; wash the residue with Distilled Water until the washings no 
longer have an acid reaction, adding the washings to the filtrate ; add the Sodium Carbonate 
to the latter; evaporate to a soft extract.” Br. 
The present preparation leaves little to be desired. The British preparation is modelled 
upon Keller’s process. (Schweiz. Wochen.fi. Pharm., 1894, 141.) The object of the addition of 
hydrochloric acid is to precipitate out the flocculent sclererythrin, the coloring matter of ergot. 
The sodium carbonate neutralizes the acid, a small quantity of sodium chloride remaining in 
the extract. This is much the best preparation of ergot, being the only one that should be 
used hypodermically, and much less apt to cause nausea when given by the mouth. For 
method of hypodermic use, see Ergota. It is well adapted for suppositories, and has been 
applied topically to the os uteri, the desired dose being put on a dossil of absorbent cotton. 
Internally it is best given in gelatin capsules, since pills are apt to flatten. Dose, one-fifth that 
of the fluid extract or drug,—i.e., from five grains to half a drachm (0-33-1-9 6m.). 
EXTRACTUM ERGOTS FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Ergot. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM ER'GO-T-E FLU'l-DUM.) 
Extractum Ergotse Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Ergot; Extrait liquide de Seigle ergots, Fr.; Fliissiges 
Mutterkornextrakt, Cr. 
“ Ergot, recently ground and in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains] ; Acetic Acid, twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms]. Mix the 
Acetic Acid with nine hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 66 minims] of 
Diluted Alcohol, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 
fluidounces, 69 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough of the mixture to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually add- 
ing the menstruum, until the Ergot is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, 
in a porcelain capsule, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“Ergot, crushed, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 400 grammes; Distilled Water, 7h pints (Imp. 
meas.) or 3000 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 7\ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 150 
cubic centimetres. Digest the crushed Ergot in five pints (Imp. meas.) or two thousand 
cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water for twelve hours; draw off the infusion; repeat the PART I. 
Extractum Ergotse Fluidum.—Extractum Eriodictyi Fluidum. 
561 
digestion with the remainder of the Distilled Water; press; strain; evaporate the liquid to 
fourteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and eighty cubic centimetres; when cold, 
add the Alcohol; set aside for an hour ; filter. The product should measure twenty fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or four hundred cubic centimetres.” Br. 
This fluid extract was first suggested by Mr. Joseph Laidley, of Richmond, Ya.; but the 
process has since been much modified. The improvement first suggested by Prof. Procter, 
of adding an acid to the menstruum to fix the alkaloids, and the selection of the proper men- 
struum, placed this important preparation at once on a permanent footing; and his original 
formula, published in 1857, and made official in 1860, is now practically adopted in 1890, 
notwithstanding the numerous changes of views concerning the active constituents of ergot. 
Practical experience has shown that it is not only a reliable preparation, but also, if carefully 
made, a permanent one. The use of glycerin in the menstruum is of no benefit whatever, and it 
would render the fluid extract unfit for use as a basis for the extract now official; as an addi- 
tion, diluted hydrochloric has been replaced by acetic acid for fixing alkaloids, which makes the 
fluid extract of the U. S. P. 1890 identical with Prof. Procter’s original formula. (See Ergota.) 
Diluted alcohol dissolves all the active matter of ergot, leaving its oil behind, and the tincture 
first obtained, holding most of the active principles, is reserved without concentration. In the 
British process the prolonged digestion and evaporation must act disadvantageously upon prin- 
ciples which are known to be very easily affected by heat and exposure. Bernagan and Burk- 
hart have devised a process in which the fluid extract contains 5 per cent, of sodium chloride. 
The advantages are not apparent. (Apoth. Zeit., 1895, 309.) 
The U. S. fluid extract of ergot is a clear, very dark reddish-brown liquid, having the taste 
of ergot, but without its fishy odor, owing to the solution of the trimethylamine, upon which 
that odor depends. On the addition, however, of solution of potassa, the odor is strongly de- 
veloped, and the alkaloid escapes so largely that, if hydrochloric acid be held near it, a cloud 
of trimethylamine chloride will be perceived. This may be considered as a good test of the 
efficiency of the preparation; for, though the virtues of ergot do not depend on its volatile 
alkaloid, yet if this be retained in the fluid extract there can be little doubt that the other 
more fixed principles will be retained also. The preparation is an active one, but in large 
doses it is more apt to sicken the stomach than is the simple extract. The dose is from half 
a fluidrachm to half a fluidounce (1-9-15 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM ERIODICTYI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Erio- 
dictyon. 
11 Eriodictyon, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6£ fluidrachms]. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of Alco- 
hol with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and, having 
moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of 
the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the same 
proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Eriodictyon is exhausted. Reserve the 
first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 208 minims] of the percolate, and evap- 
orate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract; * it has a dark brownish-green color, and will doubtless 
prove a valuable addition. The dose is from twenty minims to a fluidrachm (1-3-3-75 C.c.). 
(ex-tkXc'tum ek-i-o-dic'ty-i FLU'I-DUM.) 
* Aromatic Fluid Extract of Yerba Santa (Edel’s process). Take of fl. ext. yerba santa, fl. oz. 2; oil cloves, gtt. 
32; oil orange, gtt. 16; oil sassafras, gtt. 16; alcohol, fl. oz. 3; liquor potassaj, fl. dr. 12; fl. ext. cardamom comp., 
fl. dr. 4; water, fl. oz. 4; glycerin, purified talcum, of each a sufficient quantity. The fluid extracts and oils are 
mixed, the solution of potassa and water added, then some talcum, and finally the alcohol, when the mixture is 
filtered, returning the first filtrate until it passes clear. Sufficient glycerin is then added to the filtrate to make one 
pint. The preparation is readily miscible with water, elixirs, or syrups. This fluid extract (so called) is intended 
for making a palatable Aromatic Syrup of Yerba Santa. (Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 423.) 562 
Extractum Eucalypti Fluidum.—Extractum Eupatorii Fluidum. 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM EUCALYPTI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Euca- 
lyptus. 
Extrait liquide d’Eucalyptus, Fr.; Fliissiges Eucalyptus-Extrakt, G. 
“ Eucalyptus, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, G£ 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of 
Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Eucalyptus is exhausted. Reserve 
the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 208 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough 
menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract well represents the drug, and is of a dark greenish-brown color, having 
the peculiar odor and taste of eucalyptus very strongly developed, but for administration it is 
much inferior to the volatile oil. The dose is from five to ten minims (0-3-0-6 C.c.). 
(KX-TRlC'TUM jsu-ca-lyp'ti flu'i-dOm.) 
EXTRACTUM EUONYMI. U. S. (Br.) Extract of Euonymus. 
(EX-TRlO'TUM EU-ON'Y-MI.) 
Extractum Euonymi Siccum, Br.; Dry Extract of Euonymus; Extrait de Fusain, Fr.; Spindelbaum-Extrakt, G. 
“ Euonymus, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 
138 minims] of Alcohol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 70 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding men- 
struum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until three thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 212 minims] of tincture are obtained, or the Euonymus is ex- 
hausted. Distil off the Alcohol from the tincture by mea-ns of a water-bath, and, having placed 
the residue in a porcelain capsule, evaporate it, on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Euonymus Bark, in No. 20 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (45 
per cent.), a sufficient quantity; Calcium Phosphate, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the pow- 
dered Euonymus Bark with ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres 
of the Alcohol; pack in a percolator; gradually pour on more of the menstruum until the 
Euonymus is exhausted; collect the liquid and evaporate the alcohol; thoroughly dry the 
residue; powder the product as far as possible and mix it with one-fourth of its weight of 
Calcium Phosphate, continuing the drying and powdering until a satisfactory preparation is 
obtained ; then immediately transfer it to a well-closed bottle.” Br. Dry extract of euonymus 
is commonly known as “ euonymin." An efficient preparation in doses of from one to three 
grains (0-065-0-2 Gin.). 
EXTRACTUM EUPATORII FLUIDUM. U.S. Fluid Extract of Eupa- 
torium. 
Extrait liquide d’Eupatoire, Fr.; Fliissiges Durchwachsener Wasserhanf-Extrakt, G. 
11 Eupatorium, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; Di- 
luted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Di- 
(EX-TRXC'TUM ETT-PA-TO'RI-! FLU'l-DtJM.) PART I. 
Extradum Films Liquidum.—Extradum Gelsemii Fluidum. 
563 
luted Alcohol, until the Eupatorium is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract will have but a limited use, although it well represents the drug, since 
boneset is chiefly employed in domestic medicine. It is of a dark greenish-brown color, and 
the dose may be stated as from twenty minims to a fluidrachm (D25-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM FILICIS LIQUIDUM. Br. Liquid Extract of Male Fern. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM FIL'I-CIS LIQ'UI-DUM—llk'wf-dfim.) 
This being properly an oleoresin, will be considered under the head of the Oleoresinse, to 
which the reader is referred. (See Oleoresina Aspidii, page 913.) 
EXTRACTUM FRANGULiE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Frangula. 
Extrait liquide de Bourdaine, Fr.; Fliissiges Faulbaumrinde-Extrakt, G. 
“ Frangula, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Mix five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 436 minims] of Alcohol 
with eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of Water, and, having mois- 
tened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] 
of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough of the menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Frangula is exhausted. Reserve 
the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough 
menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract which has been quite largely used in this country. It is intended to 
be a laxative, but it is frequently disappointing, as the drug is rarely to be obtained of uniformly 
good quality. The fluid extract is of a dark reddish-brown color* The dose is from ten to 
twenty minims (0-6—1-25 C.c.). 
(ex-trXc'tum flu'i-dum.) 
EXTRACTUM GELSEMII FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Gelsemium. 
Extrait liquide de Jasmin jaune, Fr.; Fliissiges Gelber Jasmin-Extrakt, G. 
“ G-elsemium, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces ay., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 2 fluid- 
drachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 
minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the 
Gelsemium is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 
207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in 
the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thou- 
sand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is identical with the fluid extract formerly official, which has proved very useful. It 
is of a dark reddish-brown color. The dose is from two to three minims ((M2-0-18 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
* Sweet Fluid Extract of Buckthorn (Edel’s process). Fid. extr. buckthorn, fl. oz. 16; solution of potassa, 
fl. dr. 1; solution of liquorice (N. F.), fl. oz. 2; saccharin, dr. 1. Take 3 fluid ounces of the fluid extract, reduce by 
evaporation to half a fluid ounce, dissolve in the rest of the fluid extract, add the solution of potassa, saccharin, 
and liquorice. The resulting product is a permanent sweet fluid extract. (Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 423.) 564 
Extractum Gentianse.—Extractum Geranii Fluidum, 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM GENTIANS. U. S., Br. Extract of Gentian. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM 
Extrait de Gentiane, Fr.; Enzian-Extrakt, G. 
“ Gentian, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Water, 
a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of Water, and let it macerate for twenty-four hours; then pack it in a conical 
percolator, and gradually pour water upon it until the infusion passes but slightly imbued with 
the properties of the Gentian. Reduce the liquid to three-fourths of its bulk by boiling, and 
strain; then, by means of a water-bath, evaporate to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“Infuse Gentian Root in ten times its weight of Distilled Water for two hours; boil for 
fifteen minutes; pour off; press; strain; evaporate the liquid to the consistence of a soft 
extract.” Br. 
The plan of percolation with cold water is admirably adapted to the extraction of the active 
matter of gentian. By the use of cold water, starch and pectic acid are left behind, while 
any albumen that may be taken up is disposed of by the subsequent boiling and straining. 
The extract, however, may be advantageously made by macerating the root in two parts of 
water for thirty-six hours, then expressing in a powerful press, again macerating with addi- 
tional water, and in like manner expressing, and evaporating the united expressed liquors. 
MM. Guibourt and Cadet de Vaux obtained by maceration in cold water an extract not only 
greater in amount, but also more transparent, more bitter, and possessing more of the color and 
smell of the root, than that prepared by decoction. Guibourt attributes this result to the cir- 
cumstance that, as gentian contains little if any starch, it yields nothing to boiling which it 
will not also yield to cold water; while decoction favors the combination of a portion of the 
coloring matter with the lignin. But this opinion requires modification, now that it is under- 
stood that gentian contains pectic acid, which water will extract when boiling hot, but not 
when cold. Gentian, according to Brande, yields half its weight of extract by decoction. 
As ordinarily procured, the extract of gentian has an agreeable odor, is very bitter, and of 
a dark brown color approaching to black, shining, and tenacious. It is frequently used as a 
tonic, in the form of pill, either alone or in connection with metallic preparations; but the 
practice of some pharmacists of using it indiscriminately as a pill excipient is very wrong and 
deserving of severe censure. The dose is from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM GENTIANS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Gentian. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM (JEN-TI-A'NiE FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Gentiane, Fr.; Fliissiges Enzian-Extrakt, G. 
“ Gentian, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cuhic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cuhic centimeters [or 11 fluid- 
ounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then 
add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When 
the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Gentian is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from 
the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve 
this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms.]” U. S. 
This is a translucent, reddish-brown fluid, with the smell and taste of the root. It may be 
questionable whether it was needed, though it has the advantage that we may obtain from it 
the tonic effects of the drug with less alcohol than in an equivalent quantity of the tincture; 
and pharmaceutically it affords a convenient method of giving to mixtures the tonic proper- 
ties of gentian when required. The dose is from ten to thirty minims (0 6-1 9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM GERANII FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Geranium. 
Extrait de Bee de Grue tachete, Fr.; Pliissiges Fleckenstorchschnabel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Geranium, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Glycerin, 
one hundred cuhic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient 
(EX-TRiC'TUM <JE-RA'NI-i FLU'I-DUM.) Extractum Geranii Fluidum.—Extractum Glycyrrkizse. 
PART I. 
565 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| fluidrachms]. Mix the 
Glycerin with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of Diluted Alco- 
hol, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough of the menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and afterwards Diluted Alcohol, until the 
Geranium is exhausted. Reserve the first seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 
321 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in 
the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6] fluidrachms].” JJ. S. 
The quantity of glycerin has been greatly diminished in this fluid extract, and the process 
is now unobjectionable. It is a dark reddish-brown liquid, having little odor and a very 
astringent taste. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (1-9—3-75 C.c.). For Stolzs 
process, see Registered Pharmacist, 1893, 253. 
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZ/E. U. S. Extract of Glycyrrhiza. 
[Extract of Liquorice.] 
(EX-TRAC'TUM GLYQ-YR-RHl'ZiE—glla-jr-ri'ze.) 
“ The commercial extract of the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linne (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” 
U. S. 
Succus Liquiritiaj, P. G.; Liquorice, Licorice; Extrait de Reglisse, Fr.; Lakriz, Lakrizensaft, Siissholzsaft, G.; 
Sugo di Liquirizia, It.; Regaliza en Ballos, Sp. 
Liquorice is an article of export from the north of Spain, particularly Catalonia, where it is 
obtained in the following manner. The roots of the G. glabra, having been dug up, thoroughly 
cleansed, and half dried by exposure to the air, are cut into small pieces, and boiled in water 
till the liquor is saturated. The decoction is then allowed to rest, and, after the dregs have 
subsided, is decanted, and evaporated to the proper consistence. The extract, thus prepared, 
is formed into rolls from five to six inches long by an inch in diameter, which are dried in the 
air, and wrapped in laurel leaves. 
The British Pharmacopoeia gives a process for making extraet of liquorice. (See page 568.) 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs that not less than 60 per cent, of it should be soluble in cold 
water. 
Much liquorice is prepared in Calabria, according to M. Fee, from the G. echinata, which 
abounds in that country. The process is essentially the same as that just described, but con- 
ducted with greater care ; and the Italian liquorice is purer and more valuable than the Spanish. 
It is in cylinders, generally somewhat smaller than the Spanish, and usually stamped with the 
manufacturer’s brand. Most of the extract brought to this country comes from Messina and 
Catania in Sicily and Naples, from Seville and Saragossa in Spain, and from Smyrna in Turkey. 
Perhaps in no other part of the world is more liquorice consumed than in the United States, 
from four to five thousand tons having been imported annually before the war; but the article 
is now made on an extensive scale in this country, very successfully, with the best modern ap- 
pliances, and of such good quality as to have almost driven the foreign article out of the market. 
The principal use of Extract of Liquorice is in the manufacture of chewing tobacco; that 
in the form of rolls as sold by the druggists being a comparatively small portion of the whole 
amount consumed. 
Crude Liquorice, Liquorice Paste, or Liquorice Mass, as it is variously termed, is found in 
the market in cases ranging from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, of a hard 
pilular consistence and, as its name implies, in a mass, which has been run into the case while 
hot and then allowed to cool. 
Liquorice is usually in cylindrical rolls, somewhat flattened, and often covered with bay- 
leaves. We have seen it in the London market in large cubical masses. When good, it is 
very black, dry, brittle, breaking with a shining fracture, of a very sweet, peculiar, slightly 
acrid or bitterish taste, and almost entirely soluble, when pure, in boiling water. Neumann 
obtained 460 parts of aqueous extract from 480 parts of Spanish liquorice. It is, however, 
sonsiderably less soluble in cold water. It is often impure from accidental or fraudulent addi- 
tion or careless preparation. Starch, sand, the juice of prunes, etc., are sometimes added ; 
and carbonaceous matter, and even particles of copper, are found in it, the latter arising from 566 
Extractum Glycyrrhizse. 
PART I. 
the boilers in which the decoction is evaporated. Four pounds of the extract have yielded 
two drachms and a half of metallic copper. (Fee.) In different commercial specimens exam- 
ined by Chevallier he found from 9 to 50 per cent, of insoluble matter. (Journ. de Pharm., 
xxx. 429.) This is by no means, however, always impurity. In the preparation of the extract 
by decoction, a portion of matter originally insoluble, or rendered so by decoction, is taken up, 
and is, in fact, necessary to the proper constitution of the liquorice. When this is prepared 
with cold water, or even with hot water by simple displacement, the extract attracts moisture 
from the air, becomes soft, and loses the characteristic brittleness of the drug. The additional 
substances taken up in decoction serve to protect the extract against this change. M. Delondre 
has obtained the same result by using steam as the solvent. He prepares from the root an 
excellent liquorice, having all the requisite qualities of color, taste, and permanence, by passing 
steam, in suitable vessels, through the coarse powder of the root. The vapor thoroughly pene- 
trates the powder, and is drawn off as it condenses. With about 500 lbs. of the root, this 
treatment is continued for twelve hours, and repeated at the end of five days. The liquors are 
collected, decanted, clarified with about 4 lbs. of gelatin, and quickly evaporated. After being 
put into the form of cylinders, the extract is kept for ten days in a drying-room, at a tempera- 
ture of 77°. (Ibid., p. 433.) A bitter or empyreumatic taste is a sign of inferior quality 
in liquorice. As ordinarily found in commerce, it requires to be purified * (See Extractum 
Glycyrrhizse Pururn ; also Liquor Extracti Glycyrrhizse, Part II.) 
Liquorice contains glycyrrhizin, C24H3609, a glucoside, partly free and partly in combination 
with ammonia, to which combination the characteristic sweet taste of liquorice is due. The 
glycyrrhizin when boiled with dilute acids decomposes into glycyrrhetin, C18H2604, and a 
fermentable sugar. 
The refined liquorice, found in commerce in small cylindrical pieces not thicker than a pipe- 
stem, is prepared by dissolving the impure extract in water without boiling, straining the solu- 
tion, and evaporating. The object of this process is to separate not only the insoluble impuri- 
ties, but also the acrid oleoresinous substance which is extracted by long boiling from the 
liquorice root and is necessarily mixed with the unrefined extract. It is customary to add, 
during the process, a portion of sugar, gum, flour, starch, or perhaps glue. These additions, 
or something equivalent, are necessary to obviate the deliquescent property of the pure liquorice. 
According to M. Delondre, 15 per cent, of gum is the proper proportion, when this substance 
is used; Dr. Geisler has found sugar of milk to lessen the disposition of the extract to absorb 
moisture; but he considers the best addition, on the whole, to be very finely powdered liquor- 
ice root, which should be used in the proportion of 1 part to 16 of the purified extract. 
(A. J. P., xxviii. 225.) The preparation is sometimes attacked by small worms, probably in 
consequence of the farinaceous additions. Excellent liquorice is prepared in some parts of 
England, from the root cultivated in that country. The Pontefract cakes are small lozenges 
of liquorice made in the vicinity of Pontefract, England. For methods of assaying extract 
of liquorice, see A. J. P., 1896, 663; also 1898, 23, 136. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Liquorice is a useful demulcent, much employed in 
cough mixtures, and frequently added to infusions or decoctions in order to cover the taste or 
* The following results of an examination of different brands of liquorice in the market in relation to the propor- 
tion of matters soluble and those insoluble in cold water contained in them respectively, by Mr. L. J. Schroeder, are 
published in the A. J. P. (1884, p. 311). Five hundred grains of each commercial extract were used. 
Brand. 
Residue. 
Glycyrrhizin. 
Weight. 
Per cent. 
Soluble. 
Insoluble. 
Total. 
1. M. A R 
Grains. 
180 
36 
38 
5 
Grains. 
43 
2. Y. A S 
174 
34-8 
30 
10 
40 
3. Dean 
239 
47-8 
8 
5 
13 
4. Royal 
274 
54-8 
6 
3 
9 
5. Corigliano 
150 
30 
15 
15 
30 
6. Guzzolini 
132 
26-4 
10 
7 
17 
7. P. A S 
125 
25 
10 
11 
21 
8. S. C 
130 
26 
13 
13 
It will be seen that the American exceeds all the other brands in the amount of the sweet principle. Extractum Glycyrrhizse Fluidum.—Extractum Glycyrrhizse Purum. 
567 
PART I. 
obtund the acrimony of the principal medicine. A piece of it held in the mouth and allowed 
to dissolve slowly is often found to allay cough by sheathing the irritated membrane of the 
fauces. It is used in pharmacy to impart consistence to pills and troches, and to modify the 
taste of other medicines. 
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZA FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract 
of Glycyrrhiza. 
Extractum Glycyrrhizae Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Liquorice; Extrait liquide de R6glisse, Fr.; Fliis- 
siges Siissholz-Extrakt, G. 
u Glycyrrhiza, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Am- 
monia Water, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Ammonia Water with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] 
of Alcohol and six hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 21 fluidounces, 470 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator; then 
add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually add- 
ing, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then a mixture of Alcohol and Water made 
in the proportion of three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Alcohol 
and six hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 21 fluidounces, 470 minims] of Water, until the 
Glycyrrhiza is exhausted. Reserve the first seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 
fluidounces, 173 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough of the mixture of Alcohol and Water to make 
the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centra iters [or 33 fluidounces, 6o fluidrachms].” 
U.S. ' 
“ Liquorice Root, in No. 20 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes ; Distilled Water, 
5 pints (Imp. meas.) or 5 litres ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Mix the Liquor- 
ice Root with half of the Distilled Water; set aside for twenty-four hours; strain; press; to 
the pressed marc add the remainder of the Distilled Water and set aside for six hours; strain ; 
press ; mix the strained liquids ; heat to 212° F. (100° C.) ; strain through flannel; evaporate 
until the fluid has acquired, when cold, a specific gravity of 1-200 ; add to this one-fourth of 
its volume of the Alcohol; let the mixture stand for twelve hours ; filter.” Br. 
The fluid extract of the U. S. Pharm. 1880 differed from that official in 1870 in the absence 
of glycerin in the menstruum, and in the presence of ammonia water, as suggested by Prof. 
J. P. Remington. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1878, 757.) The British formula for the liquid extract 
has several inconvenient manipulative features, such as the repeated macerations and expres- 
sions, evaporating to a certain specific gravity, etc. (See Montreal Pharm. Journ., 1893, 147; 
P. J. Tr., 1898, 188.) This preparation is now very largely used as an adjuvant, and for dis- 
guising the bitter taste of quinine, which should be added to the preparation of liquorice just 
before the dose is taken. It is a very convenient form for using liquorice, the objections to the 
former fluid extracts of the root having been the slight acridity and the presence of too much 
alcohol. Not only does the ammonia render the glycyrrhizin soluble, thus materially adding 
to the power and sweetness of the fluid extract, but it also greatly lessens the acridity. It is a 
very dark reddish-brown liquid, having the well-known sweet taste of liquorice, and froths when 
shaken with water. A syrup of liquorice may be made by adding two parts of fluid extract 
to fourteen parts of simple syrup. For a formula for aromatic elixir of liquorice, see Elixirs, 
Part II. 
(EX-TKAC'TUM GLYg-YK-RHl'ZiE FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZA PURUM. U. S. (Br.) Pure Extract of 
Glycyrrhiza. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM GLYfcJ-YR-RHI'ZiE PU'RUM.) 
Extractum Glycyrrhizse, Br.; Extract of Liquorice; Extractum Glycyrrhizse Depuratum, Succus Liquiritiae 
Depuratus; Extrait de Reglisse pur, Fr.; Reines Lakriz, G. 
“Glycyrrhiza, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Ammonia Water, one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 35 minims] ; Distilled 
Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Ammonia Water with three thousand cubic centimeters [or 568 
Extractum Gossypii Radicis Fluidum.—Extractum Grindelise Fluidum. 
part i. 
101 fluidounces, 212 minims] of Distilled Water, and, having moistened the powder with one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms] of the menstruum, let it macerate 
for twenty-four hours. Then pack it moderately in a cylindrical glass percolator, and gradu- 
ally pour upon it, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then Distilled Water, until the 
Glycyrrhiza is exhausted. Lastly, evaporate the infusion, by means of a water-bath, to a 
pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Liquorice Root, in No. 20 powder, 1 pound (Imperial) or 1000 grammes ; Distilled Water, 
4 pints (Imp. meas.) or 5 litres. Mix the Liquorice Root with two pints (Imp. meas.) or two 
and a half litres of the Distilled Water ; set aside for twenty-four hours ; strain ; press ; to the 
pressed marc add the remainder of the Distilled Water and set aside the mixture for six hours ; 
strain; press; mix the strained liquids; heat to 212° F. (100° C.); strain through flannel; 
evaporate to the consistence of a soft extract.” Br. 
The necessity for a pure extract of liquorice must be apparent to every pharmacist: the 
very variable quality of the commercial extract has frequently led to disappointment. The 
official process affords a preparation which is unexceptionable, the ammonia rendering the 
glycyrrhizin soluble; yet care must be taken in its evaporation, as it is very easily injured by 
too much heat, which gives it an empyreumatic taste, destroying at once its usefulness as an 
agreeable adjuvant. 
EXTRACTUM GOSSYPII RADICIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Cotton Root Bark. 
(EX-TItXC'TUM GOS-SYP'I-I BA-DI'CIS FLU'I-DDM.) 
Extrait liquide d’Ecorce de Cotonnier, Fr.; Fliissiges Baumwollenwurzel-Exti-akt, G. 
“ Cotton Root Bark, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Glycerin, two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] ; Alcohol, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol, and, having moistened the powder with five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluid- 
ounces, 435 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually add- 
ing, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then Alcohol, until the Cotton Root Bark is 
exhausted. Reserve the first seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] 
of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved 
portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centi- 
meters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is one of the fluid extracts which is improved by the use of glycerin : the menstruum 
selected prevents the gelatinization which was a troublesome objection to the fluid extract of 
the Pharmacopoeia of 1870. Prof. J. U. Lloyd prefers a menstruum composed of ten fluid- 
ounces of alcohol and three fluidounces each of glycerin and water, finishing the percola- 
tion with a mixture composed of ten fluidounces of alcohol and six fluidounces of water. It 
is a deep-reddish liquid, and well represents the root. The dose is from half a fluidraclim to 
a fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Grindelia. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM GRIN-DE'LI-iE FLU'I-DUM.) 
“ Grindelia, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 £ fluid- 
drachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 
minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the 
Grindelia is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluid- 
ounces, 356 minims] of the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of 
a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, part i. 
Extractum Guarantee Fluidum.—Extractum Hamamelidis Fluidum. 
569 
and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract which well represents the drug: owing to the large quantity of resin- 
ous matter present, it does not mix well with aqueous liquids. The menstruum in the present 
process has been made more alcoholic than that formerly used. The so-called “ alkaline fluid 
extract of grindelia” may be made by evaporating one pint of official fluid extract till reduced 
to twelve fluidounces, making a solution of 180 grains of sodium bicarbonate in four fluid- 
ounces of water, adding it slowly to the evaporated fluid extract, and filtering. It is a dark 
brown liquid having the peculiar odor of grindelia. Dose, from half a fluidrachm to a 
fluidrachm (D9-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM GUARANI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Guarana. 
“ Gruarana, in No. 80 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6i 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of 
Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Gluarana is exhausted. Reserve 
the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate. Distil 
oft- the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a 
soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is of doubtful utility. The powdered drug itself is portable, not unpleasant 
to the taste, and is efficient when given diffused in water; nothing is gained by making it into 
a fluid extract. The fluid extract is of a deep reddish-brown color. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 
423.) The dose is from one to two fluidrachms (3*75—17-5 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM GUA-RA'X/E FL U' I -1) U M—g wa- ra' ne.) 
EXTRACTUM HiEMATOXYLI. U. S. Extract of Haematoxylon. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM ELE-MA-TOX'Y-LI.) 
Extract of Logwood; Extractum Ligni Campechiani, P. G.; Extrait de Bois de Campeche, F/\; Campecheholz- 
Extrakt, G. 
“ Haematoxylon, rasped, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Water, ten 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 338 fluidounces, 66 minims]. Macerate the Haematoxylon with 
the Water for forty-eight hours. Then boil (avoiding the use of metallic vessels) until one-half 
of the Water has evaporated ; strain the decoction, while hot, and evaporate to dryness.” U. S. 
This is one of the few instances in which decoction in the preparation of extracts is not con- 
sidered objectionable. Iron vessels should not be employed in the process, in consequence of 
the presence of tannic acid. The evaporation should be carried so far that the extract may be 
dry and brittle when cold. About 20 lbs. of it are obtained from one cwt. of logwood. (Brande.) 
It is of a deep ruby color, and an astringent, sweetish taste, and has all the medical virtues of 
the wood. If given in pills, these should be recently made, as when long kept they are said 
to become so hard as sometimes to pass unchanged through the bowels. The extract, however, 
is best administered in solution. The dose is from ten to thirty grains Gm.). This 
extract is said to be prepared largely in Yucatan and other parts of Mexico. 
EXTRACTUM HAMAMELIDIS FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract 
of Hamamelis. 
(EX-TItlC'TUM HAM-A-Mi)L'l-DIS FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extractum Hamamelidis Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Hamamelis. 
“ Hamamelis, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Glycerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, 
a sufficient quantity. Mix the Glycerin with five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 
435 minims] of Alcohol and eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 570 
Extradum Hamamelidis Fluidum.—Extradum Hydrastis Fluidum. 
PART I. 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a conical percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the 
percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then a mixture of Alcohol and Water, 
made in the proportion of five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of 
Alcohol to eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of Water, until the 
Hamamelis is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 
fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U S. 
“ Hamamelis Leaves, in No. 40 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes ; Alcohol (45 
per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powdered Hamamelis Leaves with about eight 
fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or four hundred cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; pack the 
moistened powder in a percolator, and add sufficient menstruum to saturate it thoroughly; 
when the liquid begins to drop, close the lower orifice of the percolator; set aside for forty- 
eight hours ; then allow percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum until the Hama- 
melis Leaves are exhausted ; reserve the first seventeen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or eight 
hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of the percolate ; remove the alcohol from the remainder 
by distillation ; evaporate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion ; 
add sufficient menstruum to produce twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic 
centimetres of the Liquid Extract.” Br. 
This is a fluid extract, which well represents the virtues of witch-hazel. It has a dark red- 
dish-brown color. The dose is half a fluidrachm (1-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM HYDRASTIS FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Hydrastis. 
(ex-trXc'tum hy-drXs'tis flu'i-dum.) 
Extractum Hydrastis Liquidum, Br.,- Liquid Extract of Hydrastis; Extrait liquide de Hydrastis, Fr.; Fliis- 
siges Hydrastis-Extrakt, G. 
“ Hydrastis, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Gly- 
cerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alco- 
hol and three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, and, having 
moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of 
the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of the 
menstruum, and then a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of six hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alcohol to three hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, until the Hydrastis is exhausted. Reserve the first 
eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate. Dis- 
til oif the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to 
a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 64 fluidrachms].” U S. 
“ Hydrastis Rhizome, in No. 60 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol 
(45 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powdered Hydrastis with about eight fluid 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or four hundred cubic centimetres of the Alcohol ; pack the damp powder 
in a percolator; pour on sufficient menstruum to saturate it thoroughly; when the liquid 
begins to drop, close the lower orifice of the percolator; set aside for forty-eight hours ; then 
allow percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum until the Hydrastis is exhausted; 
reserve the first seventeen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred and fifty cubic centimetres 
of the percolate ; remove the alcohol from the remainder by distillation ; evaporate the residue 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion ; add sufficient menstruum to produce 
twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract.” Br. 
The fluid extract thoroughly represents the drug. It is of a deep brownish-yellow color, aud 
may be given in doses of from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-87-3-75 C.c.). PART I. 
Extradum Hyoscyami.—Extradum Hyoscyami Fluidum. 
571 
EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI. U. S. (Br.) Extract of Hyoscyamus. 
(EX trXc'tum hy-os-cy'a-m!.) 
Extractum Hyoscyami Viride, Br., Green Extract of Hyoscyamus; Extract of Henbane; Extrait de Jus- 
quiame, Fr.; Bilsenkraut-Extrakt, G. 
“ Hyoscyamus, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms] ; Water, one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Mix the 
Alcohol and Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 
13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then 
add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and then Diluted Alcohol, until three thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 212 minims] of tincture are obtained, or the Hyoscyamus 
is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] 
of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; mix this with the reserved portion, 
and evaporate, at or below the before-mentioned temperature, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Bruise fresh leaves, flowering tops, and young branches of Hyoscyamus niger, Linn.; press 
out the juice and heat it gradually to 130° F. (54-4° C.) ; separate the green coloring matter 
by a calico filter ; heat the strained liquid to 200° F. (93-3° C.) ; filter. Evaporate the filtrate 
to the consistence of a thin syrup; add to it the green coloring matter previously separated 
and passed through a hair sieve ; stir the whole together, and evaporate at a temperature not 
exceeding 140° F. (60° C.), to the consistence of a soft extract.” Br. 
MM. Solon and Soubeiran have shown that the insoluble matter separated from the expressed 
juice of henbane by filtering, and that coagulated by heat, are nearly if not quite inert; so that the 
juice may be usefully clarified before evaporation. (A. J. P., viii. 228.) The retention of the 
chlorophyll, however, as provided for in the British formula, is thought to be advantageous. This 
kind of extract of henbane is chiefly derived from England. Mr. Brande says that one cwt. of 
the fresh herb affords between four and five pounds. M. Recluz obtained one part from sixteen. 
The extract is of a dark olive color, of a narcotic rather unpleasant odor, and a bitterish, 
nauseous, slightly saline taste. It retains its softness for a long time, but at the end of three 
or four years becomes dry, and exhibits, when broken, small crystals of potassium nitrate and 
sodium chloride. (Recluz.) Like all the inspissated juices, it is of variable strength, according 
to its age, the care used in its preparation, and the character of the leaves. (See Hyoscyamus.') 
Much depends on the choice of the leaves; and too little attention is paid to this point. In 
reference to the biennial plant, there seems to be no doubt that the leaves of the second year 
are much more efficacious than those of the first, and should, therefore, always be selected. It 
is stated under Hyoscyamus that the leaves should be gathered soon after the plant has 
flowered. Mr. Charles Cracknell gives more particular directions. He thinks the plant is in 
a fit state for collection during only a very short period, namely, when the flowers at the top are 
blown, but have not yet begun to fade, and the seed-vessels and seeds which have been formed 
are still soft and juicy. For other observations on the preparation of this extract, see a paper 
by Mr. Cracknell in A. J. P. (xxiii. 245). Mr. T. B. Groves found that an extract obtained by 
inspissating the juice of the stems was altogether inferior to another obtained in like manner 
from the leaves, being not only less in amount, but also lower in quality. (P. J. Tr., 1862.) 
The U. S. P. extract is a much more reliable and active preparation than the inspissated 
juice, or, as it is usually termed, English extract. It is of a dark olive color, with the peculiar 
odor of hyoscyamus. The dose is from one to two grains (0-065-0-13 Gm.). In the use of 
the English extract it is advisable to begin with a moderate dose, two or three grains (0-13 or 0-20 
Gm.), and gradually to increase the quantity till some effect is experienced, and the degree of 
efficiency of the particular parcel employed is ascertained. It is usually given in pill. 
EXTRACTUM HYOSCYAMI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Hyos- 
cyamus. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM HY-OS-CY'A-MI FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Jusauiame, Fr.; Fliissiges Bilsenkraut-Extrakt, G. 
“ Hyoscyamus, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 572 
Extractum Ipecacuanlise Fluidum. 
PART I. 
6J fluidrachms]. Mix two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms] of 
Alcohol with one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using 
the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Hyoscyamus is exhausted. 
Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the perco- 
late, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract was improved in the 1880 revision by abandoning the glycerin directed in 
the former process. It is of a very dark greenish-brown color, and is given in the dose of five 
minims (0-3 C.c.) to begin with. For the medical properties, see Hyoscyamus. 
EXTRACTUM IPECACUANHA FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract 
of Ipecac. 
(BX-TRlC'TUM II’-E-CAC-U-AN'H7E FLU'l-DUM—Ip-g-kak-yu-Sn'e.) 
“ A Liquid Extract containing 2 to 21 grains of the alkaloids of Ipecacuanha Root in 110 
minims (2 to 2.25 grammes in 100 cubic centimetres).” Br. 
Extractum Ipecacuanhas Liquidum, Br., Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha; Extrait liquide d’lpecacuanhu, Fr.; 
Fliissiges Ipecacuanha-Extrakt, G. 
“Ipecac, in No. 80 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of 
Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluid- 
ounces, 400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Ipecac is 
exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“ Ipecacuanha Root, in No. 20 powder, 1 pound (Imperial) or 800 grammes; Calcium 
Hydroxide, 700 grains (Imp.) or 80 grammes; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. 
Moisten the powdered Ipecacuanha Root with six fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or three hundred 
cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; pack firmly in a percolator; add more of the Alcohol, and 
when the liquid begins to drop, close the lower orifice of the percolator; set aside for twenty- 
four hours. Then percolate slowly until thirteen and a half fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or six 
hundred and seventy-five cubic centimetres have been collected ; reserve this portion. Con- 
tinue percolation until nothing more is extracted ; drain well. Mix the Lime with the marc; 
allow them to remain in contact for twenty-four hours; then continue percolation until ex- 
haustion is complete. Recover the alcohol from the last two percolates by distillation ; dissolve 
the residual extract in the reserved portion of percolate. 
“ Determine the proportion of alkaloids in the resulting strong liquid extract by the follow- 
ing analytical process: 
“ Dilute 20 cubic centimetres with an equal bulk of water. Remove the alcohol by the aid 
of a water-bath ; add to the warm solution an excess of solution of lead subacetate. Filter; 
wash the precipitate with water and add the washings to the filtrate. Remove the excess of 
lead from the filtrate by precipitation with diluted sulphuric acid; filter ; wash the precipitate 
with water and add the washings to the filtrate. Transfer the filtrate to a separator ; add 
excess of solution of ammonia and agitate with 25 cubic centimetres of chloroform. Separate 
and set aside the chloroformic solution. Twice repeat the agitation with chloroform, and the 
separation. Mix the chloroformic solutions; evaporate; dry at a temperature below 176° F. 
(80° C.), and weigh the residue of total alkaloids. PART I. 
Extractum Iridis.—Extractum Iridis Fluidum. 
573 
“ From this weight calculate the amount of alkaloids in the bulk of strong liquid extract, 
and add to the latter sufficient Alcohol (90 per cent.) to produce Liquid Extract of Ipecacu- 
anha containing not less than 2 and not more than 2-25 grammes of alkaloid in 100 cubic 
centimetres, or from 2 to 21 grains in 110 minims.” Br. 
The menstruum for the U. S. fluid extract has been altered, it having been proved by J. U. 
Lloyd that when alcohol alone is used a portion of emetine escapes solution. On the other hand, 
it is known that when the menstruum is more aqueous more of the pectinous principles are 
taken up, and it is very desirable to separate these in order to prevent their appearance as a 
flocculent precipitate in syrup of ipecacuanha; but efficiency is to be sought for as the first 
desideratum, and hence a menstruum which will extract the activity and make a fluid extract 
that will not let fall a bulky precipitate of inert matter has been secured; usually this will not 
mix with syrup without some precipitation, but the improved official process for syrup of ipe- 
cacuanha should effectually separate any precipitate resulting from the presence of apotheme 
in the fluid extract* The British liquid extract (1898) is a new preparation and is standardr 
ized ; the excellent researches of Paul and Cownley on ipecac, and the assay work of Kremel, 
Keller, and others, undoubtedly prompted the introduction of the process for the liquid extract. 
(See Ipecacuanha.') It will probably be found, however, that the U. S. menstruum is 
able. An acetic extract of ipecacuanha (dry) is used in Great Britain ; it has been shown that 
the heating necessary to dry it is injurious to its emetic properties. (P. J. Tr., 1895, 158.) 
This fluid extract is a thin, dark reddish-brown, transparent liquid, of a bitterish slightly 
acrid taste, but without the nauseous flavor of the root. The emetic dose would be from 
fifteen to thirty minims (0-9—1*9 C.c.). It is a convenient preparation for adding to expectorant 
and diaphoretic mixtures, and is used officially principally in preparing the syrup of ipecacuanha.]" 
EXTRACTUM IRIDIS. U. S. Extract of Iris. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM I'RI-DIS.) 
Extrait d’lris vari€,Fr./ Verschiedenfarbige Schwertlilie-Extrakt, G. 
“ Iris, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av<5 120 grains] ; Alcohol, a 
sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Al- 
cohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macer- 
ate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, 
until three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 3? fluidraehms] of tincture are ob- 
tained, or the Iris is exhausted. Distil off the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a water- 
bath, and evaporate the residue, on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” TJ. S. 
This is an extract which has been introduced to afford an opportunity of using blue flag in 
the pilular form. The drug appears to us to he too seldom used to merit this distinction. The 
dose is from one to two grains (0-065-0-13 Grin.). 
EXTRACTUM IRIDIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Iris 
Fluid Extract of Blue Flag; Extrait liquide d’lris varie, Fr.j Fliissiges Yersehiedenfarbige Schwertlilie- 
Extrakt, 0. 
“ Iris, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fiuidraclims]. 
Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of 
Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Iris is ex- 
hausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207,.minims] of 
the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and 
evaporate the residue, on a water-bath, to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, 
and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidraehms].” U. S. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM I'RI-DIS FLU'l-I)tM.) 
* R. Rother recommends alcohol for a menstruum and the use of magnesia, and the percolation of the finely- 
powdered ipecac upon what he calls the disc principle. {Drug. Circ., 1886, p. 4.) 
f For discussion of the alkaloidal strength of ipecac and its fluid extract, by II. W. Snow, see Pharm. Era, 1887. 574 
Extradum, Jalapse. 
PART I. 
The menstruum used in this fluid extract is practically the same as that employed in ex- 
hausting blue flag in making the extract, and it will no doubt make a representative prepara- 
tion. The dose is from five to ten minims (0-3-0-6 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM JALAPS. U. S., Br. Extract of Jalap. 
(ex-trXc'tum ja-la'pje.) 
Extrait de Jalap, Fr.; Jalapen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Jalap, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, a 
sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Al- 
cohol, until the Jalap is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 
fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by 
means of a water-bath, add the residue to the reserved portion, and evaporate to a pilular 
consistence.” U. S. 
“ Jalap, in coarse powder, 1 pound (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 
pints (Imp. meas.) or 5 litres; Distilled Water, 1 gallon (Imp. meas.) or 10 litres. Macerate 
the powdered Jalap in the Alcohol for seven days; press out the tincture, filter, and then 
remove the alcohol by distillation, leaving a soft extract. Again macerate the residue of the 
Jalap in the water for four hours; express; strain through flannel; evaporate to the consist- 
ence of a soft extract. Mix the two extracts, and evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 
140° F. (60° C.) to the consistence of a firm extract.” Br. 
This extract was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890, and is intended to re- 
place the abstract formerly official. It will be observed that the U. S. 1890 extract is simply 
an alcoholic extract, differing from the extract official in 1870, and also from the present Britisn 
extract, in containing no aqueous extract whatever. 
Jalap contains a considerable quantity of starch, which is extracted by decoction, but left 
behind by cold water; and, as this principle serves only to impede the filtration or straining, 
and to augment the bulk of the extract, without adding to its virtues, cold water is very properly 
used in the process, if water is used at all. The use both of alcohol and of water was formerly 
deemed necessary, in order to extract all the medicinal qualities of the drug; and they were 
employed successively, under the impression that the previous removal of the resin by the former 
facilitates the action of the latter ; but Mr. A. B. Taylor satisfactorily determined that the sub- 
stance which water will extract from jalap previously exhausted by alcohol has no observable in- 
fluence on the system, he having taken 240 grains of the matter thus extracted without effect. 
(Proc. A. P. A., 1864, p. 215.) It was shown, moreover, that the aqueous extract of jalap is 
hygroscopic, and that it is the cause of the inconvenient hardening of the powdered extract. 
The substitution of dried sugar of milk for the inert, hygroscopic, aqueous extract was certainly an 
improvement (see Abstractum Jalapse) ; but the use of alcohol alone as a menstruum in the U. S. 
1890 process will make a stronger preparation, and thus a smaller pill can be made in all cases 
where extract of jalap is prescribed. According to Cadet de Gassicourt, water at ordinary 
temperatures, and in the old mode, acts so slowly that fermentation takes place before the 
active matter is all dissolved. Hence, if the extract be prepared without percolation, the re- 
siduum, after the tincture has been decanted, should be digested with water at a heat of about 
90° or 100° F., which, while it is insufficient for the solution of the starch, enables the solvent 
to take up the active matter with sufficient rapidity. 
One cwt. of jalap affords, according to Mr. Brande, about fifty pounds of aqueous extract 
and fifteen of resin. The product of the former is somewhat less by infusion than by decoc- 
tion ; and the extract is proportionately stronger. There is reason to believe, as we have been 
informed on good authority, that what is sold for extract of jalap is sometimes prepared from 
tubers which have been previously exhausted of their resin by alcohol; and a spurious sub- 
stance has been offered in considerable quantities in our markets for extract of jalap, which 
Messrs. Chas. Bullock and Prof. Parrish proved to owe its purgative property to 42 per cent, 
of gamboge. (A. J. P., 1862, p. 113.) 
Extract of jalap is of a dark-brown color, slightly translucent at the edges, and tenacious 
when not perfectly dry. It contains the resin and gummy extractive, and, consequently, has 
all the medical properties of the root; but it is not often exhibited alone, being chiefly used as PART I. 
Extractum Juglandis.—Extractum Kramerise. 
575 
an ingredient of purgative pills, for which it is adapted by its comparatively small hulk. It is 
most conveniently kept for use in the form of powder, which, however, is apt to attract moist- 
ure and to aggregate into a solid mass, unless carefully excluded from the air. The dose is 
from two to eight grains (0-13-0-5 Glm.).* 
EXTRACTUM JUGLANDIS. U. S. Extract of Juglans. 
Extrait d’Ecorco de Noyer gris, Fr./ Butternussrinden-Extrakt, G./ Extract of Butternut. 
“ Juglans, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 
fluidounces, 252 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; 
then add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When 
the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely cov- 
ered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, 
gradually adding Diluted Alcohol, until three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 
212 minims] of tincture are obtained, or the Juglans is exhausted. Distil off the Alcohol 
from the tincture by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue, on a water-bath, to a 
pilular consistence.” U. S. 
This extract was formerly for the most part prepared by the country-people, who are said to 
have used the bark of the branches, and even the branches themselves, instead of the inner 
hark of the root, and to have injured the preparation by too much heat. That it should have 
proved uncertain in the hands of many physicians is, therefore, not a matter of surprise. It 
should be prepared by the apothecary, and from the inner hark of the root gathered in May or 
June. Experiments made by B. F. Moise (A. J. P., 1881, p. 153) prove that alcohol and 
diluted alcohol are better menstrua than water for the hark. Prof. Procter found an extract 
of the fresh bark prepared with diluted alcohol to have much more of the pungency of the 
bark than the official; on account of these results, the process for the extract was changed at 
the 1880 revision, and diluted alcohol substituted for water as a menstruum, with marked im- 
provement. The extract of butternut is of a black color, a sweetish odor, and a bitter astrin- 
gent taste. In the dose of from five to ten grains (O-SS-O'GS Grin.) it acts as a mild cathartic, 
whilst in larger doses it is an active purge. 
(EX-TKAC'TITM JUG-LAN'DIS.) 
EXTRACTUM KRAMERIA. U. S., Br. Extract of Krameria. 
(ex-trXc'tum kra-me'ri-ae.) 
Extract of Rhatany; Extractum Ratanhae, P. G.; Extrait de Ratanhia, Fr.; Ratanha-Extrakt, G. 
“ Krameria, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Water, 
a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 
69 minims] of Water, pack it in a conical glass percolator, and gradually pour Water upon it, 
until the infusion passes but slightly imbued with the astringency of the Krameria. Heat the 
liquid to the boiling point, strain, and evaporate the strained liquid, by means of a water-bath, 
at a temperature not exceeding 70° C. (158° F.), to dryness.” U. S. 
“ Macerate coarsely powdered Krameria Root in twice its weight of Distilled Water for 
twenty-four hours; pack in a percolator; and percolate with more Distilled Water until the 
Krameria Root is exhausted. Evaporate the liquid to dryness.” Sr. 
In selecting a plan for the preparation of this extract, it was undoubtedly wise to adopt per- 
colation, with cold water as the menstruum. It is absolutely necessary to the success of the 
process that the root should he well and uniformly comminuted ; and the “ No. 40 powder” of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is, therefore, preferable to the “ coarse powder” of the Eritish. The 
wood of the root yielded to Prof. Procter only 6-8 per cent, of extract, while the bark sepa- 
rated from the wood yielded 33 per cent. As the wood is of difficult pulverization, the infer- 
ence is obvious that, in powdering the roots, the ligneous portion may be rejected with advan- 
tage. (A. J. P., xiv. 270.) As a prolonged exposure of the infusion to the air is attended 
* Fluid Extract of Jalap. The following process has been proposed by Prof. Procter. Take of jalap, in coarse 
powder, §xvi; sugar, potassium carbonate, alcohol, water, each, q.s. Add to the jalap one pint of a 
mixture consisting of two parts of alcohol and one of water, and set aside for twenty-four hours. Then put the 
mixture into a percolator, and pour on it diluted alcohol until half a gallon has passed. Evaporate the filtered 
liquid one-half, add the sugar and potassium carbonate, and evaporate to 12 fluidounces. Put the liquid, while 
warm, into a pint bottle, add four fluidounces of alcohol, and mix. The potassium carbonate renders the resin solu- 
ble in water, and probably favorably qualifies the irritating properties of the jalap. A fluidrachm of this extract 
would represent a drachm of jalap, so that the dose should be from 15 to 30 minims (O'fl-PS C.c.). (A. J. P.t 
xxix. 108.) Extractum Kramerise Fluidum.—Extradum Lappse Fluidum. 
576 
PART I. 
with the absorption of oxygen and the production of insoluble apotheme, it is desirable that 
the evaporation should he conducted rapidly, or in a vacuum. There scarcely appears to he oc- 
casion, in the case of rhatany, for heating and filtering the infusion before evaporation, the only 
use of which is to get rid of albumen, which is not among the recognized ingredients of the root. 
Very inferior extracts of rhatany are often sold. Such is the South American extract, which 
has been occasionally imported. As the product obtained by decoction is greater than that 
afforded by the official plan, the temptation to substitute the former is not always resisted, 
although it has been shown to contain nearly 50 per cent, of insoluble matter. Some drug- 
gists prepare the extract with an alcoholic menstruum, with a view to the greater product; hut 
the extract thus prepared has from 20 to 30 per cent, less of the active principle than the offi- 
cial. A substance has been shown to us, said to have been imported as extract of rhatany 
from Europe, which was nearly tasteless, and was plausibly conjectured to be the dried coagu- 
lated matter of old tincture of kino. 
Extract of rhatany should have a reddish-brown color, a smooth shining fracture, and a very 
astringent taste, and should be almost entirely soluble in water. Its virtues may be considered 
as in proportion to its solubility. It is much used for all the purposes for which the astringent 
extracts are employed. The dose is from ten to twenty grains (0 65-1 3 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM KRAMERI® FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Krameria. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM KRA-ME'RI-iE FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Ratanhia, Fr.; Fliissiges Ratanha-Extrakt, G. 
“ Krameria, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Gly- 
cerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a suffi- 
cient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix 
the Glycerin with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 208 minims] of Diluted 
Alcohol, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluid- 
ounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually add- 
ing, first, the remainder of the menstruum, and afterwards Diluted Alcohol, until the Krameria 
is exhausted. Reserve the first seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] 
of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved 
portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This process does not differ essentially from that formerly official; the fluid extract well 
represents the root, and is of a deep-red color and a very astringent taste. The dose is from 
ten minims to a fluidraclim (0-6-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM LAPP.® FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Lappa. 
“ Lappa, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Lappa is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a 
soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make 
the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” 
u.s. 
This is a new official fluid extract of burdock: it is of a dark brownish-red color. Dose, 
from thirty to sixty minims (D87-3-75 C.c.), well diluted. 
(ex-trXc'tum lap'p.e flu'i-dum.) PART I. 
Extractum Leptandrse.—Extradum Lobelise Fluidum. 
577 
EXTRACTUM LEPTANDRA. U. S. Extract of Leptandra. 
(EX-TIiAC'TUM LEP-TiN'DRJE.) 
Extract of Culver’s Root; Extrait de Leptandra, Fr.; Leptandrawurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Leptandra, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 
fluidounces, 173 minims] of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluid- 
ounces, 218 minims] of Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical per- 
colator ; then add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. 
When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely 
covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, 
gradually adding menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until 
the Leptandra is exhausted. Distil otf the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a water- 
bath, and evaporate the residue, on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
This extract will furnish practitioners who have been in the habit of prescribing the so- 
called leptandrin, with a uniform preparation. Dose, from five to ten grains (0-33—0-65 Gm,). 
EXTRACTUM LEPTANDRA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Lep- 
tandra. 
Fluid Extract of Culver’s Root; Extrait liquide de Leptandra, Fr.; Fliissiges Leptandra-Extrakt, G. 
“ Leptandra, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6J fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 
minims] of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] 
of Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluid- 
ounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it moderately in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Lep- 
tandra is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the 
reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract of a reddish-brown color, and is given in the dose of from twenty 
minims to a fluidrachm (1 -25-3-75 C.c.). 
(EX-TBAC'TUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM LOBELIAE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Lobelia. 
(EX-TRAC'TIJM LO-BE'LI-iE FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait, liquide de Lobelie enflee, Fr.; Eliissiges Lobelienkraut-Extrakt, G. 
11 Lobelia, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluid- 
ounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then 
add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Lobelia is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred 
and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the 
remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this 
in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a valuable fluid extract. It is of a dark olive color, having the acrid taste of lobelia 
very marked. The dose as an expectorant is from one to five minims (0-06-0-3 C.c.) ; as an 
emetic, from ten to twenty minims (0-6—1-25 C.c.). 578 
Extractum Lupulini Fluidum.—Extrcictum Menispermi Fluidum. 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM LUPULINI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Lupulin. 
(ex-trXc'tum lu-pu-li'n! flu'i-dum.) 
Extrait liquide de Lupuline, Fr.; Fliissiges Lupulin-Extrakt, G. 
“ Lupulin, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, 
To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Moisten the Lu- 
pulin with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Alcohol, and pack 
it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate the Lupulin and 
leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower 
orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow 
the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Lupulin is exhausted. Reserve 
the first seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough 
Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is of a very dark brown color, having the odor and taste of hops very dis- 
tinctly. Owing to its resinous character, it is not miscible with aqueous liquids, and if desired 
in combination it is necessary to use gum arabic or other emulsifying agent. The dose is from 
ten to fifteen minims (O6-0-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM MATICO FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Matico. 
Extrait liquide de Matico, Fr.; Fliissiges Matico-Extrakt, G. 
“ Matico, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Matico is exhausted. Reserve the 
first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, 
and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add 
enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is probably the best liquid preparation of matico: the present formula does not differ 
materially from that of 1870. It is a greenish-black liquid, which probably contains all of 
the virtues of matico, and affords an excellent form for internal administration. The dose is 
from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9—3-75 C.e.). 
(ex-tkXc'tum mXt'i-co flu'i-dum.) 
EXTRACTUM MENISPERMI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Menispermum. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM MEN-I-SPjiR'MI FLU'I-DUM.) 
“ Menispermum, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces ay., 120 grains]; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 62 fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] 
of Alcohol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] 
of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to 
saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Menispermum is exhausted. Re- 
serve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 208 minims] of the percolate, 
and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add 
enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” XJ. S. PART i. 
Extractum Mezerei Fluidum.—Extractum Nucis Vomicse. 
579 
This is a new official fluid extract, the introduction of which is of doubtful utility : the drug is 
unreliable in its effects, and is rarely used. Dose, from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM MEZEREI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Mezereum. 
(bx-trXc'tum me-ze're-1 flu'i-dum.) 
Extrait liquide de M6z6r6on (de Garou), Fr.; Fliissiges Seidelbast-Extrakt, G. 
“ Mezereum, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 \ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the 
Mezereum is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 
208 minims] of the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water- 
bath, and evaporate the residue, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 J fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is identical with that formerly official. It is too acrid for internal admin- 
istration : its principal use is as the active ingredient in the stimulating ointment of mezereon. 
EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICA. U. S., Br. Extract of Nux Vomica. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM NU'CIS VOM'l-QAi.) 
“ An Extract containing 5 per cent, of Strychnine.” Br. 
Extractum Strychni Spirituosum, P. G.; Extraction Nucum Yomicarum Spirituosum (vel Alcoholicum); Extrait 
de Noix-Vomique, Fr.; Weingeistiges Krahenaugen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Nux Vomica, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Acetic Acid, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounee, 331 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, Ether, 
Sugar of Milk, recently dried and in fine powder, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix Alcohol and 
Water in the proportion of seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 
minims] of Alcohol to two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] 
of Water. Max the powder with one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms] of the mixture, to which the Acetic Acid had previously been added, and let it 
macerate, in a well-covered vessel, in a warm place, during forty-eight hours. Then pack it 
tightly in a cylindrical glass percolator, gradually pour menstruum upon it, and continue the 
percolation, until the Nux Vomica is practically exhausted. Distil off the Alcohol by means of 
a water-hath, transfer the remainder to a tared capsule, and evaporate it until it weighs about 
one hundred and fifty grammes [or 5 ounces av., 127 grains]. Transfer it to a bottle of the 
capacity of about five hundred cubic centimeters [or about 1 pint], and wash the capsule with 
about fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounee, 331 minims] of warm Water, adding the wash- 
ings to the bottle and mixing the contents thoroughly. When the liquid extract is cold, add 
to it one-fourth of its volume of Ether, stopper the bottle, and bring the extract and Ether 
into intimate contact by gently agitating and frequently inverting the bottle, avoiding violent 
shaking so as to prevent the formation of an emulsion. Pour off the ethereal layer as closely 
as possible, and repeat this treatment with Ether several times, until a few drops of the ethereal 
layer no longer impart a permanent, greasy stain to filtering paper. Then transfer the con- 
tents of the bottle back to the tared capsule, using a sufficient quantity of warm Water for 
washing. Recover the Ether from the united ethereal washings, add to the oily residue about 
fifteen cubic centimeters [or about 4 fluidrachms] of boiling Water, and then Acetic Acid, in 
drops, until the mixture has a permanent acid reaction. Then filter it through a moistened 
filter, and wash the filter with a little Water. Add the filtrate to the extract in the capsule, 
evaporate until the residue weighs about two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains], 
and allow it to become cold. Then determine its weight exactly, remove four grammes [or 
61-728 grains] of the mass, and assay this by the process given below, using the amounts of 
liquids there directed for two grammes [or 30-864 grains] of dry extract. In another portion 
of five grammes [or 77*16 grains] determine the amount of water by drying it, in a flat-bot- 
tomed capsule, at 100° C. (212° F.), until it ceases to lose weight. From the results thus 
obtained ascertain, by calculation, the amount of total alkaloids and of water contained in the 580 
Extradum Nueis Vomicse. 
PAET I. 
remainder of the mass, add to this enough well-dried Sugar of Milk to bring the quantity of 
alkaloids in the final dry extract to fifteen per cent., then evaporate the mass to complete dry- 
ness, reduce it to powder, and transfer it to small, well-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
Extract of Nux Vomica, when assayed by the following process, should be found to contain 
15 per cent, of total alkaloids. 
Assay of Extract of Nux Vomica. U. S. 1890. “ Extract of Nux Vomica, dried at 100° C. 
(212° F.), two grammes; Alcohol, Ammonia Water, Water, Chloroform, Sulphuric Acid deci- 
normal volumetric solution, Potassium Hydrate centinormal volumetric solution, each, a sufficient 
quantity. Put 2 Cm. of the dried Extract of Nux Vomica into a glass separator, add to it 
20 C.c. of a previously prepared mixture of 2 volumes of alcohol, 1 volume of ammonia 
water (specific gravity 0-960), and 1 volume of water, and shake the well-stoppered separator 
until the extract is dissolved. Then add 20 C.c. of chloroform and agitate during five minutes. 
Allow the chloroform to separate, remove it as far as possible, pour into the separator a few 
C.c. of chloroform, and, without shaking, draw this off through the stopcock to wash the 
outlet tube. Repeat the extraction with two further portions of chloroform of 15 C.c. each, 
and wash the outlet-tube each time as just directed. Collect all the chloroformic solutions in 
a wide beaker, expose the latter to a gentle heat, on a water-bath, until the chloroform and 
ammonia are completely dissipated, add to the residue 10 C.c. of sulphuric acid decinormal 
volumetric solution measured with great care from a burette, stir gently, and then add 20 C.c. 
of hot water. When solution has taken place, add 2 C.c. of Brazil wood test-solution, and 
then carefully run in potassium hydrate centinormal volumetric solution, until a permanent 
pinkish color is produced by the action of a slight excess of alkali upon the Brazil wood in- 
dicator. Divide the number of C.c. of potassium hydrate centinormal volumetric solution 
used by 10, subtract the number found from 10 (the 10 C.c. of acid decinormal volumetric 
solution used), multiply the remainder by 0-0364 and that product by 50 (or, multiply at once 
by 1-82), which will give the percentage of total alkaloids in the Extract of Nux Vomica, it 
being assumed that strychnine and brucine are present in equal proportion, and the above 
factor being found by taking the mean of their respective molecular weights rounded off to 
whole numbers [(334 -j- 394) -j- 2 = 3641.” 
“ Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica, 11 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 550 cubic centimetres; 
Milk Sugar, in fine powder, a sufficient quantity. Ascertain the proportion of Milk Sugar re- 
quired for ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract 
by the following experiment on one fluid ounce (Imp. meas.) or fifty cubic centimetres. 
“ Evaporate one fluid ounce (Imp. meas.) or fifty cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract of 
Nux Vomica in a counterpoised dish on a water-bath to a moderately firm extract, and weigh. 
The difference between the weight of the extract and one hundred and thirty-one and a quarter 
grains (Imp.) or fifteen grammes, multiplied by ten, will give the amount of Milk Sugar re- 
quired for the remaining ten ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the 
Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica. 
“ Distil the alcohol from ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of 
the Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica; to the residue add the quantity of Milk Sugar shown to 
be required by the above experiment; mix; evaporate to the consistence of a firm extract, 
which should weigh three ounces (Imp.) or one hundred and fifty grammes.” Br. 
For the first time in its history (1893) the U. S. Pharmacopoeia contains an assay process for 
extract of nux vomica, the demand for greater precision in pharmaceutical preparations being 
the motive which led the Committee of Revision to adopt this process. The fixed oil found in 
the drug (see Nux Vomica) is removed by the use of ether, and the alkaloids which are taken 
up by the fixed oil during the percolation of the drug are washed out with boiling water 
acidulated with acetic acid in excess; this solution is filtered and added to the partially evapo- 
rated extract, and the whole is then ready for the assay. The menstruum adopted for the 
extract is one which was found by abundant trial best fitted for exhausting the drug, and the 
previous digestion for forty-eight hours in contact with acetic acid materially aids in softening 
the very tough tissues which envelop the active principles. The process of assay was simplified 
to as great an extent as was possible without sacrificing accuracy, and consists in first dissolving 
the extract and then thoroughly extracting the alkaloids by destroying their natural combina- 
tion with igasuric acid, by means of ammonia, and taking up the liberated alkaloids with 
chloroform; the latter is removed by evaporation, and the residue dissolved in hot water con- 
taining an accurately measured quantity of sulphuric acid. The liquid is then made slightly 
alkaline after the addition of Brazil-wood indicator, and the number of cubic centimeters of PART I. 
Extractum Nucis Vomicse Fluidum. 
581 
potassium hydrate volumetric solution required to effect this furnishes the data for the calcula- 
tion which gives the percentage of total alkaloids present. 
The process of the Br. Pharm. directs the evaporation of the standardized liquid extract 
(see next article) and the addition of sufficient sugar of milk to the residue to make the ex- 
tract contain 5 per cent, of strychnine. The finished product u has about two-thirds the total 
alkaloidal strength of the Extract of Nux Vomica of the Br. Pharm. of 1885.” Br. 
In both the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias the nux vomica is directed in fine powder. When 
the extract is kept in powder, it is apt to agglutinate into a tough mass. According to Zippel, 
this may be prevented by adding a little water before the close of the evaporation, and then 
continuing the evaporation to dryness. M. Becluz obtained from sixteen ounces of nux vomica 
the average product of one ounce and a quarter. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 551, 643; P. J. 
Tr., 1894, 137.) Dose, a quarter of a grain (0-016 Gm.), equivalent to about of a grain 
of total alkaloids. 
EXTRACTUM NUCIS VOMICA FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract 
of Nux Vomica. 
(EX-TR&C'TUM NU'CIS FLU'I-DUM.) 
“A Liquid Extract containing 1£ grains of Strychnine in 110 minims (1*5 grammes in 100 
cubic centimetres).” Br. 
Extractum Nucis Vomicae Liquidum, Br., Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica; Extrait liquide de Noix-Vomique, 
Fr.; Eliissiges Krahenaugen-Extrakt, G. 
11 Nux Vomica, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Acetic Acid, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity. Mix Alcohol and Water in the proportion of seven hundred and fifty cubic 
centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of Alcohol, and two hundred and fifty cubic centi- 
meters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water. Moisten the powder with one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fluidrachms] of the mixture, to which the Acetic Acid had 
previously been added, and let it digest, in a well-covered vessel, in a warm place, during forty- 
eight hours. Then pack it in a cylindrical glass percolator, and gradually pour menstruum 
upon it, until the Nux Vomica is practically exhausted. Distil off the Alcohol by means of a 
water-bath, transfer the remainder to a tared capsule, evaporate it until it weighs about two 
hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains], and allow it to become cold. Then determine 
the weight exactly, remove four grammes [or 61-728 grains] of the mass, and assay this by the 
process given under Extract of Nux Vomica (see Extractum Nucis Vomicse), using the amounts 
of liquids there directed for two grammes [or 30-864 grains] of dry extract. From the results 
thus obtained ascertain, by Calculation, the amount of total alkaloids in the remainder of the 
mass, and then add to the latter, first, three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 
minims] of Alcohol, and afterwards a sufficient quantity of a mixture of three volumes of 
Alcohol and one volume of Water, so that each one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 
183 minims] of the finished fluid extract shall contain one and five-tenths grammes [or 23-148 
grains] of total alkaloids.” U. S. 
“ Moisten one 'pound (Imperial) or five hundred grammes of Nux Vomica, in No. 20 powder, 
with eight fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of Alcohol (70 
per cent.); set aside in a covered vessel for six hours; pack firmly in a percolator; pour over 
the powder sufficient of the menstruum to saturate it and to leave a stratum above it; when 
the liquid begins to flow, close the lower orifice; set aside for twenty-four hours; continue 
slow percolation, adding more menstruum as required, until twelve fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or 
three hundred and seventy-five cubic centimetres have been collected ; reserve this strong perco- 
late. Change the receiver ; continue the percolation until about sixty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or eighteen hundred and seventy-five cubic centimetres of the menstruum have been employed, 
or until the powder is exhausted; press the marc; add the expressed liquid to the weaker 
percolate; remove the alcohol by distillation ; evaporate the residue to one fluid ounce (Imp. 
meas.) or thirty-one cubic centimetres ; add three fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or ninety-three cubic 
centimetres of Alcohol (90 per cent.). Add this mixture to the reserved portion; set aside 
for twenty-four hours ; pour off the clear liquid ; filter the remainder. 
“ Determine the proportion of Strychnine in the resulting strong liquid extract by the fol- 
lowing analytical process : 
“ Evaporate 10 cubic centimetres to a thick syrupy consistence on a water-bath; dissolve 
the residue in 20 cubic centimetres of water, heating if necessary; place the solution in a 582 
Extradum Nucis Vomicse Fluidum.—Extradum Opii. 
PART I. 
separator, and add 5 grammes of sodium carbonate dissolved in 25 cubic centimetres of water, 
together with 10 cubic centimetres of chloroform ; agitate thoroughly ; set aside ; separate the 
clear chloroformic solution. Twice repeat the agitation with chloroform, and the separation. 
Mix 6 cubic centimetres of diluted sulphuric acid with 25 cubic centimetres of water; divide 
this into three parts, and shake the mixed chloroformic solutions with each in turn. Dilute 
the united acid liquids with water to 175 cubic centimetres; transfer to a stoppered flask, 
adding 25 cubic centimetres of solution of potassium ferrocyanide ; shake well and frequently 
during half an hour; allow to stand for 6 hours. Transfer the precipitate to a small filter, 
rinsing out the last portions with water containing one-fortietli of its volume of diluted sul- 
phuric acid, and wash until the washings are free from bitterness. Rinse the precipitate into 
a separator. Add 5 cubic centimetres of solution of ammonia, and shake well; then add 15 
cubic centimetres of chloroform in two successive portions, shaking well after each addition ; 
separate the chloroformic solutions, mix and allow the chloroform to evaporate in a counter- 
poised dish in a current of warm air; dry the residue for 1 hour on a water-bath, covering the 
dish to avoid loss of Strychnine from decrepitation ; weigh. 
“ From this weight calculate the amount of Strychnine in the strong liquid extract, and 
add to the latter sufficient Alcohol (70 per cent.) to produce a Liquid Extract of Nux 
Vomica containing 1-5 grammes of Strychnine in 100 cubic centimetres, or 1£ grains in 110 
minims.” Br. 
This fluid extract has been retained principally with the view of giving the pharmacist an 
accurately adjusted liquid preparation of nux vomica which is more concentrated than the 
tincture. The process of assay is the same as that for the extract; and most pharmacists will 
prefer to keep this assayed fluid extract and dilute it to the proper degree to make the tincture: 
the usual objection to this method of making tinctures does not apply here, as the liquid used 
as the basis has been accurately adjusted to a definite strength. The British assay process is 
based on that recommended by Profs. Dunstan and Short (P. J. Tr., 1884, 623). The men- 
struum has been carefully selected so that the alkaloids shall be extracted and as much of 
the oil left in the residue as possible. In order to make a dry powdered extract it would be 
necessary to separate the fixed oil before assaying it, and then to make up the weight, if neces- 
sary, with sugar of milk or some inert, soluble powder. An important advantage, aside from 
that of securing uniformity and safety, is that the operator need not carry the percolation 
beyond the point at which it ceases to be profitable (on account of the waste of alcohol), 
because the extract must be brought to a definite alkaloidal strength. Such an extract can be 
used with great advantage to make tincture of nux vomica of definite alkaloidal strength. 
For Beckurts’s method of assaying nux vomica, see Pharm. Era, 1887, 447. The dose is 
three minims (018 C.c.), equivalent to about of a grain of total alkaloids. 
EXTRACTUM OPII. U. S., Br. Extract of Opium. 
(EX-TRAO'TUM O'PI-I.) 
“ An extract containing 20 per cent, of morphine.” Br. 
Extrait d’Opium, Extrait thebaique, Fr.; Opiumextrakt, G. 
“ Powdered Opium, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Sugar of Milk, 
recently dried and in fine powder, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Triturate the Powdered 
Opium in a mortar thoroughly with one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| 
fluidrachms] of Water, repeat the trituration occasionally, in the course of twelve hours, then 
filter through a rapidly-acting, double filter, and wash the filter and residue with Water, until the 
filtrate is nearly colorless. Concentrate the filtrate and washings in a tared capsule, on a water- 
bath, until the residue weighs about two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains], and 
allow it to become cold. Then determine the weight exactly, transfer twelve grammes [or 18518 
grains] of it to an Erlenmeyer flask having a capacity of about one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], and determine in this portion the amount of morphine by the 
process of assay given below, using the quantities of liquids there directed for four grammes 
[or 61-728 grains] of the dry extract. In another portion of five grammes [or 77-16 grains] 
determine the amount of water by drying it in a flat-bottomed capsule, at 100° C. (212° F.), 
until it ceases to lose weight. From the results thus obtained ascertain, by calculation, the 
amount of morphine and of water contained in the remainder of the extract, add to this 
enough well-dried Sugar of Milk to bring the quantity of morphine in the final dry extract to PART I. 
Extradum Opii. 
583 
eighteen per cent., then evaporate the whole to dryness, reduce it to powder, and transfer it to 
small, well-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
“ Opium, sliced, 1 pound (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Distilled Water, 6 pints (Imp. meas.) 
or 7| litres. Set aside the sliced Opium with one-third of the Distilled Water for twenty-four 
hours; express the liquid; thoroughly mix the residue of the Opium with another third of 
the Distilled Water; set aside for twenty-four hours; express; repeat the operation with the 
remaining third of the Distilled Water; mix the liquids; strain through flannel; evaporate 
to about half a pound (Imp.) or five hundred grammes. 
“ Test.—Analyzed as described under ‘ Opium,’ using 7 grammes of the Extract in place of 
the 14 grammes of Opium, this Extract should yield 20 per cent, of morphine. To obtain 
Extract of Opium of proper strength and consistence, stronger and weaker extracts may be 
mixed, and stronger extracts may be diluted with Distilled Water or with Milk Sugar as may 
be necessary.” Br. 
Assay of Extract of Opium. U. S. “Extract of Opium, dried at 100° C. (212° F.), four 
grammes ; Ammonia Water, two and two-tenths cubic centimeters ; Alcohol, Ether, Water, each, 
a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Extract of Opium in 30 C.c. of water, filter the solution 
through a small filter, and wash the filter and residue with water, until all soluble matters are 
extracted, collecting the washings separately. Evaporate, in a tared capsule, first, the washings 
to a small volume, then add the first filtrate, and evaporate the whole to a weight of 10 Gm. 
Rotate the concentrated solution about in the capsule until the rings of extract are redissolved, 
pour the liquid into a tared Erlenmeyer flask having a capacity of about 100 C.c., and rinse 
the capsule with a few drops of water at a time, until the entire solution weighs 15 Gm. 
Then add 7 Gm. (or 8-5 C.c.) of alcohol, shake well, add 20 C.c. of ether, and shake again. 
Now add the ammonia water from a graduated pipette or burette, stopper the flask with a 
sound cork, shake it thoroughly during ten minutes, and then set it aside, in a moderately cool 
place, for at least six hours, or over night. Remove the stopper carefully, and, should any 
crystals adhere to it, brush them into the flask. Place in a small funnel two rapidly-acting 
filters, of a diameter of 7 Cm., plainly folded, one within the other (the triple fold of the inner 
filter being laid against the single side of the outer filter), wet them well with ether, and 
decant the ethereal solution as completely as possible upon the inner filter. Add 10 C.c. of 
ether to the contents of the flask, rotate it, and again decant the ethereal layer upon the inner 
filter. Repeat this operation with another portion of 10 C.c. of ether. Then pour into the 
filter the liquid in the flask, in portions, in such a way as to transfer the greater portion of the 
crystals to the filter, and, when this has passed through, transfer the remaining crystals to the 
filter by washing the flask with several portions of water, using not more than about 10 C.c. 
in all. Allow the double filter to drain, then apply water to the crystals, drop by drop, until 
they are practically free from mother-water, and afterwards wash them, drop by drop, from a 
pipette, with alcohol previously saturated with powdered morphine. When this has passed 
through, displace the remaining alcohol by ether, using about 10 C.c., or more if necessary. 
Allow the filter to dry in a moderately warm place, at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. 
(140° F.), until its weight remains constant, then carefully transfer the crystals to a tared 
watch-glass and weigh them. The weight found, multiplied by 25, represents the amount of 
crystallized morphine obtained from 100 Gm. of the Extract.” 
The process for the U. S. P. extract differs from that formerly official in several particulars, 
powdered opium being used instead of opium, and, notwithstanding that the powdered opium 
is standardized, the extract is assayed, and the quantity of morphine adjusted to 18 per cent., 
so that the extract of opium can now be depended upon to contain twice as much morphine as 
opium of the minimum official strength. 
The U. S'. P. 1890 process is a great improvement over those formerly official: in addition 
to the definite strength of the extract, its reduction to a pulverulent form will enable the 
pharmacist to dispense it more accurately and conveniently. 
As purely aqueous preparations of opium have been found to agree better with certain indi- 
viduals than opium alone or its alcoholic preparations, there is reason to believe that there are 
in the crude drug one or more principles, capable of causing nausea, headache, nervous disturb- 
ance, etc., which are insoluble in water, though extracted by alcohol or ether. (See Opium 
Deodoratum.') The dose of the American extract, about equivalent to one grain of dried 
opium, is three-quarters of a grain (0-05 Gm.). The British extract has the official dose of 
from one-quarter to one grain (0 016-0-06 Gm.). Extractum Opii Liquidum.—Extractum Pareirse Fluidum. 
584 
PART I. 
EXTRACTUM OPII LIQUIDUM. Br. Liquid Extract of Opium. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM O'PI-I LIQ'UI-DUM—llk'wf-dum.) 
“A Liquid Extract containing f grain of morphine in 110 minims (0-75 gramme in 100 
cubic centimetres.)” Br. 
Extrait liquide d’Opium, Fr.; Fliissiges Opiumextrakt, G. 
“Extract of Opium, f ounce (Imperial) or 18-75 grammes; Distilled Water, 16 jt. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 400 cubic centimetres ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 
cubic centimetres. Mix the Extract of Opium with the Distilled Water ; set aside for an hour, 
stirring frequently; add the Alcohol; set aside in a cool place for twenty-four hours; filter. 
The product should measure one pint (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres. Specific 
gravity from 0-985 to 0 995. 
“ Test.—Analyzed as described under 1 Tinctura Opii,’ this Liquid Extract should yield an 
amount of morphine, reckoned as anhydrous, corresponding to not less than 0 7 gramme nor 
more than 0-8 gramme in 100 cubic centimetres. Each fluid ounce of Liquid Extract of 
Opium represents 16£ grains of Extract of Opium; 20 cubic centimetres represent 0-75 
gramme.” Br. 
In the last revision of the British Pharmacopoeia this preparation was reduced in morphine 
strength 25 per cent. 
It is a good preparation, one which has long been needed, and in the absence of which 
from the Pharmacopoeia empirical preparations have obtained a certain vogue. It is well known 
that in opium there are principles soluble in alcohol but not in water, which often produce 
various disagreeable effects not experienced from the aqueous extract. What was wanted was 
a liquid preparation meeting this demand. All that was required was to make an aqueous so- 
lution of this extract, and to add something to preserve it. The British Pharmacopoeia uses 
alcohol for the purpose, and in the original formula employed it in such proportion that an 
Imperial pint of the liquid should contain three fluidounces of the spirit, or between one-sixth 
and one-seventh by measure. But this amount of alcohol, according to Mr. Squire, is insuffi- 
cient for its preservation, and should be doubled. In the present Pharmacopoeia the spirit has 
been increased to four fluidounces, and the water diminished from seventeen to sixteen fluid- 
ounces ; but even with this increase the spirit constitutes only one-fifth, which is considerably 
short of the proportion recommended by Mr. Squire. A preparation similar to the British was 
made some years since by Mr. Eugene Dupuy, of New York. (See Opium.') In the Deodor- 
ized Tincture of Opium of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia the advantages of the preparation have, 
we think, been still better secured. The dose of the liquid extract, equivalent to a grain of 
opium, would be about fifteen minims (0-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM PAREIR./E FLU1DUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Pareira. 
PA-REI'R.® FLIT'I-DUM.) 
Extractum Pareirse Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Pareira; Extrait liquide de Pareira Brava, Fr.; Fliis- 
eiges Pareira-Extrakt, G. 
“ Pareira, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Glycerin, 
one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix the 
Glycerin with seven hundred and, twenty cubic centimeters [or 24 fluidounces, 166 minims] of 
Alcohol, and one hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 41 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder 
of the menstruum, and afterwards a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion 
of four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of Alcohol to one hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] of Water, until the Pareira is exhausted. 
Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of 
the percolate. Distil off" the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evap- 
orate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough men- 
struum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
62 fluidrachms]. U. S. PART I. 
jExtractum Physostigmatis.—Extractum Phytolaccse Radicis Fluidum. 
585 
“ Add to Pareira Root, in No. 40 powder, rather more than an equal bulk of boiling Dis- 
tilled Water and set aside for twenty-four hours; then pack in a percolator and pass boiling 
Distilled Water slowly until the percolate amounts to about ten times the weight of the Pareira 
Root, or until the latter is exhausted. Ascertain the proportion of extractive matter in the 
percolate by evaporating a small weighed quantity in a counterpoised dish on a water-bath to 
a firm consistence, and weighing the product. Then evaporate the bulk of the percolate until 
the residual liquid contains one-third of its weight of such extractive matter; mix with this 
residual liquid sufficient Alcohol (90 per cent.) to produce from three volumes of the evapo- 
rated liquid four volumes of Liquid Extract of Pareira. Filter, or otherwise clarify, if neces- 
sary.” Br. 
The former British preparation was a concentrated solution of the extract, preserved by 
adding somewhat less than one-fourth of its measure of alcohol. There must be considerable 
loss through the action of the heat in evaporating the extract, and again through precipitation, 
due to attempting to dissolve an aqueous extract in a hydro-alcoholic menstruum. The present 
liquid extract (1898) is made by percolating the powdered root with boiling water; the process 
does not state how boiling distilled water is to be passed slowly, and the inference is that it is 
only intended that boiling water should be poured on the drug ; no provision is made to pre- 
vent rapid cooling ; it would probably be best to use a jacketed percolator, the space being filled 
with steam or hot water, if hot percolation is intended. The American fluid extract is made 
directly from the drug, with diluted alcohol and glycerin, and is undoubtedly the better 
preparation. The dose is from one to two fluidrachms (3-75-7-5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM PHYSOSTIGMATIS. U. S., Br. Extract of Physostigma. 
Extract of Calabar Bean; Extractum Eabae Calabaricae, P. G.; Extrait de Feve de Calabar, Fr.; Kalabarbohnen- 
Extrakt, G. 
“ Physostigma, in No. 80 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Al- 
cohol, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 
fluidounces, 252 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alco- 
hol, until three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 31 fluidrachms] of tincture are 
obtained, or the Physostigma is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 
30 fluidounces, 208 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature 
not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; 
mix this with the reserved portion, and evaporate, at or below the before-mentioned tempera- 
ture, on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” U S. 
“ Calabar Bean, in No. 40 powder, 1 pound (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (90 per 
cent.), 4 pints (Imp. meas.) or 5 litres; Milk Sugar, in fine powder, a sufficient quantity. Mix 
the powdered Calabar Bean with one pint (Imp. meas.) or twelve hundred and fifty cubic 
centimetres of the Alcohol; set aside in a closed vessel for forty-eight hours, agitating occa- 
sionally ; transfer to a percolator; when the liquid ceases to pass, add the remainder of the 
Alcohol so that it may slowly percolate through the powder; remove the marc and subject it 
to pressure; add the expressed liquid to the percolate; filter ; recover most of the alcohol by 
distillation; transfer the residue to a counterpoised basin, and evaporate to the consistence of 
a very soft extract; weigh ; then add three times its weight of Milk Sugar and mix thor- 
oughly to produce a firm Extract. This preparation is one-fourth the strength of the Extract 
of Calabar Bean of the British Pharmacopoeia of 1885.” Br. 
As alcohol is a much better solvent than water of the active principles of the bean, it is pre- 
ferred in making the extract. Dose, from one-sixteenth to one-sixth of a grain (O004—0-01 Gm.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM PHY-SO-STIG'MA-TIS.) 
EXTRACTUM PHYTOLACCA RADICIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid 
Extract of Phytolacca Root. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM PIIY-TO-LAC'g.E KA-DI'CIS FLU'I-DUM.) 
“ Phytolacca Root, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 62 fluidrachms]. Mix six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of 
Alcohol with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, and, 586 
Extractum Pilocarpi Fluidum.—Extractum Podophylli. 
PART I. 
having moistened the powder with flour hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] 
of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to sat- 
urate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the per- 
colator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the 
same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Phytolacca Root is exhausted. 
Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, 
and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6$ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract. Dose, as an alterative, from one to five minims (0-06-0-3 
C.c.) ; as an emetic, thirty minims (P8 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM PILOCARPI FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Pilocarpus. 
Extractum Jaborandi Liquidum, Br., Liquid Extract of Jaborandi. 
“ Pilocarpus, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Di- 
luted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounees, 0£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluid- 
ounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add 
enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
Diluted Alcohol, until the Pilocarpus is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounees, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, 
at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the re- 
served portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thou- 
sand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounees, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“ Jaborandi Leaves, in No. 20 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes ; Alcohol (45 
per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powdered Jaborandi Leaves with ten fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; pack the moistened powder 
in a percolator, and set aside for twelve hours; then percolate with the menstruum, collecting 
and reserving seventeen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred and fifty cubic centimetres 
of percolate ; continue percolation until an additional quantity of fifty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or two and a half litres of percolate is obtained ; distil the latter so as to recover the alcohol, 
evaporate the residual aqueous liquid to the consistence of a soft extract, adding it to the 
reserved percolate; to the product add sufficient of the Alcohol to produce twenty fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Liquid Extract.” Br. 
This preparation represents jaborandi leaves thoroughly. Of the liquid preparations of the 
drug, the infusion and tincture are both open to objection, the former on account of the bulki- 
ness of the dose, and the latter because of the amount of alcohol it contains. The dose of the 
fluid extract is from fifteen minims to half a fluidrachm (0-9-1-9 C.c.). 
(KX-TRAC'TUM PI-LO-CAR'Pl FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLI. U. S. Extract of Podophyllum. 
Extrait de Podophylle, Fr.; Fussblattwurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Podophyllum, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Al- 
cohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 
24 minims] of Alcohol with two hundred, cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 
69 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macer- 
ate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, 
using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Podophyllum is exhausted. 
Distil off the Alcohol from the tincture by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue, 
on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
This is possessed of the purgative properties of the root, and may be given in the dose of 
(EX-TRXC'TUM p5D-0-PHYL'LI.) PART i. 
Extractum Pruni Virginianee Fluidum. 
from one to three grains (0-06-0-2 Gm.). From experiments made by Mr. John R. Lewis, it 
is probable that the alcoholic extract would be more powerful as a purgative than the official 
preparation; but it does not follow that it would be more serviceable. (See A. J. P., xix.) 
EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Podophyllum. 
Extrait liquide de Podophylle, FrFliissiges Fussblattwurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“Podophyllum, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6J fluidrachms]. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 min- 
ims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using 
the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Podophyllum is exhausted. 
Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of 
the percolate. Distil off the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evap- 
orate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough men- 
struum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract which well represents the root, but is of very little use. The dose is 
from five tQ fifteen minims (0-3-0-9 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM p5D-0-PHYL'LI FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM PRUNI VIRGINIANS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract 
of Wild Cherry. 
Extrait liquide de Cerisier de Virginie, Fr.; Fliissiges Wildkirschenrinden-Extrakt, G. 
“ Wild Cherry, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Glycerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6'} fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass per- 
colator, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours; then grad- 
ually add menstruum, made in the proportion of eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 
28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of Alcohol, to one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluid- 
ounces, 35 minims] of Water, and allow the percolation to proceed until the Wild Cherry is 
exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a soft extract. Dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make 
the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms].” 
u s. 
This preparation has been practically more troublesome than any of the other fluid extracts. 
We had first Prof. Procter’s original process, then his modified one, in which almonds were 
used to supply emulsin to assist in the development of hydrocyanic acid. (See U. S. D., 15th 
edition, p. 637.) This was abandoned as too cumbersome in 1870, and we had the glycerin 
experiment. The fluid extract of 1870 deposited heavily soon after being made, and was im- 
miscible with aqueous liquids without precipitation. These were fatal objections. The present 
formula is the result of much careful work on the part of the Committee, and it is believed 
to be an improvement over all its predecessors* Prof. J. M. Good (AVoc. A. P. A., 1897, 220) 
(EX-TRAC'TUM PRU'NI FLU'I-DUM.) 
* Fluid Extract of Wild Cherry (Improved). This process is advocated by Mr. Cyrus M. Boger, who states that 
all of the hydrocyanic acid is developed, tannin is excluded as much as possible, and consequently precipitation is 
reduced to the lowest point. “Take of Ground Wild Cherry Bark, ten troy ounces ; Water and Alcohol, each, ten 
fluidounces ; Glycerin, four fluidrachms. Moisten the bark with ten fluidounces of water and put loosely in the 
percolator, close tightly, and allow it to macerate sixty hours; then pack very firmly, mix the ten fluidounces of 
alcohol and four of glycerin and pour it upon the bark ; now cork up the percolator tightly and macerate twenty-four 
hours longer; at the expiration of this time remove the cork, and about twelve fluidounces of percolate will come 
through; water should now he poured on to force the other four fluidounces out, when the percolation should be 
stopped and the product will be finished.” (A. J. P., 1887, pp. 231, 232.) Extradum Quassise.—Extradum Rhamni Purshianse Fluidum. 
PART I. 
prefers repercolation, with a menstruum composed of one volume each of glycerin and alcohol 
and three volumes of water; each portion of drug is moistened with a mixture of one part 
of glycerin and two parts of water. It is of a very dark wine color, of a rough astringent 
taste, with a decided odor and taste of hydrocyanic acid. The dose is from thirty minims to 
a fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM QUASSIA. U. S. Extract of Quassia 
Extrait de Quassie (Bois amer), Fr.; Quassia-Extrakt, G. 
“ Quassia, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Water, 
a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four huridred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 
252 minims] of Water, pack it firmly in a conical percolator, and gradually pour Water upon 
it until the infusion passes hut slightly imbued with bitterness. Reduce the liquid to three- 
fourths of its bulk by boiling, and strain ; then evaporate, by means of a water-bath, to a 
pilular consistence.” U. S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) no longer recognizes Extract of Quassia. 
According to M. Recluz, sixteen ounces of quassia yield by infusion in water seven drachms 
of extract; by maceration in alcohol of 19° Baume, two ounces five drachms and a half. The 
difference between these quantities is so great that we suspect some mistake in the “ Dictionnaire 
des Drogues,” from which we quote, although it is known that alcohol yields a larger propor- 
tion of extractive than does water or a mixture of alcohol and water. The extract of quassia 
is dark brown or black, and excessively hitter. It is apt to become dry and disposed to crum- 
ble by time. It concentrates a greater amount of tonic power within a given weight than any 
other extract of the simple hitters, and may, therefore, be given with great advantage in cases 
in which it is desirable to administer this class of substances in as small a hulk as possible. 
The dose is from one to two grains (0-065-0-13 Gm.), to be given in pill. The alcoholic extract 
is a better preparation, and the yield is greater, although it is not so powerful; but it is prob- 
ably wisest to adhere to the aqueous extract, on account of its cheapness. 
(EX-TRlC'TUM QUAS'SI-.®.) 
EXTRACTUM QUASSIA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Quassia. 
(EX-TRlC'TUM QUAS'SI-iE FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Quassie, Fr.; Eliissiges Quassia-Extrakt, G. 
“ Quassia, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Mix three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Alcohol with 
six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Water, and, having moistened 
the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, 
pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate the powder 
and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the 
lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then 
allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the same proportions of 
Alcohol and Water as before, until the Quassia is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to 
a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
An active preparation. Dose, from five to ten minims (0-3—0-6 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM RHAMNI PURSHIANA FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid 
Extract of Rhamnus Purshiana. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM RHXM'nI FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extractum Cascarse Sagradae Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Cascara Sagrada. 
“ Rhamnus Purshiana, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachins]. Moisten the powder with four luundred cubic centimeters [or 13 
fluidounces, 252 minims] of Diluted Alcohol and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; 
then add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When 
the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Rhamnus Purshiana is exhausted. Reserve the first eight PART I. 
Extractum Rhei.—Extractum Rhei Fluidum. 
589 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the 
remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted 
Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6* fluidraehms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract which is in great demand as a popular purgative * The 
dose is from fifteen to forty-five minims (0-9-2’7 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM RHEI. U. S., Br. Extract of Rhubarb. 
Extractum Rhei Alcoholicum ; Extrait de Rhubarbe, Fr.; Rhubarber-Extrakt, G. 
“ Rhubarb, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 
24 minims] of Alcohol with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluid- 
ounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a conical percolator; then add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the tincture 
passes nearly tasteless. Reserve the first one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms] of the percolate, and set it aside in a warm place, until it is reduced by spon- 
taneous evaporation to five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims]. Evapo- 
rate the remainder of the percolate, in a porcelain vessel, by means of a water-bath, at a 
temperature not exceeding 70° C. (158° F.), to the consistence of syrup. Mix this with the 
reserved portion, and continue the evaporation, at or below the before-mentioned temperature, 
until the mixture is reduced to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Moisten Rhubarb Root, in No. 20 powder, with Alcohol (60 per cent.), and set aside for 
forty-eight hours ; transfer to a percolator; slowly pass as much of the Alcohol as may be 
sufficient to exhaust the Rhubarb Root. Remove most of the alcohol by distillation, and 
evaporate the residual liquid to dryness.” Br. 
The British extract (1898) is now nearly identical with the U. S. preparation ; the menstruum 
used for the former is, however, slightly more aqueous. Rhubarb yields all its active matter to 
water and alcohol; but, unless the evaporation be performed with great care and with a mod- 
erate heat, it is certain that the purgative principle is to a greater or less extent injured or 
dissipated in the process; and the extract may thus become even less efficient than the root. 
Among other consequences which result from the boiling temperature is the formation of a 
compound of the tannin and starch, which is insoluble in cold water, and upon its precipita- 
tion probably carries with it a portion of the purgative principle. There is, moreover, reason 
to believe that this principle is volatilizable by heat, and that a portion of it escapes with the 
vapor. When properly prepared, the extract has decidedly the peculiar odor of rhubarb. 
The dose is from five to ten grains (0-3-0-65 Gm.). 
(ex-trAc'tum rhe'i.) 
EXTRACTUM RHEI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Rhubarb. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM RHE’I FLTJ'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Rhubarbe, Fr.; Fliissiges Rhubarber-Extrakt, G. 
11 Rhubarb, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6o 
fluidracbms]. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of Alcohol 
with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and, having mois- 
tened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the 
mixture, pack it firmly in a conical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate the 
powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
* Aromatic Fluid Extract of Cascara Sagrada (bitterless ?). L. C. Urban prefers lime to magnesia, as suggested 
by H. B. Gilpin, for making a palatable preparation of Cascara. His process is as follows : 1000 Gm. ground cascara 
sagrada, 150 Gm. ground liquorice root, and 100 Gm. freshly slaked lime are kneaded with 1000 C.c. of water, 
allowed to stand twelve hours, and then dried at 50° C. The dried drugs are moistened with 400 C.c. of a men- 
struum, made by mixing 500 C.c. alcohol and 250 C.c. glycerin with 250 C.c. water, and percolated with sufficient of 
the menstruum, followed by water, to exhaust the drug. The first 850 C.c. are reserved, then mixed with the balance 
of the percolate, evaporated to a soft extract, and 12 C.c. of compound spirit of orange. (Pharm. Rev., 1896, 270.) 590 
Extradum Rliois Glabrae Fluidum.—Extradum Rosae Fluidum. 
PART I. 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the same 
proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Rhubarb is exhausted. Reserve the first 
seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 70° C. (158° F.), to a soft extract; 
dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| fluidrachms].” U. S. 
Although the process for the fluid extract of rhubarb of U. S. P. 1870 was an improvement 
on its predecessors, on the addition of water the fluid extract precipitated heavily, so that 
syrups or mixtures made with it were very unsightly. As the chief use of the fluid extract is 
in making such preparations, this was very unfortunate, and constituted sufficient grounds for the 
abandonment of an official formula in favor of one which will exhaust the root of its purgative 
properties and yet afford an extract that will remain clear when water is added to it. Mr. Geo. 
Bille claims that all that is necessary is to exhaust the sixteen troyounces of rhubarb with cold 
water, evaporate, by means of a water-bath, to twelve fluidounces, and add four fluidounces of 
glycerin. The present process affords a fluid extract which thoroughly represents the root, but 
it has in a degree the same objection that the former preparation had, immiscibility with syrups 
and water with loss of transparency. An alkali or an alkaline carbonate dissolves this pre- 
cipitate, but its use must be limited. The dose for an adult may be from twenty to thirty 
minims (1-25-1-9 C.c.) as a purgative, and from five to ten minims (0-3—0-6 C.c.) as a laxative. 
EXTRACTUM RHOIS GLABRjE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Rhus Glabra. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM RHO'IS GLA'BRiE FLU'l-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Sumac, Fr; Fliissiges Sumach-Extrakt, G. 
“ Rhus Glabra, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Glycerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of Diluted 
Alcohol, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, 
first, the remainder of the menstruum, and afterwards Diluted Alcohol, until the Rhus Glabra 
is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] 
of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved 
portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
A formula for this preparation was proposed by Prof. J. P. Remington (A. J. P., 1874, p. 7) 
which differs from that at present official merely in containing a somewhat larger proportion 
of glycerin in the menstruum. Experience has shown that this is a valuable preparation of 
sumach berries, and is a useful addition to mouth and throat washes, gargles, etc. 
EXTRACTUM ROS./E FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Rose 
(ex-trXc'tum plu'i-dum.) 
Extrait liquide de Rose rouge, Fr.; Fliissiges Essigrosenblatter-Extrakt, G. 
“ Red Rose, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Gly- 
cerin, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms]. Mix the 
Glycerin with nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, 
and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remain- 
der of the menstruum, and afterwards Diluted Alcohol, until the Red Rose is exhausted. Reserve 
the first seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of the perco- 
late, and evaporate the remainder, in a porcelain capsule, at a temperature not exceeding 50° 
C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted PART i. 
JExtractum Rubi Fluidum.—Extr actum Sabinse Fluid urn. 
591 
Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is a useful adjuvant and an elegant astringent. It is of a deep red color, 
with the agreeable flavor of rose. Wm. C. Alpers prefers repercolation for this fluid extract, 
stating that even a moderate heat imparts an unpleasant odor to the finished product. (Proc. 
A. P. A., 1897, 425.) Dose, from one to two fluidrachms (3-75-7 5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM RUBI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Rubus. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM RU'BI FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide d’Ecorce de Ronce, Fr.; Fliissiges Brombeerrinden-Extrakt, G. 
“ Rubus, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Glycerin, 
one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a suffi- 
cient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms]. Mix 
the Glycerin with six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alcohol and 
three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, and, having moistened 
the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 400 minims] of 
the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough menstruum to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of the 
menstruum, and afterwards a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of six 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Alcohol to three hundred cubic cen- 
timeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Water, until the Rubus is exhausted. Reserve the 
first seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] of the percolate. Distil off 
the Alcohol from the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough of a mixture of Alcohol and 
Water, using the last-named proportions, to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract does not differ essentially from that formerly official. It is a very dark 
reddish-brown, translucent fluid, having the properties of the root in a marked degree. The 
dose is from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9—3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM RUMICIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Rumex. 
Fluid Extract of Yellow Dock; Extrait liquide de Patience fris6e, Fr.; Fliissiges Grindwurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Rumex, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluid- 
ounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then 
add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 
adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Rumex is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a 
soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6<} fluidrachms].” U. S. 
An official fluid extract having a dark yellowish-brown color and the peculiar odor and 
taste of rumex. The dose is a fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.). 
(EX-TRiC'TUM ru'mi-cis fmj'i-dOm.) 
EXTRACTUM SABINA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Savine. 
(ex-trXc'tum sa-bi'na: flu'i-dCm.) 
Extrait liquide de Sabine, Fr.; Fliissiges Sadebaum-Extrakt, G. 
“ Savine, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces ay., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, Go fluidrachms] 
Moisten the powder with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] 
of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight 592 
Extractum Sanguinarise Fluidum.—Extractum Sarsaparillse Fluidum. 
part i. 
hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Savine is 
exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of 
the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6| fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is identical with the fluid extract formerly official. It is a dark greenish-black fluid, 
not mixing well with aqueous liquids without the use of an emulsifying agent. It is rarely 
given internally. The dose is from three to eight minims (0-18-0-5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SANGUINARY FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Sanguinaria. 
(EX-TKAC'TUM FLU'I-DUM—s&ug-gwe-na' rf-e.) 
Fluid Extract of Bloodroot; Extrait liquide de Sanguinarie, Fr.; Fliissiges Blutwurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Sanguinaria, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Acetic 
Acid, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 65 fluidrachms]. Mix 
Alcohol and Water in the proportion of seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluid- 
ounces, 173 minims] of Alcohol and two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 
218 minims] of Water. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluid- 
ounces, 69 minims] of the mixture, to which the Acetic Acid had previously been added, and 
let it macerate, in a well-covered vessel, in a warm place, during forty-eight hours. Then pack 
it firmly in a cylindrical percolator, and gradually pour menstruum upon it, until the Sanguinaria 
is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the 
reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The liquid preparations of sanguinaria all have an unfortunate tendency to precipitate, and 
this new fluid extract will not prove an exception. It is of a very deep red color. The dose 
is from three to five minims (0-18-0-3 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLA FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract 
of Sarsaparilla. 
Extractum Sarsae Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Sarsaparilla; Liquor Sarsae; Extrait liquide de Salsepa- 
reille, Fr.; Fliissiges Sarsaparilla-Extrakt, G. 
“ Sarsaparilla, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6£ fluidrachms]. Mix three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Alco- 
hol with six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Water, and, having 
moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of 
the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using the same propor- 
tions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Sarsaparilla is exhausted. Reserve the first 
eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate 
the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough men- 
struum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“ Sarsaparilla, in No. 40 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alcohol (20 per 
cent.), a sufficient quantity ; Glycerin, 2 Ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres. Divide 
the Sarsaparilla into three portions. Moisten one portion with four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or 
two hundred cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; pack in a percolator ; set aside for twenty-four 
hours ; percolate with the Alcohol until a quantity of four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two 
hundred cubic centimetres is obtained. Moisten the second portion of the drug with this 
liquid; pack in a percolator; set aside for twenty-four hours; percolate with a menstruum 
obtained by further percolation of the first portion ; continue until a quantity of four fluid 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred cubic centimetres is obtained. Moisten the third portion 
of the drug with this liquid ; pack in a percolator ; set aside for twenty-four hours; percolate 
(EX-TRAC'TUM SAR-SA-PA-RlL'LiE FLU'I-DUM.) PART I. 
Extradum Scillse Fluidum. 
593 
with a menstruum obtained by successive percolation through the first and second portions as 
directed above; collect eighteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or nine hundred cubic centimetres 
from the third percolator; add the Glycerin. The product should measure one pint (Imp. 
meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
The British Pharm. (1898) has greatly improved the process for this preparation, having 
abandoned maceration for repercolation; glycerin is used as a preservative, being added to the 
reserved portion; the reason for not using the glycerin in the first percolate to aid in the 
extraction is not apparent. The introduction of a simple fluid extract of sarsaparilla into our 
Pharmacopoeia was judicious, as it enables the physician to associate this medicine with others 
at his pleasure, and in such proportions as he may deem expedient. He may rely upon the 
efficiency of the preparation, if made with sufficient care and skill and from good parcels of 
the root. The U. S. fluid extract is a somewhat thickish, scarcely translucent liquid, of a very 
dark reddish-brown color, and of a sweetish and a slightly, though persistently, acrid taste. 
The dose is from thirty to sixty minims (1 9-3-75 C.c.), equivalent to the same number of 
grains of sarsaparilla in substance. The official dose of the British preparation is from two 
to four fiuidrachms (7-5-15 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SARSAPARILLA FLUIDUM COMPOSITUM. U. S. 
Compound Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla. 
Extrait liquide de Salsepareille compost, Fr.; Zusammengesetztes fliissiges Sarsaparilla-Extrakt, G. 
“ Sarsaparilla, in No. 30 powder, seven hundred and fifty grammes [or 26 ounces av., 199 
grains] ; Glycyrrhiza, in No. 30 powder, one hundred and twenty grammes [or 4 ounces av., 102 
grains] ; Sassafras, in No. 30 powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Meze- 
reum, in No. 30 powder, thirty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 25 grains] ; Glycerin, one hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, 
To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fiuidrachms]. Mix the Glycerin 
with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Alcohol and six hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims] of Water, and, having moistened the mixed 
powders with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the mixture, 
pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to saturate the powder 
and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close 
the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of the menstruum, 
and afterwards a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of three hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Alcohol to six hundred cubic centimeters [or 20 fluid- 
ounoes, 138 minims] of Water, until the powder is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough of a mixture of 
Alcohol and Water, using the last-named proportions, to make the Fluid Extract measure one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fiuidrachms].” TJ. S. 
Everything depends in the process upon having the several ingredients equably powdered, 
mixing them well and duly moistening them, and then packing them properly in the percolator. 
The moistening of the mixed powders is more easily effected, as they are less disposed to form 
lumps than is the sarsaparilla powder alone. The preparation is intended to represent, in a 
concentrated state, the compound decoction of sarsaparilla, having all its ingredients with the 
exception of the guaiacum wood, which probably adds little to the efficacy of the decoction. 
It was originally proposed by Wm. Hodgson, Jr. (Journ. of the Phila. Coll, of Pharm., ii. 285) ; 
and the official process differs from his mainly in the omission of the guaiacum wood, the resin 
of which, separating during the evaporation, somewhat embarrassed the process, without adding 
to the virtues of the extract. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (L9-3-75 C.c.). 
(EX-TRlC'TUM SAR-SA-PA-RIL'L/E FLU'l-DUM C0M-P0§'I-TUM.) 
EXTRACTUM SCILLA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Squill. 
(EX-TRAC'TUM SQII/L.2E FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Scille, Fr.; Fliissiges Meerzwiebel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Squill, in No. 20 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water, 594 
Extradum Scopcirii Fluidum.—Extradum Senegse Fluidum. 
PART I. 
and, having moistened the powder with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 
minims] of the mixture, pack it in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough menstruum to 
saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using 
the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Squill is exhausted. Reserve 
the first seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of the perco- 
late, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and 
add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract differs from the one official in 1870 in containing no glycerin in the men- 
struum. It is a clear red liquid, which is useful for combining with stimulant expectorants, 
such as ammonium carbonate, which are incompatible with the official syrup of squill. Prof. 
J. U. Lloyd recommends diluted acetic acid for a menstruum, and that this fluid extract should 
be made half strength,—i.e., 2 C.c. represent 1 Gin. (See Am. Drug., 1886, p. 202.) The dose 
of the official fluid extract as an expectorant is from two to three minims (0-12-0-18 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SCOPARII FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Scoparius. 
(ex-trXc'tum SCO-PA'RI-I FLU'I-DCM.) 
Fluid Extract of Broom. 
“ Scoparius, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains ] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluid- 
ounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then 
add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
Diluted Alcohol, until the Scoparius is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder 
to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make 
the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” 
US. 
This is a new official fluid extract. It is difficult to avoid precipitation in the preparation, 
but fortunately the precipitate is not active. Dose, from twenty to forty minims (1-3—2-6 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SCUTELLARIAE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Scutellaria. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM SCU-TEL-LA'RI-iE FLU'I-DUM.) 
Fluid Extract of Skullcap ; Extrait liquide de Scutellaire, Fr.; Fliissiges Helmkraut-Extrakt, G. 
“ Scutellaria, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Di- 
luted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6J fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 
fluidounces, 400 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; 
then add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When 
the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding Diluted Alcohol, until the Scutellaria is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hun- 
dred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the re- 
mainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in 
the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6$ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
A fluid extract, thoroughly representing the activity of Scutellaria. It is of a dark greenish- 
brown color, and is given in the dose of from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9--375 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SENEGA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Senega. 
(EX-TIlXC’TUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Polygale de Virginie, Extrait liquide de S6nSca, Fr.; Flussiges Senega-Extrakt, G. 
“ Senega, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Ammonia 
Water, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient PART 1. 
Extradum Sennse Fluidum.—Extradum Serpentanse Fluidum. 
595 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms]. Mix the 
Ammonia Water with seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol and two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with four hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 15 fluidounces, 
104 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator ; then add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, 
the remainder of the menstruum, and then a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the pro- 
portion of seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] of Alcohol to 
two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Water, until the Senega 
is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, in a porcelain capsule, to a soft ex- 
tract ; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough of the last-mentioned mixture of 
Alcohol and Water to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 6| fluidrachms].” U. S. 
Formerly Fluid Extract of Senega was very frequently the cause of annoyance to the phar- 
macist through gelatinization. This was due to the presence of pectinous bodies in the root. 
The addition of an alkali to the menstruum effectually prevents this, and in this respect the 
present preparation is a great improvement over the 1870 fluid extract. It is a blackish-brown, 
moderately thin liquid. Dose, from one to five minims (0-06-0-3 C.c.). For other processes, 
see N. R., 1883, pp. 195, 196. 
EXTRACTUM SENNA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Senna. 
Extrait liquide de Sen<5, Fr.; Fliissiges Senna-Extrakt, G. 
“ Senna, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Di- 
luted Alcohol until the Senna is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft ex- 
tract ; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms].” U S. 
The official fluid extract of senna of 1870 differed materially from that of the Pharmacopoeias 
of 1850 and 1860, containing neither sugar, oil of fennel, nor Hoffmann’s anodyne. It was 
deemed better to leave to the prescriber the choice of the volatile oil, and to depend for the 
preservation of the fluid extract upon the glycerin and what might remain of the alcohol after 
the evaporation. The present official fluid extract, which is practically identical with that of 
the U. S. P. 1880, is very different from that of 1870, which contained 50 per cent, of glycerin. 
There is no glycerin in the menstruum now, and there really seems to be no occasion for its use. 
The fluid extract is a dark, blackish, thick, and somewhat turbid liquid, with a strong flavor 
of senna. The dose is from one to four fluidrachms (3-75-15 C.c.) for an adult. In conse- 
quence of its griping tendency, it should be mixed with one of the volatile oils, as of fennel, 
anise, or caraway, in the proportion of about two minims (0-12 C.c.) to the fluidounce (30 C.c.). 
It is well adapted for exhibition with saline cathartics, such as Epsom salt or cream of tartar, 
which also obviate its griping. In this case not more than one-half of the full dose of the 
fluid extract should be given at once. 
(EX-TR&C'TUM SEN'NiE FLU'l-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM SERPENTARIjE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Serpentaria. 
Plaid Extract of Virginia Snake Root; Extrait liquide de Serpentaire, Fr.; Fliissiges Schlangenwurz-Extrakt, G. 
“ Serpentaria, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Al- 
cohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] 
(ex-trXc'tum SER-PEN-TA'RI--® elu'i-dum.) 596 
Extractum Spigelise Fluidum.—Extractum Stillingise Fluidum. 
PART i. 
of Alcohol with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, and, 
having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] 
of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator; then add enough menstruum 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using 
the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Serpentaria is exhausted. Re- 
serve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, 
and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft ex- 
tract ; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This, though simply a concentrated tincture, is a good preparation, containing the virtues of 
the root within a small bulk. The fluid extract of serpentaria originated with Mr. J. C. Savery, 
whose formula was published in the eleventh edition of the U. S. Dispensatory (page 713). It 
was afterwards modified by Mr. A. B. Taylor (A. J. P., xxv. 206). In the present preparation 
the alcoholic strength of menstruum is slightly less than that of the fluid extract of U. S. P. 
1870. The fluid extract is thin, reddish brown, and transparent, having the peculiar bitterness 
and odor of the root in perfection. Dose, from twenty to thirty minims (1-25-1-9 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM SPIGELIA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Spigelia. 
Fluid Extract of Pink Root; Extrait liquide de SpigSlie, Fr.; Fliissiges Spigelien-Extrakt, G. 
“ Spigelia, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 
minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Diluted 
Alcohol, until the Spigelia is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centi- 
meters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6$ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This preparation differs from that formerly official in having no glycerin in the menstruum; 
the U. S. P. 1870 fluid extract had 50 per cent. 
The fluid extract of spigelia is a dark-brown, translucent liquid, with the flavor of the root. 
The dose is from one to two fluidrachms (3'75—7‘5 C.c.) for an adult, from ten to twenty minims 
(0'6-l-25 C.c.) for a child two or three years old, to be repeated morning and evening for three 
or four days, and then followed by a brisk cathartic. It is, however, most used in connection 
with the fluid extract of senna; the fluid extract of spigelia and senna formerly official being 
an excellent combination, which should not have been dropped from the Pharmacopoeia* 
(EX-TRXC'TUM SPI-£E'LI-iE FLU'I-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM STILLINGIA FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Stillingia. 
Extrait liquide de Stillingie, Fr.; Fliissiges Stillingia-Extrakt, G. 
“ Stillingia, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Diluted 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 
minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Diluted 
Alcohol, until the Stillingia is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centi- 
(EX-TRAC'TUM FLU'I-DUM.) 
* Extractum Spigelice et Sennce Fluidum, U. S. 1870. Fluid Extract of Spigelia and Senna. “ Take of Fluid 
Extract of Spigelia ten Jluidounces ; Fluid Extract of Senna six jluidounces ; Oil of Anise, Oil of Caraway, each, 
twenty minims. Mix the Fluid Extracts, and dissolve the Oils in the mixture.” U. S. 1870. 
It combines the cathartic property of senna with the anthelmintic virtues of pinkroot, and is a very good ver- 
mifuge, being generally acceptable to the stomach, and not offensive to the taste. The dose is from two fluidrachms 
to half a fluidounee (7'5-15 C.c.) for an adult, from thirty minims to a fiuidrachin (l’9-3'75 C.c.) for a child two 
years old. part I. 
Extractum Stramonii Seminis.—Extractum Stramonii Seminis Fluidum. 
597 
meters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft 
extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the 
Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
The glycerin in the menstruum has been abandoned in this fluid extract, which is of a dark 
reddish-brown color; and the dose is from fifteen to forty-five minims (0-9-2-8 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM STRAMONII SEMINIS. U. S. (Br.) Extract of Stramo- 
nium Seed. [Extractum Stramonii, Pharm. 1880.] 
(EX-TKAC'TUM STRA-HO'NI-I SEM'I-NIS.) 
Extractum Stramonii, Br.; Extract of Stramonium; Extrait de Semences de Stramoine, Fr.; Stechapfelsamen- 
Extrakt, G. 
“ Stramonium Seed, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical perco- 
lator ; then add enough Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. 
When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely 
covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, 
gradually adding Diluted Alcohol, until three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 212 
minims] of tincture are obtained, or the Stramonium Seed is exhausted. Reserve the first 
nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate 
the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; mix this with the reserved portion, and by means of a water- 
bath, evaporate, at or below the before-mentioned temperature, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Pack Stramonium Seeds, in No. 40 powder, in a percolator; exhaust the powder by slow 
percolation with Alcohol (70 per cent.) ; remove most of the alcohol from the percolate by 
distillation; evaporate the residual liquid to the consistence of a firm extract.” Br. 
This is the same extract as that official in the U. S. P. (1880), the fact that it is prepared 
from the seed instead of the leaves being shown by the title, which now has “ Seminis” attached. 
This preparation was omitted from the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1860, but, in accordance with 
suggestions made in the U. S. Dispensatory, was reinstated at the revision of 1870. It is an 
excellent preparation, not only stronger, but more uniform, and therefore more to be relied on, 
than any other extract of stramonium. As the seeds yield their virtues more freely to spirit 
than to water alone, the Pharmacopoeias have very properly adopted diluted alcohol as the 
menstruum. The use of 70 per cent, alcohol by the British Pharmacopoeia will probably 
make a stronger extract by rejecting some of the inert constituents of the seeds soluble in 
water ; but, on the other hand, a larger proportion of inert fixed oil will be found in the British 
extract than in that made by the U. S. process, which employs diluted alcohol. According to 
the table of Recluz, sixteen ounces of the seed afford two ounces and two drachms of extract 
by maceration in diluted alcohol, and one ounce and a half by decoction. Dose, from one- 
sixth to one-quarter of a grain (0010-0-016 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM STRAMONII SEMINIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract 
of Stramonium Seed. [Extractum Stramonii Fluidum, Pharm. 1880.] 
(EX-TRAC'TUM STRA-MO'NI-I SEM'l-NIS FLU'l-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Semences de Stramoine, Fr.; Fliissiges Stechapfelsamen-Extrakt, G. 
“ Stramonium Seed, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6 £ fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 
minims] of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] 
of Water, and, having moistened the powder with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluid- 
ounces, 366 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding men- 
struum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Stramonium 
Seed is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. 
(122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum Extradum Strophanthi.—Extradum Taraxad. 
598 
PART I. 
to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J 
fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a fluid extract the menstruum of which is well adapted for thoroughly exhausting 
the seed. It is of a dark brown color. The dose is from one to two minims (0-06-0-12 C.c ). 
EXTRACTUM STROPHANTHI. Br. Extract of Strophanthus. 
(ex-trXc'tum stro-phan'thi.) 
“ Strophanthus Seeds, reduced to No. 30 powder, and dried at 110° F. (43-3° C.), 1 ounce 
(Imperial) or 25 grammes ; Purified Ether, Alcohol (90 per cent.), Milk Sugar, of each a 
sufficient quantity. Pack the dried powder in a percolator, and, having moistened it with the 
Ether, macerate for twenty-four hours ; then allow percolation to proceed, continuing the addi- 
tion of the Ether until the liquid passes through colorless. Remove the marc from the per- 
colator, and dry it, gradually heating it to 120° F. (48-9° C.). Again reduce it to powder, 
repack in the percolator, and moisten with the Alcohol. Macerate for forty eight hours, then 
pour on successive quantities of the Alcohol, percolating slowly, until half a pint (Imp. meas.) 
or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of liquid is obtained. Evaporate most of the 
alcohol; transfer the residual liquid to a counterpoised basin ; concentrate until the liquid 
begins to thicken ; then add sufficient finely powdered Milk Sugar to produce two ounces (Imp.) 
or fifty grammes of Extract, in powder.” Br. 
This new preparation of the British Pharmacopoeia closely resembles an “ abstract” of the 
U. S. P. 1880; an important detail, in our opinion, has been neglected in not washing the fatty 
matter extracted by the ether with diluted alcohol to remove active constituents held by the 
fatty substances, then evaporating the solution and incorporating the residue with the extract. 
The U. S. and Br. processes for the tincture overcome the necessity for the use of ether by 
employing alcohol containing enough water to leave the fatty matters in the percolator residue, 
and the same expedient might have proved of value in the process for this preparation. 
This extract fills a very decided want of a solid preparation of strophanthus that can be 
administered in pill and capsule, and is without doubt efficient. The dose as given in the 
British Pharmacopoeia is from one-quarter to one grain (0-016-0-06 Gm.). A grain of it 
may be considered to represent ten minims of the U. S. tincture of strophanthus. 
EXTRACTUM TARAXACI. U. S., Br. Extract of Taraxacum. 
(BX-TRAC'TUM TA-RAX'A-Cl.) 
Extract of Dandelion; Extrait de Dent-de-Lion, Fr.; Lowenzahn-Extrakt, G. 
“Taraxacum, freshly gathered in autumn, a convenient quantity, Water, a sufficient quantity. 
Slice the Taraxacum, and bruise it in a stone mortar, sprinkling Water over it from time to 
time, until it is reduced to a pulp; then express and strain the juice, and evaporate it in a 
vacuum-apparatus, or in a shallow porcelain dish, by means of a water-bath, to a pilular con- 
sistence. Keep the Extract in a close vessel, and cover its surface with a cloth, which ought 
to be moistened occasionally with a little ether or chloroform.” U. S. 
“ Crush fresh Taraxacum Root; press out the juice; allow the feculence to subside; heat 
the liquid to 212° F. (100° C.), and maintain the temperature for ten minutes; strain; evap- 
orate to the consistence of a soft extract.” Br. 
This extract is undoubtedly stronger prepared from the root alone than from the whole plant. 
It is important that the root should be collected at the right season. The juice expressed from 
it in the spring is thin, watery, and of a feeble flavor; in the latter part of the summer, and in 
autumn, thick, opaque, cream-colored, very bitter, and abundant, amounting to one-third or one- 
half its weight. It may be collected in August, and afterwards until severe frost. According 
to Mr. Squire, frost has the effect of diminishing the bitterness and increasing the sweetness 
of the root. An extract prepared by inspissating the juice, as in the present U. S. and Br. 
processes, is much more efficient than that prepared in the old way by decoction. The inspissa- 
tion should be effected by exposing the juice in shallow vessels to a current of warm dry air, 
or by evaporation in a vacuum, and should not be unnecessarily protracted. Long exposure 
during evaporation changes the bitterness of the juice into sweetness, which is a sign of infe- 
riority. In the British process it is wisely directed that before the evaporation of the juice 
it shall be exposed for a short time to a heat sufficient to coagulate the albumen, which is then 
separated and rejected as useless; it is indeed injurious, by favoring decomposition. As often 
found in the shops, the extract is dark-colored, sweet, and in all probability nearly inert. Mr. PART I. 
Extractum, Taraxaci Fluidum.—Extractum Tritid Fluidum, 
599 
Houlton took more than an ounce of it in a day, without any sensible effect. (P. J. Tr., i. 421.) 
When prepared from the root and leaves together, it has a greenish color. Mr. Brande states 
that one cwt. of the fresh root affords from twenty to twenty-five pounds of extract by decoction 
in water. The expressed juice yields from 11 to 25 per cent, of extract, the greatest product 
being obtained from plants collected in November, and the least in April and May. This extract 
deteriorates by keeping, and the official direction to apply occasionally the vapor of chloroform 
or ether to the surface is useful in this connection. It is conveniently given in an aromatic 
water. The dose is from a scruple to a drachm (1-3-3-95 Gm.) three times a day. 
EXTRACTUM TARAXACI FLUIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Fluid Extract of 
Taraxacum. 
(ex-trXc'tum ta-rax'a-ci flu'i-dum.) 
Extractum Taraxaci Liquidum, Br.; Liquid Extract of Dandelion; Fluid Extract of Dandelion; Extrait 
liquide de Pissenlit, Fr.; Fliissiges Lowenzahn-Extrakt, G. 
“ Taraxacum, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Diluted Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand, cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
6J fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 
69 minims] of Diluted Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
Diluted Alcohol to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins 
to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
Diluted Alcohol, until the Taraxacum is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate; distil off the Alcohol from 
the remainder by means of a water-bath, and evaporate the residue to a soft extract; dissolve 
this in the reserved portion, and add enough Diluted Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
“ Taraxacum Root, dried, in No. 20 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Alco- 
hol (60 per cent.), 2 pints (Imp. meas.) or 2000 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient 
quantity. Mix the powdered Taraxacum Root with the Alcohol; set aside in a closed vessel 
for forty-eight hours ; press out ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres 
of liquid; set the latter aside; mix the pressed residue with two pints (Imp. meas.) or two 
thousand cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; set aside for forty-eight hours; press out 
and strain the liquid ; evaporate to about ten [ftuid~\ ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic 
centimetres; mix the two liquids; if necessary make up the volume to twenty fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres by the addition of Distilled Water; filter.” Br. 
It is to be regretted that the Br. Pharm. (1898) did not adopt percolation for this preparation, 
as it can be practised here with great success. 
The activity depends more upon the proper selection of the root than upon anything else. 
The process of exhausting the drug is not difficult, and one of the best tests of this fluid 
extract is its bitter taste. It is a blackish, moderately thick liquid, which may be given in 
doses of from one to three fluidrachms (3-75—11-25 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM TRITICI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Triticum. 
Fluid Extract of Couch-grass Root; Extrait liquide de petit Chiendent, Fr.; Fliissiges Queckenwurzel-Extrakt, G. 
“ Triticum, finely cut, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, Water, 
each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6} 
fluidrachms]. Pack the Triticum in a cylindrical percolator, pour Boiling Water upon it, and 
allow the percolation to proceed, supplying boiling water, as required, until the Triticum is 
exhausted. Evaporate the percolate to seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluid- 
ounces, 173 minims], and, having added to it two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters] or 8 fluid- 
ounces, 218 minims] of Alcohol, mix well and set it aside for forty-eight hours. Then filter 
the liquid and add to the filtrate enough of a mixture of Alcohol and Water made in the pro- 
portion of one volume of Alcohol to three volumes of Water to make the Fluid Extract measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6 J fluidrachms].” U S. 
In making this fluid extract in warm weather, it is advisable to commence evaporating the 
percolate before the drug is exhausted, or fermentation may set in; triticum contains ferment- 
able sugars, and dilute aqueous solutions do not keep well. 
This fluid extract is a valuable preparation. The German Pharmacopoeia directs an Extrac- 
(EX-TRAC'TUM TRIT'I-CI FLU'l-DUM.) 600 
Extractum IJvse Ursi.—Extractum Valerianse Fluidum. 
PART I. 
turn Graminis, made by digesting 1 part of Triticum with 6 parts of hot water for six hours, 
straining, evaporating to a syrup, mixing 1 part of this extract with 4 parts of cold distilled 
water, filtering, and evaporating to an extract. The fluid extract is preferable, as the excessive 
use of heat is avoided. The dose is from three to six fluidrachms (11-25-22-5 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM UWE URSI. U. S. Extract of Uva Ursi 
(EX-TRAC'TUM U'VjE UR'S!.) 
“ Uva Ursi, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]; Alco- 
hol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 
minims] of Alcohol with five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of Water, 
and, having moistened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator; then add enough men- 
struum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding menstruum, using 
the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Uva Ursi is exhausted. Re- 
serve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate; 
evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to one hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Mix this with the reserved portion, and evaporate, 
at or below the before-mentioned temperature, on a water-bath, to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
On account of its efficiency and its capability of being given in capsule, this new preparation 
ought to be extremely popular. Dose, from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.). 
EXTRACTUM UVJE URSI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Uva Ursi. 
(ex-trXc'tum u'vje ur's! flu-i-dum.) 
Extrait liquide de Busserole, Fr.; Fliissiges Barentraubenblatter-Extrakt, G. 
“ Uva Ursi, in No. 30 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Gly- 
cerin, three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. 
Mix the Glycerin with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Alcohol 
and five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of Water, and, having mois- 
tened the powder with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of the 
mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical glass percolator; then add enough menstruum to sat- 
urate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the per- 
colator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding, first, the remainder of the 
menstruum, and afterwards a mixture of Alcohol and Water, made in the proportion of two 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Alcohol to five hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of Water, until the Uva Ursi is exhausted. Reserve 
the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and 
evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, and add enough of the mixture of Alcohol and Water to make 
the Fluid Extract measure owe thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6$ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This preparation is a thickish, black liquid, of a sweet, bitterish, astringent, but not very 
disagreeable taste. The dose is from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM VALERIANAE FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Va- 
lerian. 
(EX-TRXC'TUM VA-LE-RI-A'NiE FLU'l-DUM.) 
Extrait liquide de Val6riane, Fr.; Fliissiges Baldrian-Extrakt, G. 
“ Valerian, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Max seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 minims] 
of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 217 minims] of 
Water, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluid- 
ounces, 69 minims] of the mixture, pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, PAET i. 
Extractum Veratri Viridis Fluidum. 
601 
macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding 
menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the Valerian is 
exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounees, 356 
minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. 
(122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum 
to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounees, 6J 
drachms].” U. S. 
This is a concentrated tincture, strong both in alcohol and in the virtues of valerian. It is 
probable that all or nearly all the volatile ingredients of the root are extracted by the reserved 
portion which first passes, and which, not being exposed to evaporation, loses none of the vol- 
atile oil and acid that have been dissolved; while the soluble matter subsequently extracted, 
consisting chiefly of the fixed principles, will not be dissipated by the concentration ordered. 
The fluid extract may therefore be considered as fully representing the virtues of the root. 
The formula is, with some modification, that of Prof. Grahame (A. J. P., xxi. 379). The 
preparation is a dark brownish-red liquid, transparent in thin layers, with the smell and taste 
of valerian. The dose is about a fluidrachm (3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM VERATRI VIRIDIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Veratrum Viride. 
Extrait iiquide de Ye rat re americain, Fr.j Fliissiges Griingermerwurz-Extrakt, G. 
“ Veratrum Viride, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounees, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounees, 69 
minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from 
the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for 
forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the 
Veratrum Viride is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluid- 
ounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not ex- 
ceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft extract; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add 
enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
It may be doubted whether this fluid extract is among those demanded by the wants of the 
profession. We have already a tincture, which, supposing none of the virtues of the medi- 
cine to be lost in preparing the fluid extract, will be at least half as strong, and at all events 
is quite strong enough. It is true that the proportion of alcohol is somewhat less in the fluid 
extract; but in so powerful a preparation this is of little consequence. The tincture itself 
purports to be saturated; and, though it is probable that, by the concentration of the alcoholic 
solution, more of the active matter is held by it in the same measure of alcohol than by the 
tincture, the necessity of multiplying the number of preparations of a powerful drug where 
the dose is small is not apparent. It would be injudicious to prescribe more of it, as a com- 
mencing dose, than from one to two minims (0-06—0-12 C.c.). 
(EX-TBXe'TUM YE-RA'TR! yIr'I-DIS FLtr'l-DUM.) 
EXTRACTUM VIBURNI OPULI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Viburnum Opulus. 
(ex-trXc'tum vi-buii'n! op'u-l! flu'i-dum.) 
Fluid Extract of Cramp Bark. 
“ Viburnum Opulus, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains}; 
Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 6£ fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounees, 173 
minims] of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounees, 218 minims] 
of Water, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluid- 
ounces, 69 minims] of the mixture, pack it moderately in a cylindrical percolator; then add 
enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid 
begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the per- 
colator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually 602 
Extractum Viburni Prunifolii Fluidum.—Extractum Zingiberis Fluidum. 
part i. 
adding menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the 
Viburnum Opulus is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 
28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; 
dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This is a new official fluid extract: there seems to be little necessity for two fluid extracts 
of viburnum. The dose is from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM VIBURNI PRUNIFOLII FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid 
Extract of Viburnum Prunifolium. 
(EX-TRXe'TUM Vi-BUR'NI PRU-NI-FO'LI-I FLU'I-DCM.) 
Fluid Extract of Black Haw; Extrait liquide de Viburne, Fr. 
“ Viburnum Prunifolium, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 65 fluidrachms]. Mix seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluid- 
ounces, 173 minims] of Alcohol with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 
217 minims] of Water, and, having moistened the powder with three hundred cubic centimeters, 
[or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of the mixture, pack it moderately in a cylindrical percolator; 
then add enough menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the 
liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradu- 
ally adding menstruum, using the same proportions of Alcohol and Water as before, until the 
Viburnum Prunifolium is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters 
[or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft ex- 
tract ; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough menstruum to make the Fluid 
Extract measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms].” U S. 
This is a fluid extract which well represents the drug. It is of a dark reddish-brown color. 
The dose is from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9—3-75 C.c.). 
EXTRACTUM XANTHOXYLI FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of 
Xanthoxylum. 
Fluid Extract of Prickly Ash; Extrait liquide de Frene epineux, Fr.; Fliissiges Zahnwehholz-Extrakt, G. 
“ Xanthoxylum, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; 
Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ 
fluidrachms]. Moisten the powder with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 
218 minims] of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough Alcohol 
to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the 
percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours. Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Xan- 
thoxylum is exhausted. Reserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 
207 minims] of the percolate, and evaporate the remainder to a soft extract; dissolve this in 
the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract thoroughly represents the virtues of the drug. The dose is from one-half 
to one fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). 
(EX-TRAC'TUM XAN-THOX'Y-LI FLU'I-DUM—zan-thok'ae-li.) 
EXTRACTUM ZINGIBERIS FLUIDUM. U. S. Fluid Extract of Ginger. 
Extrait liquide de Gingeinbre, Fr.; Fliissiges Ingwer-Extrakt, G. 
“ Ginger, in No. 40 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Alcohol, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6J fluidrachms]. 
Moisten the powder with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] 
of Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator ; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol, until the Ginger is exhausted. 
Ileserve the first nine hundred cubic centimeters [or 30 fluidounces, 207 minims] of the percolate, 
(EX-TKlC'TUM ZIN-giB'E-RIS FLU'I-DUM.) PART I. 
Fel Boris. 
603 
and evaporate the remainder, at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), to a soft ex- 
tract ; dissolve this in the reserved portion, and add enough Alcohol to make the Fluid Extract 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms].” U. S. 
This fluid extract is a highly concentrated alcoholic solution of the active principles of ginger. 
It is transparent, and of a reddish color. Dose, from ten to twenty minims (0-6-1-25 C.c.). 
FEL BOVIS. U.S. Oxgall. [Fel Tauri.l 
(FEL BO'VIS.) 
“ The fresh bile of Bos Taurus, Linne (class, Mammalia; order, Ruminantia).” U. S. 
Chemical researches of a very thorough character have thrown much light on the subject of 
the constituents of gall. The most characteristic constituents of all galls, of whatever origin, 
are, first, the sodium or potassium salts of certain resinous acids known collectively as the 
“ gall-acids,” and, secondly, certain coloring matters known as “ gall-pigments.” The gall acids 
thus far made known are glycocholie acid, C26H43N0e ; taurocholic acid, C26H45NS07 ; hyogly- 
cocholic acid, C27H43N06; hyotaurocholic acid, C27H45NSOe; and chenotaurocholic acid, 
C29H49NS0e. Of these, the first two occur in oxgall as sodium salts, although sometimes (in 
green gall) the first one is absent. The bilicholic acid and bilifellinic acid of Berzelius, as 
well as fellic and fellinic acids, appear to have been mixtures. The solutions of these gall- 
acids, as well as their alkaline salts, give on addition of sugar and a drop of sulphuric acid a 
clear and strong purplish-red color (Pettenkofer’s gall test). Dreclisel modifies Pettenkofer’s 
test as follows. Add to the concentrated alkaline solution of the biliary salts syrupy phos- 
phoric acid. Next add a little cane sugar, and heat the test-tube by setting it in the neck of 
a flask containing boiling water. After a short heating a characteristic red or reddish-violet 
color will make its appearance, even if only traces of biliary acids are present. (N. R., 1882, 
p. 120.) They are also decomposed by the action of baryta water into non-nitrogenous acids 
and amido-compounds, as will be seen in the following reactions: 
+ h2o = c24h40o, + CLH,Not 
Glycocholie 
acid. 
Cnolic acid. 
Glycine. 
c26h45no7s + h20 = c24h40o5 + c2h7no3s. 
The gall-pigments are such unstable organic coloring matters that their individuality can- 
not be said to be thoroughly established. The researches of Staedeler ( Verhand. d. Naturf. 
Ges. in Zurich, 8) and R. Maly (Ann. Ch. vnd Pharm., 132, 129) have, however, given 
us a better knowledge of them. They are bilirubin, C32H36N.06; biliverdin, C32H30N4O0; 
bilifuscin, CieH20N204 (?) ; and biliprasin, C16H22N206 (?). Of these, the first two seem to 
exist originally in the gall, and the others are probably derived from them. Hoppe-Seyler 
(Deut. Chem. Ges. JBer., 7, p. 1065) has shown that the haemoglobin and haematin of the blood 
can be changed into hydrobilirubin, a derivative of bilirubin, so that the origin of these gall- 
pigments seems to be clearly shown. Oxgall contains, in addition, cholesterine, choline, urea, 
fats, which are the glycerides of acetic and propionic acids, mucus, and some inorganic salts, 
such as sodium and potassium chlorides, and sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium phos- 
phates. The sodium glycocholate and taurocholate may be separated in the following manner. 
Dry ox-bile is treated with absolute alcohol, and the tincture precipitated by ether in excess. 
Both salts are deposited, and the glycocholate crystallizes upon standing, the taurocholate re- 
maining in an amorphous form, resembling oily or resinous matter. They may be separated 
more completely by taking advantage of their different relations to lead acetate and subacetate. 
Both the acids are precipitated by the subacetate, the glycocholate only by the acetate. If the 
deposit above referred to be dissolved in water, solution of lead acetate will throw down a lead 
glycocholate, while the addition of the lead subacetate to the remainder will precipitate the 
taurocholate. The acids may be separated from the salts of lead by sulphuric acid, and then 
recombined with soda. 
Properties. “ A brownish-green or dark-green, somewhat viscid liquid, having a peculiar, 
unpleasant odor, and a disagreeable, bitter taste. Specific gravity, 1-018 to 1-028 at 15° C. 
(59° F.). It is neutral, or has a faintly alkaline reaction on litmus paper. A mixture of 2 
drops of Oxgall and 10 C.c. of water, when treated, first with a drop of a freshly-prepared 
solution of 1 part of sugar in 4 parts of water, and afterwards with sulphuric acid, cautiously 
added, until the precipitate first formed is redissolved, gradually acquires a brownish-red color 
changing, successively, to carmine, purple, and violet.” U. S. 
Taurocholic 
acid. 
Cnolic acid. 
Taurine. Fel Bovis Purificatum.—Ferri Arsenas. 
604 
PART I. 
FEL BOVIS PURIFICATUM. U. S. (Br.) Purified Oxgall. 
“ The purified gall of the Ox; Bos Taurus.” Br. 1885. 
Fel Bovinum Purifioatum, Hr., Purified Ox Bile; Fel Tauri Depuratum, P. 0.; Extractum Fellis Bovini; Fiel 
de Boeuf purifi6e, Fr.; Gereinigte Ochsengalle (Rindsgalle), G. 
“ Fresh Oxgall, three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] ; Alcohol, one 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Evaporate the Oxgall, in a tared 
porcelain capsule, on a water-bath, to about one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains], 
then add to it the Alcohol, mix the whole thoroughly, and set it aside, well covered, for three 
or four days. Then decant the clear solution, filter the remainder, and, having mixed the 
liquids and distilled olf the Alcohol, evaporate the remainder to a pilular consistence.” U. S. 
“ Evaporate one pint (Imperial measure) or five hundred cubic centimetres of fresh Ox Bile 
to one quarter of its volume; shake it with half a pint (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty 
cubic centimetres of Alcohol (90 per cent.) ; set the mixture aside until the solid matter has 
subsided; decant the clear solution, and filter the remainder, washing the filter and contents 
with a little more Alcohol (90 per cent.). Distil off most of the Alcohol from the mixed 
liquids, and evaporate the residue in a porcelain dish, by the heat of a water-bath, until it 
acquires the consistence of a thick extract.” Br. 
The object of this preparation is to furnish purified concentrated Oxgall in a condition fitted 
for internal administration. The addition of Alcohol to the concentrated liquid is for the 
purpose of separating mucilaginous matter. 
Properties. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes Purified Oxgall, and requires it to respond 
to the following tests: “ A yellowish-green, soft solid, having a peculiar odor, and a partly 
sweet and partly bitter taste. Very soluble in water and in alcohol. A solution of 1 part of 
Purified Oxgall in about 100 parts of water behaves towards sugar and sulphuric acid in the 
same manner as the solution mentioned under Oxgall (see Fel Bovis). An aqueous solution 
of Purified Oxgall should be clear, and should remain transparent upon the addition of an 
equal volume of alcohol (evidence of proper purification).” “ A yellowish-green hygroscopic 
substance, having a taste partly sweet and partly bitter, soluble in water and in alcohol (90 
per cent.). A solution in twenty or thirty times its weight of water, when treated, first with 
a drop of freshly made syrup consisting of one part of Refined Sugar and four of water, and 
then with sulphuric acid cautiously added until the precipitate at first formed is redissolved, 
gradually acquires a cherry-red color, which changes in succession to carmine, purple, and 
violet. Its aqueous solution gives no precipitate on the addition of alcohol (90 per cent.) 
(absence of unpurified ox bile).” Br. 
Refined oxgall, much used by painters, is prepared, according to Gray, in the following man- 
ner. Take of “ fresh oxgall, one pint; boil, skim, add one ounce of alum, and keep it on the 
fire for some time ; to another pint, add one ounce of common salt in the same manner; keep 
them bottled up for three months ; then decant off the clear ; mix them in an equal proportion ; 
a thick yellow coagulum is immediately formed, leaving the refined gall clear and colorless.” 
Medical Properties and Uses. Bile was formerly highly valued as a remedy in numer- 
ous complaints, and was considered peculiarly applicable to cases attended with deficient biliary 
secretion. Its use has, however, passed out of vogue, perhaps with insufficient reason. We 
have employed it in large doses in catarrhal jaundice with apparently excellent results. Also, 
at our suggestion it has been used by a veterinary surgeon as a local application to sinuses 
and foul sores in horses, with favorable reports; whilst recent researches show that the bile of 
venomous snakes, and probably to a less extent the bile of other animals, is antidotal to snake 
venom. (See Snake Venom, Part II.) The dose of Purified Oxgall is from five to twenty 
grains (0-33-1-30 Gm.). 
(FEL BO'VIS PU-BI-FI-CA'TUM.) 
FERRI ARSENAS. Br. Iron Arsenate. [Arseniate of Iron, 1885.] 
“ Ferrous arsenate, Fe3(As04)2,6H20, with ferric arsenate and some iron oxide.” Br. 
Ferrous Arsenate; ArsSniate de Fer, Fr.; Arsensaures Eisen. G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, 20f ounces (Imperial) or 415 grammes; Sodium Arsenate, dried, 261 
ounces (Imp.) or 530 grammes; Sodium Bicarbonate, 4£ ounces (Imp.) or 90 grammes; Dis- 
tilled Water, boiling, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Sodium Arsenate in about five pints 
(Imp. meas.) or two litres, and the Ferrous Sulphate in about six pints (Imp. meas.) or two 
(fer'r! ar-se'nas.) part I. 
Ferri Arsenas.—Fern Carbonas Saecharatus. 
605 
thousand four hundred cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; mix the solutions; add the 
Sodium Bicarbonate dissolved in a little cold Distilled Water; stir thoroughly; collect the 
resulting precipitate on a calico filter; wash until free from sulphates; squeeze the washed 
precipitate between folds of strong linen in a screw press; dry it on porous bricks in a warm 
air-chamber, the temperature of which does not exceed 100° F. (37-8° C.).” Br. 
This is an official salt of the British Pharmacopoeia, which as yet is the only one that has 
adopted it. The washed precipitate described in the process is ferrous arsenate (Fe„As208). 
A portion of ferrous arsenate remains dissolved in the solution. This is precipitated by the 
sodium bicarbonate, with the evolution of carbonic acid gas. 
Ferrous arsenate is white when first formed, but quickly turns green on exposure to the air 
during the process of washing and drying, and finally becomes a ferroso-ferric arsenate of the 
probable composition 3Fe(Fe0)As04.16H20. It is an amorphous powder, without smell or 
taste, insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. The British Pharmacopoeia 
gives the following characters of the salt: “ A tasteless amorphous powder of a greenish color, 
insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. It affords the reactions charac- 
teristic of ferrous and ferric salts and of arsenates. Each gramme dissolved in an excess of 
sulphuric acid diluted with water should not cease to give a blue precipitate with solution of 
potassium ferricyanide until at least 6-7 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of potassium 
bichromate have been added, corresponding to nearly 12? per cent, of hydrous, or 10 per cent, 
of anhydrous, ferrous arsenate. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for 
sulphates.” The quantitative test proves that there is a due proportion of ferrous oxide pres- 
ent ; for the potassium bichromate oxidizes the ferrous oxide, and until this is wholly con- 
verted into ferric oxide a blue precipitate continues to be produced, ceasing, however, when 
the conversion is complete. 
Medical Properties. Ferrous arsenate is said to unite the virtues of the two metals 
which enter into its composition ; but the quantity of iron in any permissible dose is so small 
as to be nearly or quite insignificant; and the activity of the medicine is in fact due to the 
arsenic alone. The complaints in which it has been found efficient are those in which arsenic 
in other forms has proved to be a most valuable remedy; and, judging from our own observa- 
tion, there is no one of them in which the common solution of potassium arsenite will not pro- 
duce all the effects that can be obtained from the arsenical preparations, with which this ought 
undoubtedly to be ranked rather than with the chalybeates. Should the coexistence of an 
anaemic state of the system with any disease requiring the use of arsenic indicate the joint 
use of iron, it would be unsafe to depend on ferrous arsenate alone. This remedy is pecu- 
liarly useful in chronic affections of the skin, especially those of a scaly character, as lepra, 
psoriasis, and the advanced stage of eczema and impetigo. It is useful also in lupus, and, 
mixed with twelve times its weight of simple cerate, may be employed externally in cancerous 
ulcers, though much caution is requisite. The dose is from the eighth to the tenth of a grain 
(0-008—0-006 Gm.), of which about one-half only is ferrous oxide; given in pill, three times 
a day. (See Syrupus Ferri Arsenatis, Part II., National Formulary.) 
FERRI CARBONAS SACCHARATUS. U. S., Br. Saccharated Ferrous 
Carbonate. 
“Ferrous oxycarbonate, xFeC03,tyFe(0H)2, more or less oxidized, mixed with sugar; the 
ferrous salt, if reckoned as carbonate, FeC03, forming about one-third of the mixture.” Br. 
Saccharated Iron Carbonate; Saccharated Carbonate of Iron ; Ferrum Carbonicum Saccharatum, P. G.; Carbonas 
Ferrosus Saecharatus; Saccharure de Carbonate ferreux, Fr.; Zuckerhaltiges Kohlensaures Eisen, G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce ay., 334 grains] ; Sodium Bicarbonate, thirty- 
jive grammes [or 1 ounce av., 102 grains] ; Sugar, in fine powder, Distilled Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains]. Dissolve the 
Ferrous Sulphate in two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of hot Dis- 
tilled Water, and the Sodium Bicarbonate in jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 17 fluidounces] 
of Distilled Water at a temperature not exceeding 50° C. (122° F.), and filter the solutions 
separately. To the solution of Sodium Bicarbonate contained in a flask having a capacity of 
about one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fluidrachms] add, gradually, the 
solution of Ferrous Sulphate, and mix thoroughly by rotating the flask. Fill up the flask with 
boiling Distilled Water, cork it loosely, and set the mixture aside. When the precipitate has 
subsided, draw off the clear, supernatant liquid by means of a siphon, and then fill the flask 
(FER'RI CAR'BO-Nls SAC-£HA-RA'TUS.) 606 
Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus. 
PART I. 
again with hot Distilled Water, and shake it. Again draw off the clear liquid, and repeat the 
washing with hot Distilled Water in the same manner until the decanted liquid gives not 
more than a slight cloudiness with barium chloride test-solution. Finally drain the precipitate 
thoroughly on a muslin strainer, transfer it to a porcelain capsule containing eighty grammes 
[or 2 ounces av., 359 grains] of Sugar, and mix intimately. Evaporate the mixture to dry- 
ness, by means of a water-batli, reduce it to powder, and mix intimately with it, if necessary, 
enough well-dried Sugar to make the final product weigh one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces 
av., 230 grains]. Keep the product in small, well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 40 grammes; Ammonium Carbonate, 1J ounces 
(Imp.) or 25 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 2 gallons (Imp. meas.) or 6400 cubic centi- 
metres; Refined Sugar, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 20 grammes. Dissolve the Ferrous Sulphate and 
the Ammonium Carbonate each in one-quarter of the Distilled Water; add the former to the 
latter with brisk stirring, in a deep cylindrical vessel; cover this so as to protect it as much as 
possible from the air; set the mixture aside for twenty-four hours; separate the supernatant 
liquid from the precipitate by means of a siphon ; pour on the remainder of the Distilled 
Water; stir well; after subsidence remove the clear liquid ; collect the precipitate on a calico 
filter; subject it to expression ; triturate it with the Refined Sugar in a porcelain mortar; dry 
the mixture at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. 
This was introduced into the U. S. P. in 1880 ; the process is identical with that of the 
former German Pharmacopoeia. It is to be regretted that the author of the formula did not 
adopt the expedient of adding sugar or syrup to the solutions of the two salts, and to the water 
used for washing, to protect the precipitate as soon as it was formed. When solutions of fer- 
rous sulphate and sodium carbonate are mixed together, there are formed, by double decom- 
position, sodium sulphate which remains in solution, and ferrous carbonate which falls as a 
pale-blue precipitate. This precipitate begins immediately to alter in nature by the absorption 
of oxygen, and, if washed and dried in the ordinary way, becomes ferric oxide, associated with 
a small quantity of the ferrous carbonate, which has escaped change. As the preparations of 
iron containing ferrous oxide are the most esteemed, the change which this precipitate under- 
goes has always been a matter of regret, and various attempts have been made to prevent it. 
Saccharine matter has been ascertained to possess the required preservative properties; and in 
the preparation under consideration it is used to prevent the ferrous carbonate as first pre- 
cipitated from passing into the ferric hydrate. 
Dr. Becker, a German physician, was the first to suggest the use of saccharine matter as a 
means of protection against the absorption of oxygen ; and the idea was carried out by Klauer, 
a German chemist, who first made the saccharated ferrous carbonate. The use of boiling dis- 
tilled water in the process is to avoid the action of the air contained in unboiled water. The 
washed precipitate is pressed so as to free it from water as far as possible, and then incorporated 
with the sugar in fine powder. The mode of treating the precipitate unnecessarily exposes it 
to the action of the air; and the late London method of incorporating it with the sugar im- 
mediately after washing was on this account preferable. The final drying heat should not 
exceed 54-5° C. (130° F.).* (See Archiv d. Pharm., Jan. 1878; N. R., 1878, 1881.) 
Properties. “ A greenish-brown powder, gradually becoming oxidized by contact with air, 
without odor, and having at first a sweetish, afterwards a slightly ferruginous, taste. Only 
partially soluble in water, but completely soluble in hydrochloric acid, with copious evolution 
of carbonic acid gas, forming a clear, greenish-yellow liquid. If 1 Gm. of Saccharated Fer- 
rous Carbonate be dissolved in 5 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and the solution diluted with water 
to the measure of 50 C.c., portions of this solution will afford a blue precipitate with both po- 
tassium ferrocyanide test-solution and potassium ferricyanide test-solution, but should not be 
affected by barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate). If 1-16 (1-1573) Gm. of Sac- 
* Saccharated Ferric Oxide. Saccharum Ferrugineum. This is a combination of sugar and ferric oxide. It is 
soluble and of a pure sweet taste. According to the method of Siebert, to prepare it dissolve two parts of iron in 
twenty-four parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*2; evaporate the filtrate to fifteen parts; when quite cool, dissolve twelve 
parts of sugar in the filtrate, and add an excess of a solution of twelve parts of sugar in twelve parts of 20-per-cent, 
ammonia water. After setting aside for twenty-four hours, precipitate this with four or five times its volume of strong 
alcohol; collect the precipitate, partially dry with bibulous paper, intimately mix the moist mass with its own 
weight of powdered sugar, and dry by a moderate heat. It is a good antidote for arsenic. (A. J. P., xl. 324, 326. 
See also Neuee Repertor. fiir Pharm., xviii. 36.) Keutmann (Int. Pharm. Gen. Anz., 1893, 214) dissolves ferrous 
sulphate in water, precipitates the solution (placed in a bottle) with ammonia water, fills the bottle with water, de- 
cants, washing the precipitate repeatedly with hot water; the precipitate is placed in a porcelain dish containing 
pulverized sugar warmed, a small quantity of alkali added, and hydrogen peroxide added to complete the oxidation; 
the mixture is then dried. PART I. 
Ferri Cctrbonas Saccharatus.— Ferri Chloridum. 
607 
charated Ferrous Carbonate be dissolved in 10 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid, and the solution 
diluted with water to about 100 C.c., it should require about 15 C.c. of potassium permanga- 
nate decinormal volumetric solution to impart a permanent pink tint to the liquid, correspond- 
ing to about 15 per cent, of ferrous carbonate (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 
1 per cent, of pure Ferrous Carbonate).” U. S. 
Saccharated ferrous carbonate is frequently seen in small coherent lumps, usually of a grayish- 
brown color, permanent in the air, having a sweet, styptic taste, and wholly and readily soluble 
in warm hydrochloric acid, diluted with half its volume of water, with effervescence. According 
to the British Pharmacopoeia, it is in “ Small coherent lumps or powder, of a brownish-gray 
color with a sweet, feebly chalybeate taste. It dissolves with effervescence in warm hydrochlo- 
ric acid diluted with half its volume of water. Each gramme, dissolved in excess of warm 
Concentrated Phosphoric Acid and diluted with icater, should not cease to give a blue precipi- 
tate with solution of potassium ferricyanide until at least 29 cubic centimetres of the volumetric 
solution of potassium bichromate have been added. It should yield only the slightest charac- 
teristic reactions with the tests for sulphates.” The presence of ferric oxide is a defect, which 
is avoided in Yallet’s ferruginous mass. 
Its solution in dilute hydrochloric acid is but slightly affected by potassium ferrocyanide, 
showing the presence of the ferric salt in only small proportion, but yields a copious blue pre- 
cipitate with the ferricyanide, proving the abundance of the ferrous compound. The same 
solution should give but a very slight precipitate with barium chloride, evincing that very little 
either of ferrous or of sodium sulphate has escaped the washing process. The quantitative 
tests determine the quantity of ferrous salt present, requiring the stated amount of the bichro- 
mate to convert it into the ferric chloride. 
Medical Properties. This preparation is an excellent chalybeate, possessing the advan- 
tages of having nearly all the iron in it in the ferrous state, and of being readily soluble in 
acids. Originally introduced into the official list by the Edinburgh College, it appeared for the 
first time in the Dublin and London Pharmacopoeias of 1850 and 1851. It is undoubtedly 
more active than the ferric subcarbonate, and must be used in a smaller dose. It is, however, 
inferior to Vallet’s ferruginous mass, in the preparation of which the anti-oxidizing influence 
of saccharine matter is more fully applied. The dose of the saccharated ferrous carbonate is 
from five to thirty grains (0-33-1-95 Gm.), given in the form of pill. 
FERRI CHLORIDUM. U. S. Ferric Chloride. 
Chloride of Iron; Ferrum Sesquichloratum, P. G.; Ferrum Muriaticum Oxydatum, Chloridum vel Chloruretum 
Ferricum, Ferri Perchloridum; Ferric Chloride; Perehlorure de Fer, Chlorure ferrique, Fr.; Eisenchlorid, G. 
“ Iron, in the form of fine, bright wire, and cut into small pieces, fifteen grammes [or 231 
grains] ; Hydrochloric Acid, Nitric Acid, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Introduce 
the Iron wire into a flask having a capacity of about two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluid- 
ounces, 366 grains], pour upon it fifty-four grammes [or 1 fluidounce, 274 minims] of Hydro- 
chloric Acid, previously diluted with twenty-five cubic centimeters [or 405 minims] of Distilled 
Water, and let the mixture stand in a moderately warm place until effervescence ceases; then 
heat it to the boiling point, filter it through paper, and, having rinsed the flask and Iron wire 
with a little hot Distilled Water, pass the rinsings through the filter. To the filtered liquid add 
twenty-eight grammes [or 390 minims] of Hydrochloric Acid, add the mixture, slowly and 
gradually, in a stream, to eight grammes [or 92 minims] of Nitric Acid, contained in a capa- 
cious porcelain vessel, and warm gently. After effervescence ceases, apply heat, by means of a 
sand-bath, until the liquid is free from nitrous odor. Then test a few drops of the liquid, di- 
luted with water, with freshly prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution. Should this re- 
agent produce a blue color, add a little more Nitric Acid, drop by drop, as long as effervescence 
is observed, and evaporate off the excess. Then add five grammes [or 70 minims] of Hydro- 
chloric Acid, and enough Distilled Water to make the whole weigh sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 
51 grains], and set this aside, covered with glass, until it forms a solid crystalline mass. Lastly, 
break the salt into pieces, and keep it in a glass-stoppered bottle, protected from light.” U. S. 
This formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia has been adopted with but little alteration from 
that of Wittstein. (Pract. Pharm. Ohem., Darby’s transl., p. 265.) When iron is heated with 
hydrochloric acid, water is decomposed, the hydrogen escapes with effervescence, and the 
oxygen uniting with the iron forms ferrous oxide, which reacts with the hydrochloric acid to 
Fe2 Clfi. 12H2 O ; 539*50. (FER'RI )3HL0'RI-DUM.) Fe2 Cl6.12H2 0 ; 540-2. 608 
Ferri Chloridum. 
PART I. 
form water and ferrous chloride.* The next step of the process is to convert the ferrous 
chloride into the ferric salt. This is effected by treating it with hydrochloric and nitric acids 
and heating till red fumes no longer escape. The following reaction explains this: 6FeCl? -f- 
2HNOa -j- 6HC1 = 3Fe2Cle -f- 2NO -f 4H20. The solution is then evaporated, and, on cooling, 
concretes into a crystalline mass. The relative proportions of iron and the two acids are 
adjusted very nearly to the production of these results. There are two crystallized hydrates, 
one, Fe2Cle 6H20, which is very deliquescent, the other, Fe2Cl6 -j- 12HaO, which is less so, 
but which, when stood over sulphuric acid, liquefies and slowly deposits crystals of the first 
hydrate, Fe?Cle -f- 6H20, losing half of its water of hydration.f 
Properties. It is in fragments of a crystalline structure, an orange-yellow color, inodorous, 
and of a strong chalybeate and styptic taste and an acid reaction. It is “ very deliquescent in 
moist air. Freely and completely soluble in water and in alcohol; also in a mixture of 1 part 
of ether and 3 parts of alcohol. At 35-5° C. (96° F.) the salt melts, forming a reddish-brown 
liquid. When strongly heated, it decomposes with the loss of water and hydrochloric acid, 
while the anhydrous salt sublimes, leaving a residue of ferric oxide. The dilute, aqueous solu- 
tion of the salt is acid to litmus paper, yields a brownish-red precipitate with ammonia water, 
a blue one with potassium ferrocyanide test-solution, and a white one, insoluble in nitric acid, 
with silver nitrate test-solution. If the iron be completely precipitated from a solution of the 
salt by an excess of ammonia water, the filtrate should be colorless, and should not yield either 
a white or a dark-colored precipitate with hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of zi?ic or 
copper) ; nor should it leave a fixed residue on evaporation and gentle ignition (absence of salts 
of the fixed alkalies). On adding a clear crystal of ferrous sulphate to a cooled mixture of 
equal volumes of concentrated sulphuric acid and a moderately dilute solution of the salt, the 
crystal should not become colored brown, nor should there be a brownish-black color developed 
around it (absence of nitric acid). If to a dilute solution of the salt a few drops of freshly 
prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution be added, a pure brown color should be produced, 
without a tinge of green or greenish-blue (absence of ferrous salt). A 1-per-cent, aqueous solution 
of the salt, when boiled in a test-tube, should remain clear (absence of oxychloride). If 0-56 
(0-5588) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 
100 C.c.), in 10 C.c. of water and 2 C.e. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 Gm. 
of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), 
then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require 20 C.c. of sodium 
hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid 
(each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. It con- 
tains a variable proportion of water according to the crystalline forms it is made to assume, having 
about 40 per cent., or twelve mols., when in fine acicular crystals, and only 22 per cent., or five 
mols. when in the form of larger tables. (Brande and Taylor.) Its solution in water gives with 
ammonia a brown precipitate of ferric oxide, and does not yield a blue one with potassium 
ferricyanide, proving the absence of ferrous chloride. 
Ferric chloride is used almost exclusively in the form of tincture or liquor; and in refer- 
ence to its effect and application we refer to Tinctura Ferri Chloridi and Liquor Ferri Chloridi. 
Excepting deliquescence, it keeps without change. When used, it may be dissolved in water in 
such proportions as may be required. Six, three, two, and one and a half drachms to a fluid- 
ounce of water have been recommended; the stronger solutions being used in the treatment 
of varices, the weaker for injection into aneurisms, and for application to bleeding surfaces, 
etc. Mr. J. Z. Lawrence, of England, has used it as a styptic in a semi-deliquesced state 
and found it extremely efficient. He keeps it in a bottle, in which it gradually deliquesces ; and 
while it is in this condition he applies the thick liquid portion, by means of a brush of spun 
glass, to the bleeding surface. 
* The Paris Pharmaceutical Society have adopted the following preparations of ferrous chloride, made by dis- 
solving iron in hydrochloric acid and evaporating the filtered solution rapidly to dryness. 
Syrup of Ferrous Chloride. Dissolve 5 grammes of dry ferrous chloride in 20 grammes of orange-flower water, 
and add 800 grammes syrup of gum and 175 grammes syrup of orange-flower. (See, also, Syrupus Ferri Protochlo- 
ridi, Part II., National Formulary.) 
Pills of Ferrous Chloride. Dry ferrous chloride, powdered marshmallow-root, each 10 grammes, mucilage suffi- 
cient. Make into 100 pills, which are to be silvered. 
f Syrupus Ferri Chloridi (Edel). Syrup of Iron Chloride. Take of Solution of Chloride of Iron (U. S. P.), 160, 
minims; Potassium Citrate, 224 grains; Citric Acid, 60 grains; Water, 8 fluidounces; Glycerin, 5 fluidounces; 
Syrup, 16 fluidounces. Dissolve tbe potassium citrate and citric acid in the water, add the iron solution, and when 
the reaction ceases filter the solution, then add the glycerin and syrup. {Drug. Circ., 1894, 246.) Ferri Citras.—Ferri et Ammonii Citras. 
609 
PART I. 
FERRI CITRAS. U. S. Ferric Citrate. 
Citrate of Iron; Ferrum Citricum Oxydatum, P. G.; Citras Ferricus; Ferric Citrate, E.; Citrate de Sesquioxyde de 
Fer, Citrate ferrique, Fr.; Citronensaures Eisenoxyd, Eisencitrat, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Citrate, a convenient quantity. Evaporate the solution on a water-bath, 
at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.), to the consistence of syrup, and spread it on 
plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be obtained in scales. Keep the product in 
well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. Ferric citrate as made by the official 
formula is not a definite chemical salt, but a compound containing ferric citrate, to which the 
following formula has been assigned : Fe2(CeH607)2.6H20; 596-6. 
Properties. Ferric citrate is in “ thin, transparent, garnet-red scales, without odor, and 
having a slightly ferruginous taste. Slowly but completely soluble in cold water, and readily 
soluble in hot water, but diminishing in solubility by age. Insoluble in alcohol. When strongly 
heated, the salt chars, and finally leaves a residue of ferric oxide, which should not have an alka- 
line reaction upon litmus paper (absence of citrates or tartrates of the fixed alkalies). The 
aqueous solution of the salt has an acid reaction, and is not precipitated, but rendered darker 
in color, by ammonia water. With potassium ferrocyanide test-solution it produces a bluish- 
green color or precipitate, which is increased and rendered dark blue by the subsequent addi- 
tion of hydrochloric acid (difference from iron and ammonium citrate). When heated with 
potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, it affords a brownish-red precipitate, without evolving 
any vapor of ammonia. If a 10-per-cent, solution of the salt be deprived of its iron by boiling 
it with an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, and the filtrate be slightly acid- 
ulated with acetic acid, a portion of the cooled liquid, mixed with a little calcium chloride test- 
solution, and again heated to boiling, will gradually afford a white, crystalline precipitate. 
Another portion of the acidulated and cooled liquid, when allowed to stand for some time, should 
not deposit a white, crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate'). If 0-56 (0-5588) Gm. of the 
salt be dissolved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having the capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 15 C.c. 
of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, with the aid of a gentle heat, and, after the addition 
of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° 
C. (104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require 
about 16 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or 
greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of 
metallic iron).” TJ. S. 
Medical Properties. Ferric citrate was introduced to the notice of the profession, in 
1831, by M. Beral, of Paris. It is a pleasant chalybeate, and is best given in solution. Prof. 
Procter found that a solution of this salt in distilled water, containing 240 grains in a fluid- 
ounce, keeps perfectly, and is very convenient for dispensing. Dose of the salt, from three 
to five grains (0-2-0-33 Gm.). (See Liquor Ferri Citratis.) 
(FfeR'RI Cl'TIilS.) 
FERRI ET AMMONII CITRAS. U. S., Br. Iron and Ammonium 
Citrate. 
(FER'RI ET AM-MO'NI-I Cl'TRlS.) 
Citrate of Iron and Ammonia; Ammonio-Ferric Citrate; Ferri et Ammonias Citras, Br.; Ferrum Citricum Ammo- 
niatum, P. G.; Ferri Ammonio-Citras, Ferro-Ammonium Citricum ; Ammonio-Citrate of Iron, Soluble Citrate of Iron, 
E.; Citrate de Fer et d’Ammoniaque (de Fer ammoniacal), Citrate ferrique ammoniacal, Fr.; Citronensaures Eisen- 
oxyd-Ammonium (Ammoniak), G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Citrate, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; 
Ammonia Water, forty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 169 minims]. Mix the solution of 
Ferric Citrate with the Ammonia Water, evaporate the mixture, by means of a water-bath, at 
a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.), to the consistence of syrup, and spread it on 
plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be obtained in scales. Keep the product in 
well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, 10 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or a sufficient quantity, or 200 
cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity; Solution of Ammonia, 23 ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or a sufficient quantity, or 460 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity; Citric Acid, 4 ounces 
(Imp.) or 80 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Prepare ferric hydroxide as 
follows : Mix sixteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or three hundred and twenty cubic centimetres of 
the Solution of Ammonia with two pints (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred cubic centimetres of 610 
Ferri et Ammonii dims. 
'PART I. 
Distilled Water; gradually add to this the Solution of Ferric Sulphate, previously diluted 
with two pints (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water; stir con- 
stantly and briskly, taking care that ammonia is, finally, in slight excess as indicated by the 
odor; set aside the mixture for two hours, stirring it occasionally ; pour it on a calico filter; 
when the liquid has drained away, wash the precipitated ferric hydroxide with Distilled Water 
until free from sulphates. 
“Dissolve the Citric Acid in its own weight of Distilled Water; warm the mixture on a 
water-bath ; add the ferric hydroxide, previously well drained ; stir them together until nearly 
the whole of the hydroxide has dissolved, or until the Citric Acid is saturated with ferric 
hydroxide (prepared, if necessary, from more of the Solution of Ferric Sulphate); let the 
solution cool; add jive and a half fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred and ten cubic 
centimetres of Solution of Ammonia; filter through flannel, adding some Distilled Water if 
necessary; evaporate to the consistence of syrup, the presence of a very slight excess of 
ammonia being maintained; dry in thin layers on flat porcelain or glass plates at a tem- 
perature not exceeding 100° F. (37-8° C.); remove the dry flakes of Iron and Ammonium 
Citrate.” Br. 
In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, the process consists simply in evaporating a mixture of solution 
of ferric citrate and ammonia water. In the British, ferric hydrate is first precipitated from a 
solution of the ferric sulphate, then digested at a moderate heat with a solution of citric acid, 
and lastly neutralized by ammonia. It has, however, been found by Dr. Squibb that a heat 
above 82-1° C. (180° F.) acts injuriously in the preparation of the ferric citrate; and the boil- 
ing heat directed in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1864 was, therefore, improper. (A. J. P., 
xxvii. 297.) This error has been corrected in the present Br. Pharmacopoeia, which directs 
that the salt should be dried at a heat not above 38° C. (100° F.). In the U. S. formula the 
ferric citrate is used already prepared, in the British it is prepared in the process. The solution 
should be concentrated to a syrupy consistence before being poured out on porcelain or glass 
to dry; and it is important that the heat emplqyed in the concentration should not exceed that 
indicated. Like most of the scaled iron salts, this preparation is not a true chemical compound, 
the ammonia not being in the proportion to form a double salt; it would be better to name it 
“ ammoniated iron citrate.” 
Prof. J. U. Lloyd (W. R., 1879, 323) states that it is usually difficult to adjust accurately 
the quantity of the ammonia in this process, and proposes to use a definite quantity of a fixed 
salt, like ammonium citrate, instead. His process will be found in the foot-note.* B. Rother 
recommends the following method: Dissolve 272 parts of ferric citrate in three or four times 
its weight of water with heat, add 79 parts of ammonium carbonate, evaporate, and scale in 
the usual manner. (A. J. P., 1887, p. 166.) 
Properties. Iron and ammonium citrate is more soluble than the citrate. It is in “ thin, 
transparent, garnet-red scales, without odor, and having a saline, mildly ferruginous taste; 
deliquescent in moist air. Readily and completely soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. 
When strongly heated, the salt chars, and finally leaves a residue of ferric oxide, which should 
not have an alkaline reaction towards litmus paper (absence of citrates or tartrates of the fixed 
alkalies). The aqueous solution of the salt is neutral to litmus paper. The aqueous solution 
is not precipitated, but rendered darker in color, by ammonia water. With potassium ferro- 
cyanide test-solution the solution does not give a blue color or precipitate, unless it be acidu- 
lated with hydrochloric acid (difference from ferric citrate). When heated with potassium or 
sodium hydrate test-solution, it affords a brownish-red precipitate, and vapor of ammonia is 
evolved. If a 10-per-cent, solution of the salt be deprived of its iron by boiling it with an 
excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, and the filtrate slightly acidulated with 
acetic acid, a portion of the cooled liquid, mixed with a little calcium chloride test-solution, 
and again heated to boiling, will gradually deposit a white, crystalline precipitate. Another 
portion of the acidulated and cooled liquid, when allowed to stand for some time, should not 
* Prepare a solution of ammonium citrate from citric acid 8 oz. av., and ammonia water q. s. 
Add the ammonia water to the citric acid until in slight excess, then evaporate the solution until it measures 
sixteen fluidounces. 
Then take of solution of iron tersulphate 16 fluidounces; citric acid 4 ounces av.; distilled water and ammonia 
water, each, a sufficient quantity; solution of ammonium citrate 5 fluidounces. Prepare hydrated ferric oxide from 
the solution of iron tersulphate. Having drained it, place in an evaporating dish and add the citric acid, warm upon 
a steam or water-bath, and stir until the citric acid is dissolved, then add the solution of ammonium citrate and stir 
until the hydrated oxide is dissolved, filter and evaporate to the consistence of thick syrup, spread upon glass with 
a brush, and dry. The yield will be 4234 grains. PART I. 
Ferri et Ammonii Citras.—Fern et Ammonii Sulphas. 
611 
yield a white crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate). If 0-56 (0-5588) Gm. of the salt 
be dissolved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 15 C.c. of 
water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, 
the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled, and 
mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require about 16 C.c. of sodium hypo- 
sulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid 
(each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. “ When 
incinerated with free access of air, it leaves 31 or 32 per cent, of ferric oxide, which is not 
alkaline to litmus (absence of fixed alkali). Heated with solution of potassium hydroxide it 
evolves ammonia and deposits ferric hydroxide. The alkaline solution from which the iron 
has separated does not, when slightly supersaturated with acetic acid, give any crystalline 
precipitate (absence of tartrates). It should not yield more than the slightest characteristic 
reactions with the tests for sulphates ” Br. Its precise chemical constitution is not determined ; 
but Mehu (Jahresb., 1873, 570), on evaporating a solution of ferrous citrate in ammonia to 
dryness, obtained a salt of the formula Fe2(NH4)2.(C6Il607)2 -f- 3HaO. This salt is a pleas- 
ant chalybeate, in doses of five grains (0-33 Gm.). According to Dr. Paris, it may be mixed 
with the carbonated alkalies without decomposition, and given in a state of effervescence with 
citric acid. It should be prescribed when ferric citrate is desired in solution, as it is not suited 
for administration in the form of pills, owing to the presence of ammonia, which renders it 
too soluble, and causes the pills to flatten after they have been made, and frequently to cohere 
in one solid mass. The official ferric citrate should always be used for pills, as it is more 
slowly dissolved. 
FERRI ET AMMONII SULPHAS. U. S. Ferric Ammonium Sulphate. 
[Ammonio-Ferric Sulphate. Ammonio-Ferric Alum.] 
(FEB'RI fiT AM-MO'NI-I SUL'PHAS.) 
Fe2 (NH4)2 (S04)4. 24H2 O ; 962*1. Fe2 (NH4)2 (S04)4. 24H2 0; 963-8. 
Ferrum Sulfurieum Oxydatum Ammoniatum, P. G.; Ferrum Ammonio-Sulphuricum, Ferri Ammonio-Sulphas, 
Sulphas Ammonico-Ferricus; Sulfate de Fer et d’Ammoniaque, Sulfate de Fer (ferrique) ammoniacal, Alun de Fer 
ammoniacal, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Eisenoxyd-Ammonium, Ammoniakalischer Eisenalaun, G. 
“ Ferric Ammonium Sulphate should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
The present Pharmacopoeia does not give a process for preparing this salt; that of the 
U. S. P. 1870 will be found below.* 
This is an ammonia iron-alum, in which the place of the aluminum oxide (alumina) is occu- 
pied by the ferric oxide. It is prepared by heating the solution of ferric tersulphate with 
ammonium sulphate until the latter salt is dissolved, and then allowing the solution to cool. 
The two salts unite to form iron and ammonium sulphate, which, being insoluble in the 
amount of liquid employed, crystallizes when it cools. The process is based on that of Wm. 
Hodgson (A. J. P., 1856, p. 305). 
Ammonio-ferric alum is in “ pale violet, octohedral crystals, without odor, and having an 
acid, styptic taste; efflorescent on exposure to the air. Soluble in 3 parts of water at 15° C. 
(59° F.), and in 0-8 part of boiling water; insoluble in alcohol. When strongly heated, the 
crystals fuse, lose their water of crystallization, swell up, and finally leave a pale brown residue. 
The aqueous solution of the salt has a slightly acid reaction, and yields with potassium ferro- 
cyanide test-solution a blue precipitate; and with barium chloride test-solution a white precipi- 
tate insoluble in hydrochloric acid. With potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution it yields 
a brownish-red precipitate, and if the mixture be heated, vapor of ammonia is evolved. If 
all the iron be precipitated from a solution of the salt by treating it with an excess of potas- 
sium or sodium hydrate test-solution, the resulting filtrate, when neutralized with hydrochloric 
acid, and then mixed with ammonia water, should not yield a white, gelatinous precipitate 
(absence of aluminum). If 0-56 (0-5588) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in a glass-stoppered 
bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric 
acid, and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an 
hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch 
test-solution, it should require not less than 11-6 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volu- 
metric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volu- 
* Ferri et Ammonii Sulphas. “ Take of Solution of Tersulphate of Iron (wo pints ; Sulphate of Ammonium four 
troyounces and a half. Heat the Solution of Tersulphate of Iron to the boiling point, add the Sulphate of Ammo- 
nium, stirring until it is dissolved, and set the liquid aside to crystallize. Wash the crystals quickly with very cold 
Water, wrap them in bibulous paper, and dry them in the open air.” U. S. 1870. 612 
jFerri et Ammonii Sulphas.—Ferri et Ammonii Tartras. 
PART I. 
metric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. According to H. Rose, the 
pure salt is white, and gives a colored solution with water, in consequence of the formation of 
a basic ferruginous salt. This decomposition is prevented by dissolving it in dilute sulphuric 
acid, when the solution is colorless. Instead of ammonium sulphate, potassium sulphate may 
be employed with the solution of ferric tersulphate, in which case a potassium iron-alum is 
produced, called potassio ferric alum, which has all the properties, physical and remedial, of 
the ammonio-ferric salt; and the two appear to have been indiscriminately used. The iron- 
alums were brought to the notice of the Pharmaceutical Society of London in Dec. 1853, by 
Mr. Lindsley Blyth, as a new remedy, prescribed in St. Mary’s Hospital. Dr. Tyler Smith 
found them to be more astringent than common alum, and devoid of the stimulating effects 
of the other salts of iron. Ferric alum is certainly useful in passive leucorrhoeas, and its 
saturated solution has been strongly recommended as a styptic. The dose is from five to 
ten grains (O33-0-65 Grm.), to be repeated twice or three times a day. 
FERRI ET AMMONII TARTRAS. U. S. Iron and Ammonium Tartrate. 
[Ammonio-Ferric Tartrate.] 
(FER'RI ET AM-MO'NI-! TAR'TRlS.) 
Ferri Ammonio-Tartras; Ammonio-Tartrate of Iron; Tartrate de Fer et d’Ammoniaque, Tartrate ferrique am- 
moniacal, Fr.; Weinsaures Eisenoxyd-Ammonium, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; 
Tartaric Acid, twenty-nine grammes [or 1 ounce av., 10 grains] ; Distilled Water, two hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] ; Ammonia Water, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. 
To one hundred and ten cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 345 minims] of Ammonia Water, 
previously diluted with two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] 
of cold Water, add, with constant stirring, the Solution of Ferric Sulphate, previously diluted 
with thirteen hundred cubic centimeters [or 43 fluidounces, 460 minims] of cold Water. When 
the precipitate has subsided, draw off the clear, supernatant liquid by means of a siphon, then 
mix the precipitate intimately with about fifteen hundred cubic centimeters [or 50 fluidounces, 
346 minims] of cold Water, again draw off the clear liquid, and repeat the washing with Water 
in the same manner until the decanted liquid gives not more than a slight cloudiness with 
barium chloride test-solution. Then transfer the precipitate to a wet muslin strainer, allow it 
to drain, and express the water as completely as possible. Dissolve one-half of the Tartaric 
Acid in the Distilled Water, neutralize the solution exactly with Ammonia Water, then add 
the other half of the Tartaric Acid, and dissolve it by the application of a gentle heat. Now 
add the moist ferric hydrate, in successive portions, stirring constantly, and continue the heat, 
which should not exceed 60° C. (140° F.), until the hydrate is dissolved. Filter the solution 
while hot, evaporate it in a porcelain vessel, at or below the above-mentioned temperature, to 
the consistence of syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be 
obtained in scales. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
This process does not differ essentially from that of Prof. Procter. (A. J. P., 1841, p. 276.) 
Ammonium tartrate is prepared, which is converted into bitartrate by the addition of tartaric 
acid; and the excess of acid is then combined with ferric hydrate freshly prepared from the 
official solution of ferric sulphate. A double salt of ammonium and iron tartrate is thus made 
in solution; by filtering, concentrating, and scaling, the salt is then obtained ; this, theoreti- 
cally, must be considered as consisting of one mol. of tartaric acid and two mols. of base, one 
consisting of ammonia and the other of ferric oxide, 2(Fe0)NH4,C4H406.3H20. It is hardly 
probable that the salt has exactly this chemical composition, as the scaled salts cannot be said 
to be definite compounds. The proportion of tartaric acid has been considerably reduced, as 
it was found to be excessive in previous formulas, and it might be diminished still further with 
advantage. 
This salt is in “ thin, transparent scales, varying in color from garnet-red to reddish-brown, 
without odor, and having a sweetish, slightly ferruginous taste; slightly deliquescent in the 
air. Very soluble in water ; insoluble in alcohol. When strongly heated, the salt chars, emits 
fumes having an odor of burning sugar, and finally leaves a residue of ferric oxide, which 
should not have an alkaline reaction upon litmus paper (absence of citrates or tartrates of the 
fixed alkalies'). The aqueous solution of the salt is neutral to litmus paper, and is not precip- 
itated, but rendered darker in color, by ammonia water. With potassium ferrocyanide test-so- 
lution it does not afford a blue color or precipitate, unless it be acidulated with hydrochloric 
acid. When heated with potassium or sodium hydrate .test-solution, it yields a brownish-red part I. 
Ferri et Potassii Tartras. 
613 
precipitate, and vapor of ammonia is evolved. If a 10 per cent, solution of the salt be deprived 
of its iron by boiling it with an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, the filtrate, 
when slightly acidulated with acetic acid, will gradually deposit a white, crystalline precipitate. 
If 0-56 (0-5588) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity 
of about 100 C.c.) in 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition 
of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. 
(104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require 
about 17 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or 
greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of 
metallic iron).” U. S. 
It is a mild chalybeate, and may be given in a dose of from ten to thirty grains (0-65-1-95 Gm.). 
FERRI ET POTASSII TARTRAS. U. S. (Br.) Iron and Potassium 
Tartrate. [Potassio-Ferric Tartrate.] 
Ferrum Tartaratum, Br.; Tartarated Iron; Tartarus Ferratus, P. G.; Ferri Potassio-Tartras, Ferrum Tartari- 
zatum, Tartras Ferrico-Potassicus, s. Potassico-Ferricus, s. Ferrico-Kalicus; Ferro-Tartrate of Potassium; Tartrate 
de Fer et de Potasse, Tartrate ferrico-potassique, Tartare chalybe, Tartre martial, Fr.; Weinsaures Eisenoxyd-Kali, 
Eisenweinstein, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; 
Potassium Bitartrate, thirty-eight grammes [or 1 ounce av., 148 grains] ; Distilled Water, three 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] ; Ammonia Water, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity. To one hundred and ten cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 345 minims] of 
Ammonia Water, previously diluted with tioo hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluid- 
ounces, 218 minims] of cold Water, add, under constant stirring, the Solution of Ferric Sul- 
phate, previously diluted with thirteen hundred cubic centimeters [or 43 fluidounces, 460 minims] 
of cold Water. When the precipitate has subsided, draw off the clear, supernatant liquid by 
means of a siphon, then mix the precipitate intimately with about fifteen hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 50 fluidounces, 346 minims] of cold Water, again draw off the clear liquid, and 
repeat the washing with Water in the same manner until the decanted liquid gives not more 
than a slight cloudiness with barium chloride test-solution. Then transfer the precipitate to a 
wet muslin strainer, allow it to drain, and express the water as completely as possible. Mix the 
Potassium Bitartrate with the Distilled Water in a porcelain vessel, heat the mixture, on a 
water-bath, to a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.), and gradually add the moist ferric 
hydrate, stirring constantly until it is dissolved. Filter the liquid while hot, and let the filtrate 
stand in a cool, dark place for twenty-four hours. Then stir it well with a porcelain or glass 
spatula, so that the precipitate which has formed in it may be thoroughly incorporated with the 
liquid. Now add, very cautiously, just enough Ammonia Water to dissolve the precipitate, 
evaporate the solution in a porcelain vessel, at or below the above-mentioned temperature, to 
the consistence of syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be 
obtained in scales. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
“Solution of Ferric Sulphate, 10 Ji. ounces (Imperial measure) or 200 cubic centimetres; 
Solution of Ammonia, 16 Ji. ounces or a sufficient quantity (Imp. meas.) or 320 cubic centime- 
tres or a sufficient quantity; Acid Potassium Tartrate, in powder, 3 ounces and 146 grains 
(Imp.) or 66 5 grammes ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Prepare ferric hydroxide from 
ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred cubic centimetres of Solution of Ferric Sulphate 
as directed under ‘ Ferri et Ammonii Citras.’ 
“ Mix the ferric hydroxide intimately with the Acid Potassium Tartrate in a porcelain dish ; 
let the mixture stand for twenty-four hours; heat to a temperature not exceeding 140° F. 
(60° C.), add gradually a pint and a half (Imp. meas.) or six hundred cubic centimetres of 
Distilled Water; stir constantly until nothing more will dissolve; filter; evaporate at a tem- 
perature not exceeding 140° F. (60° C.) to the consistence of syrup; dry in thin layers on flat 
porcelain or glass plates in a drying closet at a temperature not exceeding 100° F. (37"8° C.) ; 
remove the dry flakes of Tartarated Iron.” Br. 
The object of these processes is to combine the excess of acid in the potassium bitartrate 
with ferric oxide. In both, the plan of Soubeiran in the main is adopted,—namely, that of dis- 
solving the moist ferric hydrate to saturation in a mixture of the bitartrate and water, aided 
by a moderate heat. The oxide is obtained from the solution of ferric sulphate, which is pre- 
cipitated by ammonia. Potassa, which was used in the former British process, is not a good 
precipitant, because the alkali adheres obstinately to the precipitated oxide, and cannot be 
(fer'r! £t PO-TAS'SI-I tar'tras.) 614 
Fern et Potassii Tartras.—Ferri et Quinines Citras. 
PART I. 
completely separated even by repeated washings. The oxide should he gradually added to the 
bitartrate and water, heated to 60° C. (140° F.), as recommended by Soubeiran, at which tem- 
perature the oxide dissolves more readily and in larger quantity than when a higher temperature 
is employed. Besides, in the latter case, a portion of the ferric oxide is converted into ferrous 
oxide. (Gmelins Handbook, x. 315.) In the U. S. process the addition of ammonia water to 
the cooled filtrate dissolves the precipitated insoluble ferric tartrate, and is in accordance with 
the recommendation of Prof. J. U. Lloyd (N. R., 1879, p. 324), who asserts that this modifi- 
cation renders the salt more soluble without interfering with its stability. G. H. Chas. Klie 
suggested this improvement in A. J. P., 1876, p. 170. (See, also, W. R., 1878, p. 21.) In both 
formulas the liquid is poured out on a plane surface, so as to dry in scales. When duly carried 
into effect, they yield a product at all times identical, and having all the required qualities of 
the salt. For Roger’s process for this salt and the manufacture of Boules de Mars (balls of 
iron and potassium tartrate), see U S. D., 17th ed., 611. 
The late Dr. Ure proposed ferric tartrate for medical use. He made it by acting on clean 
iron filings, or hits of iron wire, with a solution of tartaric acid. It is a pulverulent salt, 
insoluble in water, and possessing a mild chalybeate taste. 
Properties. Iron and potassium tartrate is in “thin, transparent scales, varying in color 
from garnet-red to reddish-brown, without odor, and having a sweetish, slightly ferruginous 
taste; slightly deliquescent in the air. Very soluble in water; insoluble in alcohol. When 
strongly heated, the salt chars, emits fumes having an odor resembling that of burning sugar, 
and finally leaves a dark brown residue, having a strongly alkaline reaction, and effervescing 
with acids (distinction from iron and ammonium tartrate). The aqueous solution of the salt is 
neutral to litmus paper, and is not precipitated, but rendered darker in color, by ammonia 
water. With potassium ferrocyanide test-solution it does not afford a blue color or precipitate 
unless it be acidulated with hydrochloric acid. When heated with potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution, it yields a brownish-red precipitate, and a slight odor of ammonia is evolved. If 
a 10-per-cent, solution of the salt be deprived of its iron by boiling it with an excess of potas- 
sium or sodium hydrate test-solution, the filtrate, when slightly acidulated with acetic acid, 
will gradually deposit a white, crystalline precipitate. If 0-56 (0*5588) Gm. of the salt be dis- 
solved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 15 C.c. of water and 
2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture 
be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a 
few drops of starch test-solution, it should require about 15 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite deci- 
normal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of 
the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. “ The aqueous solution, 
when acidulated with hydrochloric acid, affords a copious blue precipitate with solution of potas- 
sium ferrocyanide, but none or only a greenish turbidity with solution of potassium ferricyanide. 
When the salt is boiled with solution of sodium hydroxide, a reddish-brown precipitate separates, 
and the filtered solution, when slightly acidulated with acetic acid, yields, as it cools, a crystal- 
line deposit, especially if the solution is previously mixed with a little alcohol (90 per cent.). 
By incinerating 10 grammes at a red heat, washing the residue with water, and again inciner- 
ating with free access of air, a residue of ferric oxide is obtained weighing not less than 3 
grammes.” Br. According to the view of its nature taken in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, it 
is a double salt, consisting of one molecule of ferric tartrate and one of potassium tartrate 
(Fe2(C4H40e)3 -\- K2C4H4Oe -f- H20). Fliickiger (Pharmaceutische Chemie, 2d ed., 573, 
1888), on the other hand, considers the salt formed to be one in which Fe202 is present as a 
bivalent group, and gives it the formula C4H40eK2 -f- C4H406(Fe202) -f- 4H20. The salt is 
incompatible with astringent vegetable infusions, which give rise to a dark-colored precipitate. 
Medical Properties. Iron and potassium tartrate is a mild, agreeable chalybeate, with 
but little astringency. It is well borne by the stomach, whether taken fasting or with the food. 
From its slight taste and ready solubility, it is one of the best ferruginous preparations for 
children. Dose for an adult, five to ten grains (0-33—0*65 Gm.), given preferably in solution. 
FERRI ET QUININE CITRAS. U. S., Br. Iron and Quinine Citrate. 
Ferri et Quiniae Citras, Br. 1867, XJ. S. 1870 ; Citrate of Iron and Quinia; Citrate de Fer et de Quinine, Fr.; 
Chininum Ferro-Citricum, P. G.; Citronensaures Eisen-Chinin, G. 
“ Ferric Citrate, eighty-five grammes [or 2 ounces, 436 grains] ; Quinine, dried at 100° C. 
(212° F.) to a constant weight, twelve grammes [or 186 grains] ; Citric Acid, three grammes 
(FER'RI ET QUI-NI'NiE Cl'TRXS.) PART I. 
Ferri et Quininse Citras. 
615 
[or 46 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred grammes [or 3 
ounces av., 231 grains]. Dissolve the Ferric Citrate in one hundred and sixty cubic centimeters 
[or 5 fluidounces, 197 minims] of Distilled Water by heating on a water-bath at a temperature 
not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.). To this solution add the Quinine and Citric Acid, previously 
triturated with twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] of Distilled Water, and stir constantly 
until the Quinine and Citric Acid are dissolved. Lastly, evaporate the solution, on a water- 
bath, at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.), to the consistence of syrup, and spread 
it on plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be obtained in scales. Keep the product 
in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
11 Solution of Ferric Sulphate, 9 Ji. ounces (Imperial measure) or 180 cubic centimetres; 
Quinine Sulphate, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 40 grammes; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, 3 Ji. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 60 cubic centimetres; Citric Acid, 6 ounces and 60 grains (Imp.) or 123 grammes; 
Solution of Ammonia, Distilled Water, of each a sufficient quantity. Prepare ferric hydroxide 
from nine fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred cubic centimetres of Solution of Ferric 
Sulphate as directed under ‘ Ferri et Ammonii Citras.’ 
“ Mix the Quinine Sulphate with eight times its weight of Distilled Water; add the Diluted 
Sulphuric Acid; when the salt is dissolved precipitate the quinine with a slight excess of 
Solution of Ammonia; collect the precipitate on a filter; wash it with three pints (Imp. meas.) 
or twelve hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water. 
“Dissolve the Citric Acid in its own weight of Distilled Water; warm the solution on a 
water-bath; add the ferric hydroxide, previously well drained; stir them together; when the 
hydroxide has dissolved, add the precipitated quinine; continue the agitation until this also 
has dissolved ; let the solution cool; add, in small quantities at a time, three fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or sixty cubic centimetres of Solution of Ammonia, diluted with four fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or eighty cubic centimetres of Distilled Water; stir briskly, allowing the quinine which 
separates with each addition of ammonia to dissolve before the next addition is made; filter 
the solution ; evaporate it to the consistence of a thin syrup; dry the latter in thin layers on 
flat porcelain or glass plates at a temperature of 100° F. (37-8° C.) ; remove the dry flakes of 
Iron and Quinine Citrate.” Br. 
The present process differs in several particulars from that formerly official; * the solution 
of ferric citrate has been replaced by a definite weight of ferric citrate, and, instead of using 
freshly precipitated quinine, the moisture is driven off entirely, and the perfectly dry alkaloid 
* Liquor Ferri et Quinines Citratis, U. S. 1880. Solution of Citrate of Iron and Quinine. (Citrate de Fer et de Qui- 
nine liquide, Fr.f Citronensaures Eisen- und Chinin-Losung, G.) “ Citrate of Iron and Ammonium, sixty-five parts [or 
five hundred and sixty-eight grains] ; Quinine, dried at 100° C. (212° F.), until it ceases to lose weight, twelve parts 
[or one hundred and five grains] ; Citric Acid, twenty-eight parts [or two hundred and forty-five grains] ; Alcohol, 
thirty parts [or six fluidrachms]; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make two hundred parts [or four ounces 
av.]. Dissolve the Citrate of Iron and Ammonium in two hundred parts [or four fluidounces] of Distilled Water, con- 
tained in a tared porcelain capsule, heat the solution to 60° C. (140° F.), on a water-bath, add the Citric Acid, and, 
when it is dissolved, add the Quinine, stirring the mixture until a perfect solution has been obtained. Evaporate 
this to one hundred and sixty parts [or three ounces av.], allow it to cool, add the Alcohol, and finally enough Dis- 
tilled Water to make the solution weigh two hundred parts [or four ounces av.].” 17. S. 
The introduction of this solution in the U. S. P. 1880 grew out of the necessity for a soluble form of iron and 
quinine citrate. That comparatively insoluble salt, the official iron and quinine citrate, has been but little used; 
whilst the readily soluble preparation of the manufacturers, which contains ammonia, is in extensive demand, and 
is official in the U. S. P. 1890. It is believed that the above solution will be satisfactory, as it bears a definite and 
easily remembered relation towards the official salt (see Ferri et Quinines Citras), being exactly half its strength. Its 
principal use will undoubtedly be by the pharmacist, who will use it in manufacturing and in prescriptions, as it 
will save him the time and labor of dissolving the salt, whilst the process of assay, which is identical with that given 
under the salt, will serve as an efficient means of testing the solution should he be compelled to purchase it. 
Properties. “ A dark greenish-yellow to yellowish-brown liquid, transparent in thin layers, odorless, having a 
bitter and mildly ferruginous taste, and a slightly acid reaction. On supersaturating the diluted solution with a 
slight excess of ammonia, the color of the liquid is deepened and a white, curdy precipitate is thrown down, which 
is soluble in ether and answers to the reaction of quinine (see Quinina). A small portion of the filtrate, when 
mixed with test-solution of potassium ferrocyanide, does not produce a blue color or precipitate, unless it is acidu- 
lated with hydrochloric acid. If another portion of the filtrate be deprived of its iron, by boiling with an excess of 
potassa, the concentrated and cooled filtrate precipitated by test-solution of calcium chloride, and the new filtrate 
heated to boiling, a white granular precipitate is produced. On heating the solution with potassa, vapor of ammo- 
nia is evolved. The solution contains 6 per cent, of quinine. It may be assayed as follows : Dilute 8 Gra. of the 
solution with water to 30 C.c., introduce it, with any rinsings, into a glass separator, add an aqueous solution of O'5 
Gm. of tartaric acid, and then solution of soda in decided excess. Extract the alkaloid by agitating the mixture 
with four successive portions of chloroform, each of 15 C.c. Separate the chloroformic layers, mix them, evaporate 
them in a weighed capsule, on a water-bath, and dry the residue at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.). It should 
weigh 0'48 Gm.” 17. S. 
Medical Properties. The medical virtues of this solution are those of iron and quinine citrate. It may be given 
in the dose of from 10 to 20 minims (0'6 to 1'25 C.c.). 616 
Ferri et Quininse Citras. 
PART I. 
is used. There has been very little gained by the change in saving time, because of the slow 
solubility of both of the citrates, and this is particularly so if the temperature is strictly adhered 
to. If the quinine be previously triturated with a little citric acid and water, time can be saved. 
The official iron and quinine citrate has never been very largely used, because of its slow 
solubility, the manufacturers supplying a salt which is readily soluble, due to the presence of 
ammonia. But by the introduction of a soluble iron and quinine citrate (see Fcrri et Quininse 
Citras Solubilis) the salt may be now furnished in a very convenient form for use in solutions, 
whilst the above comparatively insoluble salt may be retained for use in pills, for which it is 
much better adapted. 
The use of ferrous sulphate by the former British process is abandoned, and the solution of 
the persulphate retained. From this the freshly precipitated ferric hydrate is obtained by pre- 
cipitation with ammonia. The next step is to separate quinine from the sulphate, by simply 
dissolving the salt in water with the aid of sulphuric acid, and then precipitating by ammonia. 
Thirdly, the hydrate and quinine are dissolved successively, aided by the heat of a water-bath, 
in solution of citric acid, whereby an iron and quinine citrate is obtained. The ammonia is 
added in order to render the iron and quinine citrate more soluble by the agency of a portion 
of ammonium citrate. It is important that the ammonia should not be added in excess; on 
the contrary, the solution should retain a slight acid reaction. (Fleurot.) After evaporation, the 
salt is dried, as in the other process, on glass or porcelain, so as to be obtained in thin scales. 
The U. S. and Br. preparations are essentially different; both consist of citric acid, ferric 
oxide, and quinine, the British, however, containing the important addition of ammonium 
citrate. No analysis of either salt has been made that determines precisely its chemical com- 
position. Both are undoubtedly mere mixtures of the iron and quinine citrates, the British 
containing ammonium citrate. 
The characters of the U. S. salt, as given in the Pharmacopoeia, are the following. “ Thin, 
transparent scales, of a reddish-brown color, without odor, and having a bitter, mildly ferru- 
ginous taste; slowly deliquescent in damp air. Slowly but completely soluble in cold water, 
more readily soluble in hot water, and but partially soluble in alcohol. Its solubility is dimin- 
ished by age. When strongly heated, the salt chars, and finally leaves a residue of ferric 
oxide, which should not have an alkaline reaction upon litmus paper (absence of citrates or 
tartrates of the fixed alkalies). The aqueous solution of the salt has an acid reaction. On the 
addition of a slight excess of ammonia water the color of the solution is deepened, and a 
white, curdy precipitate is produced. The filtrate from this precipitate does not afford a blue 
color with potassium ferrocyanide test-solution, unless it be acidulated with hydrochloric acid. 
Another portion of the filtrate, treated with an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test- 
solution, deposits a brownish-red precipitate. If a 10-per-cent, solution of the salt be deprived 
of its iron and quinine by boiling it with an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, 
and the filtrate slightly acidulated with acetic acid, a portion of the cooled liquid, mixed with 
a little calcium chloride test-solution, and again heated to boiling, gradually deposits a white, 
crystalline precipitate. Another portion of the acidulated and cooled liquid, when allowed to 
stand for some time, should not deposit a white, crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate). 
“ Estimation of the Quinine. Dissolve 1T2 (1-1176) Gm. of Iron and Quinine Citrate in a 
capsule, with the aid of a gentle heat, in 20 C.c. of water. Transfer the solution, together 
with the rinsings of the capsule, to a separator, allow the liquid to become cold, then add 5 C.c. 
of ammonia water and 10 C.c. of chloroform, and shake. Allow the liquids to separate, draw 
off the chloroform layer, and shake the residuary liquid a second and a third time with 10 C.c. 
of chloroform. Allow the combined chloroformic extracts to evaporate spontaneously in a 
tared capsule, and dry the residue at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) to a constant weight. 
This residue should weigh not less than 0-1288 Gm. (corresponding to at least 11-5 per cent, 
of dried quinine), and should conform to the reactions and tests of quinine (see Quinina). 
“ Estimation of the Iron. Heat the aqueous liquid, from which the quinine has been removed 
in the manner just described, on a water-bath, until the odor of chloroform and ammonia has 
disappeared, allow it to cool, and dilute it with water to the volume of 50 C.c. Transfer 25 
C.c. of the liquid to a glass-stoppered bottle (having the capacity of about 100 C.c.), add 2 
C.c. of hydrochloric acid and 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, and allow the mixture to stand for 
half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.). After it has been allowed to cool, and 
been mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require about 14-5 C.c. of sodium 
hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the 
liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. PART I. 
Fern et Quininse Citras.—Fern et Quininse Citras Solubilis. 
617 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) gives the following description and tests: “ In thin scales 
of a greenish golden-yellow color, somewhat deliquescent. Soluble in half its weight of cold 
ivater. The solution is very slightly acid, and yields precipitates Avhich are reddish brown with 
solution of potassium hydroxide, white with solution of ammonia, blue with solution of potassium 
ferrocyanide and with solution of potassium ferricyanide, and grayish black with solution of 
tannic acid. The salt has a bitter, chalybeate taste. When incinerated with free access of 
air, it leaves a residue which when moistened with water is not alkaline to test-paper (absence 
of fixed alkali). 5 grammes dissolved in 45 cubic centimetres of water and treated with a 
slight excess of solution of ammonia should yield a white precipitate, which, when dissolved 
out by repeated treatment of the liquid with ether, and the latter evaporated, and the residue 
completely dried at 248° F. (120° C.), weighs 0-75 gramme. This precipitate is almost entirely 
soluble in a little purified, ether ; when burned it leaves but a minute residue; neutralized by 
sulphuric add, it should answer to the characters of and tests for Quinine Sulphate.” 
Amorphous quinine or chinoidine is sometimes substituted for the crystallizable alkaloid. 
For the detection of this fraud, Dr. de Vrij proposes a method which depends upon the fact 
that oxalic acid forms with crystallizable quinine, in a chloroformic solution, white crystals 
of quinine oxalate without discoloration. (See N. R., 1881, 10.) 
When dissolved by the aid of an acid, it forms a solution which, decolorized by a little 
purified animal charcoal, turns the plane of polarization strongly to the left,—a character of 
quinine ; cinchonine turning it to the right. (Squire.) The salt is said to be sometimes adul- 
terated by cinchonine, which would be at once detected by the test of solubility in ether and 
the effect on polarized light, above given. Oscar Zinn (A. J. P., 1877, 550) examined six 
commercial samples, two of which contained no quinine, but cinchonine. H. G-. Drueding 
found three out of six samples deficient in quinine. As it occurs in the British market, it is of 
exceedingly variable composition, containing, according to Mr. J. C. Braithwaite, who exam- 
ined thirty-five different specimens, a proportion of quinine varying from 1-5 to 17 per cent. 
(P. J. Tr., 1868, 157.) The proportion of alkaloid appears to be usually below the standard. 
(A. W. Grerrard, Ibid., March, 1873, 763.) According to Mr. C. H. Wood (Ibid., 2d ser., x. 
644), this salt undergoes a rapid change of composition when exposed to the direct rays of 
the sun. 
The new official process of assay will doubtless bring to light all shortcomings. (See results 
of examination of commercial iron and quinine citrate by E. C. Federer, Proc. Mich. Pharm. 
Assoc., 1887, or Pharm Era, 1887, p. 357.) 
Iron and quinine citrate combines the virtues of its two bases, and may be given in all cases 
in which they are jointly indicated, preferably in pill form. The dose, as a tonic, is five or six 
grains (0-33—0*4 6m.), containing about half a grain (0-033 Gm.) of dry quinine, three or four 
times a day. This dose may be increased, if deemed advisable. 
FERRI ET QUININE CITRAS SOLUBILIS. U. S. Soluble Iron and 
Quinine Citrate. 
(FfiK'RI ET QUI-Nl'NiE CI'TRAS SO-LU'BI-LlS.) 
“ Ferric Citrate, eighty-jive grammes [or 2 ounces av., 436 grains] ; Quinine, dried at 100° C. 
(212° F.) to a constant weight, twelve grammes [or 186 grains] ; Citric Acid, three grammes 
[or 46 grains] ; Ammonia Water, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one hun- 
dred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Dissolve the Ferric Citrate in one hundred and 
sixty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 197 minims] of Distilled Water, by heating on a water- 
bath at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.). To this solution add the Quinine and 
Citric Acid previously triturated with twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] of Distilled 
Water, and stir constantly until the Quinine and Citric Acid are dissolved. Then add gradu- 
ally, and with constant stirring, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims], or a suffi- 
cient quantity, of Ammonia Water, so that, after the addition of each portion of the latter, the 
precipitated Quinine will be redissolved and the liquid acquire a greenish-yellow tint. Lastly, 
evaporate the solution on a water-bath, at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. (140° F.), to the 
consistence of syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be obtained 
in scales. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
This is a new official salt which has been added to the list in answer to a demand which 
was very persistent. The iron and quinine citrate formerly official and the one in the U. S. P. 
1890 are comparatively insoluble salts, and better adapted for use in pills; but the combination 618 
Ferri et Quininse Citras Solubilis.—Ferri et Strychninse Citras. 
PART I. 
of iron, quinine, and citric acid is wanted more frequently in solution, and hence a salt which 
will quickly dissolve will be a desirable addition: the only difference between the two salts con- 
sists in greater solubility, and this is effected by the use of ammonia water. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes it as in “ thin, transparent scales, of a greenish, golden- 
yellow color, without odor, and having a bitter, mildly ferruginous taste; deliquescent in damp 
air. Rapidly and completely soluble in cold water, but only partially soluble in alcohol. When 
strongly heated, the salt chars, and finally leaves a residue of ferric oxide, which should not 
have an alkaline reaction upon litmus paper (absence of citrates or tartrates of the fixed alkalies). 
The aqueous solution of the salt has a slightly acid reaction. On the addition of a slight 
excess of ammonia water the color of the liquid is deepened, and a white, curdy precipitate is 
produced. If a portion of the filtrate from this precipitate be mixed with some potassium 
ferrocyanide test-solution, it does not afford a blue color or precipitate, unless it be acidulated 
with hydrochloric acid. Another portion of the filtrate, treated with an excess of potassium 
or sodium hydrate test-solution, gives a brownish-red precipitate. If a portion of the salt be 
heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, vapor of ammonia will be evolved. If 
a 10-per-cent, solution of the salt be deprived of its iron and quinine by boiling it with an ex- 
cess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, and the filtrate slightly acidulated with acetic 
acid, a portion of the cooled liquid, mixed with a little calcium chloride test-solution, and again 
heated to boiling, will gradually deposit a white, crystalline precipitate. Another portion of 
the acidulated and cooled liquid, when allowed to stand for some time, should not give a white, 
crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate). Soluble Iron and Quinine Citrate, when assayed 
for Quinine and Iron by the method described under Ferri et Quininse Citras, should respond 
to the requirements for the latter.” See modification of process by F. A. Sieker (Pliarm. Rund 
1895, 36). 
FERRI ET STRYCHNINE CITRAS. U. S. Iron and Strychnine Citrate. 
Ferri et Strychniae Citras, U. S. 1870 ; Citrate de Fer et de Strychnine, Fr.; Citronensaures Eisen-Strychnin, G. 
u Iron and Ammonium Citrate, ninety-eight grammes [or 3 ounces av., 200 grains] ; Strych- 
nine, one gramme [or 15'4 grains] ; Citric Acid, one gramme [or 15-4 grains] ; Distilled Water, 
one hundred and twenty cubic centimeters [or 4 fluidounces, 27 minims]. To make one hundred 
grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains]. Dissolve the Iron and Ammonium Citrate in one hun- 
dred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 181 minims] of Distilled Water, and the Strychnine, 
together with the Citric Acid, in twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] of Distilled Water. 
Mix the two solutions, evaporate the mixture by means of a water-bath, at a temperature not 
exceeding 60° C. f 140° F.), to the consistence of syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so 
that, when dry, the salt may be obtained in scales. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, 
protected from light.” U. S. 
Iron and strychnine citrate, although long used in medicine, was first recognized in 1870. 
The present formula does not differ essentially from that of 1870. 
This salt is well adapted for administration in pilular form, but should never be prescribed 
in solution. Dr. Squibb has shown that a whitish deposit will begin to settle from the solution 
within two or three hours after it is made, and continue to increase for several days; the 
deposit was found to contain fifty per cent, of strychnine. When ammonia water or ammonium 
citrate was added, the precipitate was redissolved, but the solution could not be made permanent 
by the addition, as the precipitate reappeared. There might be dangerous or alarming symp- 
toms if this solution were dispensed without shaking. (Ephemeris, June, 1888, p. 1128.) 
Properties. “ Thin, transparent scales, varying in color from garnet-red to yellowish- 
brown, without odor, and having a bitter, slightly ferruginous taste; deliquescent in damp air. 
Readily and completely soluble in water, but only partly soluble in alcohol. When strongly 
heated, the salt chars, and finally leaves a residue of ferric oxide which should not have an 
alkaline reaction upon litmus paper (absence of citrates or tartrates of the fixed alkalies'). The 
aqueous solution of the salt is slightly acid to litmus paper, and is not immediately precipitated, 
but rendered darker in color, by ammonia water. With potassium ferrocyanide test-solution it 
does not yield a blue color or precipitate, unless it be acidulated with hydrochloric acid. On 
heating it with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, a brownish-red precipitate is pro- 
duced, and vapor of ammonia evolved. If a 10-per-cent, solution of the salt be deprived of 
its iron and strychnine by boiling it with an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, 
and the filtrate slightly acidulated with acetic acid, a portion of the cooled liquid, mixed with 
(FER'RI fix STRYjSH-Nl'IOS Cl'TRiS.) PART I. 
Ferri et Strychninse Citras.—Ferri Hypophosphis. 
619 
a little calcium chloride test-solution, and again heated to boiling, will gradually deposit a white, 
crystalline precipitate. Another portion of the acidulated and cooled liquid, when allowed to 
stand for some time, should not deposit a white, crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate)'7 
u. s. 
“ Estimation of the Strychnine. Dissolve 2-24 (2-2352) Gm. of Iron and Strychnine Citrate, 
in a separator, in 15 C.c. of water, add 5 C.c. of ammonia water and 10 C.c. of chloroform, 
and shake. Allow the liquids to separate, draw off the chloroform layer, and shake the 
residuary liquid a second and a third time with 10 C.c. of chloroform. Allow the combined 
chloroformic extracts to evaporate spontaneously in a tared capsule, and dry the residue at a 
temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) to a constant weight. This residue should weigh not less 
than 0-02 Gm. nor more than 0-0224 Gm. (corresponding to not less than 0-9 nor more than 
1 per cent, of strychnine), and should respond to the reactions and tests of strychnine (see 
Strychnind). 
“ Estimation of the Iron. Heat the aqueous liquid, from which the strychnine has been 
removed in the manner just described, on a water-bath, until the odor of chloroform and ammonia 
has disappeared, allow it to cool, and dilute it with water to the volume of 100 C.c. Transfer 
25 C.c. of the liquid to a glass-stoppered bottle (having the capacity of about 100 C.c.), add 2 
C.c. of hydrochloric acid and 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, and allow the mixture to stand for 
half an hour, at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.). After it has been allowed to cool, and 
been mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require about 16 C.c. of sodium 
hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid 
(each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. 
Medical Properties. It is an efficient tonic, but has no advantages over the two active 
substances it contains when given conjointly in an uncombined state, and has the great dis- 
advantage that the dose of one principle cannot be varied independently of that of the other. 
It occurs in beautiful red scales, of an intensely bitter, scarcely ferruginous taste, and is very 
soluble in water. It contains 1 per cent, of strychnine, there being in five grains one-twentieth 
of a grain of the alkaloid. Dose, from three to five grains (0-20-0-33 Gm.), in pill or solution. 
FERRI HYPOPHOSPHIS. U. S. Ferric Hypophosphite. 
Fe2 (PH; 02)6? 501*04. (FER'RI HY-P0-PH5s'PHIS.) Fej (H2 P02)6; 501-8. 
Ilypophosphite of Iron; Ferrum Hypophosphorosum, Hypophosphis Ferricus; Hypophosphite de Fer, Fr.; Un- 
terphosphorigsaures Eisenoxyd, G. 
“ Ferric Hypophosphite should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
This is among the hypophosphites brought into notice in consequence of their recommenda- 
tion by Dr. Churchill in the treatment of phthisis, in which they were thought to be useful by 
the introduction of phosphorus into the system. This particular salt may be considered 
preferable to others when a marked condition of anaemia indicates a deficiency of iron in the 
tissues. It may be made by the action of hypophosphorous acid on ferrous carbonate formed 
by precipitation from the sulphate; but, as some difficulty has been found in obtaining this acid 
perfectly pure, Mr. C. H. Wood, of London, prefers the plan of double decomposition. He 
proposes that ferrous sulphate and calcium hypophosphite be made to react on each other in 
molecular proportions represented by 480 grains of crystallized ferrous sulphate and 326 grains 
of commercial hypophosphite; in the latter an allowance of 10 per cent, being made for 
impurities ordinarily found in that salt. These quantities will yield 320 grains of ferric hy- 
pophosphite, and the reaction will be represented by the following formula: Ca(H2P02)2 -f- 
FeS04 = CaS04 -f- Fe(H2P02)2. Calcium sulphate is precipitated, and ferrous hypophosphite 
is held in solution. (P. J. Tr., 1868, p. 342.) In this condition the salt is a ferrous compound ; 
but on evaporation the ferrous salt becomes ferric, and acquires the properties detailed in the 
Pharmacopoeia. Of this the following description is given in the late edition of that work. 
Properties. “ A white or grayish-white powder, odorless and nearly tasteless ; permanent 
in the air. Only slightly soluble in water, more readily in presence of hypophosphorous acid, 
or in a warm, concentrated solution of an alkali citrate, forming with the latter a green solu- 
tion. When strongly heated in a dry test-tube, the salt evolves spontaneously inflammable 
hydrogen phosphide gas, and, on complete ignition, leaves a residue of ferric pyrophosphate. 
The salt is readily oxidized by nitric acid or other oxidizing agents. If to 0-5 Gm. of the salt 
5 C.c. of acetic acid be added, no effervescence should occur (absence of carbonate), and if the 
mixture be subsequently heated to boiling, the filtrate, upon cooling, should afford no turbidity 
with ammonium oxalate test-solution (absence of calcium'). If 0-5 Gm. of the salt be boiled 620 
Ferri Hypophosphis.—Ferri Iodidum Saccharatum. 
PART I. 
with 10 C.c. of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, a reddish-brown precipitate will be 
produced ; and if to the filtrate from the latter, slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
magnesia mixture be added, and subsequently an excess of ammonia water, no crystalline pre- 
cipitate should be produced (absence of phosphate'). If 0-l Gm. of Ferric Hypophosphite be 
mixed with 10 C.c. of water, then 10 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid and 50 C.c. of potassium 
permanganate decinormal volumetric solution added, and the mixture boiled for fifteen min- 
utes, it should require not more than 3 C.c. of oxalic acid decinormal volumetric solution to 
discharge the red color (corresponding to at least 98-1 per cent, of the pure salt).” U. S. 
Syrup of ferric hypophosphite may be prepared by simply adding syrup to the solution of 
the hypophosphite remaining after the separation of the calcium sulphate in the process of 
Mr. Wood above given. If two and a half ounces of water be used in the process, and the 
paste resulting from the precipitation of the calcium sulphate be pressed out, the remaining 
liquid, after filtration, will form with seven times its volume of syrup a liquid containing two 
grains of the hypophosphite in a fluidrachm. (P. J. Tr., April, 1868.) But in this form, if 
the syrup be not thoroughly enclosed, it quickly absorbs oxygen, and in a few hours begins to 
exhibit the formation of a precipitate, rendering it in a short time unfit for use. A little 
phosphoric or citric acid added to the syrup will obviate this result; but it is better perhaps 
at once to form a syrup from materials which will not be liable to this objection. Mr. Wood 
employs the following process. “ Take of granulated ferrous sulphate 480 gr., calcium hypo- 
phosphite 326 gr., diluted phosphoric acid fgi, water syrup q. s. Dissolve, without 
heat, the ferrous sulphate in the phosphoric acid, previously mixed with the water. Rub the 
hypophosphite to fine powder, and pour on it the solution of the sulphate. Triturate together 
for two or three minutes, then pour the mixture on a piece of damp calico, and squeeze out 
the liquid with the hands. Filter this solution, and add to it seven times its volume of 
strong syrup. The resulting syrup will contain two grains of ferric hypophosphite in each 
fluidrachm.” The dose may be from two to six fluidrachms (7-5-22-50 C.c.). 
Prof. C. L. Diehl prepares the syrup from a freshly precipitated magma produced by pre- 
cipitating a solution of calcium hypophosphite with solution of ferric chloride and dissolving 
the magma by the aid of potassium citrate. (Proc. A. P. A., 1882, 71 ; see, also, National Formu- 
lary, Part II.) Ferric hypophosphite may be given in states of the system where deficient 
powers of the cerebral centres are attended with an anaemic condition of the blood. It may be 
administered in pill or in powder in the dose of from five to ten grains (0-324-0648 Gm.) ; but 
a more eligible form, and one generally preferred, is that of syrup. 
FERRI IODIDUM SACCHARATUM. U. S. Saccharated Ferrous Iodide. 
(FER'RI I-OD'I-DUM SXC-jEHA-RA'TUM.) 
Saccharated Iodide of Iron; Ferrum Iodatum Saccharatum, P. G.; Zuckerhaltiges Jodeisen, G. 
“ Iron, in tlie form of fine, bright wire, and cut into small pieces, six grammes Tor 92 
grains] ; Reduced Iron, one gramme [or 15-5 grains] ; Iodine, seventeen grammes [or 262 
grains]; Distilled Water, Sugar of Milk, recently dried, each, a sufficient quantity, To make 
one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Mix the Iron Wire, Iodine, and twenty 
cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] of Distilled Water in a flask of thin glass, shake the mixture 
occasionally, until the reaction ceases, and the solution has acquired a green color and lost the 
smell of Iodine ; then filter it through a small, wetted filter into a porcelain capsule contain- 
ing forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] of Sugar of Milk. Rinse the flask and Iron 
Wire with a little Distilled Water, pass the rinsings through the filter into the capsule, and 
evaporate, on a water-bath, with frequent stirring, until a dry mass remains. Transfer this 
quickly to a heated iron mortar, reduce it to powder, and mix it intimately, by tritura- 
tion, with the Reduced Iron and enough Sugar of Milk to make the final product weigh 
one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Transfer the powder at once to small and 
perfectly dry bottles, which should be securely stoppered, and kept in a cool and dark 
place.” U. S. 
This official preparation is practically identical with the Saccharated Iodide of Iron of the 
German Pharmacopoeia, and consists of ferrous iodide preserved by contact with sugar of 
milk. It is a more stable form of administering ferrous iodide than the salt in its pure state. 
(See Ferri Iodidum.)* The addition of reduced iron to the preparation just before the close 
* Taateleaa Salta of Iron. A class of preparations of iron has been introduced by Mr. J. L. A. Creuse (A. J. 
P., xlv. 214). It has long been known that ammonium citrate has the property of rendering soluble many ordi- 
narily insoluble preparations of iron. Mr. Creuse believes that all the salts of ferric oxide form chemical combi- Ferri Iodidum Saccharatum.—Fend Ladas. 
PART I. 
621 
of the process is for the purpose of protecting it from change: any iodine which may be set 
free through exposure will combine with the reduced iron, and thus the irritating effects of 
free iodine will be avoided. 
Properties. The Pharmacopoeia gives the following description: “ A yellowish-white or 
grayish, very hygroscopic powder, without odor, and having a sweetish, ferruginous taste. Sol- 
uble (with exception of the added reduced iron) in 7 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), but only 
partially soluble in alcohol. When strongly heated, the compound swells up, evolves the odor 
of iodine and of burning sugar, and, on complete ignition, leaves a residue which should yield 
nothing soluble to water (absence of salts of the fixed alkalies). The aqueous solution has a 
slightly acid reaction, and gives with potassium ferricyanide test-solution a blue precipitate. If 
the aqueous solution be mixed with a little starch test-solution, and afterwards with a few drops 
of chlorine water, it will assume a deep blue color. This color should not be developed in the 
aqueous solution by starch test-solution alone (absence of free iodine). If 1-55 (1-5447) Gm. 
of Saccharated Ferrous Iodide be dissolved in about 20 C.c. of water, in a small flask, and to 
this solution be successively added, first, 22 C.c. of silver nitrate decinormal volumetric solu- 
tion, then 5 C.c. of diluted nitric acid and 5 C.c. of ferric ammonium sulphate test-solution, 
it should not require more than 2 C.c. of potassium sulphocyanate decinormal volumetric 
solution to produce a reddish-brown tint which persists after shaking (corresponding to about 
20 per cent, of pure Ferrous Iodide).” TJ. S. 
Medical Properties. The medical properties of this preparation are identical with those 
of ferrous iodide. The dose is from two to five grains (0-13 to 0-33 Gm.). 
Fe(C3H503)2. 3ILO; 287*34. (FEB'RI lXc'TAS.) Fe (C3 H5 03)2. 3H2 O; 287-9. 
FERRI LACTAS. U. S. Ferrous Lactate. 
Lactate of Iron; Ferrum Lacticum, P. G.; Lactas Ferrosus; Lactate de Fer, Fr.; Milchsaures Eisenoxydul, 
Eisenlactat, G. 
“ Ferrous Lactate should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
A formula for this salt was omitted in the 1880 U. S. P. revision. In the process of the U. S. P. 
1870* the lactic acid unites with the iron, forming ferrous lactate, a part of which crystallizes 
when the solution cools, and the remainder is obtained by evaporation and crystallization. It 
may be more cheaply prepared, on the large scale, by digesting the impure acid first obtained in 
M. Louradour’s process, with iron filings, or by reaction between ferrous sulphate and the calcium 
lactate or zinc lactate prepared as a step in obtaining lactic acid. The following is M. Gobley’s 
process for making calcium lactate preparatory to its conversion into ferrous lactate. Add to 
2 pints of skim-milk, diluted with twice its bulk of water, and contained in an earthen pan, 64 
drachms of powdered lactose, and 51 drachms of powdered chalk. Allow the whole to fer- 
ment for eleven or twelve days, at a temperature of from 26-6° to 32-2° C. (80° to 90° F.), 
supplying water as it evaporates. Transfer the liquor to a capsule, heat it gradually to boiling, 
and stir it constantly. Boil for a quarter of an hour to coagulate casein, allow the insoluble 
matters to subside, and strain the liquid through flannel. The clear liquid is a solution of cal- 
nations with all the alkaline (ammonium, sodium, potassium, lithium) citrates, which combinations are all greenish, 
soluble in water, nearly insoluble in alcohol, free from ferruginous taste, perfectly stable, and so resist decomposi- 
tion as to form no precipitate with Peruvian bark; indeed, chemical reagents do not reveal the iron in them unless 
strong acids of hydrogen sulphide be used. None of these salts eoagulate the blood; they cannot be used as 
styptics. 
Tasteless Iron Iodide is prepared in the following manner : 126’3 grains of iodine are combined with iron in the 
usual way to obtain the solution of ferrous iodide; this is filtered and 63 grains of iodine dissolved in it; a solution 
of 201 grains of citric acid is exactly saturated with potassa and then added gradually to the first solution. When 
the apple-green color has been developed, the solution is evaporated, with gentle stirring, to dryness, when cauliflower- 
like masses of acicular crystals will be obtained. These are stable except in direct sunlight. (See Syrupus Ferri 
Citro-Iodidi, National Formulary, Part II.) 
Tasteless Iron Chloride is made by adding an alkaline citrate in solution to a solution of iron sesquichloride, in 
such proportion that there shall be two molecules of the former to three molecules of chlorine. Usually from 120 to 
140 grains of citric acid saturated with soda, potassa, or ammonia are required for the preparation of an ounce of a 
tincture of corresponding strength to the official tincture. The addition should be made to the liquor, and the final 
solution must not contain more than 40 per cent, of alcohol. R. Rother affirms that these so-called salts are mere 
mixtures of iron citrate and iodide or chloride of the alkali used. (.4. J. P., 1876, p. 171; see, also, Syrupus Ferri 
Protochloridi, National Formulary, Part II.) 
* “Take of Lactic Acid a Jluidounce ; Iron, in the form of filings, half a troyounce ; Distilled Water a sufficient 
quantity. Mix the Acid with a pint of Distilled Water in an iron vessel, add the Iron, and digest the mixture on a 
water-bath, supplying Distilled Water, from time to time, to preserve the measure. When the action has ceased, filter 
the solution, while hot, into a porcelain capsule, and set it aside to crystallize. At the end of forty-eight hours, decant 
the liquid, wash the crystals with a little alcohol, and dry them on bibulous paper. By evaporating the mother- 
water in an iron vessel to one-half, filtering while hot, and setting the liquid aside, more crystals may be obtained.” 
U. S. 1870. 622 
Ferri Ladas. 
PART I. 
cium lactate. In this process the casein of the milk, acting as a ferment, converts not only 
the lactose of the milk, but the lactose added, into lactic acid; a result which would not take 
place were it not for the presence of the chalk, which saturates the lactic acid as it is formed, 
and prevents it from uniting with the casein, whereby the power of the latter as a ferment 
would be destroyed. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., vi. 54.) (See, also, other methods under Acidum 
Lacticum, p. 65.) Calcium lactate may be expeditiously converted into iron lactate by the 
following process of M. Lepage. Dissolve 100 parts of calcium lactate, obtained by M. Gob- 
ley’s process, in 500 parts of boiling water; dissolve also 68 parts of pure crystallized ferrous 
sulphate in 500 parts of cold distilled water. Mix the filtered solutions in a matrass, acidulate 
slightly with lactic acid, and heat in a water-bath, stirring frequently until the double decom- 
position is completed. Then filter to separate the calcium sulphate, and evaporate rapidly to 
one-lialf, either in an iron vessel, or in a porcelain capsule containing a few turnings of iron. 
Filter again, and set aside to crystallize ; and, having washed the crystals in a funnel with a 
little alcohol, dry them on bibulous paper. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ix. 272.) In relation 
to the precautions to be observed in preparing this lactate, so as to prevent the partial oxida- 
tion of the iron, see A. J. P., 1853, p. 556* 
Ferrous lactate is in “ pale greenish-white crusts, consisting of small, needle-shaped crystals, 
having a slight, peculiar odor, and a mild, sweetish, ferruginous taste. Slowly but completely 
soluble in 40 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 12 parts of boiling water ; freely soluble 
in a solution of an alkali citrate, yielding a green solution ; almost insoluble in alcohol. When 
strongly heated, the salt froths up, gives out dense, white, acrid fumes, chars, and finally leaves 
a brownisli-red residue. The aqueous solution of the salt has a greenish-yellow color, a slightly 
acid reaction, and gives with potassium ferricyanide test-solution a deep blue, and with potas- 
sium ferrocyanide-test-solution a light blue, precipitate. A 2-per-cent, aqueous solution of the 
salt should not afford with lead acetate test-solution, nor, after acidulation with hydrochloric 
acid, with hydrogen sulphide test-solution, more than a whitish opalescence (limit or absence 
of sulphate, chloride, citrate, tartrate, malate, etc., and of foreign metals'). The aqueous solution, 
acidulated with nitric acid, should not afford more than a slight opalescence with barium chlo- 
ride test-solution, or with silver nitrate test-solution (limit of sulphate or chloride). If 25 C.c. 
of the aqueous solution (1 in 50), mixed with 5 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid, be boiled for a 
few minutes, then precipitated by an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, the 
filtrate, mixed with a few drops of alkaline cupric tartrate volumetric solution, and heated to 
boiling, should not afford a red precipitate (absence of sugar). If a portion of the salt be 
triturated with strong sulphuric acid, no offensive odor should be developed (absence of butyric 
acid), nor should any gas be evolved (absence of carbonate), and the mixture, after standing 
for some time, should not assume a brown color (absence of sugar, gum, or other readily car- 
bonizable impurities). If 1 Gm. of the salt, contained in a porcelain crucible, be moistened 
with nitric acid, and carefully ignited, it should leave a residue of ferric oxide weighing not 
less than 0-270 nor more than 0-278 Gm. This residue should not have an alkaline reaction 
upon litmus paper, nor yield anything soluble to water (absence of foreign salts)." JJ. S. Fer- 
rous lactate has an acid reaction. The aqueous solution quickly becomes yellow, in consequence 
of the iron passing to a higher state of oxidation. M. Louradour has seen several samples of 
this lactate variously adulterated, as with effloresced ferrous sulphate, starch, and lactin, the 
sophistication being concealed by the sale of the salt in powder. These impurities may be 
detected by appropriate reagents; but M. Louradour recommends the rejection of the salt when 
it is not in crystalline crusts. 
Medical Properties. Ferrous lactate has the general medical properties of the ferrugi- 
nous preparations, and has been especially used in chlorosis by Andral, Fouquier, Bouillaud, and 
other Parisian doctors. As much as twelve or even twenty grains (0-8—1-3 Gm.) may be given 
in the course of a day. It may be administered in lozenge, pill, or syrup. The lozenge may 
be made of one grain (0-065 Gm.) of the lactate to twelve grains (0-8 Gm.) of sugar; the pill, 
of one grain (0-065 Gm.) of the salt, with an equal weight of some inert powder free from 
astringent matter, and sufficient honey. The following is the formula for a syrup proposed by 
* Ferric Lactate. Instead of the official ferrous lactate, Louis P. Carbonell recommends the ferric lactate, which 
he succeeded in obtaining in light-brown transparent scales by following the process for the other scale preparations 
of iron, taking particular care fully to saturate the acid and to avoid high temperature during the whole operation. 
If the first precaution be overlooked, a more or less pasty mass will be the result, and if the temperature rise too high 
a pulverulent salt will be obtained. The scaled salt is freely soluble in water and alcohol. 
Iron and quinine lactate and iron and strychnine lactate may also be obtained in brown scales, have a bitter ferru- 
ginous taste, and are soluble in alcohol and water. (A. J. P., 1876, p. 489.) PART i. 
Ferri Oxidum Hydratum. 
623 
M. Cap. Take of ferrous lactate a drachm; white sugar twelve ounces and a half; boiling 
distilled water six fluidounces and a half. Bub the salt to powder with half an ounce of the 
sugar, and dissolve the mixture quickly in the boiling water. Pour the solution into a matrass 
placed on a sand-bath, and add to it the rest of the sugar in small pieces. When the sugar is 
dissolved, filter the syrup, and, as soon as it is cold, transfer it to bottles, which must be well 
stopped. This syrup has a very light amber color, and contains about four grains of the salt 
to the fluidounce. The dose is from two to four fluidrachms (7-5—15 C.c.). Bread, called 
chalybeate bread, containing ferrous lactate in the proportion of about a grain (0-065 Gm.) to 
the ounce (31-1 Gm.), has been used with advantage by chlorotic patients in one of the hospitals 
of Paris. The bread is not injured in taste or quality. 
FERRI OXIDUM HYDRATUM. U. S. Ferric Hydrate. 
[Ferric Hydroxide. Hydrated Oxide of Iron.] 
Fe2(OH)6; 213*52. (FEK'e! OX'I-DUM HY-DRA'TITM.) Fe2(H0)6; 213-8. 
Ferri Sesquioxidum ; Ferri Oxidum Rubrum; Hydrous Peroxide of Iron; Ferric Oxyhydrate; Ferrugo; Hydrated 
Peroxide of Iron, Hydrated Sesquioxide of Iron, Moist Peroxide of Iron; Hydras Ferricus; Sesquioxide (Peroxide) 
de Fer hydrate humide, Hydrate de Peroxyde de Fer gelatineux, Fr.; Feuchtes Bisenoxydhydrat, Gegengift der 
Arsenigensaure, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; 
Ammonia Water, one hundred and ten cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 345 minims] ; Water, 
a sufficient quantity. To the Ammonia Water, previously diluted with two hundred and fifty 
cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of cold Water, add, under constant stirring, the 
Solution of Ferric Sulphate, previously diluted with one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 390 minims] of cold Water. As soon as the precipitate has subsided, draw off the clear 
liquid by means of a siphon, then mix the precipitate intimately with about one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims] of cold Water, again draw off1 the clear liquid after 
subsidence of the precipitate, and repeat this operation, until a portion of the decanted liquid 
gives not more than a slight cloudiness with barium chloride test-solution. Finally transfer 
the precipitate to a wet muslin strainer, and, after it has drained, mix it with sufficient cold 
Water to make the mixture weigh two hundred and fifty grammes [or 8 ounces av., 358 grains]. 
When Ferric Hydrate is to be made in haste, for use as an antidote, the washing may be 
performed more quickly, though less perfectly, by transferring the precipitate at once to a wet 
muslin strainer, pressing forcibly with the hands, until no more liquid passes, and then adding 
enough Water to make the whole weigh about two hundred and fifty grammes [or 8 ounces av., 
358 grains.] 
“ Note.—The ingredients for preparing Ferric Hydrate as an antidote should always be kept 
on hand in bottles containing, respectively, two hundred, cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 
minims] of the Solution of Ferric Sulphate, and two hundred and twenty cubic centimeters [or 
7 fluidounces, 210 minims] of Ammonia Water.” U. S. 
This preparation was introduced into the U. S. Pharmacopoeia on account of its importance 
as an antidote to arsenous acid. It is frequently used in the official processes as the source of 
iron when it is desired to produce a ferric compound, but the directions for making it always 
accompany the preparation in which it is used, because of the difficulty of preserving the ferric 
hydrate. In the former processes the first step was to convert ferrous sulphate into ferric sul- 
phate ; but in the present the official solution of ferric sulphate is taken already containing 
the iron in the proper state of oxidation. This is simply treated with ammonia water ( TJ. S.), 
which throws down the oxide combined with water, constituting the hydrated oxide required. 
It is the duty of the apothecary to be always prepared to make this antidote, by keeping the 
necessary solutions for its precipitation. Magnesia is probably a better precipitant than either 
of those official. (See next article.) In most cases of arsenical poisoning, minutes are of 
immense importance, and time must be lost in washing the precipitated iron if the official process 
be adhered to. Magnesia is not only not irritant, but is itself antidotal to arsenic : so that the 
precipitated mass may be given at once to the patient. The oxide should not be kept in stock, 
but when ordered as an antidote should be made fresh. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) no longer includes ferric hydrate. This is to be re- 
gretted, for, although not a stable preparation, an official process to be used in the emergency 
arising from arsenical poison should be quickly available; in our opinion every Pharmacopoeia 
should contain an official antidote to arsenic. 
Properties. Ferric hydrate, as directed by the U. S. formula, “ is a brownish-red magma, 
wholly soluble in hydrochloric acid without effervescence.” As prepared by the Dublin pro- 624 
Ferri Oxidurn Hydratum. 
PART I. 
cess, in which it was heated to redness, it lost the second molecule of water, and became the 
anhydrous sesquioxide (Fe203), identical with the colcothar of commerce. 
The monohydrated sesquioxide is a reddish-brown, tasteless, insoluble powder, differing from 
colcothar in containing a molecule of water. Hence, “ heated to dull redness in a test-tube it 
yields about 10 per cent, of moisture.” Br. (1885). It should not be deliquescent, and should 
dissolve entirely in hydrochloric acid without effervescence. Its solution in diluted hydrochloric 
acid yields a copious blue precipitate with potassium ferrocyanide, but none with the ferrieya- 
nide, showing that it contains ferric oxide but no ferrous oxide. If it contain copper, its hydro- 
chloric solution will deposit this metal on a bright piece of iron. M. Dawies states that if the 
hydrated oxide recently prepared be kept for four or five days in boiling water it loses a large 
proportion of its water, containing at the end of that time only 5-77 per cent.; the larger por- 
tion of the oxide has, therefore, become dehydrated; and the same thing happens at a lower 
temperature, 41-1° C. (106° F.), in two or three months: it becomes of a brick-red color, and 
is but slightly soluble in nitric acid. (Journ. de Pliarm., 4e ser., iv. 400.) This oxide is not 
used as a medicine. It is employed in making iron plaster and reduced iron, for which pur- 
poses other forms of oxidized iron would answer as well. The former Dublin rubigo ferri, or 
rust of iron, formed by exposing moistened iron wire to the air till converted into rust, is essen- 
tially the sesquioxide, containing a little ferric carbonate, and does not differ materially from 
the iron subcarbonate formerly official* 
If exposed to a red heat it loses the combined water, and becomes the anhydrous sesqui- 
oxide, less easily soluble in acids, improper for medical use, and altogether without effect as 
an antidote. Kept for some time in the pulpy state, it loses half its combined water, and 
becomes less soluble in acids and less efficient as an antidote. Dr. Hirsch has given some 
useful details in making precipitated ferric oxide upon a comparatively large scale, in Amer. 
Drug., 1884, 66. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Ferric hydrate is not an eligible ferruginous prepara- 
tion for medical use. Its antidotal powers in poisoning by arsenic, the manner in which it acts, 
the circumstances which impair its efficiency, and the mode of using it, are fully explained 
under Acidum Arsenosum. Its power of rendering arsenous acid insoluble is readily shown by 
agitating a solution of the acid with a considerable excess of the moist oxide, filtering, and 
then testing the filtered solution for the acid: not a trace of the metal can be detected, even 
by hydrogen sulphide. It is stated, however, to be inferior as an antidote to the saccharated 
oxide. Ferric hydrate as obtained by the U. S. formula contains a little ammonia, which is 
thought by some to assist its antidotal powers. At least it has been ascertained that the 
sesquioxide when precipitated by potassa, as formerly directed by the Dublin College, is less 
efficient than when precipitated by ammonia, and must be employed in quantities three or four 
times as large to produce the same effect. The dry hydrate rubbed up with water is in the 
same proportion weaker than the pulpy hydrate. Ferric carbonate (formerly official) possesses 
* Ferri Subcarbonas, U. S. 1870; Subcarbonate of Iron ; Sesquioxide of Iron ; Red Oxide of Iron ; Precipitated 
Carbonate of Iron; Aperitive Saffron of Mars. “Take of Sulphate of Iron eight troy ounces ; Carbonate of Sodium 
nine troyounces ; Water eight pints. Dissolve the salts separately, each in four pints of the Water; then mix the 
solutions thoroughly, and set aside the mixture until the precipitate has subsided. Then pour off the supernatant 
liquid, wash the precipitate with water until the washings pass nearly tasteless, and dry it on bibulous paper without 
heat.” U. S. 1870. 
When the solutions of sodium carbonate and ferrous sulphate are mixed together, a hydrated ferrous carbonate, of 
a pale-blue color, is thrown down, and sodium sulphate remains in solution. The precipitate during the washing and 
drying absorbs oxygen and loses nearly all its carbonic acid, whereby it is converted almost entirely into ferric oxide. 
The direction to dry the precipitate without heat is important, as even a moderate elevation of temperature has been 
shown by the experiments of Mr. J. A. Rex to modify the resulting product unfavorably, diminishing its solubility 
in hydrochloric acid in proportion to the heat employed. (A. J. P., May 1862, p. 193.) 
Properties. Ferric carbonate is a reddish-brown powder, of a disagreeable, slightly styptic taste, insoluble in 
water, and not readily dissolved by any acid except hydrochloric, with which it effervesces slightly. When of a 
bright-red color it should be rejected, as this color shows that it has been injured by exposure to heat. After precipi- 
tation from its hydrochloric solution by ammonia or potassa, either of which throws down ferric oxide, the super- 
natant liquor should give no indications of containing any metal in solution by the test of hydrogen sulphide or 
potassium ferrocyanide. It is incompatible with acids and acidulous salts. In composition it is a hydrated ferric 
oxide containing a little ferrous carbonate. By exposure to a red heat, it absorbs oxygen and loses water and car- 
bonic acid, being converted into the astringent saffron of Mars of the French Codex. After ignition it is no longer 
a subcarbonate, but is converted into the pure sesquioxide, which is less soluble in acids and less efficient as a medi- 
cine than the preparation in its original state. Hence it is wrong to expose the subcarbonate to a red heat, as some 
manufacturing chemists are in the habit of doing in order to give it a bright-red color. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Ferric carbonate is a rather feeble ferruginous tonic, nearly free from astringency, 
and causing, even in the largest doses, no obvious effects save a very slight gastric disturbance. It has been es- 
pecially commended in neuralgia in doses of a teaspoonful (3'75 C.c.). Dose, five grains (0'33 Gm.). Fern Oxidum Hydratum cum Magnesia.—Ferri Phosphas. 
625 
PART I. 
antidotal powers to arsenic, though in an inferior degree ; but this statement will not apply to 
it after it has been exposed to a red heat, to which it is improperly subjected by some manu- 
facturing chemists. By ignition it becomes anhydrous, and altogether inefficient as an antidote. 
FERRI OXIDUM HYDRATUM CUM MAGNESIA. U. S. Ferric Hydrate 
with Magnesia. [Arsenic Antidote.] 
Antidotum Arsenici, P. G.; Antidote to Arsenious Acid; Hydrated Oxide of Iron with Magnesia; Gegengift der 
Arsenigensaure, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Magnesia, 
ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Solution of Ferric Sulphate 
with one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] of Water, and keep the liquid in 
a large, well-stoppered bottle. Rub the Magnesia with cold Water to a smooth and thin mixture, 
transfer this to a bottle capable of holding about one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 390 minims], and fill it with Water to about three-fourths of its capacity. When the 
preparation is wanted for use, shake the Magnesia mixture to a homogeneous, thin magma, 
gradually add to it the Iron Solution, and shake them together until a uniform, smooth mixture 
results. 
“ Note.—The diluted Solution of Ferric Sulphate, and the mixture of Magnesia with Water, 
should always be kept on hand, ready for immediate use.” U. S. 
This is a preparation which has been introduced for the purpose of furnishing a ready and 
efficient antidote against arsenous acid. It is almost identical with the Antidotum Arsenici 
of the German Pharmacopoeia, and experience has shown its effectiveness. Ferric hydrate is 
produced when the mixture of magnesia is added to the diluted solution of ferric sulphate, and, 
as the magnesia is in excess and acidity thus prevented, no harm can result from not separating 
the by-products of the reaction. When mixed as officially directed, and ready for use, it con- 
tains ferric hydrate with magnesium sulphate and hydrate. It has been shown that no sol- 
uble compound with arsenic is formed when it is used as an antidote, and the presence of the 
magnesium salts, from a therapeutical point of view, is not at all objectionable. (See Acidum 
Arsenosum, p. 19.) 
(FER'RI OX'I-DUM IIY-DRA'TUM CUM MXG-NE'§I-A.) 
FERRI PHOSPHAS. Br. Iron Phosphate. 
(FBR'KI PHOS'PHXS.) 
“ A powder containing not less than 47 per cent, of hydrous ferrous phosphate, Fe3(P04)2 
8HaO, with ferric phosphate and some iron oxide.” Br. 
Phosphate of Iron; Ferrum Phosphoricum, P.G.; Phosphas Ferroso-Ferricus; Ferroso-Ferric Phosphate; Phos- 
phate de Fer, Phosphate ferroso-ferrique, Fr.; Phosphorsaures Eisenoxydul (Eiseooxydul-Oxyd), G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, 3 ounces (Imperial) or 60 grammes; Sodium Phosphate, 2f ounces 
(Imp.) or 55 grammes; Sodium Bicarbonate, J ounce (Imp.) or 15 grammes; Distilled Water, 
boiling, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Ferrous Sulphate in thirty fluid ounces (Imp. meas. ) 
or six hundred cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water, and the Sodium Phosphate in an equal 
quantity of Distilled Water ; when each of the solutions has cooled to between 100° and 130° F. 
(STB0 and 54-4° C.), add the latter to the former, pouring in also a solution of the Sodium 
Bicarbonate in a little Distilled Water; mix thoroughly; transfer the precipitate to a calico 
filter; wash it with hot Distilled Water until the washings no longer afford any reaction with 
the tests for sulphates; finally dry the precipitate at a temperature not exceeding 120° F. 
(48-9° C.).” Br. 
The title of the U. S. salt has been changed in the U. S. P. (1890) by the addition of the 
word “ Solubilisthis action should have been taken in 1880, for reasons set forth in the 
16th ed. U. S. D. Considerable confusion has been caused in the past through mistaking the 
insoluble slate-colored ferric phosphate for the official scaled salt, which is soluble (see page 
(527). As obtained by the present process, the U. S. salt is not a definite chemical compound, 
hut a mixture, which should probably be called sodio-ferric citro-phosphate, and bears a re- 
semblance to the pyrophosphate, which is now directed to be made by a similar process. (See 
Ferri Pyrophosphas.) 
The British iron phosphate is a very different salt. By double decomposition ferrous phos- 
phate and sodium sulphate are produced, the former precipitating as a white bulky powder, 
which soon changes on exposure to a greenish-blue, and ultimately to a slate color; a portion 
of sulphuric acid is liberated from the ferrous sulphate during the reaction, and this, retaining 
in solution some of the ferrous phosphate, requires the addition of the solution of sodium 626 
Ferri Phosphas. 
PART I. 
bicarbonate to decompose it and set free the remainder of the ferrous phosphate. This salt, 
when first formed, is represented by the formula Fea(P04)2; but the strong affinity of its 
ferrous oxide for oxygen causes the gradual production of sesquisalt, which, therefore, to 
a certain extent, always exists in the preparation; hence the British authority requires 
it to contain at least 47 per cent, of ferrous phosphate, Fe3(P04)28H20. (See P. J. Tr., 
1897, 141.) 
Ferric phosphate, as made by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, is in “ thin, bright green, transparent 
scales, without odor, and having an acidulous, slightly saline taste. The salt is permanent in 
dry air when excluded from light, but becomes dark and discolored on exposure to light. 
Freely and completely soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. The aqueous solution of 
the salt has a slightly acid reaction. With potassium ferrocyanide test-solution it gives a blue 
color, but does not yield a blue precipitate, unless it has been acidulated with hydrochloric 
acid. If 1 Gm. of the salt be boiled with 10 C.c. of potassium or sodium hydrate test- 
solution, a reddish-brown precipitate will be produced, and if the colorless filtrate from this 
precipitate be strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, then magnesia mixture added, and 
subsequently a slight excess of ammonia water, an abundant, white, crystalline precipitate 
will be produced. If a portion of the filtrate from this precipitate be acidulated with acetic 
acid, and heated to boiling, no further precipitate should be produced (absence of pyrophos- 
phate). If 0-56 (0-5588) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a 
capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the 
addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a tempera- 
ture of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it 
should require about 12 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to dis- 
charge the blue or greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 
1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. When made by the British process, it is in the form of 
“ A slate-blue amorphous powder, insoluble in water, soluble in hydrochloric acid. The solution 
yields a precipitate with solutions of potassium ferrocyanide and ferricyanide ; and when treated 
with tartaric acid and an excess of solution of ammonia, and subsequently with the solution of 
magnesium ammonio-sulphate, it gives a white granular precipitate. Each gramme dissolved 
in hydrochloric add should not cease to yield a blue precipitate with solution of potassium fer- 
ricyanide until at least 282 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of potassium bichromate 
have been added. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for arsenium.” This 
shows the presence of 47 per cent, of ferrous phosphate. 
Ferric phosphate, dissolved to saturation in a boiling solution of metaphosphoric acid 
(HP0S), under the name of superphosphate of iron, was proposed as a new remedy, in January, 
1851, by Dr. Routh, of London. Mr. Thomas Greenish, of the same city, states that the 
solution of the salt, on cooling, hardens into a mass of pilular consistence, soluble in water in 
all proportions, and free from any disagreeable or inky taste. 
Medical Properties. Ferric phosphate possesses the general properties of the ferrugi- 
nous preparations, and has been given with advantage in amenorrhoea and dyspepsia. The 
dose is from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.).* 
* Compound Syrup of Phosphate of Iron. Chemical Food. For a formula for a compound syrup of phosphate of 
iron by Mr. Wiegand, made by introducing into it the phosphates of calcium, potassium, and sodium, and for re- 
marks on the pharmacy of the phosphates by Prof. Procter, see A. J. P., 1854 (pp. Ill and 112). A formula simi- 
lar to Mr. Wiegand’s, communicated by Mr. Edward Parrish as probably representing the process for a secret prep- 
aration considerably used in this city, may be found in A.J. P., 1857 (p. 573). These formulas are too complicated 
to have any therapeutic value. Nevertheless, as the preparations have had much vogue, under the name of chemical 
food, we give the formula of Mr. Parrish from the journal referred to. “Take of Sulphate of Iron 3X> Phosphate 
of Soda Phosphate of Lime 2>xii; Glacial Phosphoric Acid Jxx; Carbonate of Soda j Carbonate of Po- 
tassa Hydrochloric Acid, Water of Ammonia, each, q. s.; Powdered Cochineal 30 j Water q. s. to make f§xx; 
Sugar Ibiij (troy); Oil of Orange Ttpx. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron in f Jjij and the Phosphate of Soda in 
of boiling Water. Mix the solutions, and wash the precipitated phosphate of iron till the washings are tasteless. 
Dissolve the Phosphate of Lime in f§iv of boiling Water with sufficient Hydrochloric Acid to make a clear solution, 
precipitate it with Water of Ammonia, and wash the precipitate. To the freshly precipitated phosphates add the 
Phosphoric Acid previously dissolved in Water. When clear, add the Carbonates of Soda and Potassa, and after- 
wards sufficient Hydrochloric Acid to dissolve the precipitate. Now add Cochineal mixed with the Sugar, apply 
heat, and, when the syrup is formed, strain and flavor it. Each teaspoonful contains about one grain of phosphate 
of iron and two and a half grains of phosphate of lime, with smaller quantities of the alkaline phosphates, all in 
perfect solution.” The objection to such preparations as this is not that each of the ingredients may not be useful, 
but, that they are so numerous that a morbid state of system in which they can all be indicated must be extremely 
rare, and every medicine is more or less noxious if given when it is not needed. The probability is that the thera- 
peutic value of the preparation depends mainly on its ferruginous ingredient, and that, as a rule, its therapeutic 
effects may be equally well if not better obtained from a simple syrup of ferric phosphate. (See P. J. Tr., 1893, 
795, 797.) Ferri Phosphas Solubilis.—Ferri Pyrophosphas Solubilis. 
PART I. 
627 
FERRI PHOSPHAS SOLUBILIS. U. S. Soluble Ferric Phosphate. 
Ferri Phosphas, U.S. 1880. 
“ Ferric grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Sodium Phosphate, uneffloresced, 
fifty-five grammes [or 1 ounce av., 411 grains] ; Distilled Water, one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Dissolve the Ferric Citrate in the Distilled Water by heating 
on a water-bath. To this solution add the Sodium Phosphate, and stir constantly until it is 
dissolved. Evaporate the solution on a water-bath, at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. 
(140° F.), to the consistence of thick syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, when 
dry, the salt may he obtained in scales. Keep the product in dark amber-colored, well-stop- 
pered bottles.” U. S. (See preceding article.)* 
(FER'RI PHOs'PHAS SO-LU'BI-LIS.) 
FERRI PYROPHOSPHAS SOLUBILIS. U. S. Soluble Ferric Pyro- 
phosphate. 
Ferri Pyrophosphas, V. S. 1880; Ferric Pyrophosphate; Pyrophosphate of Iron; Ferrum Pyrophosphoricum cum 
Ammonio Citrico, P. G.; Pyrophosphas Ferricus cum Citrate Ammonico; Pyrophosphate of Iron with Ammonium 
Citrate; Pyrophosphate de Fer citro-ammoniacal, Fr.; Pyrophosphorsaures Eisenoxyd mit Citronensauren Ammo- 
nium, G. 
“ Ferric Citrate, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Sodium Pyrophosphate, unefflo- 
resced, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Distilled Water, one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Dissolve the Ferric Citrate in the Distilled Water, by heating 
on a water-bath. To this solution add the Sodium Pyrophosphate, and stir constantly, until it 
is dissolved. Evaporate the solution, on a water-bath, at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. 
(140° F.), to the consistence of thick syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, when dry, 
the salt may be obtained in scales. Keep the product in dark amber-colored, well-stoppered 
bottles.” U S. 
There does not seem to be a good reason for appending “ Solubilis” to the title of this salt: 
it is practically the same ferric pyrophosphate as that of the U. S. P. 1880, which had no such 
addition (see Ferri Phosphas Solubilis'). The unnecessary lengthening of the official Latin 
names which must be used in prescription-writing is to be strongly deprecated. This formula 
is based upon a method proposed by M. E. Robiquet to the Academy of Medicine at Paris, in 
February, 1857, of preparing ferric pyrophosphate for use, by dissolving a gelatinous precipitate 
of the salt in a solution of ammonium citrate, and forming a syrup with the solution.-j- 
The view which obtained when this process was first made official was that a double salt was 
formed, consisting of ferric pyrophosphate and ammonium citrate, which might be called 
ammonio-ferric citro-ortho phosphate. According to R. Rother (A. J. P., 1876, p. 174), there 
was an excess of ferric citrate in the pyrophosphate of iron of the U. S. P. 1870, and it was 
believed to be a complex mixture of the colloid salts ammonio-ferric pyrophosphate, ammonio- 
ferric citrate, and free ferric citrate, as shown in the reaction 2(Fe43P207) -{- 6(NH4)3CeH607 = 
(FER'RI PY-RO-PIIOS'PIIAS SO-LU'BI-LIS.) 
Simple Syrup of Phosphate of Iron. Subsequently Mr. Wiegand gave a formula for a simple syrup of phosphate 
of iron, made by dissolving the recently precipitated salt in hydrochloric acid and adding the requisite quantity of 
sugar. By a misprint the sodium phosphate taken is double what it should be. The same writer has proposed 
to make a syrup of the iron and calcium phosphates, by dissolving in the above a definite quantity of recently pre- 
cipitated calcium phosphate, made by double decomposition between solutions of calcium chloride and sodium 
phosphate. See his formulas in A. J. P., 1855 (p. 104). 
* W. A. Puckner (Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 231) proposes the following modification of the official process, preferring 
potassium chlorate to nitric acid as an oxidizing agent. Ferrous sulphate, in clear crystals, 156 6m.; sulphuric 
acid, 20 C.c.; potassium chlorate, 12 Gm.; ammonia water, 340 C.c.; citric acid, 120 Gin.; sodium phosphate, 
uneffloresced, 200 Gm.; water, a sufficient quantity. Add the sulphuric acid to 240 C.c. of water, contained in a 
glass or porcelain vessel, to this add the ferrous sulphate, warm gently until all is dissolved, then add the potassium 
chlorate and continue the heat for one-half hour, or until a drop of the solution added to potassium ferricyanide test- 
solution no longer produces a distinct green or bluish-green color. Add this solution, slowly and with constant agi- 
tation, to the ammonia water contained in a suitable vessel; to this mixture add hot water, 4000 C.c., and allow to 
subside, and, after one-half hour, decant or siphon off the clear supernatant liquid. To the residue add 2000 C.c. of 
hot water, allow to subside, and decant; repeat this washing with six portions of hot water, allowing the last portion 
to subside for at least six hours or overnight. Decant or siphon off the clear liquid as closely as possible, then add 
to the remaining magma the citric acid and the sodium phosphate, warm gently until solution results, and then 
evaporate on a water-bath at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. until the solution weighs 500 Gm., and spread it 
on plates of glass, so that, when dry, the salt may be obtained in scales. 
Solution Ferric Phosphate (50 per cent.). By evaporating the solution made by Puckner’s method (see above) 
on a water-bath until it measures 500 C.c., a solution is made containing 50 per cent, of ferric phosphate. (U. S. P.) 
f For these processes in detail, and Soubeiran’s Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron, see U. S. D., 15th edition, page 
682. 628 
Feft'ri Pyrophosphas Solubilis.—Ferri Sulphas. 
part 1. 
Fe.3P,0,.3(NH4),P,07 + 2(FeC,H 0,.(NH,),CeH507) + 2(FeC.He0,). By mixing two 
molecules of ferric citrate and one of ammonium pyrophosphate a compound analogous to the 
official preparation was obtained, containing the same proportion of ammonio-ferric pyrophos- 
phate, but mixed with twice as much ammonio-ferric citrate and free ferric citrate. Rother’s 
views were adopted by the Committee of Revision of 1880, as well as the salt which he recom- 
mended, in which ammonia was replaced by soda, because of the greater stability of the latter. 
Soluble Ferric Pyrophosphate consists probably of sodio-ferric pyrophosphate, sodio-ferric 
citrate, and free ferric citrate. 
Sodio-ferric pyrophosphate, dried at 100° C., is considered by Fliickiger (Pharm. Chem., 2d 
ed., p. 607, 1888) to have the following composition : Fe4(Pa07)3 + 3Na4P20? -j- 14H20. 
Properties. “ Thin, apple-green, transparent scales, without odor, and having an acidulous, 
slightly saline taste. The salt is permanent in dry air, when excluded from light, but becomes 
dark and discolored on exposure to light. Freely and completely soluble in water, but insoluble 
in alcohol. The aqueous solution of the salt has a slightly acid reaction. With potassium 
ferrocyanide test-solution it gives a blue color, but does not yield a blue precipitate, unless it 
has been acidulated with hydrochloric acid. If 1 Grin, of the salt be boiled with 10 C.c. of 
potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, a reddish-brown precipitate will be produced, and 
if the colorless filtrate from this precipitate be strongly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, then 
magnesia mixture added, and subsequently a slight excess of ammonia water, no precipitate 
should be produced (distinction from and absence of ferric phosphate'). If a portion of the 
filtrate be acidulated with acetic acid, and heated to boiling, an abundant, white, flocculent 
precipitate (pyrophosphate) will be produced. If 0-56 (0-5588) Gan. of the salt be dissolved 
in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 10 C.c. of water, then 10 
C.c. of hydrochloric acid and subsequently 40 C.c. of water added, and, after the addition of 
1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. 
(104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require 
about 10 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or 
greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of 
metallic iron.)” U. S. 
Medical Properties. It is a very good chalybeate, mild yet efficient in its action on the 
system, without disagreeable taste, and, from its solubility, readily administered in any form 
that may be desirable, whether that of pill, simple solution in water,* or syrup. The dose is 
from two to five grains (0-13-0-33 Gm.). 
Fe S04. 7H2 O ; 277*42. (FER'KI SUL'PHAS.) Fe S04. 7H2 0; 277-9. 
FERRI SULPHAS. U. S., Br. Ferrous Sulphate. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, FeS04,7H20, may be prepared by the interaction of diluted sulphuric 
acid and iron.” Br. “ Ferrous Sulphate should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Sulphate of Iron, Green Vitriol; Ferrum Sulfuricum Purum, P. G.; Sulfas Ferrosus, Ferrum Vitriolatum Purum, 
Vitriolum Martis Purum; Ferrous Sulphate; Sulfate (Protosulfate) de Fer, Sulfate ferreux, Fr.; Schwefelsaures 
Eisenoxydul, G. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1885) contained the following process for this salt: 
“ Take of Iron Wire four ounces [avoirdupois] ; Sulphuric Acid four fluidounces [Imperial 
measure] ; Distilled Water one pint and a half [Imp. rneas.]. Pour the Water on the Iron 
placed in a porcelain dish, add the Sulphuric Acid, and, when the disengagement of gas has 
nearly ceased, boil for ten minutes. Filter now through paper, and, after the lapse of twenty- 
four hours, separate the crystals which have been deposited from the solution. Let these be 
dried on filtering paper placed on porous bricks, and preserved in a stoppered bottle.” 
The object of this process is to make a pure ferrous sulphate by direct combination. Sul- 
phuric acid, in a concentrated state, acts but imperfectly on iron ; but when diluted, a vigorous 
action takes place, the oxygen of the water converts the metal into an oxide, with which the 
sulphuric acid unites, and hydrogen is evolved. The theoretical quantities for mutual reaction 
are 56 of iron to 98 of acid. This proportion is one part of iron to one and three-quarters of 
acid. The British Council uses an excess of acid, the weight of acid taken being 7 38 avoir- 
dupois ounces, instead of 7. An excess of iron, however, is desirable, as it tends to secure the 
* Liquor Ferri Pyrophosphatis. A permanent solution may be made by Rother’s process by dissolving 120 grains 
of iron pyrophosphate in five fluidrachms of water with the aid of heat, filtering whilst hot, mixing the filtrate with 
two fluidrachms of glycerin, and adding enough water through the filter to make one fluidounce. (Drug. Girc., 1886, 
p. 99.) PART I. 
Fern Sulphas. 
629 
production of a perfect ferrous sulphate. A process for this salt was given in the TJ. S. P. 1870, 
which was based upon the method of Bonsdorff. This chemist found that, when a perfect 
ferrous sulphate was formed in solution by heating dilute sulphuric acid with an excess of iron, 
it might be crystallized free from sesquioxide, provided a little excess of sulphuric acid were 
added to the liquid before filtration, in order to prevent the formation of any sesquioxide during 
the process; at the same time avoiding, as much as possible, the contact of the air. Hence 
the directions in the former U. S. formula to acidulate with sulphuric acid, to cause the funnel to 
touch the bottom of the receiving vessel, which avoids the dropping of the liquid through the 
air, and to cover the vessel containing the concentrated liquid when it is set aside to crystallize. 
Properties. Ferrous sulphate is in the form of “ large, pale bluish-green, monoclinic 
prisms, without odor, and having a saline, styptic taste. Efflorescent in dry air, and, on ex- 
posure to a moist atmosphere, rapidly absorbing oxygen, and becoming coated with brownish- 
yellow, basic, ferric sulphate. Soluble in 1-8 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 0-3 
part of boiling water; insoluble in alcohol. When slowly heated to 115° C. (239° F.), the 
crystals fall to powder, and lose 38-84 per cent, of their weight (6 molecules of water of crys- 
tallization). The aqueous solution of the salt has an acid reaction, and, even when highly 
diluted, gives with potassium ferricyanide test-solution a blue color or precipitate, and with 
barium chloride test-solution a white precipitate insoluble in hydrochloric acid. If 1 Gm. of 
the salt be dissolved in about 25 C.c. of water, the solution heated to boiling, oxidized with 
nitric acid, and then mixed with a slight excess of ammonia water, the filtrate from the reddish- 
brown precipitate should be colorless, and should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test- 
solution (absence of copper, zinc, etc.). If another portion of the filtrate be evaporated to 
dryness, and then ignited, it should not leave more than a trace of residue (limit of salts of 
the fixed alkalies'). If 1-39 (1-3871) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in about 25 C.c. of water, 
and the solution acidulated with sulphuric acid, not less than 50 C.c. of potassium permanga- 
nate decinormal volumetric solution should be required to impart to the liquid a permanent 
pink color (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 2 per cent, of crystallized Ferrous 
Sulphate).” U. S. “ In oblique rhombic prisms, of a pale bluish-green color and astringent 
taste; insoluble in alcohol (90 per cent.), soluble in less than 2 parts of cold water and giving 
a clear solution (absence of oxysulphate). It affords the reactions characteristic of ferrous 
salts and of sulphates. Each gramme dissolved in water acidulated with sulphuric acid should 
not cease to yield a blue precipitate with solution of potassium ferricyanide until 36 cubic cen- 
timetres of the volumetric solution of potassium bichromate have been added. It should yield 
no characteristic reaction with the tests for copper, zinc, potassium, sodium, or ammonium. 
Its solution in, water should not give any precipitate with hydrogen sulphide (absence of ferric 
compounds, etc.).” Br. As prepared by Bonsdorff’s method, ferrous sulphate is blue verging 
upon green. When it becomes more green than blue, or entirely green, an indication is afforded 
that it contains some sesquioxide. By exposure to the air the crystals absorb oxygen, and 
become first green, and ultimately covered with a yellow efflorescence of subsulphate, insoluble 
in water. Sometimes the crystals are quite permanent when made by Bonsdorff’s method, 
owing to the slight excess of acid which they contain. The aqueous solution is bluish green; 
but by standing it attracts oxygen, and becomes first green and then reddish, depositing, in the 
mean time, a portion of sesquisulphate, having the composition Fe2(S04)3 -j- Fea03 + 8H20. 
(Wittstein, Chem. Gaz., May 15, 1849 ; from Buchner's Repert.) At a red heat it loses its 
acid, and is converted into the anhydrous ferric oxide called colcothar. It is incompatible with 
the alkalies and their carbonates, soaps, lime water, calcium and barium chlorides, sodium borate 
and phosphate, silver nitrate, and lead acetate and subacetate. It is decomposed also by astrin- 
gent vegetable infusions, the tannic and gallic acids of which form, if any sesquioxide be present, 
a black compound of the nature of ink. The extent to which this change lessens the activity 
of the salt is not well ascertained. Ferrous sulphate, as found in commerce, is often the impure 
commercial sulphate, which is not fit for medicinal use.* The perfectly pure salt is precipitated 
* Commercial Ferrous Sulphate. Copperas. This was formerly official in the London Pharmacopoeia, in which it 
was employed for preparing the pure sulphate. It is manufactured on a large scale for the purposes of the arts, from 
the native ferric sulphide, or iron pyrites, by roasting, oxidation by exposure to air and moisture, and lixiviation. 
The constituents of the mineral become sulphuric acid and ferrous and ferric oxides, which, by their union, form the 
salt. Ferrous sulphate is also obtained in many chemical processes as a collateral product, as in the manufacture of 
alum, in the precipitation of copper from solutions of copper sulphate by scraps of iron, etc. 
Commercial ferrous sulphate is far from being pure. Besides containing some ferric sulphate, it is generally con- 
taminated with metallic and earthy salts: such as those of copper, zinc, alumina, and magnesia. Two principal 
kinds occur in the market, one in large grass-green crystals, the surface of which is studded with ochreous spots; 630 
Ferri Sulphas.—Ferri Sulphas Exsiccatus. 
PART I. 
white by potassium ferrocyanide; but that of ordinary purity gives a greenish precipitate, more 
or less deep, with this test, owing to the presence of some ferric oxide. Copper may be detected 
by immersing in the solution a bright piece of iron, on which a cupreous film will be deposited. 
Both copper and zinc may be discovered by oxidizing the iron by boiling the solution of the 
salt with nitric acid and then precipitating the iron by an excess of ammonia. If the filtered 
solution be blue, copper is present; and if it contain zinc, this will be separated in flakes of 
white oxide on expelling the excess of ammonia by ebullition. 
It is often desirable to protect ferrous sulphate against the oxidation to which it is liable 
on exposure. Sugar acts as a preservative in the case of this salt, as in that of ferrous iodide. 
It may be added to the solution, or incorporated with the sulphate in substance. M. E. Latour 
has given a formula for crystallizing the salt with sugar. Mr. Geo. Welborn has found a small 
lump of camphor, wrapped in tissue-paper and placed in the bottle with the sulphate, to pre- 
vent its oxidation. (jF*. J. Tr., May, 1868, p. 537.) M. Pavesi, of Mortara, effects the same 
object by incorporating it with an equal weight of gum arabic, by evaporating a joint solution 
of the two substances with a gentle heat. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., iii. 49.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Ferrous sulphate is a very astringent chalybeate. In 
overdoses it produces nausea, vomiting, griping, and purging, and other evidences of gastro- 
enteric irritation or inflammation. Its astringency fits it especially for use when anaemia is 
conjoined with marked relaxation or a tendency to immoderate discharges, such as passive 
hemorrhages, colliquative sweats, leucorrhoea, gleet, etc. Externally, the solution is used in 
chronic ophthalmia, leucorrhoea, and gleet, made of various strengths, from one or two to eight 
or ten grains of the salt to the fluidounce of water. M. Velpeau has found it an excellent 
remedy in erysipelas, applied topically in the form of solution or ointment. The solution was 
made of three and a half drachms of the salt to a pint of water, and applied by compresses 
kept constantly wet. In a few cases convenience required the application of the ointment, made 
of eight parts of the salt to thirty of lard. An ointment made of one or two parts of the 
sulphate to sixty of lard was found by M. Devergie to be particularly efficacious in certain skin 
diseases, especially in eczema. In scaly affections it had no effect. The dose is from one to 
two grains (0065-013 6m.), in the form of pill, which should be made from the dry sulphate. 
(See Ferri Sulphas Exsiccatus.) 
Ferrous sulphate, usually in the form of the impure salt or commercial copperas, is a powerful 
disinfectant, although, according to experiments, its germicidal power is very feeble. When 
thrown into a mass of decomposing organic matter, a portion of it is at once precipitated as a 
sulphide or as an oxide by the hydrogen sulphide and ammonia present. It is asserted that 
ferric sulphate unites with organic substances to form definite stable compounds, and that ani- 
mal substances kept in a 3-per-cent, solution of neutral ferric sulphate for a length of time and 
afterwards removed from it mummify without decomposition. (New Remedies, Dec. 1883, 685.) 
FERRI SULPHAS EXSICCATUS. U. S., Br. Dried Ferrous Sulphate. 
(FKR'RI SUL'PIIAS EX-SIC-CA'TUS.) 
Approximately 2Fe SO*. 3H2 O ; 357*28. Fe SO*. Ha O; 169 9. 
Ferri Sulphas Bxsiccata, Br. 1885; Dried Sulphate of Iron; Exsiccated Ferrous Sulphate; Ferrum Sulfuricum 
Siccum, P. U.; Sulfate de Fer desseche, Fr.; Entwassertes Schwefelsaures Eisenoxydul, G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, in coarse powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. 
Allow the salt to effloresce at a temperature of about 40° C. (104° F.), and then heat it in a 
porcelain dish, on a water-bath, constantly stirring, until the product weighs from sixty-four to 
sixty-jive grammes [or 2 ounces av., 113 grains, to 2 ounces av., 128 grains]. Lastly, reduce the 
residue to a fine powder, and transfer it at once to perfectly dry, well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“Expose Ferrous Sulphate, FeS04,7H20, in a porcelain or iron dish to a temperature of 
212° F. (100° C.), stirring occasionally until aqueous vapor ceases to be given off; reduce the 
residue, which should weigh about 60 per cent, of the oiiginal salt, to a fine powder.” Br. 
Properties. “A grayish-white powder, slowly but completely soluble in water, and con- 
forming approximately to the reactions and tests given under Ferri Sulphas.’' U. S. 100 
parts of crystallized ferrous sulphate yield about 65 per cent, of the dried salt. “ A nearly 
white powder, slowly but entirely soluble in water. Each gramme dissolved in water acidu- 
lated with sulphuric acid should not cease to yield a blue precipitate with solution of potassium 
the other of a bluish-green color, and ordinarily mixed with the powder of the effloresced salt. The commercial 
sulphate should never be dispensed by the pharmacist until it has undergone purification by recrystallization from a 
slightly acid solution. Fern Sulphas Granulatus.—Ferri Valerianas. 
631 
PART I. 
ferricyanide until at least 54-6 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of potassium bichro- 
mate have been added, corresponding to at least 921 per cent, of Exsiccated Ferrous Sulphate, 
FeS04,H20.” Br. 
In this process six mols. out of seven of the water of crystallization of the salt are driven 
off. The heat should not exceed 149° C. (300° F.) ; otherwise the salt itself would suffer de- 
composition. If the heat has been excessive, the color of the salt will be brownish instead of 
grayish white. Dried ferrous sulphate is used for making pills, the crystallized sulphate not 
being adapted to that purpose. In prescribing the dried sulphate it is necessary to recollect 
that about three grains of it are equivalent to five grains of the crystallized salt. 
FERRI SULPHAS GRANULATUS. U. S. Granulated Ferrous Sulphate. 
[Ferri Sulphas Praecipitatus, Pharm. 1880.] 
Fe SO*.7HaO; 277*42. (FER'RI SUL'PHXs GRXN-U-LA'tCs.) FeS04.7H20; 277-9. 
Granulated Sulphate of Iron; Precipitated Ferrous Sulphate, Precipitated Sulphate of Iron. 
“Ferrous Sulphate, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]; Distilled Water, 
one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Diluted Sulphuric Acid,yu>e cubic 
centimeters [or 81 minims] ; Alcohol, twenty-jive cubic centimeters [or 406 minims]. Dissolve the 
Ferrous Sulphate in the Distilled Water previously heated to boiling, add the Diluted Sul- 
phuric Acid, and filter the solution while hot. Evaporate the solution immediately in a tared 
porcelain capsule, on a sand-bath, until it weighs one hundred and jifty grammes [or 5 ounces 
av., 127 grains], and then cool it quickly, under constant stirring. Transfer the product to a 
glass funnel stopped with a plug of absorbent cotton, and, when it has thoroughly drained, 
pour upon it the Alcohol. When this also has drained, spread the crystalline powder on bibu- 
lous paper, dry it quickly in the sunlight, or in a dry room, at the ordinary temperature, and 
transfer it at once to perfectly dry, well-stoppered bottles.” JJ. S. 
The process of the U. S. P. (1890) differs radically in manipulation from that of 1880 ; instead 
of pouring the filtered solution of ferrous sulphate into alcohol and collecting the precipitate 
which falls, the solution is granulated by heat with constant stirring (not quite to dryness), 
and this salt is then washed with alcohol, which displaces impurities and facilitates the rapid 
drying of the granular powder. 
The product is practically identical with the granulated sulphate of iron of the British 
Pharmacopoeia (1885). The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) omitted the granulated salt entirely. 
The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 had the advantage of being more manageable 
and convenient, ferrous sulphate being used directly instead of being made by the action of 
sulphuric acid on the metal. The directions given in the first part of the British process are 
precisely the same as those laid down by the British Council for making ferrous sulphate; 
but the hot solution of the iron in the sulphuric acid, instead of being allowed to filter into 
an empty vessel, is made to drop into a portion of rectified spirit, the mixture being stirred 
while it cools. The acid directed is in excess ; and the filtrate is consequently an acid solution 
of ferrous sulphate mixed with spirit. The stirring as the mixture cools, finely granulates the 
salt, which separates perfectly pure, the spirit holding in solution any ferric sulphate which 
may have been formed, and the excess of acid dissolving any free sesquioxide. This process, 
in its main features, is that of M. Berthemot. (See 8th ed. U. S. D.) 
Properties. “ Granulated Ferrous Sulphate is a very pale bluish-green, crystalline powder, 
which should conform in every respect to the reactions and tests given under Ferri Sulphas.” 
U. S. Barckhauser, Salzer, and others have stated that ferrous sulphate precipitated by alcohol 
did not always contain seven molecules of water, and it could not be relied upon for making 
volumetric solutions because of this lack of uniformity in composition. Caro (Annalen, clxv. 
29) and Schlickum (Pharm. Zeitung, No. 49), on the other hand, maintain that precipitated 
ferrous sulphate is constant in composition, and Schlickum proved that if the precipitation took 
place in the cold it always contained seven molecules of water, but boiling with strong alcohol 
diminished the proportion of water of crystallization. This salt is less liable to oxidation on 
exposure than is the sulphate in its ordinary form, and experience has shown that it is admirably 
adapted for dispensing. 
FERRI VALERI AN AS. U. S. Ferfic Valerianate 
“Ferric Valerianate should be kept in small, well-stoppered bottles, in a cool and dark 
place.” U.S. 
(FER'RI VA-LE-RI-A'NiS.) F&2 (C5 H9 02)6; 717-8. 632 
Fern Valerianas.—Ferrum. 
This preparation, which was official in the old Dublin Pharmacopoeia, has been introduced 
into the United States Pharmacopoeia. It is rarely used, because of its insolubility. It may be 
made by precipitating a diluted solution of ferric sulphate with a solution of sodium valerianate, 
and collecting and washing the precipitate. 
Properties. It is officially described as “ a dark brick-red, amorphous powder of some- 
what varying chemical composition, having the odor of valerianic acid, and a mildly styptic 
taste; permanent in drjr air. Insoluble in cold water, but readily soluble in alcohol. Boiling 
water decomposes it, setting free the valerianic acid, and leaving ferric Iiydrate. When slowly 
heated, the salt parts with its acid, without fusing, but, when rapidly heated, it fuses and gives 
oft- inflammable vapors having the odor of butyric acid, and, on complete ignition, leaves a 
residue of ferric oxide. The stronger acids decompose the salt with the liberation of valeri- 
anic acid. If 0-56 (0-5588) Gm. of the salt be dissolved in a glass-stoppered bottle (having 
a capacity of about 100 C.c.) in 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid and 15 C.c. of water, and after 
the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide the mixture be kept for half an hour at a tem- 
perature of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, 
it should require not less than 15 nor more than 20 C.c. of decinormal sodium hyposulphite 
volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the 
volumetric solution indicating 1 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Ferric valerianate is a chalybeate tonic, which has 
been especially used by some practitioners in anaemia associated with nervous exhaustion and 
hysteroidal states. It has also been alleged to have almost specific properties in diabetes insipi- 
dus. Dose, from two to five grains (0-13-0-33 Gm.) 
PART I. 
FERRUM. U.S., Br. Iron. 
Fe; 55*88. (FKR'UUM.) Fe; 55-9. 
“ Metallic Iron, in the form of fine, bright, and non-elastic wire.” U. S. “Annealed iron 
wire, having a diameter of about 0-005 inch (0.1 millimetre) (about No. 35 wire gauge), or 
wrought-iron nails, free from oxide.” Br. 
Fer, Fr.; Eisen, G.; Ferro, It.; Hierro, Sp.; Mars, Fr. 
In the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, this metal is employed in different preparations, in the form of 
wire; it was official in 1850 as Fern Ramenta, Iron Filings. 
Iron is the most abundant and useful of the metals, and so interwoven with the wants of 
mankind that the extent of its consumption by a nation may he taken as an index of progress 
in civilization. It is universally diffused in nature, not only in the mineral but also in the 
vegetable and animal kingdoms. There are very few minerals in which traces of it are not to 
he found, and it is an essential constituent in many parts of animals, but particularly in the 
blood. It is one of the few metals which are not deleterious to the animal economy. Iron 
occurs 1—native (almost exclusively, however, of meteoric origin) ; 2, sulphuretted, in the min- 
erals pyrites (simple ferric sulphide), pyrrotine or magnetic pyrites, and arsenopyrite or mis- 
pickel (a sulph-arsenide of iron); 3, oxidized, embracing the magnetic, specular, red, brown, 
and argillaceous iron oxides, also chromite (mixed iron, chromium, and magnesium oxides) 
and franklinite (mixed iron, manganese, and zinc oxides) ; 4, in saline combination, forming 
ferrous carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, and arsenate. Those minerals of iron which admit of 
being worked to advantage are called iron ores. These include the different native oxides, 
and the carbonate (spathic iron). The best iron is obtained from varieties of the native oxide, 
usually called magnetic iron ore and specular iron ore. These occur abundantly in Sweden, 
and furnish the superior iron of that country. The upper peninsula of Michigan now yields 
similar ores. As a rule, those ores yield the best iron which occur in primitive formations. 
Extraction. The mode of extracting iron from its ores varies somewhat with the nature of 
the ore ; but the general principles of the operation are the same for all. The ore, previously 
broken into small pieces and roasted, is exposed to the action of an intense heat, urged by an 
air-blast, in contact with carbonaceous matter, such as charcoal, coke, or anthracite, and in con- 
nection with some flux capable of fusing with the impurities of the ore. The flux varies with 
the nature of the ore, and is generally limestone. Fluorspar is occasionally used, but is not 
often found in sufficiently large deposits to be available. The flux, whatever it may be, enters 
into fusion with the impurities, and forms what is called the slag, which is a fusible lime 
silicate chiefly; while the carbon monoxide formed from the carbonaceous matter, acting on 
the ferric oxide, reduces it to the metallic state. The reduced metal, from its density, occupies PAET I. 
Ferrum. 
633 
the lower part of the furnace, and is protected from the action of the air by the melted slag 
which floats on its surface. When the reduction is completed, the slag is allowed to run out 
by a hole in the side of the furnace, and the melted metal by an aperture at the bottom, the 
latter being received into a series of sand-moulds, where it solidifies in masses, known in com- 
merce by the name of pig- or cast-iron. In this state the metal is brittle and far from being 
pure, as it contains from 3 to 6 per cent, of carbon, with silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, and 
manganese. It is purified, and brought to the state of malleable iron, by being fused and sub- 
jected, while stirred, to the action of a current of air on its surface. By these means the 
carbon is nearly burnt out, and the other impurities are oxidized and made to rise to the sur- 
face as a slag. Instead of this process, called “ refining,” usage in this country and in England 
substitutes what is called “ pig-boiling,”—that is, the pig-iron is at once submitted to the 
operation of puddling without previous refining. The “ puddling” process consists in heating 
the charge of pig-iron on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace in contact with ferric oxide 
and in a reducing flame. The silicon is first burnt out, and then the carbon gradually dis- 
appears ; the phosphorus goes into the “ tap cinder” as phosphide and phosphate; the sulphur 
in part disappears as sulphur dioxide and in part remains in the cinder as ferrous sulphide. 
As the metal approaches to purity, it becomes tough and less liquid, and its particles agglu- 
tinate so as to form semi-fused lumps, though the temperature of the furnace continues the 
same. These lumps are then taken out of the furnace, and their particles, by means of pon- 
derous hammers moved by steam or water power, or by great pressure, are forced together so 
as to form one tenacious mass. The metal is finally rolled out into bars of a convenient size, 
when it constitutes the malleable iron of commerce. 
The third form of commercial iron, known as “ steel,” is made either by the cementation 
process, the Bessemer process, or the open-hearth process. In the first case, wrought-iron is 
packed with charcoal and heated until combination takes place, and the resulting steel is cast 
into ingots. In the second case, cast-iron is melted in large vessels called converters, when a 
blast of air is blown through the mass, burning out the requisite amount of carbon, and then, 
after addition of a small amount of spiegeleisen, or manganiferous cast-iron, the finished product 
is run into moulds; while in the third or open-hearth process, a mixture of pig-iron and ore is 
heated with a reverberatory flame, as in the puddling process, or bars and blooms of wrought- 
iron are heated with the pig-iron, and steel is made by the combination of the two. Steel 
contains from I to 1 per cent, of carbon. 
The production of pig-iron in the United States in 1896 was 8,623,127 tons, and in 1897, 
9,652,680 tons, while in Great Britain the output for the same years was 8,659,681 tons and 
8,850,000 tons respectively. The steel production of the United States was, for 1886, 5,582,- 
606 tons, and for 1897, 7,174,508 tons. 
Iron mines occur in most countries, but more particularly in northern ones. In Spain the 
principal mines furnish spathic iron and the red oxide. The chief iron ores of France are the 
spathic iron, and the specular, brown, and argillaceous oxides; of Germany, the spathic iron 
and brown oxide. The island of Elba is celebrated for its rich and abundant specular iron ore. 
In the United States iron is abundant. The principal ores that are worked are the magnetic, 
red, and brown oxides. The magnetic oxide is found in large beds in Essex Co., N.Y., on the 
borders of Lake Champlain, and in the Lake Superior district; the red oxide in New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Alabama, and especially in a very pure state in Missouri, at Iron 
Mountain and Pilot Knob; the brown oxide in Eastern Pennsylvania. 
Properties. Iron is a hard, malleable, ductile, and tenacious metal, of a grayish-white 
color and fibrous texture, a slightly styptic taste, and a sensible odor when rubbed. In 
tenacity it yields only to nickel and cobalt. (Deville.) Its sp. gr. is about 7-7 (7’8, U. $.), and 
its fusing point very high. It possesses the magnetic and welding properties. It is combus- 
tible, and, when heated to whiteness, burns in atmospheric air, and with brilliant scintillations 
in oxygen gas. At a red heat, its surface is converted into black oxide, and at common tem- 
peratures, by the combined agency of air and moisture, it becomes covered with a yellowish- 
brown matter, called rust, which is the hydrated sesquioxide. It combines with all the non- 
metallic elements, except hydrogen and nitrogen, and with most of the metals. It forms three 
compounds with oxygen, a ferrous oxide and a ferric oxide, which by their union form the 
native magnetic oxide, hence often termed ferroso-ferric oxide, and a trioxide, which forms an 
acid called ferric acid. The monoxide, or ferrous oxide, is of a dark blue color, attracted by 
the magnet, and spontaneously combustible in the air, being converted into sesquioxide or 
ferric oxide. It is the base of ferrous sulphate, and of the green salts of iron generally. It is 634 
Ferrum. 
PART I. 
very prone to absorb oxygen ; and hence the salts which contain it are soon partially con- 
verted, when in solution, into salts of the ferric oxide. Its formula is FeO, consisting of one 
atom of iron, Fe, and one of oxygen, 0. The sesquioxide, or ferric oxide, is readily obtained 
by dissolving iron in hydrochloric acid, precipitating by ammonia, and igniting the precipitate. 
It is of a red color, not attracted by the magnet, and forms salts which for the most part have 
a reddish color. Its formula is Fe203, consisting of two atoms of iron, Fe, and three atoms 
of oxygen, 0. An allotropic variety of the sesquioxide, soluble in water, and not responding 
to the ordinary tests of iron, has been discovered by M. Pean de Saint-Gilles. The native 
black oxide, the magnetic oxide of mineralogists, consists of one molecule of FeO and one 
molecule of Fe203. Under the name of Ferri Oxidum Magneticum, the British Pharmacopoeia 
has a preparation consisting of this oxide with three mols. of water. Ferric acid, discovered 
by Fremy, may be obtained, in union with potassa, by passing chlorine through a very concen- 
trated solution of the alkali, holding the hydrated ferric oxide in suspension, or by fusing iron 
filings with potassium nitrate. The acid anhydride consists of one atom of iron and three of 
oxygen. Iron forms a number of important salts. 
Iron is readily detected, even in minute quantities, by bringing it to the state of ferric salt 
in solution, and adding potassium ferrocyanide or tincture of galls ; the former of which will 
strike a deep blue, the latter a black color. Bringing it to the state of a ferric salt is readily 
effected by boiling the solution containing it with a little nitric acid. The testing of the official 
scaled salts of iron has attracted the attention of chemists, it being well known that these are 
not definite chemical compounds. Dr. F. B. Power prefers the iodometric method for estimating 
the quantity of iron in scaled salts. It is based on the liberation of iodine by a solution of 
ferric chloride, and the subsequent estimation of the liberated iodine by a decinormal solution 
of sodium thiosulphate. (Pharm. Rund., 1891, 205.) 
General Therapeutic Effects of Iron. Since iron constitutes an integrant portion of the 
red blood-corpuscles, it is a necessity for their production, and the great indication for its use 
is lack of haemoglobin in the blood,—i.e., anaemia. It is plain that the lack of haemoglobin 
may be due to the lessening of the number of the red blood-corpuscles, or it may be the out- 
come of a lack of the normal amount of haemoglobin in the individual blood-corpuscles. The 
distinction between these two varieties of anaemia is important, since clinical experience has 
shown that in anaemia of the first of these classes—the so-called “ essential anaemias,” in which 
there is a marked diminution of the number of the red blood-corpuscles—the prognosis is very 
grave; whilst in simple anaemias in which there is simply poverty of haemoglobin the prognosis 
is favorable. In essential anaemias iron may be administered, but is of very little value. In 
the non-essential or simple anaemias the effect of the administration of iron varies with the 
cause of the anaemia, but is usually more or less favorable. In the so-called accidental anaemias, 
in which the poverty of the blood is due to some temporary, removable, or self-disappearing 
cause, such as hemorrhage, snake or other poisonings that destroy the red blood-corpuscles, iron 
is of great service in hastening the recovery after the immediate activity of the cause has 
ceased. In secondary anaemias, such as those which follow impaired digestion, diarrhoea, 
abscesses, and various chronic diseases, iron should be exhibited, provided it has no injurious 
effect upon the disease which is producing the anaemia. In the class of anaemias typified by 
chlorosis, in which the anaemia is part of a subacute disease of obscure nature, iron is often 
an extraordinarily effective remedy, evidently doing something more than merely supplying 
material for the making of the red blood-corpuscles. By stimulating the organs which pro- 
duce the red blood-corpuscles, or in some other less direct manner, it evidently increases the 
manufacture of haemoglobin in the system. 
The old belief that iron is a tonic, independent of its influence upon anaemia, is a mistake, 
there being no sufficient reason for supposing that iron has other therapeutic properties than 
those of astringency and of chalybeate action, except some special preparations, such as the 
iodide and the chloride, which are peculiar in their influence by virtue of some substance in 
them other than the iron. 
The question of the selection of a preparation of iron for an individual case is often one of 
great importance. If it be simply desired to combat anaemia, a preparation should be selected 
which is free as may be from astringency or peculiar property and is suitable to the individual 
taste of the patient. Most of the liquid preparations of iron are more or less injurious to the 
teeth, so that commonly it is preferable to give a solid salt in pill or capsule rather than 
one of the liquid forms, unless the latter be especially indicated. 
The question of the capability of iron preparations of being absorbed is one which has called PART I. 
Fen-um. 
635 
for an amount of chemical investigation which is so great that even to epitomize it would carry 
us beyond the proper bounds of this article, and we are therefore forced to refer our readers to 
the last edition of H. C. Wood’s Therapeutics. It is sufficient to note that many chemists have 
asserted that most, if not all, of the official preparations of iron are practically not absorbed,— 
a conclusion which is so at variance with an overwhelming amount of clinical evidence that 
it could not, under any circumstances, be accepted by clinicians; moreover, it is at present op- 
posed by recent chemical researches, which show many fallacies underlying the older work, 
and strongly indicate the correctness of the position which clinicians have steadily held 
to,—namely, that the human body is capable of absorbing iron from almost all, if not all, 
of the pharmacopoeial preparations. Spurred on by the theory that the inorganic salts of 
iron are not absorbed, pharmaceutical chemists have devised various organic compounds 
which will be considered in detail in the second part of this book. There is, however, no 
sufficient reason for believing that these complicated and costly preparations of iron are 
in any way superior to the older official forms. Even in the official list the hand of 
the pharmaceutical chemist shows very plainly in useless multiplication. It would prob- 
ably be much better if the Pharmacopoeia recognized only a fraction of the present official 
preparations. All that can be accomplished with any preparation in simple anaemia can be 
done with reduced iron or pill of the carbonate for exhibition in solid form and the ammonio- 
citrate for liquids. No compounds in which iron is combined with an alkaloid should be 
recognized by the Pharmacopoeia or used by the practitioner. Of course such combinations 
are to a greater or less extent effective, but the proportionate amount of the alkaloid and the 
iron required in individual cases varies indefinitely, and the habitual use of a fixed proportion, 
such as is demanded by the pharmacopoeial combinations, strongly inclines the practitioner of 
medicine to careless and routine practice. The official alkaloidal-ferruginous preparations 
have no advantage whatever over extemporaneous prescriptions combining iron and the 
alkaloid. 
Certain salts of iron are extremely astringent and more or less irritant. The most 
important of these are the sulphates and the chlorides. These salts should never be em- 
ployed as chalybeates, except in those cases in which, for some reason, astringency is desired. 
Although the mildest of the pure chalybeate preparations of iron are somewhat astringent, 
and have a tendency to produce constipation, they are also somewhat irritant to the mucous 
membrane of the gastro-intestinal tract. Such salts as the sulphate or the chloride are very 
astringent and very irritating. Any functional disarrangement of the digestive organs is a 
contraindication of greater or less force to the use of iron, and when the loss of functional 
power depends upon gastric or intestinal catarrh, or upon other organic diseases of the gastro- 
intestinal mucous membrane, iron is strongly contraindicated. We have often seen great 
injury done to patients suffering from gastro-intestinal catarrh by the iron given with the 
hope of relieving the anaemia, which has been secondary to the interference with digestion 
by the disease. A second contraindication to the use of iron is a rheumatic diathesis, though 
in rare cases of chronic rheumatism in which there is pronounced anaemia iron may do good. 
In most cases some laxative should be combined with iron to overcome its constipating 
influence. 
The hypodermic use of iron has been tried to some extent. It has been shown by the 
chemists working under Prof. Robert, of Dorpat, that when a solution of iron and sodium 
citrate is injected subcutaneously in man, 40 per cent, of the iron escapes in the urine un- 
altered, the elimination of the iron usually being accompanied by pronounced renal irritation. 
The hypodermic use of some of the organic compounds of iron has been strongly recommended 
by investigators. The latest researches seem, however, to show that the iron citrate is as good 
a preparation for the hypodermic administration of iron as any other, the iron appearing in the 
urine half an hour after its injection and being present for twenty-four hours. According to 
Gloevecke, 1 C.c. of a 10 per cent, solution, thrown into the muscles of the back, causes an 
enduring sharp pain, but Lepine asserts that 2.5 C.c. of a 4 per cent, solution produces little 
or no disturbance. It is stated that after the hypodermic injection of large doses the irrita- 
tion of the alimentary canal is more severe than when the drug is given by the mouth,—a 
statement which finds confirmation in the experiments of Gottlieb, who found that when he 
injected iron subcutaneously into the dog he was able to obtain nearly 97 per cent, of it from 
the faeces. The effort at intestinal elimination is evidently accompanied by irritation if the 
amount of iron to be eliminated is large. Unsoundness of the kidney is an absolute contra- 
indication to the hypodermic use of iron; haematuria and urinary suppression have been pro- 636 
Ferrum.—Ferrum Reductum. 
PART I. 
dueed by the remedy under such circumstances. In ordinary cases of anaemia iron should not 
be used hypodermically, but when, under the influence of certain poisons, there is very rapid 
destruction of the haemoglobin the method may be employed, and trials of it in the essential 
anaemias are justifiable. 
Iron Wire. Ferri Filum. U. S. 1850. 
Fil de Fer, Fr.; Eisendraht, G.; Fil di Ferro, It.; Hilo de Hierro, Sp. 
Iron Filings. Ferri Ramenta. U. S. 1850. Limatura Ferri. 
Limailles de Fer, Fr.; Eisenfeilicht, G.; Limatura di Ferro, It.; Limatura de Hierro, Sp. 
Iron, when employed in pharmaceutical operations, should be of the purest kind; and hence 
the Pharmacopoeias generally direct it, when wanted in small masses, to be in the form of iron 
wire, which is necessarily made from the purest, because the softest and most ductile, iron, and 
is readily cut into pieces. The wire is very flexible and without elasticity. 
Iron filings are usually obtained from the workshops of the blacksmith; but, as furnished 
from this source, they are generally very impure, and unfit for medicinal use. M. Gobley, 
upon examining thirty-six samples of iron filings, found but three exempt from copper; the 
rest, besides wood, sand, and ferric oxide, contained as high as 2 per cent, of this metal. Iron 
filings cannot be completely purified by the magnet, as they often have adhering to them bits 
of foreign matter which are carried up with them. The only way to obtain them pure is to 
file a piece of pure iron with a clean file. The French Codex directs iron in an impalpable powder 
prepared by porphyrizing bright and clean iron filings without water. A dull black powder is 
formed, which must be carefully preserved from moisture. An impalpable powder of the metal, 
Ferrum Reductum, is official. 
FERRUM REDUCTUM. U. S. (Br.) Reduced Iron 
(FER'RUM RE-DUC'TUM.) 
“ A fine powder, containing at least 75 per cent, of metallic iron, with a variable amount of 
iron oxide; prepared by reducing ferric hydroxide, heated to dull redness, by a stream of dry 
hydrogen.” Br. 
Ferrum Redactum, Br., P. G., U. S. 1870; Ferri Pulvis, U. S. 1850; Powder of Iron; Ferrum Hydrogenio 
Rednetum, Ferrum Ope Hydrogenii Paratum; Iron reduced by Hydrogen, Iron by Hydrogen ; Fer redint par 
l’llydrogene, Fr.; Reducirtes Eisen, G. 
A process for this form of iron is no longer given in the United States Pharmacopoeia.* 
This preparation was introduced into the United States and Dublin Pharmacopoeias of 1850, 
and is retained in the present edition of our own, although the process for it has been abandoned. 
It consists of metallic iron in fine powder, obtained by reducing the ferric oxide by hydrogen 
at a dull red heat. The subcarbonate of the U. S. Pharm. 1870, which is essentially the ferric 
oxide, is deprived of water by calcination, and then subjected to the reducing influence of a 
stream of hydrogen, purified from hydrogen sulphide and other acid by passing successively 
through a solution of lead subacetate and milk of lime. The hydrogen unites with the 
oxygen of the ferric oxide to form water, and leaves the iron in the metallic state. The sub- 
carbonate should be perfectly free from sodium sulphate, which it is apt to contain when 
imperfectly washed. If this salt be present, it will be reduced by the hydrogen to the state 
of sodium sulphide, which will contaminate and spoil the metallic iron formed, and cause the 
preparation, when taken, to give rise to unpleasant eructations. The heat should be carefully 
regulated; for if it fall below dull redness, part of the oxide will escape reduction ; and if it 
exceed that point considerably, the particles of reduced iron will agglutinate, and the prepara- 
* Ferrum Redactum. “ Take of Subcarbonate of Iron thirty troyounces. Wash the Subcarbonate thoroughly 
with water until no traces of sulphate of sodium are indicated by the appropriate tests, and calcine it in a shallow 
vessel until free from moisture. Then spread it upon a tray, made by bending an oblong piece of sheet-iron in the 
form of an incomplete cylinder, and introduce this into a wrought-iron reduction-tube, of about four inches in 
diameter. Place the reduction-tube in a charcoal furnace; and, by means of a self-regulating generator of hydrogen, 
pass through it a stream of that gas, previously purified by bubbling successively through solution of subacetate 
of lead, diluted with three times its volume of water, and through milk of lime, severally contained in four-pint 
bottles, about one-third filled. Connect with the further extremity of the reduction-tube a lead tube bent so as to 
dip into water. Make all the junctions air-tight by appropriate lutes; and, when the hydrogen has passed long 
enough to fill the whole of the apparatus to the exclusion of atmospheric air, light the fire, and bring that part of 
the reduction-tube, occupied by the Subcarbonate, to a dull-red heat, which must be kept up so long as the bubbles 
of hydrogen, breaking from the water covering the orifice of the lead tube, are accompanied by visible aqueous 
vapor. When the reduction is completed, remove the fire, and allow the whole to cool to the ordinary temperature, 
keeping up, during the refrigeration, a moderate current of hydrogen through the apparatus. Withdraw the product 
from the reduction-tube, and, should any portion of it be black instead of iron-gray, separate such portion for use in 
a subsequent operation. Lastly, having powdered the Reduced Iron, keep it in a well-stopped bottle. When 
thirty troyounces of Subcarbonate of Iron are operated on, the process occupies from five to eight hours.” U. S. 1870. Ferrum Redudum. 
PART I. 
637 
tion will be heavy and not readily pulverizable. The 1885 British process is not so well fitted 
for practical purposes as is that of the U. S. Pharm. 1870. In the 1885 revision of the British 
Pharmacopoeia, instead of directing a certain quantity of hydrated ferric oxide, a process is 
given in the formula for making the ferric oxyhydrate by precipitating a solution of ferric 
chloride. The direction to dry the hydrogen is unnecessary. On the subject of powder 
of iron, manufacturing chemists will find it useful to consult the paper of MM. Soubeiran 
and Dublanc, in which full directions are given for purifying the hydrogen, constructing the 
furnace, regulating the heat, and avoiding explosions. (A. J. P., xviii. 303.) For improve- 
ments by Prof. Procter, see A. J. P., xix. 11. The necessity for purification of the hydro- 
gen by passing it successively through concentrated potassium permanganate solution, lead 
acetate solution, and sulphuric acid has been proved by T. Appel. (Oest. Zeit. f. Pharm., 
1892, 395.) 
Since the tenth edition of this work was published, several processes have been proposed for 
obtaining powder of iron. Mr. Arthur Morgan, of Dublin, recommended the use of dried 
potassium ferrocyanide, thoroughly mixed with anhydrous ferric oxide, and calcined with pure 
potassium carbonate at a low red heat. The product contains all the iron in a reduced state, 
mixed with soluble matters, which are carefully washed away. (See A. J. P., 1854, p. 450). A 
similar process to the above has been proposed by a German chemist, named Zangerle, iron 
oxalate being substituted for the ferric oxide. (See P. J. Tr., 1857, p. 565.) Prof. Wohler 
recommended the use of the same oxalate, not in connection with potassium ferrocyanide, 
but as a suitable compound of iron for reduction by hydrogen. W. Muller found that ferric 
oxide obtained by heating the metal in the air is reduced when moist at 293° C. (559-4° F.) ; 
when quite dry, at 305° to 339° C. (581° to 642-2° F.) ; the oxalate moist, at 278° C. (532.4° F.). 
Another eligible compound for reduction is the crystalline powder of ferric oxide, prepared by 
fusing, in a clay crucible, pure dried ferrous sulphate with three times its weight of sodium 
chloride, and then washing the melted mass when cold, until everything soluble is removed. 
(Wohler.) M. Crolas prepares a pure ferric oxide by adding barium chloride to the solu- 
tion of feme chloride to precipitate the contaminating sulphate, getting rid of the barium 
chloride by crystallization and precipitating by solution of ammonia. The ammonium chloride 
is driven off by heat. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., xx. 30.) The process of M. Eugene Fegueux 
consists in reducing the ferric oxide by carbonic oxide, formed by passing a stream of carbonic 
acid over red-hot charcoal in the reduction-tube, before it reaches the ferric oxide. The 
carbonic acid, thus reduced to carbonic oxide, is formed again by the deoxidizing of the ferru- 
ginous oxide. 
Under the name of “ alcoholized iron," a powder of iron has been introduced into this country, 
said to be prepared, in the eastern parts of Germany, by attrition of iron filings with honey, by 
some cheap method, as by attachment to a saw-mill or steam machinery. It has the appearance 
of powdered plumbago, but under the magnifying glass is seen to contain particles with the 
metallic lustre and rounded as if by friction. It is soluble in diluted sulphuric acid, with the 
escape of hydrogen free or nearly so from sulphur ; but a small quantity of a black powder 
remains undissolved. (A. J. P., 1867, p. 11.) The relation of the epithet “ alcoholized” to this 
powder is not very obvious, as this name was given originally to iron obtained by passing alco- 
hol vapor over ferric oxide. It is not much inferior to reduced iron, and is better than some 
preparations sold by that name. 
Properties. Powder of iron, called by the French fer reduit, is a light, tasteless powder, 
soft to the touch, of an iron-gray color, and without metallic lustre. If black, the preparation 
is to be rejected as not being fully deoxidized. When thrown into a dilute acid, it causes a 
lively effervescence of hydrogen without odor. A small portion of it, struck on an anvil with 
a smooth hammer, forms a scale having a brilliant metallic lustre. It takes fire upon the appli- 
cation of a burning body. On account of its great liability to oxidation, it should be kept in 
a dry bottle, well stopped. A black powder, having a composition corresponding with that of 
the magnetic oxide of iron, has been sold in London and Edinburgh under the name of Que- 
venne’s iron. The spurious powder may be known by its having a black instead of an iron- 
gray color, and by its effervescing but slightly with acids. In the process for making reduced 
iron, part of the sesquioxide almost always escapes full deoxidation, and comes out of the tube 
a black color. This part should be rejected, instead of being sold as reduced iron, as appears 
to have been done by some manufacturing chemists. If the preparation has been very badly 
made, its solution in dilute sulphuric acid will produce an intensely red color with potassium 
sulphocyanide. It is officially described as “ a very fine, grayish-black, lustreless powder, without 638 
Ferrum Reductum. 
PART I. 
odor or taste ; permanent in dry air. Insoluble in water or alcohol. When treated with diluted 
sulphuric acid, it causes the evolution of nearly odorless hydrogen gas, which should not affect 
paper moistened with lead acetate test-solution (absence of sulphide), and, on applying a gentle 
heat, the Iron should dissolve in the acid without leaving more than 1 per cent, of residue. 
When ignited, in contact with air, it glows and is converted into black ferroso-ferric oxide. If 
1 Grin, of Reduced Iron be shaken with 5 C.c. of water, the liquid should not change the color 
of litmus paper. If 0-5 Gm. of Reduced Iron be added to 5 C.c. of arsenic-free hydrochloric 
acid, and the mixture be poured upon a filter while still effervescing, 1 C.c. of the clear filtrate 
should, after the addition of 2 C.c. of stannous chloride test-solution (see List of Reagents, 
Bettendorff’s Test for Arsenic), together with a small piece of pure tin-foil, and gentle heating, 
show no brown coloration within half an hour (limit of arsenic). 
“ Estimation of the Metallic Iron. Introduce 0-56 (0-559) Gm. of Reduced Iron into a 
glass-stoppered bottle, add 50 C.c. of mercuric chloride test-solution, and heat the bottle, well 
stoppered, during one hour on a water-bath, frequently agitating. Then allow it to cool, dilute 
the contents with water to the volume of 100 C.c., and filter. To 10 C.c. of the filtrate, con- 
tained in a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.), add 10 C.c. of diluted 
sulphuric acid, and subsequently potassium permanganate decinormal volumetric solution, until a 
permanent red color is produced. The number of C.c. of the volumetric solution required, when 
multiplied by ten, will indicate the percentage of metallic iron. To confirm the assay, de- 
colorize the liquid by a few drops of alcohol, then add 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, and digest 
for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.). The cooled solution, mixed with a few 
drops of starch test-solution, should require not less than 8 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite deci- 
normal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color (each C.c. of the volumetric 
solution indicating 10 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. “A fine grayish-black powder, 
strongly attracted by the magnet, and producing metallic streaks when rubbed with firm 
pressure in a mortar. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid with the evolution of hydrogen, and 
without any smell of hydrogen sulphide, and the solution gives a light blue precipitate with 
solution of potassium ferrocyanide. If 0‘25 gramme be added to a hot solution of 1 gramme 
of copper sulphate in 15 cubic centimetres of water, in a flask that can immediately be well 
corked, and the whole be shaken occasionally during ten minutes, the liquid, after being rapidly 
filtered with the minimum of exposure to air, and acidulated with sulphuric acid, should not 
cease to yield a blue precipitate with solution of potassium ferricyani.de until at least 337 cubic 
centimetres of the volumetric solution of potassium bichromate have been added.” Br. 
J. Creuse communicated a valuable paper to the Amer. Pharm. Association in 1874, in 
which he showed the deficiencies of many brands of commercial iron by hydrogen, and recom- 
mended a test based on an estimation of the amount of hydrogen liberated from a definite 
weight of the reduced iron. An examination of the commercial Ferrum Reductum has also 
been made and the results given in Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 172, 292. O. Wilner (A. J. P., 
1881, 15) states that—1. The amount of metallic iron in reduced iron can be accurately de- 
termined by treatment with mercuric chloride and titration with potassium permanganate. 
2. If metallic iron be treated by the aid of a gentle heat with an excess of a concentrated 
solution of mercuric chloride, mercurous chloride and metallic mercury will be separated, and 
the metallic iron pass as ferrous chloride into solution; the ferrous and ferric oxides which 
may be present remain undissolved, and therefore do not prevent the estimation of the amount 
of metallic iron in the reduced iron. 3. The amount of ferrous oxide in the preparation may 
be estimated by treating the same portion with hydrochloric acid, digesting the mixture in a 
closed vessel until the finely divided ferrous oxide becomes dissolved, and titrating with 
potassium permanganate. 4. The ferric chloride which is thus formed at the same time has 
no appreciable action upon the precipitated metallic mercury and mercurous chloride. 
Medical Properties. Powder of iron, reduced from the oxide by hydrogen, was first 
prepared for medicinal purposes by Quevenne and Miquelard of Paris. It is one of the best 
of chalybeate tonics, nearly free from astringency, and, according to Quevenne and M. Costes 
of Bordeaux, yields the largest proportion of iron to the gastric juice. The chief objection to 
it is the difficulty of obtaining it well prepared. Much of the powder of iron found in commerce 
is not to be depended on, in consequence of imperfect reduction. Observations to determine 
its therapeutic value, compared with that of the other ferruginous preparations, were made by 
M. Costes, for nearly four years, at the Saint-Andr6 hospital of Bordeaux, with results highly 
favorable to it. The dose is from three to six grains (0-20-0-40 Gm.) several times a day, 
given in powder or in pill. It is sometimes prepared with chocolate in the form of lozenges. PART I. 
Ficus. 
639 
FICUS. U. S., Br. Fig. 
“ The fleshy receptacle of Ficus Carica, Linne (nat. ord. Urticaceae), beariug fruit upon its 
inner surface.” U. S. “ The dried fleshy receptacles of Ficus Carica, Linn.” Br. 
Caricae, P. G.; Ficus Passa, Fici, Fructus Caricae ; Figues, Fr.; Feigen, G.; Fichi, It.; Higos, Sp. 
Engler and Prantl divide the Urticaceae into three distinct orders,—viz., Urticaceae proper, 
including Urtica; Ulmus, including Ulmus; and the Moraceae, including Ficus, Humulus, 
and Cannabis. 
The genus Ficus yields a number of economic products. Many species possess a milky 
juice containing caoutchouc, as F. elastica Roxb., of Sumatra, etc. Some of the juices are 
employed externally as well as internally, as that of F. indica L. Some possess anthelmintic 
properties, as F. anthelmintica Mart. Some yield gum lac or shellac as a result of the puncture 
of an insect, as F. religiosa L., F. laccifera Roxb.; and some are esteemed for their fruits, as 
F. Carica L., F. religiosa L., etc. 
Ficus Carica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1131 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 714, t. 244. The fig-tree, 
though often not more than twelve feet high, sometimes rises in warm climates twenty-five or 
even thirty feet. Its trunk, which seldom exceeds seven inches in diameter, is divided into 
numerous spreading branches, covered with a brown or ash-colored bark. Its large, palmate 
leaves, usually divided into five obtuse lobes, are deep green and shining above, pale green and 
downy beneath, and stand alternately on strong, round footstalks. The flowers are situated 
within a common receptacle, placed upon a short peduncle in the axils of the upper leaves. 
This receptacle, the walls of which become thick and fleshy, constitutes what is commonly 
called the fruit; though this term is, strictly speaking, applicable to the small seed-like bodies 
found in great numbers on the internal surface of the receptacle, to which they are attached 
by fleshy pedicels. Cultivation has produced in the fig, as in the apple and peach, a great di- 
versity in shape, size, color, and taste. It is usually, however, turbinate, or top-shaped, umbili- 
cate at the large extremity, of the size of a small pear, of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish 
color, and of a mild, mucilaginous, saccharine taste. The dried figs can be partially restored 
to their original shape by soaking. The fig-tree is supposed to have come originally from the 
Levant. It was introduced at a very early period into various parts of the south of Europe, 
and is now very common throughout the whole basin of the Mediterranean, particularly in 
Italy and France. Large numbers of Syrian fig-trees were planted in the Pomona Valley, 
California, in 1890, and California figs may now be found in commerce. To hasten the ripen- 
ing of the fruit, it is customary to puncture it with a sharp-pointed instrument covered with 
olive oil. The ancient process of caprijication is still practised in the Levant. It consists in 
attaching branches of the wild fig-tree to the cultivated plant. The fruit of the former con- 
tains great numbers of the eggs of an insect of the genus Cynips, the larvae of which, as soon 
as they are hatched, spread themselves over the cultivated fruit, and, by conveying the pollen 
of the male organs over which they pass to the female florets, hasten the impregnation of the 
latter, and cause to quickly come to perfection the fig which might otherwise ripen very 
slowly, or wither and drop off before maturity. Some authors attribute the effect to the 
piercing of the fruit by the young insects. According to Landerer, the unripe fig contains 
an irritant juice, which inflames the skin, and may even disorganize it. (See A. J. P., xxxiii. 
215.) The figs, when perfectly ripe, are dried by the heat of the sun, or in ovens. Those 
imported into this country come chiefly from Smyrna, packed in drums or boxes. They are 
more or less compressed, and are usually covered in cold weather with a whitish saccharine 
efflorescence, which melts in the middle of summer and renders them moist. The best are 
yellowish or brownish, somewhat translucent when held to the light, and filled with a sweet 
viscid pulp, in which are lodged numerous small yellow seeds. They are much more saccha- 
rine than is the fresh fruit. Their chief constituents are grape sugar, and gum or mucilage. 
An average of several analyses of dried figs as quoted by Konig (Nahrungsund Genussmittel, 
3te Aufl., Bd. i. 781) gives—water, 31-20; nitrogenous material, 4-01; sugar, 49 79 ; ash, 
2-86. Reckoned on the weight of absolutely dry material, the nitrogenous matter amounted 
to 5-75 per cent, and the sugar to 72 26 per cent. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Figs are nutritious, laxative, and demulcent. In the 
fresh state they are considered, in the countries where they grow, a wholesome and agreeable 
aliment, and have been employed from time immemorial. They are apt, however, when eaten 
freely, to produce flatulence, pain in the bowels, and diarrhoea. Their chief medical use is as 
(Fl'CfiS.) 640 
Foeniculum. 
PART I. 
a laxative article of diet in constipation. They occasionally enter into demulcent decoctions, 
and, roasted or boiled, and split open, are sometimes applied as a cataplasm to inflamed gums. 
FCENICULUM. U. S. (Br.) Fennel. 
(F(K-NIC' U-LUM—fe-nlk'yu-lam.) 
“ The fruit of Foeniculum capillaceum, Gilibert (nat. ord. Umbelliferae).” U S. “ The 
dried ripe fruit of Foeniculum capillaceum, Gilib., collected from cultivated plants.” Br. 
Foeniculi Fructus, Br.; Fructus Fceniculi, P. G.; Fennel Fruit (Seed), Sweet Fennel Fruit; Fenouil, Fruits 
(Semences) de Fenouil, Fr.; Fenchel, Fenehelsamen, G.; Finnochio, It.; Hinojo, Sp. 
The plant producing fennel-seed was attached by Linnaeus to the genus Anethum, but was 
separated from it by De Candolle, and placed, with three or four others, in a new genus styled 
Foeniculum, which has been generally adopted by botanists. The Anethum Foeniculum of Lin- 
naeus embraced two varieties, the common or wild fennel, and the sweet fennel; the latter being 
the plant usually cultivated in the gardens of Europe. These are considered by De Candolle 
as distinct species, and named respectively Foeniculum vulgare and Fcenicidum dulce, but the 
correctness of the opinion of the great Swedish botanist is now generally admitted. 
Foeniculum capillaceum. Gilib. FI. Lithuan. iv. 1782.—Foeniculum vulgare. De Cand. Pro- 
drom. iv. 142.—Anethum Foeniculum. Linn.—Foeniculum Foeniculum (L.). Karst., Britton, and 
Brown. Common Fennel has a biennial or perennial tapering root, and an annual, erect, round, 
striated, smooth, green, and copiously branching stem, which usually rises three or four feet 
in height. The leaves, which stand alternately at the joints of the stem, upon membranous 
striated sheaths, are many times pinnate, with long, linear, pointed, smooth, deep-green leaflets. 
The flowers are in large, flat, terminal umbels, with from thirteen to twenty rays, and destitute 
both of general and partial involucres. The corolla consists of five petals, which, as well as 
the stamens, are golden yellow. The fruit is ovate, rather less than two lines in length by 
about a line in breadth, and of a dark color, especially in the channels. The plant is a native 
of Europe, growing wild upon sandy and chalky ground throughout the continent, and is also 
abundant in Asia, possibly extending as far as China. The variety F. officinale of Merat and 
De Lens is chiefly characterized by its fruit being twice as long as is that of the ordinary 
plant, and also a little curved, of a less dark color, with prominent ridges, and a persistent 
peduncle. It is sweeter and more aromatic than is common fennel-seed. In India fennel is 
said to be obtained from F. panmorium D. C., which is probably, however, only a variety of 
the official plant. Sicilian fennel is affirmed to be the fruit of F. piperitum. 
F. dulce. De Cand. Prodrom. iv. 142. Sweet Fennel bears a general resemblance to F. 
vulgare, but differs in having its stem somewhat compressed at the base, its radical leaves 
A. Fennel Fruits: 1, German; 2, French (curved, sweet); 
3, Galician; 4, Russian ; 6, French (bitter); 6, Indian ; 7, Japan- 
ese; 8, Persian; 9, French (straight, sweet). B. Italian Anise 
(natural size). (After Umney.) 
Fennel Fruits: 1, French (bitter); 2, Indian; 3, 
Russian; 4, French (sweet); 6, German; 7, Japan- 
ese : 8, Persian; 9, Galician. Italian Anise, 5. (After 
Umney.) 
somewhat distichous, and the number of rays in the umbel only from 6 to 8. It is also a 
much smaller plant, being only about a foot high ; its flowers appear earlier; and its young 
sweet shoots or turiones are eaten in Italy boiled or as a salad. 
The roots of fennel were formerly employed in medicine, but are generally inferior in virtues 
to the fruit, which is now the only official portion. It is stated that manufacturers of the oil 
usually distil the whole plant. Commerce is partly supplied from the product of our own gar- 
dens ; but much the larger portion of the medicine is imported from Europe, and chiefly, we 
have been informed, from Germany. During the winter of 1879 much of the seed in the 
German market was adulterated with fennel-seed partially deprived of its oil. The fennel-seed Fceniculum.—Frangula. 
641 
PART I. 
cultivated here is sweeter and more aromatic than that from abroad, probably in consequence 
of its greater freshness. Fennel-seeds (half-fruits) are oblong oval, from one to three or four 
lines in length, flat on one side, convex on the other, not infrequently connected by their flat 
surfaces, straight or slightly curved, brownish or of a dark grayish-green color, with five promi- 
nent, obtuse, yellowish ribs or ridges on the convex surface. On section the vittae, or oil-tubes, 
are seen to be very well developed and to be situated one between each pair of ridges and two 
upon the flat face of each mericarp.* There are eight chief varieties of fennel known to 
European commerce, the fruits differing very much in size and considerably in taste. The 
accompanying table, originally compiled by J. C. Umney, and the illustrations (p. 640), repre- 
sent sufficiently for the purposes of identification these different varieties. 
Variety. 
Average 
Length. 
Average Length of 
Vittoe in Trans- 
verse Section. 
Average Breadth 
ofVittse in Trans- 
verse Section. 
Percentage 
of Oil. 
Odor and Taste of Oil. 
Mm. 
Mm. 
Mm. 
1. French (sweet) 
7-8 
•11 
*04 to ‘05 
2-1 
Sweet, anise-like, and 
fatty. 
2. French (bitter) 
4-5 
•18 to -2 
•07 to -08 
Not dis- 
tilled 
3. German (Saxon) .... 
8-10 
•2 to -22 
•07 to -08 
4-7 
Sweet and very cam- 
phoraeeous. 
4. Indian 
6-7 
•1 
•03 to -04 
•72 
Sweet and anise-like. 
5. Russian 
4-5 
•2 
•04 to '05 
4-8 
Very camphoraceous. 
6. Galician 
5-6 
•2 to -22 
•08 to -10 
4-4 
Very camphoraceous. 
7. Persian 
6-7 
•15 
•05 
1-7 
Sweet and anise-like. 
8. Japanese ....... 
3-4 
•15 to -16 
•07 to -08 
2-7 
Very sweet and cam- 
phoraceous. 
Fennel Fruits. 
Schimmel & Co.'s Semi-Annual Report for April, 1897, gives as additional varieties of fennel 
—Aleppo, oil amounting to 0-75 per cent.; Macedonian, 3-4 to 3-8 per cent.; Moravian, 4 per 
cent.; Milanese, 4-2 per cent.; Roumanian, 4 6 per cent. ; Spanish, amount not stated; and 
Syrian (Damascus), 1*6 per cent. Of these, the Syrian may he the same as that called Persian 
by Umney, and the Roumanian the same as that called Russian. 
The odor of fennel-seed is fragrant, its taste warm, sweet, and agreeably aromatic. It yields 
its virtues to hot water, but more freely to alcohol. The essential oil may he separated by 
distillation with water. (See Oleum Foeniculi.') From 960 parts of the seed Neumann obtained 
20 parts of volatile and 120 of fixed oil. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Fennel-seed was used by the ancients. It is one of 
our most grateful aromatics, and in this country is much employed as a carminative, and as a 
corrigent of other less pleasant medicines, particularly senna and rhubarb. It is recommended 
for these purposes by the absence of any highly excitant property. An infusion may be pre- 
pared by introducing two or three drachms of the seeds into a pint of boiling water. The dose 
of the bruised or powdered seeds is from a scruple to half a drachm (1-3—1 95 Gm.). In 
infants the infusion is frequently employed as an enema for the expulsion of flatus. 
FRANGULA. U. S. Frangula. [Buckthorn.] 
(FRAN'GU-LA.) 
“ The bark of Rhamnus Frangula, Linne (nat. ord. Rhamneae), collected at least one year 
before being used.” U. S. 
Rhamni Frangulae Cortex, Br. (1885); Frangula Bark; Alder Buckthorn; Cortex Frangulae, P. G.j Bourdaine, 
Bourgeine, FrFaulbaumrinde, G. 
* Mrs. L. R. Stowell states that the centres of the prominent ridges of fennel fruit are small vascular bundles, 
surrounded by large clear cells, of which those near the vascular bundles are elongated and narrow, whilst those more 
distant are irregular in shape and have large oval communicating openings. 642 
Frangula. 
PART I. 
R. frangula. Linn. B. & T. 65.—Frangula. vulgaris. Reichert. The Alder Buckthorn is an 
erect glabrous shrub from ten to fifteen feet high, without thorns, with broadly ovate obtuse 
leaves, with the margins entire or slightly sinuate, the under side sometimes slightly downy, 
and the rather numerous lateral veins diverging equally almost from 
the whole length of the midrib. Flowers all hermaphrodite, two or 
three together in each axil, with the calyx, teeth, petals, and stamens 
in fives. Fruit dark purple, the size of a pea. This plant grows in 
hedges and bushy places throughout Europe and Russian Asia, except 
in the far north. 
It is probable that most of the species of the genus Rhamnus have 
cathartic properties. An article upon R. purshiana will be found 
on page 1158, as it is official in both of the Pharmacopoeias. The 
R. catharticus, Linn., or common buckthorn, grows in Europe along 
with the official species, and has become naturalized in this country. 
Its bark is probably often sold for the official article. It is distin- 
guished by its more spreading, thorny habit, and its dioecious flowers, 
which are thickly clustered in the axils and have their parts in fours. 
The leaves also are more acute, have their margins finely serrate and 
their lateral veins mostly proceeding from the proximal half of the 
midrib. The fruit is black.* 
Properties. This bark is officially described as “ quilled, about 
1 Mm. thick; outer surface grayish-brown, or blackish-brown, with 
numerous small, whitish, transversely-elongated lenticels-; -inner sur- 
face smooth, pale brownish-yellow; fracture in the outer layer short, 
of a purplish tint; in the inner layer fibrous and pale yellow; when 
masticated, coloring the saliva yellow ; nearly inodorous ; taste sweet- 
ish and bitter.” U. S. 
According to Prof. Schrenk (Amer. Drug., April, 1887)i the bark 
of Rhamnus frangula cun. be distinguished from. that, of R. purshi- 
ana (Cascara Sagrada,) by the absence of the irregular angular 
sclerenchymatous cells, which in R. purshiana are wedged together 
in large compact groups, increasing in size and number towards the 
surface, and causing the short fracture of the outer bark. 
It is not certainly known which of the several bodies isolated 
from frangula bark is the purgative principle. The most impor- 
tant body, frangulin, the rhaninoxanthin (< Buchner 
and Binswanger, may be obtained by Phipson’s process by macerating the bark for three 
or four days in carbon disulphide, then permitting the liquid to evaporate, exhausting 
Frangula bark, t, bast-pa- 
renchyma ; s, bundles of bast- 
cells. (After Berg.) 
* Tho berries, which are ripened in September, are of the size of a pea, round, somewhat flattened at top, black, 
smooth, shining, with four seeds in a green, juicy parenchyma. Their odor is unpleasant, their taste bitterish, acrid, 
and nauseous. Their blackish, expressed juice was formerly recognized in the Br. Ph. under the name of Rhamni Succus. 
It has the color, odor, and taste of the parenchyma, is reddened by the acids, and from deep green is rendered light 
green by the alkalies. Upon standing it soon begins to ferment, and becomes red in consequence of the formation of 
acetic acid. Evaporated to dryness, with the addition of lime or an alkali, it forms the color called by painters sap- 
green. The dried fruit of another species, R. infectorius, yields a rich yellow color, and is employed in the arts 
under the name of French berries. M. Fleury obtained a peculiar crystallizable principle, rhamnin ; but he did not 
ascertain whether it possessed cathartic properties. (See Journ. de Pharm., xxvii. 666.) Winckler obtained from 
the ripe fruit a principle which he called cathartin, and believes that the rhamnin of Fleury, which was obtained 
from the unripe berries, is converted into that principle and grape sugar as the fruit matures. (Chem. Gaz., viii. 232.) 
Lefort {Journ. de Pharm., 1866, p. 420) studied Fleury’s rhamnin, and describes it as forming pale yellow, trans- 
lucent tables. It is scarcely soluble in cold water, soluble in hot alcohol, insoluble in ether or carbon disulphide. 
It is very soluble in caustic alkalies, from which it is precipitated by mineral acids. He gives it the formula 
C12II12O5 -f 2II2O. Lefort also found a principle, rhamnegin, soluble in cold water, but otherwise agreeing in prop- 
erties with rhamnin. Schiitzenberger (1868) decomposed rhamnegin, proving it to be a glucoside, having the for- 
mula C24H32O14, and yielding rhamnetin, C12H1GO5, and a sugar isomeric with mannite. Schiitzenberger also found a 
body isomeric with rhamnegin, and distinguished the two as a rhamnegin and 0 rhamnegin, which, with Lefort’s 
rhamnin, are present in buckthorn juice. Liebermann and Hormann (Per. Chem. Ges., xi. (1878), pp. 952, 1618) 
confirm Schiitzenberger’s results, and give the name of xanthorhamnin to his a rhamnegin. They find his formula 
C12II10O5 for rhamnetin to be correct, but get results that give for xanthorhamnin rather the formula C48H66O29. Both 
the berries and their expressed juice are active hydragogue cathartics, apt to cause nausea and severe griping, and 
at one time much used in dropsy and also in rheumatism and gout. The dose of the recent berry is said to be about 
a scruple (1’3 Gm.), of the dried a drachm (3-9 Gm.), and of the expressed juice a fluidounce (30 C.c.). 
Among other species of Rhamnus which have claimed attention are R.ioightii, a common shrub of Madras and 
Bombay (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1888), and R. humboldtiana, of Mexico, which Dr. S. E. Sosa states sometimes produces 
paralysis in children {El Estudio, 1890). Frangula.— Galbanum. 
PART I. 
643 
the residue with alcohol, which leaves the fatty matter behind, evaporating the alcoholic liquid 
to dryness, and recrystallizing from ether. As thus obtained it is in fine yellow crystals, melt- 
ing at about 226° C. (438-8° F.), and subliming in golden-yellow needles. It is insoluble in 
water, soluble in 160 parts of warm 80-per-cent, alcohol, nearly insoluble in cold alcohol, solu- 
ble in hot fixed oils, benzin, and oil of turpentine. It communicates its color to cotton, silk, 
and wool. Faust (.Archiv d. Pharm., 187, 8) first proved the glucosidal character of frangulin 
by boiling it in alcoholic solution with hydrochloric acid, obtaining glucose and frangulinic acid, 
C14H804. This forms fine microscopic needles of reddish color, fusing at 248°-250° C. Lie- 
bermann and Waldheim (Ber. Chem. Ges., 9, p. 1775) obtained in this decomposition instead 
of frangulinic acid emodin, C16H1006, which they consider to be trioxymethylanthraquinone. 
Frangulinic acid, on the other hand, would be a dioxyanthraquinone and an isomer of alizarin. 
Schwabe, in 1888, also found that emodin and rhamnodulcite were the decomposition products 
of frangulin, to which latter he gave the formula C21H2009, instead of that given above by 
Buchner. (Planchon et Collin, Drogues Simples (1896), vol. ii. 590.) 
Medical Properties. In its fresh state this drug is very irritant to the gastro-intestinal 
mucous membrane, producing, when taken in sufficient quantity, violent catharsis, accompanied 
by vomiting and much pain. During drying it is said to lose much of its irritant powers, and 
the dried bark is affirmed to resemble rhubarb in its action: hence the direction of the British 
Pharm. 1885 that the bark should be at least one year old. A decoction (half an ounce to the 
half-pint) may be used in tablespoonful doses, or a dessertspoonful of an elixir, four fluid- 
ounces of the fluid extract to twelve of elixir of orange, or the official fluid extract in doses 
of from fifteen to thirty minims (0-9 to 1-9 C.c.). 
GALBANUM. Br. Galbanum. 
“ A gum-resin obtained from Ferula galbaniflua, Boiss. and Bubse, and probably from other 
species.” Br. 
Gummi-Resina Galbanum; Galban, Mutterharz, G.; Galbano, It., Sp. 
It is uncertain from what plant galbanum is derived. At one time it was supposed to be the 
product of Bubon galbanum, an umbelliferous plant of the eastern coast of Africa. It has 
also been referred to the Ferula ferulago of Linnaeus, the Ferula galbanifera of Lobel, which 
inhabits the coast of the Mediterranean and is found also in Transylvania and the Caucasus. 
But no part of either of these plants has the odor of galbanum ; and it is, therefore, scarcely 
probable that they yield the drug. Mr. Don, having found the seeds taken from a parcel of 
galbanum to belong to an undescribed genus of umbelliferous plants, and concluding that they 
came from the same source as the gum-resin itself, gave the title of Galbanum to the new genus, 
and named the species Galbanum officinale. This was rather hastily adopted by the London 
College : it is by no means certain that the same plant produced the seeds and the gum-resin. 
Specimens of a plant were received in England from Persia having a concrete juice adhering 
to them, which was taken by Dr. Lindley for galbanum ; and that botanist, finding that the 
plant belonged to an undescribed genus, named it Opoidia, with the specific name galbanifera. 
Dr. Pereira, however, found the substance not to be galbanum ; and this supposed origin of the 
drug, therefore, must be considered as extremely doubtful. A German traveller, F. A. Buhse, 
who has resided in Persia, states that in 1848 he met with the galbanum plant on the de- 
clivities of the Demavend, near the southern coast of the Caspian. He saw the gum-resin 
exuding spontaneously from the plant, and was informed by the natives that the drug was 
collected from it. The plant is a Ferula, and has received the name of F. galbaniflua, Boissier 
and Buhse. Buhse also states that the Persian galbanum is yielded by a second plant, which 
is doubtfully distinct from F. galbaniflua; this is the F. rubricaulis, Boissier (F. erubescens, 
Berg). Mr. Holmes is of the opinion (P. J. Tr., 1891, 194) that “Levant” galbanum is 
yielded by Ferula galbaniflua and its variety [3-Ancheri ; that solid “ Persian” comes possibly 
from F. Schair, Borsez; while the liquid “ Persian,” judging from the fruits found in it, is de- 
rived from an undescribed species allied to F. galbaniflua. It would also appear that the F. 
galbanum of Aitchison is not identical with that of Boissier, and that neither this species nor 
F. rubricaulis yields galbanum ; and that, further, all the varieties of galbanum of commerce 
come through Persia. Galbanum is said to be obtained by making incisions into the stem, or 
cutting it off a short distance above the root. A cream-colored juice exudes, which concretes 
upon exposure to the air. A portion of juice also exudes spontaneously from the joints, and 
(GXL'BA-NUM.) 644 
Galbanum. 
PART I. 
hardens in the shape of tears. It was formerly official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, hut was 
dropped in the 1890 revision. 
Properties. Galbanum usually appears in the form of masses composed of whitish, red- 
dish, or yellowish tears, from the size of a pin’s head to that of a pea and larger, irregularly 
agglutinated by a darker-colored yellowish-brown or greenish substance, more or less translucent, 
and generally mixed with pieces of stalk, seeds, or other foreign matters. It is also found, 
though rarely, in our markets, in the state of distinct roundish tears, about as large as a pea, 
of a yellowish-white or pale brownish-yellow color, shining externally as if varnished, trans- 
lucent, and often adhering together. Galbanum has in cool weather the consistence of firm 
wax, but softens in summer, and by the heat of the hand is rendered ductile and adhesive. At 
100° C. (212° F.) it is sufficiently liquid to admit of straining; and it generally requires to be 
strained before it can be used. A dark-brown or blackish color, a consistence always soft, the 
absence of whitish grains, a deficiency in the characteristic odor and taste, and the intermixture 
of earthy impurities are signs of inferiority. According to Hirschsohn (Pharm. Zeit. f Russl., 
1893, 353), galbanum of commerce differs from that formerly found in the market; its con- 
sistence is now like that of white turpentine, although the odor is still that of Levant gal- 
banum ; the greatest difference is shown in the action of strong acids and solvents on it. (See 
A. J. P., 1893, 384.) 
The odor of galbanum is peculiar and disagreeable; its taste bitterish, warm, and acrid ; its 
sp. gr. 1-212. Triturated with water, it forms an imperfect milky solution, which on standing 
deposits the greater portion of what was taken up. Wine and vinegar act upon it in a similar 
manner. Alcohol dissolves a considerable proportion, forming a yellow tincture, which has the 
smell and taste of galbanum, and becomes milky with water, but affords no precipitate. In 
dilute alcohol it is wdiolly soluble, with the exception of impurities. Ether dissolves the greater 
portion. “ When moistened with alcohol, galbanum acquires a purple color on the addition of 
a little hydrochloric acid.” U. S. 1880. According to Conrady, the composition of galbanum 
is: ethereal oil, 9-5 per cent.; resin, soluble in alcohol, 63-5 per cent.; and gum and impu- 
rities, 27 per cent. The purified resin was found by Conrady to contain about 20 per cent, of 
combined umbelliferone, about 0-25 per cent, of free umbelliferone, and about 50 per cent, of 
galbaresino-tannol. This latter representative of the class of resino-tannols first established by 
Tschirch was proved to have the alcohol character by forming the acetyl and benzoyl deriv- 
atives. Conrady also considers that the umbelliferone is combined with this galbaresino-tannol 
in the form of an ester. The volatile oil he found to consist essentially of a hydrocarbon of 
the formula C10Hie, with small amounts of a sesquiterpene, C16H24. When the oil is extracted 
by solvents it is free from acid reaction, but when distilled with steam it acquires an acid 
reaction, and notable quantities of isovaleric acid are developed. These fatty acids are prob- 
ably bound up as esters in the cold extracted oil. (Archiv d. Pharm., 232 (1894), 98.) The 
crude oil is dextrogyrate. The resin, constituting about 60 percent., is very soft, and dissolves 
in ether or in alkaline liquids, even in milk of lime, but only partially in carbon disulphide. 
When heated with hydrochloric acid for some time, it yields umbelliferone, C9H603, which may 
be dissolved from the acid liquid by means of ether or chloroform, and obtained on evaporation 
in colorless acicular crystals. The aqueous solution of umbelliferone exhibits, especially on 
addition of an alkali, a brilliant blue fluorescence, which is destroyed by an acid. If a small 
fragment of galbanum be immersed in water, a fluorescence will be produced by a drop of 
ammonia. Asafetida shows the same reaction, but ammoniac does not. 
Galbanum submitted to dry distillation yields a thick oil of brilliant blue color. This oil on 
rectification yields a greenish portion, and then a superb blue oil. Kachler (Per. Ch. Ges., 
1871, p. 36) found a colorless oil, C10Hie, and a blue oil, C10HieO, boiling at 289° C. The 
blue oil, according to Kachler, after purification, agrees with the blue oil of the flowers of 
Matricaria chamomilla. By fusing galbanum resin with potash, Hlasiwetz and Barth (Ann. 
Ch. Pharm., 130, p. 354) obtained resorcin, together with acetic and volatile fatty acids. 
According to Ludewig, a gum-resin, designated as Persian galbanum, is received in Russia by 
the way of Astrakhan or Orenburg, and is the kind used in that country. It comes enclosed in 
skins, and is in masses of a reddish-brown color with whitish streaks, of a disagreeable odor, 
somewhat like that of asafetida, and of an unpleasant, bitter, resinous taste. It is so soft as 
to melt with a slight elevation of temperature. It differs from common galbanum in its odor, 
in its color, which is never greenish, and in the absence of tears, and is probably derived from 
a different plant. It abounds in impurities. This variety of galbanum is probably the same 
as that obtained by Dr. Aitchison in Afghanistan, which on chemical examination yielded— PART I. 
Galla, 
645 
volatile oil, 3-108 per cent.; resin (ether extractive, 61-2, alcohol extractive, 7-576), 68-776; 
water extractive (gum), 17-028 ; insoluble matter, 10-56. (P. J. Tr., Dec. 11, 1886.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Galbanum was known to the ancients. It is stimulant, 
expectorant, and antispasmodic, and is considered as intermediate in power between ammoniac 
and asafetida. It has chiefly been used in chronic affections of the bronchial mucous mem- 
brane, amenorrhcea, and chronic rheumatism. It is occasionally applied externally as a plaster 
to indolent swellings, with the view of promoting resolution or suppuration. The dose is from 
ten to twenty grains (0-65-1-3 Gm.), and may be given in pill, or triturated with gum arabic, 
sugar, and water, so as to form an emulsion. 
GALLA. U. S., Br. Nutgall. [Galls.] 
“ An excrescence on Quercus lusitanica, Lamarck (nat. ord. Cupuliferae), caused by the punc- 
tures and deposited ova of Cynips Gallae tinctoriae, Olivier (class, Insecta; order, Hymenop- 
tera).” JJ. S. “ Excrescences on Quercus infectoria, Olivier, resulting from the puncture and 
deposition of an egg or eggs of Cynips Gallae tinctoriae.” Br. 
Gall®, P. G.; Gale Halepense, vel Hercica, vel Levantica, vel Tinctoria, vel Quercina; Galle de Chene, Noix de 
Galle, Fr.; Gallapfel, G.; Galla, It.; Agallas de Levante, Sp. 
Many plants, when pierced by certain insects, particularly those of the genus Cynips, are 
affected at the points of puncture with a morbid action, resulting in excrescences, which, as 
they are derived from the juices of the plant, partake more or less of its chemical character. 
Most of the oaks are occasionally thus affected; and the resulting excrescences, having in a 
high degree the astringency of the plant, have been employed for various practical purposes. 
They are known by the name of galls, a term which, as well as their use in medicine, has been 
handed down from the ancients. Quercus infectoria, Q. segilops, Q. excelsa, Q. ilex, Q. cerris, 
and Q. robur have been particularized as affording this product; but it is now generally admitted, 
on the authority of Olivier, that the official galls are derived chiefly, if not exclusively, from 
Q. infectoria.* 
Quercus infectoria. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 436 ; Olivier, Voy. Orient. 1.14 et 15 ; Carson, lllust. 
of Med. Bot. ii. 40, pi. 85. The dyer's oak is a small tree or shrub, with a crooked stem, 
seldom exceeding six feet in height. The leaves are obtusely toothed, smooth, of a bright- 
green color on both sides, and stand on short footstalks. The acorn is elongated, smooth, two 
or three times longer than the cup, which is sessile, somewhat downy, and scaly. This species 
of Quercus grows, according to Olivier, throughout Asia Minor, from the Archipelago to the 
confines of Persia. Captain M. Kinnier found it also in Armenia and Kurdistan ; General 
Hardwicke observed it growing in the neighborhood of Adwanie ; and it probably pervades the 
middle latitudes of Asia. 
The gall originates from the puncture of the Cynips quercHsfolii of Linnaeus, the Diplolepis 
gallse tinctorise of Geoffroy, a hymenopterous insect or fly, with a fawn-colored body, dark 
antennae, and tbe upper part of its abdomen shining brown. The insect pierces the shoots and 
young boughs, and deposits its egg in the wound. This irritates the part, and a small tumor 
quickly rises, which is the result of a morbid growth, exhibiting various cells under the micro- 
scope, but no proper vegetable fibre. The egg grows with the gall, and is soon converted into 
(gXl'la.) 
* Under the name of Chinese galls, a product has been brought from China, supposed to be caused by an insect allied 
to the aphis, as such an insect has been found in the interior of them. They are irregularly spindle-shaped, often 
more or less bent, with obtusely pointed protuberances, about two inches long by an inch in diameter at the central 
thickest part, of an ash color and a soft velvety feel, very light, hollow, with translucent walls about a line in thick- 
ness, of a slight odor recalling that of ipecacuanha, and a bitter astringent taste. From an examination of fragments 
of leaves and petioles found among these galls, Dr. Schenck concluded that the tree on which they are found is a 
species of Rhus; but according to M. Decaisne, professor at the Museum of Natural History in Paris, their true 
source is probably the Distylium racemosum of Zuccarini (Flor. Japan., i. p. 178, t. 94), a large tree of Japan, the 
leaves of which produce a velvety gall, resembling the one in question. (Guibourt, Hist. Nat. des Drogues, 1850, iii. 
703.) More recently, however, it has been asserted by Mr. Daniel Hanbury that this opinion of Decaisne is errone- 
ous (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1862, p. 421), as in his examination of the packages imported from China and Japan he has 
found remains of different parts of a species of Rhus, but never any of a Distylium. Besides, the form of the galls 
of the Distylium, as figured by Siebold and Zuccarini, is entirely different. The species of Rhus which yields the 
commercial Chinese galls is the R. semi-alata. (Murray.) The Chinese make great use of this product both in dyeing 
and as a medicine. L. A. Buchner, Jr., has found it to contain 65 per cent, of tannic acid identical with that of the 
official galls. (Pharm. Centralblatt, July, 1851, p. 526.) It is recommended by St.enhouse for the manufacture of 
gallic acid, being preferable for this purpose to the official galls, in consequence of its less amount of coloring matter. 
(P. J. Tr., Dec. 1862.) An inferior kind of galls is produced in great quantities in England, by the attack of the 
Cynips kollari of Hartig, upon the common English oak; but they have been ascertained to contain little tannic 
acid, and are of little value. 646 
Galla. 
PART I. 
a larva, which feeds upon the vegetable matter around it, and thus forms a cavity in the centre 
of the excrescence. The insect at length becomes a fly, and escapes by eating its way out. 
The galls are in perfection when fully developed, before the egg has been hatched or the fly 
has escaped. Collected at this period, they are called, from their dark color, bhie, green, or 
black galls, and are most highly esteemed. Those which are gathered later and have been 
injured by the insect are white galls. They are usually larger, less heavy and compact, and of 
a lighter color than the former. 
The galls collected in Syria and Asia Minor are brought to this country chiefly from the 
ports of Smyrna and Trieste, or from London. As they are produced abundantly near Aleppo, 
it has been customary to designate them by the name of that town; though the designation, 
however correct it may formerly have been, is now wholly inapplicable, as they are obtained 
from many other places, and the produce of different parts of Asiatic Turkey is not capa- 
ble of being discriminated, at least in our markets. Great quantities of galls, very closely 
resembling those from the Mediterranean, have been brought to the United States from Cal- 
cutta. Dr. Hoyle states that they are taken to Bombay from Bussorah through the Persian 
Gulf. We are, nevertheless, informed that galls are among the products of Moultan. Those 
of France and other southern countries of Europe have a smooth, shining reddish surface, 
are little esteemed, on account of their small yield of tannin, and are seldom brought to the 
United States. 
Properties. Galls are nearly round, from the size of a pea to that of a very large cherry, 
with a surface usually studded with small tuberosities, in the intervals of which it is smooth. 
The best are externally of a dark bluish or lead color, sometimes with a greenish tinge, inter- 
nally whitish or brownish, hard, solid, brittle, with a flinty fracture, a striated texture, and a 
small spot or cavity in the centre, indicating the presence of the undeveloped or decayed insect. 
Their powder is of a light yellowish gray. Those of inferior quality are of a lighter color, 
sometimes reddish or nearly white, of a loose texture, with a large cavity in the centre, com- 
municating externally by a small hole through which the fly has escaped. The U. S. P. directs 
that “ light, spongy, and whitish-colored Nutgalls should be rejected,” but allows “ in the centre 
a cavity containing either the partly developed insect, or pulverulent remains left by it,” and 
therefore permits white galls of good quality. Galls have a bitter, very astringent taste, and 
when whole are inodorous or nearly so, but bruised or in powder they have a decided and pe- 
culiar though not very strong smell. The tannin of galls, usually known as gallo-tannic acid, 
appears to exist in the galls, in part at least, as a glucoside, but one very easily broken up by 
ferments like pectase into glucose and di-gallic acid, C14H1009, which is the material, therefore, 
extracted from the galls. This di-gallic acid may be considered as the anhydride of gallic acid, 
C7H606, formed from two molecules of this latter by the elimination of one molecule of water. 
Commercial tannin yields from 0 to 22 per cent, of glucose, showing the presence of varying 
amounts of the unaltered glucoside. Galls yield, on an average, from 65 to 77 per cent, 
of tannin. (See Acidurn Tannicum and Acidum Gallicum, pages 98 and 48; see also “ The 
Tannins,” by Henry Trimble, J. B. Lippincott Co., 1892.) All the soluble matter of galls is 
taken up by forty times their weight of boiling water, and the residue is tasteless. Alcohol 
dissolves seven parts in ten, ether five parts. (Thomson's Dispensatory.') A saturated decoc- 
tion deposits upon cooling a copious pale-yellow precipitate. The infusion or tincture affords 
precipitates with sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, lime water, and ammonium and potas- 
sium carbonates, with solutions of lead acetate and subacetate, copper and iron sulphates, 
silver and mercury nitrates, and potassio-antimonyl tartrate; with solution of gelatin ; and 
with the infusions of Peruvian bark, columbo, opium, and many other vegetables, especially 
those containing alkaloids, with most of which tannic acid forms insoluble compounds. The 
infusion of galls reddens litmus paper, is rendered orange by nitric acid, milky by mercuric 
chloride, and has its color deepened by ammonia, but yields no precipitate with either of these 
reagents. Zinc sulphate was said by Dr. A. T. Thomson to slowly occasion a precipitate, but 
this result was not obtained by Dr. Duncan. Infusion of galls is rendered more permanent by 
the addition of 10 per cent, of glycerin. 
A variety of galls was imported into Germany, which was said to be derived from Central 
Asia, especially from the provinces of Khokan, Khiva, and Bokhara, where they are used in 
dyeing. They are of various forms, some being long, others round, cylindrical, or angular; 
and sometimes they are grouped upon a single stalk, and covered with little elevations. They 
differ from all other galls by their color, being on one side yellow, and on the other of a fine 
red. Most of them present a little opening; and in the interior are eggs and larvae of a .pe- PART I. 
Gelatinum. 
647 
culiar species of aphis. They have yielded, on analysis, 43-10 per cent, of tannin, 3-03 of a 
green wax, 16 of cellulose, and an undetermined quantity of fecula and volatile oil. (R. Paine, 
Journ. de Pharm., Avril, 1873.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Galls are powerfully astringent, but are no longer used 
internally* 
GELATINUM. Br. Gelatin. 
Gelatine; Gallerte, G. 
“ The air-dried product of the action of boiling water on such animal tissues as skin, tendons, 
ligaments, and bones.” Br. 
Gelatin is the term applied to purified forms of the substance ordinarily known as glue, and 
the bones and animal matter from which the best qualities of gelatin are prepared are carefully 
selected so as to be free from decomposed products and odorous substances. The hot solution 
of gelatin must be thoroughly clarified if the so-called sparkling gelatin is to be made. The 
surface of sheet gelatin is covered with lozenge-shaped marks, due to impressions left by 
the knotted netting upon which it is dried. Shred gelatin is made by cutting sheet gelatin 
into very narrow shreds by a shearing-machine. (See Nat. Drug., 1894, 134.) Gelatose and 
Paragelatose are terms used by Dastre and Floresco to define gelatin which has lost its power 
of “ gelatinization” through the action of ferments or microbes, saline solutions, or the pro- 
longed action of boiling water. (P. J. Tr., 1895, 454.) 
It is officially described as “ In translucent and almost colorless sheets or shreds. A solution 
in 50 parts of hot water is inodorous, and solidifies to a jelly on cooling. Gelatin is insoluble 
in alcohol (90 per cent.) and ether. It dissolves in acetic add. Its aqueous solution yields a 
precipitate with solution of tannic acid, but not with solutions of other acids, nor with solution 
of alum, solution of lead acetate, or test-solution of ferric chloride." Br. 
Gelatin is largely used for making capsules. Certain medicines are so offensive to the taste, 
and consequently so apt to sicken the stomach, that it is highly desirable to administer them 
in such a way as to prevent their contact with the tongue and palate. This object is fully 
accomplished, so far as regards many disagreeable liquid medicines, by the use of the capsules 
of gelatin. A polished bulb of iron, ivory, or bone, of the size and shape of the capsules re- 
quired, and connected by a slender rod with a handle, is first greased by rubbing with an oiled 
cloth, and then dipped into a solution of gelatin made by heating six parts of pure gelatin 
with one of sweetened water. Upon being withdrawn, it is held for a short time so as to allow 
the excess of the solution to run off, and then fixed with the handle in a board, the coated bulb 
being upward, until the coating becomes cold and firm. The capsule is now removed by the 
fingers, and further dried by exposure on a tray. A number of capsules having been prepared, 
they are placed each in a small cell upon a board, with their mouths upward ; and the liquid 
they are to contain is introduced by means of a syringe with a fine point. Their mouths are 
then closed with a drop of the solution of gelatin applied by means of a camel’s-hair pencil, 
which is afterwards strengthened by an additional coating, given by dipping the mouth of the 
capsule into the solution diluted with a little water. (Redwood's Supplement, p. 664.) The 
capsules may be made of such a capacity as to contain from ten to fifteen grains of copaiba 
or other liquid. Capsules are now largely used for enclosing dry powders like quinine, etc. 
These are ovoid in shape, and, after being filled with the powder by the pharmacist, are closed 
by putting upon the open end a rounded gelatin cap and pressing it down tightly. When so- 
called soft capsules are desired, a small quantity of glycerin is introduced into the gelatin mass: 
this makes the film elastic by preventing its drying completely. 
Medical Properties. Gelatin is devoid of medical properties. It was recognized by the 
British Pharmacopoeia solely because of its use in making the suppositories of glycerin. 
(SE-LAT'I-N0m.) 
* Aromatic Syrup of Galls. The following old formula based upon one of Dr. Physick’s is still sometimes em- 
ployed. Macerate for twenty-four hours half an ounce of powdered galls, two drachms of bruised cinnamon, and 
two drachms of bruised nutmeg, in half a pint of brandy; then percolate, and, when the liquor has ceased to pass, 
add enough diluted alcohol to yield half a pint of filtered liquor. Put this into a shallow capsule, suspend over it 
two ounces of sugar on a slip of wire gauze, and set the tincture on fire. The sugar melts with the flame, and falls 
into the liquid beneath. When the combustion ceases, agitate and filter. A highly astringent aromatic syrup is 
obtained, a fluidrachm of which may be given in diarrhoea. (A. J. P., xxvii. 416.) 648 
Gelsemium. 
PART I. 
GELSEMIUM. U. S. (Br.) Gelsemium. [Yellow Jasmine.] 
((/EL-sSM'I-UM.) 
“ The rhizome and roots of Grelsemium sempervirens (Linn6), Persoon (nat. ord. Logania- 
ceae.” U. S. “ The dried rhizome and roots of G-elsemium nitidum, Michaux.” Br. 
Gelsemii Radix, Br., Gelsemium Root, Yellow Jessamine; Jasmin sauvage, Fr.j Gelsemie, Giftjasmin, 0.; 
Gelsemio, Sp. 
Gelsemium sempervirens (L.), Ait. f. Britton and Brown; also Ait. f. (1811).—Bignonia 
sempervirens, L. (1753).— Gelsemium nitidum, Miehx. (1803). The yellow or Carolina jasmine 
is one of the most beautiful climbing plants of our Southern States, ascending lofty trees, 
and forming festoons from one tree to another, and during its flowering season, in the early 
spring, scenting the atmosphere with its delicious odor. The stem is twining, smooth, and 
shining; the leaves perennial, opposite, shortly petiolate, lanceolate, entire, dark green above, 
and paler beneath; the flowers in axillary clusters, large, of a deep-yellow color, and fragrant, 
with a very small, five-leaved calyx, and a funnel-shaped corolla, having a spreading, five- 
lobed, nearly equal border. The fruit is a flat, compressed capsule, divisible into two parts, 
two-celled, and furnished with flat seeds, which adhere to the margins of the valves. The 
plant grows in rich, moist soils along the sea-coast from Virginia to the south of Florida. The 
flowers are said to be poisonous. 
Properties. As we have seen it in commerce, the rhizome is sliced into pieces, about an 
inch in length, cylindrical or split, very light and fibrous, of a dirty yellowish-white color, but 
darker where the epidermis remains, of a slight, feebly narcotic odor, and a bitterish, not un- 
pleasant taste. It is officially described as “ cylindrical, long, or cut in sections, mostly from 5 
to 15 Mm. and occasionally 3 Cm. thick, the roots much thinner ; externally light yellowish- 
brown, with purplish-brown, longitudinal lines ; tough; fracture splintery; bark thin, with 
silky bast-fibres, closely adhering to the pale yellowish, porous wood, which has fine, medullary 
rays, and in the rhizome a thin pith ; odor aromatic, heavy ; taste bitter.” The accompanying 
figure shows in transverse section the widening of the medullary rays from within outward ; 
another microscopic character, said by Prof. Hothrock to be diagnostic, is the more or less com- 
Gelsemium, transverse section. Gelsemium. 
649 
PART I. 
plete division of the pith into four parts by plates of large, thin-walled cells. (A. J. P., 1884.) 
For elaborate study of structure of Gelsemium, see A. J. P., 1898. Gelsemium yields its 
virtues to water, and readily to diluted alcohol. Analyzed by Mr. Henry Kollock, it was 
found to contain gum, starch, pectic acid, albumen, gallic acid, fixed oil, a fatty resin, a dry 
acrid resin, yellow coloring matter, volatile oil, extractive lignin, a peculiar alkaloid called 
gelsemine, salts of potassa, lime, and magnesia, iron, and silica. The alkaloid, however, was 
not obtained sufficiently pure to admit of a full investigation of its properties. (A. J. P., 
xxvii.) After Mr. Kollock’s experiments, the alkaloid was obtained in a crystalline form, but 
still impure, by Prof. Maisch, from a tincture of the root, by a process of which a very brief 
abstract is given in A. J. P., 1869, by Mr. C. L. Eberle, who in the same paper publishes the 
results of his own investigation. Mr. Eberle not only extracted gelsemine, but also satisfacto- 
rily established its alkaline properties, and proved that it was not contained in the wood of 
the root. Soon afterwards, the chemistry of yellow jasmine was more thoroughly investigated 
by Prof. Theo. G. Wormley. (A. J. P., 1870.) He obtained pure gelsemine from the root, 
and a peculiar acid, which he called gelsemmic (gelsemic) acid. 
Gelsemic or Gelsemmic Acid. Prof. Wormley obtains the acid from a fluid extract of the 
root, which is actually a concentrated tincture, by evaporating it on a water-bath to about 
one-eighth of its volume, adding to the residue several times its bulk of pure water, allowing 
the mixture to stand until the supernatant liquid is nearly or quite clear, then transferring to 
a filter, washing the solids well with water, and reducing the filtrate thus obtained, together 
with the washings, on a water-bath, to about the volume of the concentrated fluid extract. 
To this, filtered if necessary, hydrochloric acid is added in the proportion of a drop of the 
pure acid to each fluidounce of the original fluid extract; the acidulated liquid is then agitated 
with twice its volume of ether; and, after the liquids have separated, the ethereal portion is 
decanted, the aqueous liquid again agitated with a similar quantity of ether, which is in its 
turn decanted, and the watery part finally washed with about its volume of ether. On mix- 
ing the ethereal liquids thus obtained, and allowing them to evaporate spontaneously, the gel- 
semic acid is left, chiefly in the form of nearly colorless groups of crystals, together with more 
or less yellowish or brownish resinous matter. From this the crystals are separated by wash- 
ing with a little cold absolute alcohol, which dissolves the resin, with but a little of the crys- 
tals. To purify the crystals further, they are mixed with a little hot water, and extracted 
from the mixture when cool by chloroform, which, on spontaneous evaporation, yields them 
nearly if not quite colorless. The acid, when pure, is colorless, inodorous, almost tasteless, and 
readily crystallizable, usually in groups or tufts of fine needles. The action of concentrated 
nitric acid may be considered as a test. If a drop of this acid be added to gelsemic acid or 
any of its salts, it forms a yellow, reddish, or red solution, which if treated with ammonia in 
excess becomes of a deep blood-red color, lasting for hours. The yttcif a grain will exhibit 
these changes. Caustic potassa, soda, or ammouia, added to the acid, causes it to become in- 
tensely yellow, and forms with it highly fluorescent solutions. The acid is fusible, and, at a 
high heat, volatilizable without change. Robbins (Deut. Chem. Ges., 1876,1182), who has also 
investigated gelsemic acid, states that it is identical with sesculin (the glucoside of the horse- 
chestnut), and gives it the formula C15H160e -j- l£HaO. Dragendorff and Schwartz both 
believed with Robbins that gelsemic acid was identical with sesculin. The subject was (A. 
J. P., July, 1882) re-examined by Prof. Wormley, who found that gelsemic acid differs from 
aesculin in the following well-marked particulars: 1, in crystallization, the gelsemic acid crys- 
tallizing much more readily; 2, in solubility, the gelsemic acid being more soluble in ether and 
less soluble in water than aesculin; 3, gelsemic acid is not soluble in hydrochloric acid, while 
aesculin is ; 4, corrosive sublimate gives a copious yellow precipitate with gelsemic acid, while 
it gives no result with aesculin; 5, copper sulphate and lead acetate yield precipitates with 
gelsemic acid differing from those of the same reagents with aesculin. The conclusion of 
Wormley, that they are “very different substances,” has been confirmed by Coblentz. (Proc. 
A. P. A., 1897, 225.) He found that gelsemic acid was not a glucoside, as it remained un- 
changed after prolonged boiling with dilute acids, no reaction with phenylhydrazine being 
obtainable. Robbins’s reaction with Fehling’s solution Coblentz explains by showing that 
gelsemic acid has active reducing powers upon copper, silver, mercury, and other similar 
metallic salts. The differences between it and aesculin may be thus summarized. iEsculin, 
formula C15H1609 -f- 1?H20, melts at 160° C.; gelsemic acid, formula melts at 
206° C.; sesculin forms a penta-acetyl derivative melting at from 203°—206° C.; gelsemic acid 
forms a diacetyl derivative melting at 180° C.; aesculin splits up into sugar and aesculetin; 650 
Gelsemium. 
PART I. 
gelsemic acid does not hydrolyze; aesculin forms a bromine derivative melting at from 193°- 
195° C.; gelsemic acid forms a bromine derivative melting at 250° C. 
Coblentz found that one part of gelsemic acid was soluble in 1490 parts of distilled water at 
30° C., in 415 parts of absolute ether at 22° C., in 135 parts of chloroform at 24° C., and 
readily soluble in hot alcohol and glacial acetic acid. 
Gelsemine. This may be obtained, according to Wormley, from the concentrated extract 
from which gelsemic acid has been separated by ether, by rendering it slightly alkaline with 
potassa (Schwartz prefers soda solution on account of the too great energy of the caustic 
potassa), then agitating repeatedly with chloroform, which dissolves the alkaloid with some 
impurities, and yields it, when evaporated at a very moderate heat, in the form of a hard, 
gum like, yellowish or brownish-yellow solid. If this be treated with a little water, and 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, it yields the alkaloid with some impurities to the liquid, 
which, if now filtered, evaporated to about one-sixteenth by volume of the original fluid extract 
employed, and then treated with a slight excess of caustic potassa, will give up the alkaloid in 
the form of a more or less white precipitate. This, upon being separated, and allowed to dry, 
shrinks greatly, and becomes dark. To purify it, the dry mass is powdered, and dissolved, 
with the aid of a few drops of hydrochloric acid, in a little water, from which the alkaloid is 
precipitated by a slight excess of caustic potassa, and then taken up by ether, which leaves it, 
on spontaneous evaporation, in the state of a very hard, brittle, and transparent mass, strongly 
adhering to the surface of the vessel employed. If now detached and pulverized, it forms a 
powder nearly or quite colorless. If still colored, it may be again treated with ether. Gelse- 
mine was obtained in a much purer state than had been previously made by A. W. Gerrard. 
(A. J. P., 1883, p. 258.) It is a brittle, transparent solid, crystallizing with difficulty from 
alcohol. Boiling water sparingly dissolves it. It softens at 38° C., and fuses at 45° C. The 
pure base gives no color reaction with strong nitric acid, and the mixture is scarcely changed 
in color by heating. Strong sulphuric acid has no apparent action upon it; but if to the 
mixture a little manganic oxide be added and rubbed with a glass rod a deep crimson-red is 
obtained, passing to green. This reaction is so delicate that it can be demonstrated with a 
solution of 1 in 100,000. If this reaction be performed upon the pure alkaloid, the color may be 
sufficiently intense to cause it to be mistaken for strychnine; but if a parallel experiment be 
carried on with strychnine, the two alkaloids cannot be mistaken, for the strychnine gives an 
intense purple, passing to red. Gerrard analyzed the alkaloid with care, and gives the formula 
C12H14N02 as its correct composition. F. A. Thompson (Pharm. Era, 1887, p. 3) announced 
the presence of a second alkaloid, which he called gelseminine. After obtaining a solution of 
the alkaloids as sulphates he agitates it with an alkali and ether ; the ethereal solution is shaken 
with water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the alkaloids are converted into hydrochlo- 
rates ; gelseminine hydrochlorate being easily soluble, and gelsemine hydrochlorate less soluble, 
the latter is deposited on standing, and may be obtained pure by repeated crystallizations. He 
asserts that gelseminine differs greatly in physical and chemical properties from gelsemine, but, 
as he had not succeeded in obtaining it absolutely pure, does not give the differences. 
Medical Properties.* Gelsemium produces in the healthy adult agreeable sensations of 
languor, with muscular relaxation, so that the subject finds some difficulty in moving the eye- 
lids and keeping the jaws closed. More largely taken, it occasions dizziness, dimness of vision, 
dilated pupil, general muscular debility, and universal prostration, reducing the frequency and 
force of the pulse, and the frequency of respiration. After very pronounced poisonous doses the 
symptoms which have just been enumerated are intensified : double or impaired vision, ptosis, 
dilated insensible pupils, falling of the lower jaw, loss of power of enunciation, and excessive mus- 
cular relaxation are associated with slow, labored breathing, which in some cases is interrupted 
by violent spells of dyspnoea ; consciousness is long unimpaired, but is apt to be lost before death, 
and in rare cases unconsciousness has been present even although recovery followed. Of the 
various symptoms of gelsemium poisoning the most characteristic are the dropping of the 
* Gelsemium is said to have been long popularly employed as a vermifuge in the Southern and Southwestern 
States; but its more valuable properties have been known but for a few years. Their discovery was accidental. A 
planter of Mississippi, laboring under an obstinate bilious fever, directed his servant, to get a particular root from 
the garden and prepare a tea from it. The tea was prepared accordingly, and drunk by the invalid, who was soon 
afterwards affected with great prostration, and especially muscular debility, so that he could not raise a limb, but 
without stupor. These effects gradually passed off, and with them the fever. The servant had made a mistake in 
the root, and dug that of the gelsemium instead of the one intended. The planter, having made this discovery, 
employed the root afterwards with success upon his own plantation and in the neighborhood. The remedy passed 
into the hands of irregular practitioners, and was used by the “ eclectic physicians” before its virtues came to the 
knowledge of the profession. PART I. 
Gelsemium.—Gentiana. 
651 
jaw and the ocular manifestations, combined with general muscular relaxation. The effects 
usually begin in half an hour, but sometimes almost at once. According to Prof. Wormley, 
death has occurred at periods which vary from one to seven and a half hours. Twelve minims 
of the fluid extract are said to have proved fatal to a boy three years old, and thirty-five drops 
of a tincture of the bark have caused death in one hour and a half. In several instances a 
drachm of the fluid extract has under treatment been recovered from. Dr. M. P. Hatfield has 
recorded a case in which fifteen grains of a resinoid extract of gelsemium caused death in a 
woman in one hour. 
The treatment of poisoning by gelsemium should consist in evacuating the stomach, main- 
taining absolute rest in the horizontal position, keeping up the bodily temperature, if required, 
by external warmth, and administering spinal and arterial stimulants. We have very little ex- 
perimental data as to the physiological antidotes to gelsemium. Our general knowledge indi- 
cates that morphine, atropine, strychnine, and digitalis given hypodermically should be of service 
in the treatment of the poisoning, and Dr. Courtright (quoted by Wormley) narrates a case 
in which the hypodermic injection of three grains of morphine, in divided doses, within a few 
moments was followed by marked improvement and recovery, although the patient had taken 
between one and two teaspoonfuls of the tincture of gelsemium. The combined injection of 
atropine and morphine probably affords the best available treatment. 
Recent physiological studies, whilst by no means complete, have thrown much light upon the 
action of gelsemium. The muscular weakness which it causes is always associated with a de- 
pression of reflex activity, and is the result of a direct paralyzing influence upon the spinal 
cord, as probably is also the diminution of sensibility, the nerves and muscles not being sen- 
sibly affected by the poison. The action upon the circulation is less marked than upon the 
nervous system, the heart and arterial pressure not being much affected by therapeutic doses. 
After toxic amounts there is great depression of the circulation, which has been shown by Dr. 
I. Ott to be at least in part due to a direct action upon the heart. The dilatation of the pupil 
which is present in poisoning with the drug, and which is also produced by its local application to 
the eye, is probably due to a paralysis of the oculo-motor nerve ; to which also may be ascribed 
the palsy of accommodation and of the external rectus muscle. The diseases in which the 
medicine has been prescribed are intermittent, remittent, typhoid, and yellow fevers, inflamma- 
tion of the lungs and pleura, dysentery, rheumatism, neuralgia, dysmenorrhcea, delirium tremens, 
trismus nascentium, chorea, hysteria, and epilepsy. The drug is, however, not applicable to the 
treatment of low fevers, and is not sufficiently powerful as a cardiac depressant to be relied upon 
in very sthenic inflammations; its use should be chiefly restricted to spasmodic and neuralgic 
affections. In supraorbital neuralgia and in odontalgia it has been especially commended. 
There is much testimony as to its antiperiodic properties ; and it may be used as an adjuvant 
to quinine in the treatment of remittent fever. Dr. James D. McGarghey praises it especially 
in cases of intermittent, when the attacks are disposed to return obstinately and irregularly. 
(Phila. Med. Times, March 7, 1874.) It has also been employed with a measure of success in 
controlling cardiac palpitations. 
Gelsemium should be administered in the form either of the tincture or of the fluid extract; 
the dose of the tincture being ten minims (0-6 C.c.), that of the fluid extract two minims 
(0-12 C.c.); to be repeated, if necessary, every 2, 4, or 6 hours, and be gradually increased till 
the object is obtained, or some obvious effect is produced on the system. The alkaloid gelsemine 
is exceedingly powerful. Prof. Wormley injected one-eighth of a grain into a strong cat, with the 
result of death in one and a half hours. He also found, as the average result of several experi- 
ments, that eight fluidounces of the fluid extract yield 3-20 grains of the pure alkaloid. On the 
basis of this result, the dose of gelsemine may be estimated at the 200th or 300th of a grain, 
supposing all the virtue of the root to reside in the alkaloid. But this estimate probably exceeds 
its strength, and the proper dose can be determined only by a series of carefully conducted trials. 
GENTIANA. U. S. (Br.) Gentian. 
(<?EN-TI-A'NA.) 
“ The root of Gentiana lutea, Linn6 (nat. ord. Gentianeae).” U. S. “ The dried rhizome and 
roots of Gentiana lutea, Linn.” Br. 
Gentian® Radix, Br., Gentian Root; Radix Gentian®, P. G.; Radix Gentian® Rubr® (vel Lute® vcl Majoris); 
Racine de Gentiane (de Gentiane jaune), Gentiane jaune, Fr.; Enzian, Enzianwurzel, Bitterwurzel, Rother Enzian, 
G.; Genziana, It.; Genciana, Sp. 
Gentiana lutea. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1331; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 273, t. 95 ; Carson, Illust. 
of Med. Bot. ii. 12, pi. 60. Yellow Gentian is among the most remarkable of the species which 652 
Gentiana. 
PART I. 
compose this genus, both for its beauty and great comparative size. From its thick, long, 
branching, perennial root, an erect, round stem rises to the height of three or four feet, bearing 
opposite, sessile, ovate, acute, five-nerved leaves of a bright-green color, and somewhat glaucous. 
The lower leaves, which spring from the root, are narrowed at their base into the form of a 
petiole. The flowers are large and beautiful, of a yellow color, peduncled, and placed in whorls 
at the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is monophyllous, membranous, yellowish, and 
semi-transparent, splitting when the flower opens, and reflected when it is fully expanded ; the 
corolla is rotate, and deeply divided into five or six lanceolate, acute segments; the stamens are 
five or six, and shorter than the corolla. This plant grows among the Apennines, the Alps, 
the Pyrenees, and in other mountainous or elevated regions of Europe. The root is the only 
part employed. 
Several other species possess analogous virtues, and are used for similar purposes. The roots of 
G. purpurea and G. punctata, inhabiting the same regions as G. lutea, and of G. pannonica, 
growing in Austria, are said to be often mingled with the official, from which they are scarcely 
distinguishable. The G. macrophylla of Pallas is used in Siberia; one indigenous species, G. 
catesbaei (now G. Elliottii Chapm.),* growing in the Southern States, formerly had a place in 
the secondary catalogue of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and is reputed to be but little inferior to 
the official species. G. quinquefolia L. (6r. quinquejlora Lam.), growing throughout the Northern 
and Northwestern States, is said to be much used in domestic practice. 
Properties. As found in commerce, gentian is in pieces of various dimensions and shape, 
usually of considerable length, consisting sometimes of longitudinal slices, sometimes of the 
root cut transversely, twisted, wrinkled exter- 
nally, sometimes marked with close transverse 
rings of a grayish-brown color on the outside, 
yellowish or reddish within, and of a soft, 
spongy texture. It is officially described as 
occurring “ in nearly cylindrical pieces or 
longitudinal slices, about 25 Mm. thick, the 
upper portion closely annulate, the lower por- 
tion longitudinally wrinkled ; externally deep 
yellowish-brown ; internally lighter ; somewhat 
flexible and tough when damp ; rather brittle 
when dry; fracture uneven; the bark rather 
thick, separated from the somewhat spongy 
meditullium by a black cambium line; odor 
peculiar, faint, more prominent when mois- 
tened ; taste sweetish and persistently bitter.” 
U. S. There are no distinct pith, liber cells, 
starch granules, or raphides. (See P. J. Tr., 
1872, 42.) The odor is feeble, but decided 
and peculiar. The taste is slightly sweetish 
and intensely bitter, without being nauseous. 
The powder is yellowish. Water and alcohol 
extract the taste and virtues of the root. 
“ Gentian Root should not yield any definite 
reactions with the tests for starch.” Br. 
Kromayer, in 1862, first obtained the bitter principle of gentian in a state of purity, and 
gave it the name of gentiopicrin, and the formula C20H30012. It is a neutral body, crystallizing 
in colorless needles, which readily dissolve in water. It is soluble in spirit of wine, but in 
absolute alcohol only when aided by heat; it does not dissolve in ether. A solution of caustic 
soda forms with it a yellow solution. Under the influence of dilute acids, gentiopicrin is re- 
solved into glucose and an amorphous yellowish-brown neutral substance named gentiogenin. 
Gentian, transverse section. 
* Gentiana Elliottii Chapra. The blue gentian has a perennial, branching, somewhat fleshy root, and a simple, 
erect, rough stem, rising eight or ten inches in height, and bearing opposite leaves, which are ovate-lanceolate, acute, 
and rough on their margin. I he flowers are of a palish-blue color, crowded, nearly sessile, and axillary or terminal. 
ca^x are near“^anceolate, and longer than the tube. The corolla is large, ventricose, plaited, 
and divided at its border into ten segments, of which the five outer are more or less acute, the five inner bifid and 
fringed. The number of stamens is five, and the two stigmas are seated on the germ. The capsule is oblong, acumi- 
nate, with two valves, and a single cell. O. Elliottii Chapm. grows in the grassy swamps from Virginia to Florida, 
where it flowers from September to December. It was named by Elliott (1817) in honor of Catesby. It may be 
given in powder in the dose of from fifteen to thirty grains, or in the form of extract, infusion, wine, or tincture. Gentiana.—Geranium. 
653 
PART I. 
Fresh gentian roots yield about per cent, of gentiopicrin. Another constituent is gentianin 
or gentisin, C14H1006. It forms tasteless, yellowish prisms, subliming with partial decomposi- 
tion at a temperature over 300° C., sparingly soluble in alcohol, and with alkalies yields 
intensely yellow, crystallizable compounds, easily decomposed by carbonic acid. Yon Kosta- 
necki (A. J. P., 1891, p. 192), by boiling gentisin with hydriodic acid, succeeded in de- 
methylating it, and so obtained gentisein, C13H806, which crystallizes with in fine straw- 
colored needles; these become anhydrous at 100° C. A triacetyl derivative was then formed 
from this gentisein. Gentisin is therefore the methyl ether of gentisein, and can be written 
f 0CH3 
C13H602 j OH . Hlasiwetz and Habermann showed, in 1875, that when gentianin was melted 
with caustic potash it yieldedphloroglucin, CeH3(0H)3, and oxysalicylic acid, C6H3.(0H2)C00H. 
The latter was at first called gentianic or gentisinic acid. Prof. Maisch believes that tannin is 
absent from gentian root, and states that the dark olive-green coloration observed when ferric 
chloride is added to its preparations is due to gentisic acid (A. J. P., 1876). Ville (A. J. P., 
1877) and Davies (P. J. Tr., 1879) maintain that there is a small quantity of tannin in gentian 
root. Prof. Patch (A. J. P., 1876) found that an alcoholic solution of an ethereal extract of 
gentian yielded a dark-green coloration with ferric salts, but if the alcoholic solution were 
diluted with water it yielded no precipitate with gelatin. Subsequently (Proc. A. P. A., 1881) 
he showed there was a principle associated with the resinous matter in gentian (but which was 
not isolated in a state of purity) that produced the reactions of a tannin, viz., a greenish-black 
color with ferric chloride, and precipitates with tartar emetic, cinchonidine sulphate, and gelatin. 
M. Louis Magnes found in the root, when perfectly dried at 100° C. (212° F.), 15 per cent. 
of glucose, and 12 per cent, in the root in its ordinary state. (A. J. P, pp. 333-4.) When 
gentian is macerated in cold water, it undergoes the vinous fermentation, in consequence of 
the presence of this saccharine principle. From the fermented infusion a spirituous liquor is 
obtained by distillation, which, though bitter and unpleasant to the smell, is said to he relished 
by the Swiss and Tyrolese. A. Meyer (Pharm. Centralb., 1882, May) obtained a sweet prin- 
ciple, which he called gentianose, C16H66031, by precipitating the filtered juice with alcohol, 
treatment with ether, and crystallization from alcohol. It does not reduce Fehling’s solution. 
Infusion of gentian is precipitated by tannic acid and the soluble salts of lead, but is com- 
patible with the salts of iron. Pectin, so frequently found in fleshy roots, exists in gentian. 
(Bourquelot and Herissey, Repert. de Pharm., 1898.) The yellow coloring matter of the root 
was investigated by E. V. Howell, who concludes that it is quercitrin. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Gentian possesses in a high degree the tonic powers 
of the simple bitters. It excites the appetite and invigorates digestion. In very large doses, 
however, it is apt to oppress the stomach, to irritate the bowels, and even to occasion nausea and 
vomiting. It has been known from the highest antiquity, and is said to have derived its name 
from Gentius, a king of Illyria. Many of the complex preparations handed down from the 
Greeks and Arabians contain it among their ingredients ; and it enters into most of the stomachic 
combinations employed in modern practice. It may be used in all cases of pure debility of the 
digestive organs, or where a general tonic impression is required. Dyspepsia, atonic gout, 
amenorrhcea, hysteria, scrofula, and intermittent fever are among the many affections in which it 
has proved useful; but itps the condition of the stomach and of the system generally, not the 
name of the disease, which must be taken into consideration in prescribing it; and there is 
scarcely a complaint in which it can be advantageously given under all circumstances. It should 
be administered only in the form of preparation. A syrup may be prepared by forming a 
saccharated infusion by means of percolation, and incorporating this at a boiling heat with 
simple syrup; or, perhaps more eligibly, by dissolving two drachms of the extract of gentian, 
and afterwards fifteen ounces of sugar, in half a pint of water. The porous property of the 
root causes it to expand with moisture, and it has been employed as a substitute for sponge tent 
in the enlargement of strictured passages. 
GERANIUM. U. S. Geranium. [Cranesbill.] 
“ The rhizome of Geranium maculatum, Linn6 (nat. ord. Geraniaceae).” U. S. 
Cranesbill Root; Racine de Bec-de-Grue tachete, Racine de Pied-de-Corneille, Fr.; Fleckstorchschnabel-Wurzel, G. 
Geranium maculatum. L. Sp. PI. (1753), 681. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 705; Bigelow, Am. 
Med. Bot. i. 84; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 149. This plant has a perennial, horizontal, fleshy 
(^E-RA'NI-UM.) 654 
Geranium.—Glusidum. 
PART I. 
rhizome, which is furnished with short fibres, and sends up annually an herbaceous stem, with 
several radical leaves. The stem is erect, round, dichotomously branched, from one to two 
feet high, of a grayish-green color, and thickly covered, in common with the petioles and 
peduncles, with reflexed hairs. The leaves are deeply divided into three, five, or seven lobes, 
which are variously incised at their extremities, hairy, and of a pale green color, mottled with 
still paler spots. Those which rise from the root are supported on footstalks eight or ten inches 
long ; those of the stem are opposite, the lower petiolate, the upper nearly sessile, with lance- 
olate or linear stipules. The flowers are large, and usually of a purple color. The peduncles 
spring from the forks of the stem, and severally support two flowers upon short pedicels. The 
calyx is composed of five oblong, ribbed, cuspidate leaves; the petals are five, obovate, and 
entire ; the stamens ten, with oblong, deciduous anthers, the five alternate filaments being 
longer than the others, and having glands at their base ; the ovary is ovate, supporting a 
straight style as long as the stamens, and surmounted by five stigmas. The fruit consists of 
five aggregate, one-seeded capsules, attached by a beak to the persistent style, curling up and 
scattering the seeds when ripe. The plant is indigenous, growing throughout the United 
States in moist woods, thickets, and hedges, and generally in low grounds. It flowers from 
May to July. The root should be collected in autumn. 
Properties. Geranium occurs in pieces from one to three inches long, from a quarter to 
half an inch in thickness, somewhat flattened, contorted, wrinkled, tuberculated, and beset 
with slender fibres. It is externally of an umber-brown color, internally reddish gray, com- 
pact, inodorous, and of an astringent taste, without bitterness or other unpleasant flavor. “ Of 
horizontal growth, cylindrical, 5 to 7 Cm. long; about 1 Cm. thick ; rather sharply tubercu- 
lated, longitudinally wrinkled, dark brown ; fracture short, pale reddish-brown ; bark thin; 
wood-wedges yellowish, small, forming a circle near the cambium line; medullary rays broad •, 
central pith large; roots thin, fragile; inodorous; taste strongly astringent.” U. S. Water 
and alcohol extract the virtues of geranium. According to Dr. Edward Staples, it contains 
tannic and gallic acids, mucilage, red coloring matter, resin, and a crystallizable vegetable 
principle. (A. J. P.,1829, p. 171.) The Messrs. Tilden found, besides tannic and gallic acids, 
gum, pectin, sugar, starch, albumen, resin soluble in alcohol, oleoresin soluble in ether only, 
coloring matter, chlorophyll, lignin, and various salts. (P. J. Tr., 1863, p. 22.) Tannic and 
gallic acids are probably the sole active ingredients. Henry Trimble and J. C. Peacock (A. J. 
jP., 1891, p. 265) collected the plant at periods of the year ranging from January to October, 
and determined the percentage of tannin as calculated for the perfectly dry drug to vary from 
9-72 to 27-85 per cent. They also determined that it belonged to the class of tannins analo- 
gous to gallo-tannic acid, yielding pyrogallol on heating. They decomposed the tannin by the 
action of hydrochloric acid, obtaining gallic acid, glucose, and geranium red as products. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Geranium is one of our best indigenous astringents, 
and may be employed for all the purposes to which these medicines are applicable. The ab- 
sence of unpleasant taste and of other offensive qualities renders it peculiarly serviceable in the 
case of infants and of persons of very delicate stomach. Diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, cholera 
infantum in the latter stages, and the various hemorrhages, are the forms of disease in which it 
is most commonly used and with greatest advantage; but care should be taken, before it is 
administered, that the condition of the system and of the part affected is such as not to con- 
tra-indicate the use of astringents. As an application to indolent ulcers, an injection in gleet 
and leucorrhoea, and a gargle in relaxation of the uvula and aphthous ulcerations of the throat, 
it answers the same purpose as kino, catechu, and other medicines of the same class. It is a 
popular domestic remedy in various parts of the United States, and is said to be employed by 
the Indians. It may be given in substance, decoction, tincture, or extract. The dose of the 
powder is from twenty to thirty grains (1-3—1-95 Gm.); that of a decoction, made by boil- 
ing an ounce of the root in a pint and a half of water to a pint, from one to two fluidounees 
(30-60 C.c.); that of the fluid extract, from twenty to thirty minims (1-25-1-9 C.c.). The 
medicine is sometimes given to children, boiled in milk. 
GLUSIDUM. Br. Gluside. 
“ Gluside, or benzoyl sulphonimide, is a sweet imide derivable from toluene. Its constitution 
CO 
is represented by the formula C6H4 < gq > NH.” Br. 
Saccharin; Glucusimide; Benzoyl-sulphonicimide, CeEUCOSOjNH; Anhydro-orthosulphaininbenzoic Acid; Glu- 
kusin; Neo-saccharin. 
(GLU'SI-DUM.) Glmidum. 
655 
PART I. 
This substance, which is now official in the British Pharmacopoeia additions, is one of the 
remarkable derivatives from coal tar. As saccharin is a trade product and controlled as a 
proprietary compound, the United States Pharmacopoeia has not admitted it to its list. Its 
name is suggestive of its predominant characteristic, that of intense sweetness. Its composi- 
co 
tion is C6H4 < oj-x > NH, and it is prepared from toluene by first converting this into the 
mixture of mono-sulphonic acids, which are changed into the corresponding toluene-sulphonic 
chlorides. The ortho compound is then acted upon by ammonia, converting it into the sulph- 
amide, which by oxidation yields the imide, as above. It forms a white powder, melting at 200° 
C. with partial decomposition, evolving the odor of bitter almonds. It is soluble in water, 
from which it can be crystallized in alcohol ether, glycerin, and glucose. Its taste in diluted 
solutions is intensely sweet, so that 1 part of saccharin will sweeten quite strongly 10,000 parts 
of water. Saccharin may be detected in sugar solutions by extracting with ether, evaporating, 
and fusing the residue, which, if saccharin, will melt at about 200° C., and fused with nitre and 
sodium carbonate will show sulphuric acid. The weight of BaS04 obtained in this way 
from 100 Gm. of sugar multiplied by 0-785 will give the weight of saccharin extracted. 
Saccharin occurs as a white powder, composed of irregular crystals, very slightly soluble in 
water readily soluble in glycerin, alcohol, and ether. Its aqueous solution has a distinctly 
acid reaction and forms salts. Its most remarkable property is its sweet taste, which is said to 
be three hundred times more intense than that of sugar. The commercial product, according 
to Pope, frequently contains para-sulphamine-benzoic acid, from which impurity it can be freed 
by recrystallization, acetone being used as the solvent. Hefelman has furnished a process for 
assaying saccharin. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 701.) The difference in melting points of pure 
saccharin and para-sulphamine-benzoic acid is also used for distinguishing them; the former 
melts at 224-5° C. and the latter at 286-5° C. (Pharm. Central., 1896, 279.) 
The British Pharmacopoeia furnishes the following characters and tests: “ A light, white, 
minutely crystalline powder, having an intensely sweet taste in dilute solutions. When 
heated it fuses, and then sublimes with partial decomposition. It is soluble in 400 parts of 
cold water, in 24 parts of boiling water, in 25 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), and but slightly 
in ether or chloroform. It is very soluble in diluted solution of ammonia; also in solution of 
sodium, bicarbonate, with evolution of carbonic anhydride. A warm solution of sodium bicar- 
bonate, when neutralized with Gluside and evaporated to dryness, yields ‘ soluble gluside’ or 
i soluble saccharin,’ which is very soluble in water, 100 parts of Gluside yielding nearly 113 
parts of neutral £ soluble gluside.’ Neither Gluside nor soluble gluside is blackened by sul- 
phuric acid, even when the mixture is gently warmed for a short time (absence of sugar, etc.). 
On evaporating either variety with excess of solution of potassium hydroxide, maintaining the 
residue in a state of semi-fusion for a few minutes, cooling, dissolving in water, faintly acidu- 
lating with hydrochloric acid, and adding a few drops of test-solution of feme chloride, a reddish- 
brown or purplish color is produced. A solution of 0-5 gramme of Gluside in 80 cubic 
centimetres of warm water, set aside for 12 hours, deposits tabular crystals which melt between 
426° F. and 428° F. (218-8° C. and 220° C.) ; and it should not, even when briskly shaken, 
deposit crystals melting at a higher temperature (absence of sulphamido-benzoic acid).” 
Medical Properties and Uses. U. Morro and V. Aducco (Arc/t. Ital. de Biolog., 1886, 
vii.) find that when a solution of saccharin is rendered neutral with soda, frogs will live in 
it for months; also that the injection of concentrated solutions of saccharin into the cellu- 
lar tissue has no influence on the batrachian. Six hundred grains given to a dog during ten 
days caused no alteration in the weight or general health of the animal. A careful study 
failed to detect any change in the urine as to the daily excretion of water, urea, hippuric acid, 
or phosphoric acid. The chlorides seemed to be somewhat increased. The saccharin escaped 
unchanged from the kidneys, rendering the urine very sweet, and having a notable effect in 
delaying its putrefaction. No saccharin could be found either in the milk or in the saliva of 
a nursing woman to whom it was administered, and a dose of 75 grains caused no symptoms 
in man. These statements are confirmed by Stutzer and Salkowski ( Virchow's Archiv, cv. p. 
46), and are in accord with the general results obtained by clinicians. Saccharin is chiefly 
useful for the purpose of replacing sugar in diabetes, obesity, and other diseases in which 
sugar is contra-indicated. It is true that Plugge has found that outside of the body saccharin 
retards both salivary and pancreatic digestion, and Sawitzki believes that he has experimen- 
tally demonstrated that saccharin inhibits nitrogenous metamorphosis by a direct action on 
metabolism. Nevertheless, saccharin may be used for a great length of time without appar- 656 
Glycerinum. 
PART I. 
ent effect; and it is probably often employed on a large scale to sweeten glucose in the place 
of cane sugar. For use as a sweetener, two parts of saccharin should be incorporated with 
three parts of sodium bicarbonate, which renders it soluble. It is probably safer not to allow 
more than from twenty to twenty-five grains (U29-U62 Gm.) of saccharin a day. 
GLYCERINUM. U. S., Br. Glycerin. 
(GLYQ-E-RI'NUM.) 
“ A liquid obtained by the decomposition of fats and fixed oils, and containing not less than 
95 per cent, of absolute Glycerin [C3H6(0H)3 = 91-79].” U. S. “ Glycerin, or glycerol, is a 
trihydric alcohol, C3H6(OH)a, associated with a small percentage of water; it is obtained by 
the interaction of alkalies, or of superheated steam, with fats and fixed oils.” Br. 
Glycerina, U. S. 1870; Glycerine; Glycerinum, P.G.; Glycerine, Fr.; Oelsiiss, G. 
In the process for making lead plaster, litharge, olive oil, and water are boiled together, 
when the olein of the oil is decomposed by the lead oxide, according to the following reaction : 
2(C,H (OC + (Pb0)3 + (E O), = 2(C.H,(OH),) + 3(Pb(OClsH 0) ), when we 
obtain lead oleate or plaster and free glycerin. (See Emplastrum Plumbi.') It follows, there- 
fore, that the plaster, while still hot and in the liquid state, contained glycerin diffused through 
it. It was this process that was used for preparing glycerin in the formula of U. S. P. 1850. In 
accordance with this, when the liquid plaster is mixed with an equal measure of boiling water, 
and the mixture stirred briskly, a solution of glycerin is obtained, which, after having been de- 
canted, and evaporated to a limited extent, is freed from lead by hydrogen sulphide. The liquid is 
then filtered to separate lead sulphide, heated to free it from hydrogen sulphide, and finally evap- 
orated to expel the water, which is known to be all removed when the mass ceases to lose weight. 
Glycerin was discovered in 1789 by Scheele, by whom it was called the sweet principle of oils. 
It is produced not only during the saponification of the fats and oils by lead oxide in forming 
lead plaster, but also during the same process when effected by potassa and soda in the manu- 
facture of soap; the alkalies uniting with the oily acids and setting the glycerin free. Soap- 
makers’ waste is an abundant source of glycerin ; but when thus obtained it is apt to have 
more or less odor, which even percolation through animal charcoal does not always remove. 
The two methods of saponification by which glycerin has been obtained on a large scale are the 
process of Wilson and Payne, of decomposing the fats by superheated steam and after distil- 
lation, and the lime autoclave process of Milly. A process patented by Michaud Freres, of 
Paris, and operated by the Continental Glycerine Co., of New York, decomposes the fats by high- 
pressure steam in the presence of a small quantity of zinc oxide. The glycerin is obtained 
pure, and the fat acids can be saponified afterwards. The process of Mr. Richard A. Tilghman, 
of Philadelphia (the patent for which was obtained in 1854, and, after years of litigation, was 
at last sustained in 1888), consists in subjecting fatty bodies to the action of water at a high 
temperature under pressure, whereby the fats, which are glycerides or ethers of the fatty acids, 
are broken up into free glycerin and free fatty acids, the water supplying the elements of hydro- 
gen and oxygen necessary for that change. The reaction is as follows for the case of a fat 
like stearin ; C3H6(0C18H350)3 + (H.0H)3==C3H6(0H)3 -f 3(C18H36O.OH). (See A. J. P., 
March, 1855, p. 121.) Through a distillatory apparatus containing palm oil, heated steam 
between 550° and 600° F. is passed. The oil is decomposed into free acids and glycerin, which, 
together with water, distil over, and, condensing in the receiver, separate into two layers, the 
lower of which is glycerin. If this, as first procured, contain too much water, it must be con- 
centrated ; if discolored, it must be redistilled with vapor. (P. J. Tr., 1861, p. 350.) Ordinary 
impure glycerin may be purified by distillation with steam under pressure. Though, when dis- 
tilled alone, it is partially decomposed, giving off pungent vapors of acrolein, yet in a current 
of superheated steam it passes over unchanged at temperatures between 2044° and 260° C. 
(400° and 500° F.). Very pure glycerin is now produced in the United States in immense 
quantities. The present' annual production of raw glycerin through the world amounts to 
40,000 tons, of which 26,000 tons are obtained from the stearic acid manufacture and 14,000 
tons from soap manufacture. France is the largest producer, with 6000 tons from the first source 
and 3500 tons from the second. The United States is credited with 3000 tons from each of 
these two sources. The United States also imports considerable quantities of glycerin, the 
amounts for the last three years having been—for 1895, 13,488,825 lbs., valued at $784,613; 
for 1896, 21,158,829 lbs., valued at $1,472,302; for 1897, 12,717,098 lbs., valued at 
$1,182,099. Glycerinum. 
657 
PART i. 
Properties. Glycerin is “ a clear, colorless liquid, of a thick, syrupy consistence, oily to 
the touch, odorless, very sweet and slightly warm to the taste. When exposed to the air, it 
slowly abstracts moisture. Specific gravity, not less than 1-250 at 15° C. (59° F.). Soluble, 
in all proportions, in water or alcohol; also soluble in a mixture of 3 parts of alcohol and 1 
part of ether, but insoluble in ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide, benzin, benzol, and fixed or 
volatile oils. Glycerin is slowly volatilized from an aqueous solution, at or above 100° C. 
(212° F.), with the vapor of water. Heated by itself to a higher temperature, it yields acrid 
decomposition products, boils at a temperature at or above 165° C. (329° F.), and is finally 
entirely decomposed and dissipated. If a fused bead of borax, on a loop of platinum wire, be 
moistened with Glycerin, and then held in the non-luminous flame, the latter will be transiently 
tinted deep green.” U. S. 
In properties, glycerin is intermediate between water and the oils. When exposed to the 
air it gradually absorbs moisture. As already stated, though decomposed by a high heat 
in its unmixed state, yet with water under pressure it is volatilizable unchanged at a tempera- 
ture between 204-4° and 260° C. (400° and 500° F.). Cooled down rapidly, it only becomes 
more viscid, without congealing, even when a temperature of —40° C. is attained ; but, if kept 
for some time at a temperature of about 0° C. (32° F.), it gradually forms hard but deliquescent 
crystals, which melt only at about 22° C. (71-6° F.) * This fact is now utilized as a means of 
concentrating and purifying glycerin. According to Mr. G. F. Wilson, glycerin, when of the 
density 1-24, contains 94 per cent, of anhydrous glycerin; when of the density 1-26, 98 per 
cent. A table by Dr. Wilhelm Lenz (Zeitsch. f. Anal. Chem,., 1880), showing the percentage 
of absolute glycerin in mixtures of glycerin and water, which was obtained by a quantitative 
determination of the carbon in the various dilutions by ultimate analysis, will be found in the 
U. S. D., 15th ed. p. 712. The following table by Prof. W. W. J. Nicol, of England, has been 
constructed after careful determinations, aided by Dr. A. B. Lyons’s data on expansion of 
glycerin solutions, (jCharm. Era, 1888.) 
Per cent. 
Glycerin. 
Sp. Gr. at 
15° C. = 59° F. 
Per cent. 
Glycerin. 
Sp. Gr. at 
15° 0. = 59° F. 
Per cent. 
Glycerin. 
Sp. Gr. at 
15° C. = 59° F. 
Per cent. 
Glycerin. 
Sp. Gr. at 
15° C. =■= 59° P. 
1 
1-00236 
26 
1-06500 
51 
1-13265 
76 
1-20131 
2 
1-00473 
27 
1-06765 
52 
1-13539 
77 
1-20404 
3 
1-00711 
28 
1-07031 
53 
1-13814 
78 
1-20677 
4 
1-00949 
29 
1-07297 
54 
1-14088 
79 
1-20949 
5 
1-01189 
30 
1-07564 
55 
1-14362 
80 
1-21221 
6 
1-01430 
31 
1-07832 
56 
1-14637 
81 
1-21493 
7 
1-01673 
32 
1-08100 
57 
1-14912 
82 
1-21766 
8 
1-01917 
33 
1-08370 
58 
1-15187 
83 
1-22038 
9 
1-02163 
34 
1-08639 
59 
1-15462 
84 
1-22310 
10 
1-02409 
35 
1-08908 
60 
1-15737 
85 
1-22583 
11 
1-02655 
36 
1-09176 
61 
1-16011 
86 
1-22855 
12 
1-02910 
37 
1-09445 
62 
1-16286 
87 
1-23128 
13 
1-03177 
38 
1-09713 
63 
1-16561 
88 
1-23400 
14 
1-03410 
39 
1-09983 
64 
1-16837 
89 
1-23673 
15 
1-03652 
40 
1-10253 
65 
1-17113 
90 
1-23945 
16’ 
1-03905 
41 
1-10525 
66 
1-17387 
91 
1-24217 
17 
1-04160 
42 
1-10798 
67 
1-17662 
92 
1-24487 
18 
1-04416 
43 
1-11071 
68 
1-17937 
93 
1-24756 
19 
1-04672 
44 
1-11345 
69 
1-18212 
94 
1-25021 
20 
1-04930 
45 
1-11618 
70 
1-18487 
95 
1-25285 
21 
1-05189 
46 
1-11893 
71 
1-18761 
96 
1-25547 
22 
1-05449 
47 
1-12167 
72 
1-19035 
97 
1-25809 
23 
1-05712 
48 
1-12441 
73 
1-19309 
98 
1-26072 
24 
1-05973 
49 
1-12716 
74 
1-19583 
99 
1-26335 
25 
1-06236 
50 
1-12990 
75 
1-19857 
100 
1-26596 
* Mr. Wm. Crookes gives an account, in the Ghent. News of Jan. 18, 1867, of 5 tons of glycerin imported into London 
from Germany in casks of 8 cwt. each, which, though when it left the Continent it was in its ordinary state of a viscid 
liquid, was found, on reaching London, to have become solidified into a mass of very hard, brilliant crystals. The 
same result has been noticed in Vienna, in a mass of glycerin which had been in an iron tank more than a year. 
(Chem. News, April 5, 1867.) The crystalline mass noticed by Mr. Crookes yielded pure glycerin when melted. 
Frozen glycerin has been examined by Mr. Wallace Procter and Prof. Henry Trimble (A. J. P., 1885, p. 273): the 
crystals had the sp. gr. P2618, and the portion which had not been solidified had the sp. gr. 1-235. 658 
Glycennum. 
PART I. 
Glycerin possesses extensive powers as a solvent, and is an excellent excipient for many 
medicinal substances. It dissolves bromine and iodine, sulphur iodide, potassium and sodium 
chlorides, the fixed alkalies, some of the alkaline earths, lime, for example, for which it in- 
creases the solvent powers of water (Journ. de Pharm,., Juin, 1874), and a large number of 
neutral salts. It also dissolves the vegetable acids, particularly tannic acid. It is a good sol- 
vent of pepsin, and is used for the extraction of this principle from the mucus of the stomach. 
Two parts and a half of glycerin dissolve one of sugar, and three and a half parts, one of 
gum. When starch-paste and glycerin are heated together, a turbid liquid is formed, which 
deposits on cooling; the supernatant liquid holding starch in solution. (Journ. de Pharm., 
Nov. 1868, pp. 361-2.) Prof. J. S. Blockley, of London, has ascertained that certain neutral 
vegetable substances are far more soluble in glycerin than in water. Thus, salicin dissolves in 
eight parts of cold glycerin, and santonin in eighteen parts when boiling. The latter solution, 
when of half this strength, forms on cooling an almost solid mass. It is not always a good 
solvent for alkaloids or their salts, and will sometimes precipitate the latter even from their aqueous 
or acidulated solutions. Glycerin, next to alcohol, is the best solvent of iodine. Iodine and potas- 
sium iodide, when dissolved in it, form iodized glycerin, the medical applications of which are 
given under iodine. (See Iodumf* It combines with potassa and baryta, and also with sulphuric 
acid. Glycerin is not susceptible of becoming rancid, or of fermenting spontaneously, but 
will generate a portion of alcohol under the combined influence of chalk and of a ferment 
formed of cheese or animal tissue. During this change there is no intermediate formation of 
glucose, provided calcium carbonate be present. (Berthelot.) Glycerin does not evaporate when 
exposed to the air; nor can it be distilled without decomposition, unless in the presence of 
water or steam. When decomposed by heat, it emits extremely irritating vapors. At a full 
red heat it takes fire, and burns with a blue flame. In consequence of the high temperature 
required for its volatilization, it has been proposed to use it for an evaporating bath, in which 
a heat beyond that of boiling water is required. Glycerin is antiseptic, and has been recom- 
mended by Mr. Warington and M. Demarquay to preserve alimentary substances and objects 
of natural history, and to inject bodies for dissection. According to Dr. W. Frazer, it does 
not answer to keep pathological preparations, as they are completely softened by its action. 
M. Berthelot, of Paris, has succeeded in combining glycerin with a number of acids, both 
mineral and organic, forming three distinct series of neutral compounds. Among others, he 
has united it with the fatty acids, producing, by synthesis, the organic fatty substances stearin, 
palmitin, olein, etc. Glycerin has been formed artificially from tribromallyl, by Wurtz, and 
from trichlorhydrin, by Friedel and Silva. Synthesis is, however, not practicable on a large 
scale, no method having yet been discovered to compete successfully with its preparation from 
natural fats. By Pasteur it was ascertained to be one of the products of the vinous fermen- 
tation. Glycerin is a triatomic alcohol, being a compound of the triad radical (C3H6) with 
3(OH) groups. In the natural fats, the three H atoms of these OH groups are replaced by 
fatty acid radicals like stearyl, C18H360, palmityl, CieH330, and oleyl, C18H330. The natural 
fats are, therefore, compounds of an alcohol radical with an organic acid, and are true ethers, 
which are known as glycerides. 
The solvent and preservative properties as well as agreeable taste and permanent consistence 
of glycerin render it very useful as a menstruum in pharmacy; and a class of preparations 
consisting of medicinal substances dissolved in it has come into extensive use. The British 
Pharmacopoeia has adopted such a class, under the name of Glycerina, or glycerines. This title 
is not now available, because these terminations are reserved for alkaloids, while the term 
glyceroles, adopted from the French, is objectionable, as the termination has been used as 
* The following table, by Klever, gives a general view of the solvent powers of glycerin,—100 parts of glycerin 
dissolving the annexed quantities of substances : 
PARTS. 
Acidum arsenicum... 20 
“ arsenosum . . 20 
“ benzoicum . . 10 
“ boricum. . . . 10 
“ oxalicum ... 15 
“ tannicum ... 50 
Alumen 40 
Ammonii carbonas . . 20 
“ chloridum. .20 
Antimon. et pot. tart. . 5'50 
Atropine 3 
Atropin® sulphas ... 33 
Barii chloridum .... 10 
PARTS. 
Brucine . . 2-25 
Calcii sulphidum ... 5 
Cinchonine O'30 
Cinch, sulphas 6'70 
Cupri acetas 10 
“ sulphas 30 
Ferr. et potas. tart. ... 8 
“ lactas 16 
“ sulphas 25 
Hydrarg. chlorid.) 7.r0 
corrosiv. j • * ' 00 
“ cyanidum . . 27 
Iodum 1-90 
PARTS. 
Morphine 045 
Morphia® acetas ... 20 
“ hydroclilorasL20 
Phosphorus 0'20 
Plumbi acetas 20 
Potassii arsenas .... 50 
“ bromidum . . 25 
“ chloras .... 3'50 
“ cyanidum... 32 
“ iodidum ... 40 
Quinine 0'50 
Quinin® tannas .... 0-25 
Sodii arsenas 50 | 
PARTS. 
Sodii bi carbonas .... 8 
“ boras 60 
“ carbonas 98 
“ chloras 20 
Sulphur 010 
Strychnine 0'25 
Strychnin® nitras ... 4 
“ sulphas . . 22-50 
Urea 50 
Veratrine 1 
Zinci chloridum .... 50 
“ iodidum 40 
“ sulphas 35 
(Neuet Jahrb. fur Pharm., 1869, Mai u. Juni, 315.) Glycennum. 
659 
PART I. 
designative of certain proximate principles. But the U. S. title, Glycerita, or glycerites, is 
satisfactory. 
Impurities and Tests. Glycerin is occasionally deficient in density and consistency. 
According to M. Dalpiaz, it is sometimes perfectly colorless from being bleached by chlorine, 
when it is apt to contain calcium chloride, as well as free chlorine. The latter may be detected 
by rendering the suspected sample slightly blue by a few drops of an acid solution of indigo in 
sulphuric acid, when, if free chlorine be present, the blue color will disappear. 
The Pharmacopoeia furnishes the following tests: “ An aqueous solution of Glycerin is neutral 
to litmus paper. When a small portion of Glycerin is heated to boiling in an open porcelain 
or platinum capsule, and then gently ignited, it should burn and vaporize so as to leave not 
more than a dark stain (absence of dextrin and sugar, which would leave a bulky, difficultly 
combustible, charred mass) ; and on full combustion no residue whatever should be left (absence 
of fixed impurities). If 5 C.c. of Glycerin be mixed with 50 C.c. of water and 10 drops of 
hydrochloric acid in a small flask, and heated for half an hour on a boiling-water-bath, then 10 
C.c. of the hot liquid mixed with 2 C.c. of sodium hydrate test-solution and 1 C.c. of alkaline 
cupric tartrate volumetric solution, no yellowish-red cloudiness or precipitate should appear 
within six hours (absence of sugars). On gently warming a mixture of equal volumes of 
Glycerin and of concentrated sulphuric acid in a test-tube, the liquid should not acquire a dark 
color (absence of readily carbanizable impurities). On gradually heating 5 C.c. of Glycerin 
with 3 C.c. of diluted sulphuric acid in a test-tube, short of boiling, no offensive or acidulous 
odor should be evolved (absence of fatty acids, etc.). No color, cloudiness, or precipitate 
should appear when separate portions of its aqueous solution (1 in 10) are treated with 
hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of metals), barium chloride 
test-solution (sxdphuric acid), calcium chloride test-solution (oxalic acid), or ammonium oxalate 
test-solution (calcium salts). If a mixture of 2 C.c. of Glycerin with 10 C.c. of water, con- 
tained in a perfectly clean, glass-stoppered cylinder, be heated for five minutes in a water-bath 
at a temperature of 60°-65° C. (140°-149° F.), then mixed with 10 drops of silver nitrate 
test-solution, and the cylinder set aside, well stoppered, in diffused daylight, no change of 
transparency or color should occur in the mixture within five minutes (absence of chlorides, and 
limit of impurities having reducing properties)." TJ. S. The Br. Pharm. furnishes the following 
tests : “ Sp. gr. 1-260. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, 
arsenium, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium, ammonium, chlorides, or sulphates; and no red 
precipitate with excess of solution of potass io-cupric tartrate on boiling, even when previously 
acidified and boiled (absence of grape and cane sugars). It should undergo no darkening in 
color at ordinary temperatures when mixed with an equal volume of solution of ammonia and 
a few drops of solution of silver nitrate ; and when shaken with an equal volume of sulphuric 
acid, the mixture being kept cool, no coloration, or only a very slight straw coloration, should 
result (absence of foreign organic matter). When gently heated with a mixture, in equal 
volumes, of alcohol (90 per cent.) and diluted sidphuric acid, a fruity odor should not be pro- 
duced (absence of butyric acid). 2 cubic centimetres diluted with 5 cubic centimetres of a 
mixture of 1 part of hydrochloric acid and 7 parts of water, 1 gramme of pure zinc being 
added, and the whole placed in a long test-tube, the mouth of which is covered by a piece of 
filter-paper moistened with a drop or two of test-solution of mercuric chloride and dried, should 
not afford a yellow stain on the paper even after 15 minutes (limit of arsenium). When heated 
in an open capsule it yields acrid vapors; and is finally dissipated, leaving no ash (absence of 
fixed mineral matter).” Arsenic has been shown to exist in small quantities as an impu- 
rity in glycerin of European make {P. J. Tr., 1894, 585, 588); its presence may be suspected 
whenever sulphuric acid (made from pyrites) has been used in the manufacture of the glycerin. 
Lime may be detected by ammonium oxalate; lead, by ammonium sulphide; and sulphuric 
acid, by a soluble salt of barium. Diluted, and boiled with a solution of potassa, it is not 
altered in color, showing the absence of glucose. Trommer’s test is probably still more 
effectual. Chloroform was proposed as a test of sugar, in consequence of the complete insolu- 
bility of sugar in it, while glycerin was said to be very soluble; but subsequently chloroform 
was shown to be incapable of dissolving glycerin, though readily forming an even mixture, 
which separates into its two constituents, on standing. (Chem. News, Feb. 25, 1870.) The 
absence of sugar is shown if, upon the addition of two drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, 
and the application of heat, no brown discoloration is observed. (Journ. de Pharm., Nov. 
1863.) The late Prof. Procter believed that the most satisfactory method of detecting cane 
sugar is to dilute a little glycerin with three parts of water, then add a few grains of tartaric 660 
Glycerinum.—Glycerita. 
PAET I. 
acid, and boil for a short time. Cane sugar, if present, is thus converted into glucose, which 
may be detected by adding first a solution of copper sulphate, and then the solution of potassa 
to the heated liquid, when the formation of the reddish suboxide of copper will afford the 
requisite proof. (A. J. P., 1867.) According to M. Hager, sugar or dextrin may be detected 
in the following manner. Dilute the glycerin with water, add ammonium molybdate and some 
drops of nitric acid, and boil. If these impurities are present, a blue color is produced; if 
not, it remains colorless. (Ibid., May, 1869.) Among the most injurious impurities of glycerin 
are thought to be oxalic and formic acids, the latter of which, being especially irritating to 
the skin, unfits glycerin for some of the purposes for which it is most employed. The oxalic 
acid is said to result from the action of sulphuric acid employed in purifying glycerin ; the 
formic, from the reaction between glycerin and oxalic acid. They may be detected by the U. 
S. P. tests. Mr. Henry Bower, of Philadelphia, who manufactured very pure glycerin, says 
that silver nitrate is the most reliable test. Glycerin which shows no reaction with this salt 
he considers suitable for all uses. (A. J. P., 1868.) See improved U. S. P. test above. For 
a method of extracting glycerin from mixtures containing sugar and glucose, see a paper by 
Prof. Prescott, N. R., 1878. For methods of determining glycerin in mixtures or its detection 
in wines, etc., see Chem. News, 1882 ; A. J. P., 1882; Schweiz. Wochensch. f. Pharm., 1881; 
Chem. News, 1886; Amer. Drug., 1886.* 
Medical Properties. The uses of glycerin as a vehicle for other medicines have been 
already given. When given internally, it is laxative, and it has also been suggested as a sub- 
stitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis, etc. Dr. R. P. Cotton, however, has tried it in the Con- 
sumption Hospital at Brompton, and shown that it has generally but little influence, and that 
as a remedial agent it will bear no comparison with cod-liver oil. When injected directly into 
the blood, glycerin produces in the lower animals violent nervous symptoms and death, but this 
action is probably due to the mechanical alteration of the viscidity of the vital fluid. All our 
physiological evidence goes to show that glycerin has, unless in very immoderate quantities, no 
distinct physiological or therapeutic properties other than those of a feeble laxative. It has 
recently been extensively employed in habitual constipation in the form of suppositories. (See 
Suppositoria Glycerini.') Although at various times much lauded in tuberculous diseases and 
in diabetes, it has entirely failed to gain the confidence of the profession, and is now very rarely 
employed. 
Glycerin has come into extensive use as an external remedy. Its emollient virtues and un- 
drying property adapt it to the treatment of skin diseases in which a softening and soothing 
application is required. It appears to have been first employed externally in 1846, by Mr. 
Thomas De la Rue, of London, whose observation of its utility led Mr. Startin to try it in the 
Hospital for Skin Diseases, where it came into extensive use. The principal cutaneous diseases 
in which it has been found beneficial are pityriasis, lepra, herpes, eczema, psoriasis, prurigo, and 
lichen. It is a useful addition to lotions in the incrusted form of lupus, and in various syphi- 
litic and strumous eruptions. It is also useful in chapped skin and excoriated surfaces. Added 
to poultices, in a proportion varying from one-fourth to one-sixteenth, it has the effect of 
keeping them soft for a long time. To collodion it gives a plasticity which renders it often 
better suited to skin affections. Incorporated in very small proportion with extracts and pills, 
it keeps them soft and free from mouldiness. In cases of deafness, from deficiency, accumula- 
tion, or hardness of the cerumen, and attended with dryness of the meatus, glycerin is an ex- 
cellent remedy, introduced into the canal by means of raw cotton saturated with it. Glycerin 
may be used in the form of an ointment, f 
GLYCERITA. Glycerites. 
Glycerins, Br.; Glycerines. 
These are solutions of medicinal substances in glycerin. In the thirteenth edition of the 
Dispensatory various reasons were adduced for preferring the name glycerates for these prepa- 
rations, but, as the revisers of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia have since adopted that of glycerites, 
(GLYO-B-Rl'TA.) 
* Glycero-alcohol, a valuable solvent made by mixing glycerin, 333 ; distilled water, 146; and alcohol sufficient to 
measure 1000 parts. Its specific gravity is about 1; it is a good solvent for alkaloids, keeps indefinitely, and does 
not evaporate readily. 
f Mr. Ecky’s glycerin ointment is made as follows. Take of spermaceti half an ounce ; white wax a drachm ; oil 
of almonds two fluidounces ; glycerin a Jluidounce. Melt the spermaceti and wax with the oil of almonds by a mod- 
erate heat. Then, having poured the melted liquid into a Wedgwood mortar, add the glycerin, and rub until the 
ingredients are thoroughly mixed and cool. This ointment may be used with advantage in chaps and excoriations. PART I. 
Glyceritum Acidi Carbolici.—Glycentum Acidi Tannici. 
661 
these reasons are omitted. The U. S. name is certainly much better than the British. (See 
p. 658.) 
Glycerin has valuable properties as a solvent and vehicle of medicinal substances. Such are 
its not unpleasant taste and bland character; its wide range of solvent power, which adapts it 
sometimes as a menstruum where neither water nor alcohol could be advantageously used, and 
enables it to retain in solution otherwise insoluble substances so frequently found in infusions 
and decoctions; and its preservative influence, which often protects against oxidation, and, by a 
destructive agency upon all of the lowest forms of vegetable and animal life, prevents the 
various fermentative processes so destructive of organic bodies. Another important property, 
as a vehicle for external remedies, is the permanence of its liquid character, so that it does not, 
like water and alcohol, dry up when applied to the skin; resembling in this respect, as well as 
in its demulcent quality, the fixed oils, without their tendency to rancidity. Hence it has of 
late come into extensive use in the preparation of medicinal solutions, which under the name 
of Glyciris found admission into the French Codex of 1866, and are now recognized by both 
the United States and British Pharmacopoeias.* 
GLYCERITUM ACIDI CARBOLICI. U. S. (Br.) Glycerite of Carbolic 
Acid. 
Glyoerinum Acidi Carbolioi, Br., Glycerin of Phenol; GlycSrole d’Acide phSnique, Glycerine ph6nique, Fr.; 
Phenol-Glycerit, G. 
“ Carbolic Acid, twenty grammes [or 309 grains] ; Glycerin, eighty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 
360 grains], To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Weigh the Carbolic 
Acid and Glycerin, successively, into a tared capsule, and stir them together until the Acid is 
dissolved. Then transfer the solution to a bottle.” tl. S. 
“ Phenol, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Glycerin, sufficient to produce 5 jl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres. Triturate the Phenol with the Glycerin until solution 
is effected.” Br. 
For the uses of this preparation, see Acidum Carbolicum (p. 35). The U. S. 1890 glycerite 
is a 20 per cent, by weight solution ; the British preparation is slightly weaker, being a 20 
per cent, by volume solution. It may be used internally or locally, and for both purposes 
should in general be diluted with water at the time of application. The dose is from five to 
ten minims (0-3-0'6 C.c.). 
(glyc-e-bI'tCm Xq'i-d! car-b5l'i-ci.) 
GLYCERITUM ACIDI TANNICI. U. S. (Br.) Glycerite of Tannic Acid 
Glyoerinum Acidi Tannioi, Br.; Glycerole de Tannin, Glycerine tannique, Fr.; Tannin-Glycerol, G. 
“ Tannic Acid, twenty grammes [or 309 grains] ; Glycerin, eighty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 
360 grains], To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av.,231 grains]. Weigh the Tannic 
Acid and Glycerin, successively, into a tared porcelain capsule, avoiding contact with metallic 
utensils, and apply the heat of a water-bath, until the Acid is completely dissolved. Then 
transfer the solution to a bottle.” U. S. 
“Tannic Acid, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Glycerin, sufficient to produce 5 fl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres. Triturate the Tannic Acid with the Glycerin until 
solution is effected.” Br. 
The U. S. preparation is a 20 per cent, solution by weight; the strength of the British prepa- 
ration is somewhat weaker, being a 20 per cent, solution by measure. H. F. Meier found that 
the greenish scum usually seen on the surface of this preparation is chlorophyll from the tannin. 
This preparation may be used, both internally and externally, for most of the purposes to 
(GLYQ-E-RI'TUM IQ'!-©! TAN'NI-CT.) 
* Glyceritum Picis Liquidm. U. S. 1870. Glycerite of Tar. “ Take of Tar a troyounce ; Carbonate of Magnesium, 
in powder, two troyounces; Glycerin four fluidounces; Alcohol two fluidounces ; Water ten flnidounces. Having 
mixed the Glycerin, Alcohol, and Water, rub the Tar in a mortar, first with the Carbonate of Magnesium, and then 
with six fluidounces of the mixed liquids gradually added, and strain with expression. Rub the residue in like 
manner with half the remaining liquid, and strain as before. Repeat the process again with the remaining liquid. 
Put the residue into a percolator, add gradually the expressed liquids previously mixed, and afterwards a sufficient 
quantity of water to make the liquid which passes measure a pint.” V. S. 
This is a very excellent preparation of tar, which may be used either externally or internally. The formula is 
essentially the same as that proposed by Mr. J. B. Moore, although employing one-third less of the magnesium salt 
(A. J. P., 1869, p. 115). As first made it is of a reddish-brown color; after a time it is apt to deposit a dark sediment, 
which should be separated by filtration. An ounce of it represents half a fluidrachm of tar. The dose is from a 
drachm to a half-ounce (3*75-15 C.c.). Glycerinum Aluminis.—Glyceritum Boroglycerini. 
662 
PART I. 
which tannic acid is applied. On the whole, it is the most useful preparation of tannic acid for 
external use; as circumstances require it the official strength may be altered by directions of 
the physician ; a very concentrated solution, two parts of glycerin to one of tannin, may be 
made by the aid of a moderate heat. This applied daily to nipples, during the later months 
of pregnancy, will usually prevent the occurrence of sore nipples during suckling. The dose is 
from ten to forty minims (U-6-2-5 C.c.). (See Acidum Tannicum, p. 98.) 
GLYCERINUM ALUMINIS. Br. Glycerin of Alum 
(GLYg-E-RI'NUM A-LU'MI-NlS.) 
“ Alum, in powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Distilled Water, 3 fl. drachms (Imp. 
meas.) or 7-5 cubic centimetres; Glycerin, sufficient to produce 6 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 
120 cubic centimetres. Triturate until solution is effected, warming slightly if necessary; set 
aside; pour off the clear liquid from any deposited matter that may be present.” Br. 
This has the astringency of the glycerite of tannin without the tendency to soil the linen or 
blacken in contact with iron, but is much more irritating. 
GLYCERITUM AMYLI. U. S. (Br.) Glycerite of Starch. 
Glycerinum Amyli, Br., Glycerin of Starch; Unguentum Glycerini, P. G.; Glycamyl, Plasma glycere d’Ami- 
don, GlycSrat simple (d’Ainidon), Fr.; Starke-Glycerit, G. 
“ Starch, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Water, ten cubic centimeters [or 162 minims] ; Glycerin, 
eighty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 360 grains]. To the Starch, contained in a porcelain capsule, 
add the Water and Glycerin, and stir until a homogeneous mixture is produced. Then apply 
a heat gradually raised to 140° C. (284° F.), and not exceeding 144° C. (291-2° F.), stirring 
constantly until a translucent jelly is formed. Transfer the product to suitable vessels, pro- 
vided with well-fitting covers.” U. S. 
“Starch, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Glycerin, 6J fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 130 
cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, 1 \ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 30 cubic centimetres. Mix ; 
heat them together, stirring constantly, until a translucent jelly is formed.” Br. 
Of these preparations it is only necessary to say that, with the exception of an inconsider- 
able difference in the proportions, they are the same as that brought into notice in 1858 by 
Mr. G. F. Schacht under the name of plasma, as a substitute for ointments, the emollient and 
demulcent properties of which they possess, without their inconvenience, whether used simply, 
or as a vehicle for other substances to be employed locally. Mr. Schacht prepares plasma by 
mixing 70 grains of starch in powder, and a fluidounce of glycerin, heating to 240° F. until 
the union is effected, and stirring constantly. The stirring should be continued moderately, 
during the cooling, to secure a proper consistence. As the plasma is liable to absorb moisture, 
it should be kept in well-closed vessels. (P. J. Tr., Oct. 1866, 210.) J. H. Pearson (P. J. Tr., 
1897, 201) recommends the addition of one grain of powdered tragacanth to the ounce of 
finished product, to prevent the separation of the glycerin and water from the mass, on 
standing. 
(GLYg-E-Ri'TUM AM'Y-LI.) 
GLYCERINUM BORACIS. Br. Glycerin of Borax 
(GLYg-E-RI'NUM BO-RA'ClS.) 
GlycSrole de Borax, Fr.; Borax-Glycerol, G. 
“Borax, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Glycerin, 6 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 120 
cubic centimetres. Triturate the Borax with the Glycerin until solution is effected.” Br. 
The Glyceritum Sodii Boratis of U. S. P. 1870 was of the strength of one troyounce to four 
fluidounces. Otherwise it did not differ from the British preparation. 
The demulcent properties and sweet taste of this preparation render it a useful and conven- 
ient method of applying borax to the infantile thrush and other forms of sore mouth in chil- 
dren. It has been highly commended in erysipelas by Prof. D. M. Salazar, of Madrid. The part 
should be freely painted with it and then covered with raw cotton. (A! Y. Med. Record, viii. 311.) 
GLYCERITUM BOROGLYCERINI. U. S. (Br.) Glycerite of Boroglycerin. 
[Glycerite of Glyceryl Borate. Solution of Boroglyceride.] 
(GLYQ-E-RI'TUM B6-RO-GLYQ-E-RI'n!.) 
Glycerinum Aoidi Borioi, Br., Gtycerin of Boric Acid. 
“ Boric Acid, in fine powder, three hundred and ten grammes [or 10 ounces av., 409 grains] ; 
Glycerin, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Glycentum Hydrastis.—Glycerinum, Pepsini. 
PART I. 
663 
Heat four hundred and sixty grammes [or 16 ounces av., 99 grains] of Glycerin, in a fared 
porcelain capsule, to a temperature not exceeding 150° C. (302° F.), and add the Boric Acid 
in portions, constantly stirring. When all is added and dissolved, continue the heat at the 
same temperature, frequently stirring, and breaking up the film which forms on the surface. 
When the mixture has been reduced to the weight of five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 
278 grains], add to it five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 278 grains] of Glycerin, mix 
thoroughly, and transfer it to suitable vessels.” U. S. 
“ Boric Acid, in fine powder, 6 ounces (Imperial) or 300 grammes; Glycerin, a sufficient 
quantity. Heat nine ounces (Imp.) or four hundred and fifty grammes of Glycerin, in a 
weighed porcelain dish, to a temperature not exceeding 302° F. (150° C.), and add the Boric 
Acid in portions, constantly stirring. When all is dissolved maintain the temperature of the 
liquid, frequently stirring and breaking up the film which forms on the surface, until the 
mixture has been reduced to the weight of ten ounces [Imp.] or five hundred grammes ; then 
add ten ounces (Imp.) or five hundred grammes of Glycerin; mix thoroughly. The product 
should weigh twenty ounces (Imp.) or one thousand grammes.” Br. 
This solution was introduced into the U. S. P. 1890 from the National Formulary. It 
is a thick, sweet, viscid, colorless liquid, and has the advantage of offering the antiseptic 
properties of boric acid in a very soluble form. It may he made more rapidly than by the 
above process if one ounce av. of boroglyceride be dissolved in one ounce av. of glycerin with 
the aid of a gentle heat. (See Boroglyceridum, Part II.) 
GLYCERITUM HYDRASTIS. U. S. Glycerite of Hydrastis. 
“ Hydrastis, in No. 60 powder, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Glycerin, 
five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] ; Alcohol, Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Moisten 
the Hydrastis with three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 401 minims] of 
Alcohol, and pack it firmly in a cylindrical percolator; then add enough Alcohol to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, 
close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. 
Then allow the percolation to proceed, gradually adding Alcohol until the Hydrastis is practi- 
cally exhausted. To the percolate add two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 
218 minims] of Water, and then drive off the Alcohol by evaporation or distillation. After 
the Alcohol is driven off, add enough Water to the residue to make it measure five hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims], and set it aside for twenty-four hours. Then 
filter, pass enough Water through the filter to make the filtrate measure five hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims], add the Glycerin, and mix thoroughly].” U. S. 
This is a new official preparation which has been transferred to the U. S. P. 1890 from the 
National Formulary. It is intended to take the place of the various preparations which are 
in vogue and which go under the names of Fluid Hydrastis, Colorless Hydrastis, etc. F. A. 
Sieker found that glycerite of hydrastis as made by the U. S. process varies greatly in strength. 
(See Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 691 ; also Phami. Ruud., 1895, 236, and Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 
668.) Its medical properties are those of Hydrastis. Dose, from one-half to one fluidrachm 
(1-87-3-75 C.c.). 
(GLYQ-E-Ri'TUM IIY-DRAS'TIS.) 
GLYCERINUM PEPSINI. Br. Glycerin of Pepsin. 
“ Pepsin, 800 grains (Imperial) or 80 grammes ; Hydrochloric Acid, 110 minims (Imp. meas.) 
or 10 cubic centimetres ; Glycerin, 12 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 525 cubic centimetres; Distilled 
Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Hydrochloric Acid, Glycerin, and six fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or two hundred and sixty cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; then add the 
Pepsin; after one week, pour off the clear liquid, or filter; add sufficient Distilled Water to 
produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred and seventy-five cubic centimetres. 1 fluid 
drachm of this preparation represents 5 grains of Pepsin.” Br. 
This preparation is apparently identical with the glycerite of pepsin of the National For- 
mulary ; but the pepsin of the British Pharmacopoeia is supposed to be five times as strong as 
that of the N. F. (See Glyceritum Pepsini, N. F., Part II.) The dose is one fluidrachm, 
equivalent to five grains of pepsin. 
(GLYQ-E-RI'NUM PEP-SI'NI.) 664 
Glycerinum Plumbi Subacetatis.— Glycyrrhiza. 
PART I. 
GLYCERINUM PLUMBI SUBACETATIS. Br. Glycerin of Subacetate 
of Lead. 
“Lead Acetate, 5 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Lead Oxide, in powder, 3£ ounces 
(Imp.) or 70 grammes; Glycerin, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 400 cubic centimetres; Distilled 
Water, 12 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 240 cubic centimetres. Mix; boil for a quarter of an 
hour; filter; evaporate at a temperature not exceeding 222° F. (105-5° C.) until the product 
weighs thirty-two and three-quarters ounces (Imp.) or six hundred and fifty-five grammes, and 
has a specific gravity of 1-48.” Br. 
This glycerite originated with Dr. Balmanno Squire, of London, but the process made offi- 
cial is that recommended by Dr. R. W. Parker. (See A. J. P., 1886, 296.) It is a powerful 
sedative astringent, and may be employed as a local application in external inflammations. 
(GLYQ-E-Itf'NUM PLUM'BI SUB-Ig-E-TA'TIS.) 
GLYCERINUM Br. Glycerin of Tragacanth. 
“Tragacanth, in powder, i ounce (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Glycerin, 1£ fi. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 30 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, } fi. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 10 cubic centi- 
metres. Mix the Glycerin with the Tragacanth; add the Distilled Water; triturate until a 
homogeneous paste is produced.” Br. 
This new official preparation has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia mainly to 
serve as an excipient for pills. 
(GLYQ-E-RI'NOM TRAG-A-CiN'THiE.) 
GLYCERITUM VITELLI. U. S. Glycerite of Yolk of Egg. [Glyconin.] 
(GLYg-E-RI'TbM VI-TEL'LI.) 
“ Fresh Yolk of Egg, forty-five grammes [or 1 ounce av., 257 grains] ; Glycerin, fifty-five 
grammes [or 1 ounce av., 411 grains], To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 
grains]. Rub the Yolk of Egg, in a mortar, with the Glycerin, gradually added, until they 
are thoroughly mixed. Then transfer the mixture to a bottle.” U. S. 
Under the name of Glyconin there has been employed in France for many years, both for 
medical purposes and for those of the toilet, an emulsion made of glycerin and the yolk of 
egg. When these two substances are rubbed together, they unite to form a very intimate 
mixture, which does not separate. It has the consistence of honey, and forms an opaque 
emulsion with water. It may be preserved almost indefinitely. The usual proportions of the 
ingredients are four parts of the yolk of egg and five parts of pure glycerin. It has been 
repeatedly recommended as a basis for cod-liver oil and other emulsions* (See also papers by 
Mr. Close in Proc. A. P. A., 1884 and 1886.) It is itself not medicinal. 
GLYCYRRHIZA. U. S. (Br.) Glycyrrhiza. [Liquorice Root.] 
Glycyrrhizae Radix, Br.; Radix Liquiritiae Glabrae, P. G.; Radix Glycyrrhizae Hispanicse; Spanish Licorice 
Root; Reglisse, Rois doux, Racine douce, Bois de Reglisse, Fr.; Spanisches Siissholz, Spanische Siissholzwurzel, 
Siissholzwurzel, G.; Liquirizia, It.; Regaliza, Sp. 
“ The root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linne, and of the variety glandulifera (Waldstein et Kit- 
taibel), Regel et Herder (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” U. S. “ The peeled root and peeled sub- 
terranean stem of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linn., and other species.” Br. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx bilabiate ; upper lip three-cleft, lower undivided. Legume ovate compressed. 
WiUd. 
Glycyrrhiza glabra. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1144; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 420, t. 152 ; Carson, 
lllust. of Med. Bot. i. 38, pi. 32. The liquorice plant has a perennial root, which is round, 
succulent, tough, and pliable, furnished with sparse fibres, rapid in its growth, and in a sandy 
soil penetrates deeply into the ground. The stems are herbaceous, erect, and usually four or 
five feet in height, have few branches, and are garnished with alternate, pinnate leaves, con- 
sisting of several pairs of ovate, blunt, petiolate leaflets, with a single leaflet at the end, of a 
pale-green color, and clammy on their under surface. The flowers are violet or purple, formed 
(GLYg-YR-RHl'ZA.) 
* Glyconin Emulsion of Cod-Liver Oil. The formula proposed by Mr. Close, and at one time largely used by Drs. 
Andrews, Beard, and others, is as follows. Cod-Liver Oil 4 fluidounces, Glyconin 9 fluidrachms, Aromatic Spirit of 
Ammonia 1 fluidrachm, Sherry Wine 2 fluidounces, Diluted Phosphoric Acid 4 fluidrachms, Essence of Bitter Almond 
(made by dissolving 1 fluidrachm of the volatile oil in half a pint of alcohol) 2 fluidrachms. The cod-liver oil is to 
be added very slowly to the glyconin with brisk stirring, and the other ingredients added in the order named. Glycyrrhiza. 
665 
PART I. 
like those of the pea, and arranged in axillary spikes supported on long peduncles. The calyx 
is tubular and persistent. The fruit is a compressed, smooth, acute, one-celled legume, con- 
taining from one to six small kidney-shaped seeds. Tbsre are two very distinct varieties of 
the plant yielding the root: the typical form, which is smooth throughout, and the variety, 
G. glandulifera, W. K., in which the stem, leaves, and pods are more or less roughly glandular 
or pubescent. 
The habitat of the plant is wide-spread, extending from the shores of the Mediterranean to 
Siberia as far north as latitude 55°, and southward through Asia Minor and Persia to Farther 
India. The liquorice plant is cultivated in England* the north of France, and Germany. It 
is also largely produced in the north of Spain, where it is an important article of commerce, 
and in Asia along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is probable that a portion of 
the root from Italy and Sicily is the product of G. echinata, which grows wild in Apulia. This 
species is also abundant in the south of Russia, where, according to Hayne, sufficient extract 
is prepared from it to supply the whole Russian empire. Large quantities of liquorice root 
are now imported for the purpose of making the extract, the imports for 1895 having been 
83,281,275 lbs., valued at $1,404,563; for 1896, 87,123,461 lbs., valued at $1,401,748; and for 
1897, 62,370,337 lbs., valued at $1,022,650. 
A species of Glycyrrhiza, G. lepidota, grows abundantly about St. Louis, in the State of 
Missouri, and flourishes along the banks of the Missouri River to its source. It is probably 
the same as the liquorice plant mentioned by Mackenzie as growing on the northern coast of 
this continent. Mr. Nuttall states that its root possesses in no inconsiderable degree the taste 
of liquorice, and M. L. McCullough found it to contain 6-39 per cent, of crude glycyrrhizin, in 
contrast with 7*18 per cent, in the official species. (A. J. P., 1890.) 
Properties. The liquorice root of commerce is in long pieces, varying in thickness from 
a few lines to two inches, fibrous when not peeled, externally grayish brown and longitudinally 
wrinkled by desiccation, often warty, internally yellowish, pliable, tough, without smell, and of 
a sweet mucilaginous taste, mingled with a slight degree of acrimony. “ Fracture coarsely 
fibrous ; bark rather thick ; wood porous, but dense, in narrow wedges ; medullary rays linear; 
taste sweet, somewhat acrid. The underground stem, wdiich is often present, has the same ap- 
pearance, but contains a thin pith. The drug derived from the variety glandulifera (so-called 
Russian Liquorice) consists usually of roots or root-branches, 1 to 4 Cm. thick, 15 to 30 Cm. 
long, frequently deprived of the corky layer, the wood rather soft, and usually more or less 
cleft.” U yS.f Formerly commerce was chiefly supplied with liquorice root by Italy and Spain, 
but the amount coming from these sources is at present probably not more than 10 per cent, of 
the whole, the greater portion coming from Southern Russia, a large amount from Anatolia and 
Syria, and a little from Turkey and Persia. The Spanish variety has been most esteemed, but, 
according to H. N. Rittenhouse, the peeled Russian liquorice is richer in glycyrrhizin and extrac- 
tives than is any other variety, and is in fact the most valuable. Russian liquorice is usually 
very large, quite sweet, but at the same time rather more bitter and acrid than is the Spanish 
variety. Liquorice root is often worm-eaten and more or less decayed; such root should be 
rejected, as should also the small fibrous roots often shipped from Spain. The best pieces are 
large, bright yellow internally, and have the layers and the bark distinct. The bark is chiefly 
liber, consisting of parenchymatous tissue with bast-cells (which are stained yellow by iodine), and 
arranged so as to make ordinary liber bundles, and also a sort of net-work. A character said 
by Prof. Rothrock (A. J. P., 1884) to be diagnostic is the occurrence in the wood and paren- 
chyma of bundles composed of numerous bast-cells, surrounded by a sheath of large cells 
containing crystals of calcium oxalate. In the Russian root the parenchymatous wood-cells 
are larger than in the Spanish. The powder is of a grayish-yellow color, when the root is pul- 
verized without being deprived of its epidermis; of a pale sulphur-yellow, when the epidermis 
has been removed. Robiquet found the following ingredients in liquorice root: 1, a peculiar 
transparent yellow substance, called glycyrrhizin, of a sweet taste, scarcely soluble in cold 
water, very soluble in boiling water, with which it gelatinizes on cooling, thrown down from 
its aqueous solution by acids, readily soluble in cold alcohol, insusceptible of the vinous fer- 
mentation, yielding no oxalic acid by the action of the nitric, and therefore wholly distinct 
* Most of the liquorice root of commerce appears to be the product of wild plants, but it has been successfully cul- 
tivated in England (A. J. P., 1874, 473) and in Syria (P. J. Tr. xvi. 647). Although the attempts to produce it in 
the United States have hitherto met with no great success, we can see no reason why in some of the lowlands of the 
Southeastern States it should not flourish. An interesting report upon the production of liquorice root in Spain was 
made by Mr. H. C. Marsten, United States consul, and may be found abstracted in New Remedies, Jan. 1882. 
| For the anatomical structure of the root, see Arch. d. Pharm., June, 1888. 666 
Glycyrrhiza.—Glycyrrhizinum Ammoniatum. 
PART I. 
from sugar ; 2, a crystallizable principle named agedoite by Robiquet, but subsequently proved 
to be identical with asparagin; 3, starch; 4, albumen; 5, a brown acrid resin; 6, a brown 
nitrogenous extractive matter ; 7, lignin; 8, salts of lime and magnesia, with phosphoric, sul- 
phuric, and malic acids. Fliickiger states that a small amount of tannin is also always con- 
tained in the root, or rather its bark. The chief constituent, glycyrrhizin, Gorup-Besanez 
{Ann. Ch. und Pharm., 118) considered to be a glucoside, having the composition C24H36°9- 
On boiling with dilute acids it breaks up into glycyrrhetin and an unerystallizable sugar capa- 
ble of fermentation. Roussin {Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., July, 1875) found that the 
sweet taste of the root was not owing to the free glucoside, hut to its compound with ammonia. 
Habermann {Ann. Ch. und Pharm., 197) found that glycyrrhizin-ammonia was the acid am- 
monium salt of glycyrrhizic acid, a nitrogenous acid, and gave the formula C44H62N018.NH4 
for it. (See Glycyrrhizinum Ammoniatum.) He succeeded in extracting from the commercial 
“ ammoniacal glycyrrhizin” glycyrrhizic acid, which may be considered to be the active constit- 
uent of liquorice. It was obtained by dissolving the crude glycyrrhizin in glacial acetic acid at 
a boiling temperature, rapidly filtering, again treating the crystalline parts of the filtrate in 
the same manner, and finally purifying by repeated crystallizations from 90-per-cent, alcohol. 
Its properties are peculiar, and account to a great extent for the singular behavior of liquid 
liquorice preparations. With water, in which the substance is but little soluble at ordinary 
temperature, it forms a transparent, faintly yellow jelly. On mixing 1 Gm. of the body with 
100 C.c. of water, the mixture after a few hours becomes so jelly-like that the open vessel may 
be inverted without losing any substance. It is insoluble in ether, but slightly soluble in ab- 
solute alcohol (even boiling), more so in alcohol of 90 per cent., and especially so when hot. 
Its solubility increases with the decrease of the percentage of alcohol. The apparent gluco- 
sidal character of glycyrrhizic acid Habermann explains by the fact that it breaks up on boiling 
with dilute sulphuric acid into glycyrrhetin and parasaccharic acid, according to the reaction 
C44He3N018 + 2H20 = C?2H47N04-t-2C6H1008. {Ann. d. Chem., 197; N. R., Sept. 1879.) 
By fusing glycyrrhizin with caustic potash, Weselsky and Benedikt {Deutsch. Chem. Ges.r 
1876) obtained paraoxybenzoic acid. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Liquorice root is an excellent demulcent, well adapted 
to pulmonic catarrhs, and even to irritations of the mucous membrane of the bowels and urinary 
passages; but it is chiefly used for the purpose of concealing the taste or of covering the acri- 
mony of various drugs, such as ammonium chloride or senega. A decoction may be prepared 
by boiling an ounce of the bruised root, for a few minutes, in a pint of water, but at present 
the extract is almost universally preferred. The powder is used in the preparation of pills, 
either to give due consistence or to cover their surface and prevent them from cohering. 
For formulas of Aromatic Elixir and Syrup of Liquorice, see Part II., National Fomiulary. 
GLYCYRRHIZINUM AMMONIATUM. U. S. Ammoniated Glycyrrhizin. 
(GLYQ-YR-RHI-ZI'NUM AM-MO-NI-A'TUM.) 
“ Glycyrrhiza, in No. 20 powder, five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 278 grains] ; Water, 
Ammonia Water, Sulphuric Acid, each, a sufficient quantity. Mix four hundred and seventy-five 
cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 30 minims] of Water with twenty five cubic centimeters [or 405 
minims] of Ammonia Water, and, having moistened the powder with the mixture, macerate 
for twenty-four hours. Then pack it moderately in a conical glass percolator, and gradually 
pour Water upon it until five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of per- 
colate are obtained. Add Sulphuric Acid slowly to the percolate, with constant stirring, so 
long as a precipitate is produced. Collect this on a strainer, wash it with cold Water until the 
washings no longer have an acid reaction, redissolve it in Water with the aid of Ammonia 
Water, filter, if necessary, and again add Sulphuric Acid so long as a precipitate is produced. 
Collect this, wash it, dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of Ammonia Water previously diluted 
with an equal volume of Water, and spread the clear solution upon plates of glass, so that, 
when dry, the product may be obtained in scales.” U. S. 
This is a preparation whose introduction is a result of the very important researches of Z. 
Roussin, communicated to the Societe de Pharmacie of Paris, June 2,1875. This investigator 
noticed that glycyrrhizin, the sweet principle of liquorice root, was insipid when compared with 
the root itself, and suspected that it existed in a modified form in the root. Experiment showed 
that alkalies developed the sweet taste, and he ultimately proved that the alkali with which it 
was combined in the root was ammonia, and that glycyrrhizin played the part of an acid. He PART I. 
Glycyrrhizinum Ammoniatum.— Gossypii Radicis Cortex. 
667 
named the compound ammonium glycyrrhizate, and called attention to the fact that liquorice 
root which had lost a portion of its sweetness through fermentation and the development of 
acetic acid and precipitation of insoluble glycyrrhizin could be restored to its former sweetness 
if allowed to remain a sufficient length of time in an ammoniacal atmosphere. The official 
process for ammoniated glycyrrhizin is closely modelled after Roussin’s, with the exception of 
the substitution of percolation by a slightly ammoniated menstruum for maceration and ex- 
pression with cold water. Roussin purified his product by redissolving it in alcohol and pre- 
cipitating with ether ; this is deemed unnecessary for a preparation which is intended to be 
useful without being expensive. (See Proc. A. P.A., 1876, p. 544.) Connerade has proposed 
some modification of Roussin’s method ; his process is as follows. “ Macerate ground liquorice 
root with one and a half parts by weight of water, strain, wash the residue with a very small 
quantity of water, heat the mixed liquids to boiling to coagulate albumen, strain again, and then 
add diluted sulphuric acid (1 in 10), as long as a precipitate is produced. Let this settle, de- 
cant the liquid, and dissolve the precipitate in solution of ammonia, diluted with nine parts of 
water. Filter the latter and evaporate it to dryness. The compound then remains as a brown, 
friable varnish, unaltered by air, of a pure, sweet taste, easily soluble in cold water, and im- 
parting to the latter, even when diluted to 1 in 1000 parts, an amber color. The yield is about 
10 per cent, of the weight of the root.” (iV R., March, 1881.) 
Properties. The following is the description given in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia: “Dark 
brown or brownish-red scales, without odor, and having a very sweet taste. Readily soluble in 
water and in alcohol. The aqueous solution, when heated with potassium or sodium hydrate test- 
solution, evolves ammoniacal vapors. If the aqueous solution be supersaturated with an acid, 
there will be produced a precipitate (glycyrrhizin) which, when dissolved in hot water, forms a 
jelly on cooling. This substance, after being washed with diluted alcohol, and dried, appears 
as an amorphous, yellow powder, having a strong, bitter-sweet taste, and an acid reaction. 
Upon incineration, Ammoniated Glycyrrhizin should not leave more than a trace of ash.” 
Medical Properties and Uses. This substance appears to possess the medical prop- 
erties of liquorice, and may be used as an elegant substitute for it in mixtures which are 
neither acid nor alkaline. The dose of it is from five to fifteen grains (0-32—0-97 Gm.). 
GOSSYPII RADICIS CORTEX. U. S. Cotton Root Bark. 
“ The bark of the root of Gossypium herbaceum, Linne, and of other species of Gossypium 
(nat. ord. Malvaceae).” U. S. 
Cottonroot Bark; Ecorce de la Racine de Cotonnier, Fr.; Baumwollen-Wurzelrinde, G. 
In consequence of changes produced in the plants of this genus by cultivation, botanists 
have found great difficulty in determining which are distinct species and which are merely 
varieties. De Candolle describes thirteen species in his Prodromus, and mentions six others, but 
considers them all uncertain. Hoyle describes eight and admits others. Schwartz thinks that 
they may all be referred to one original species. Engler and Prantl recognize six species, three 
of these being cultivated. The plants inhabit different parts of tropical Asia and Africa, and 
many of them are cultivated for their cotton in climates adapted to their growth. The species 
from which most of the cotton of commerce has been thought to be obtained is the one spe- 
cially indicated by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. According to Dr. Royle, it is the India cotton 
which is produced by G. herbaceum, while G. barbadense furnishes all the cotton of North 
America, and G. peruvianum that produced in Brazil, Peru, and other parts of South America. 
(See A. J. P., 1858, 339.) Dr. A. W. Chapman, however, in his Flora of the Southern United 
States (New York, 1860, 58), states that the numerous varieties of the cotton-plant are now 
referred to two species, the long-staple, or sea-island, to G. album (Haw.), and the short-staple, 
or upland, to G. nigrum (Haw.). 
Gossypium herbaceum. Linn. Sp. Plant. 975 ; De Cand. Prodrom. i. 456. This is a biennial 
or triennial plant, with a branching stem from two to six feet high, and palmate hoary leaves, 
the lobes of which are somewhat lanceolate and acute. The flowers are pretty, with yellow 
petals, having a purple spot near the claw. The leaves of the involucel or outer calyx are ser- 
rate. The capsule opens when ripe, and displays a loose white tuft of long slender filaments, 
which surround the seeds and adhere firmly to the outer coating. The plant is a native of 
Asia, but is cultivated in most tropical countries. It requires a certain duration of warm 
weather to perfect its seeds, and, in the United States, does not mature north of Virginia. 
The herbaceous part of the plant contains much mucilage, and has been used as a demulcent. 
(GOS-SYP'I-I BA-DI'CIS COB'TEX.) 668 
Gossypii Radicis Cortex.—Gossypium Punficatum. 
PAJRT I. 
The seeds yield by expression a fixed oil of the drying kind, which is employed for making 
soap and for other purposes. (See Oleum Gossypii.') The bark of the root has been supposed 
to possess medical virtues, and is recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Another official 
portion, and that for which the plant is cultivated, is the filamentous substance surrounding 
the seeds. This when separated constitutes the cotton of commerce. Cotton seeds have been 
employed in our Southern States with great asserted success in the treatment of intermittents, 
but are at present seldom, if ever, used. (For details, see U. S. D., 16th ed.) 
Properties. Cotton Root Bark is officially described as “ in thin, flexible bands or quilled 
pieces; outer surface brownish-yellow, with slight, longitudinal ridges or meshes, small, black, 
circular dots, or short, transverse lines, and dull, brownish-orange patches, from the abrasion 
of the thin cork ; inner surface whitish, of a silky lustre, finely striate ; bast-fibres long, tough, 
and separable into papery layers; inodorous; taste very slightly acrid and faintly astringent.” 
U. S. Prof. E. S. Wayne, of Cincinnati, found in it a peculiar acid resin, colorless and soluble 
in water, when pure, but absorbing oxygen on exposure, and then becoming red and insoluble 
in water. It is deposited by the fluid extract on standing. He suggests that this may be the 
active principle of the root; but the fact has not been determined. (A. J. P., 1872.) William 
C. Staehle (A. J. P., 1875) made an examination of this resin, and obtained results somewhat 
different from those of Prof. Wayne. Staehle’s percolate was of a dark reddish-brown color, 
whilst Wayne’s was pale amber. This is accounted for, however, by the presence of a prin- 
ciple which is colorless in the fresh bark, but of a dark red in bark which has been exposed to 
air and light. W. A. Taylor noticed that the change in color from pale amber to dark red 
took place in an alcoholic tincture. (A. J. P., 1876.) Staehle found the resin soluble in 14 
parts of alcohol, 15 parts of chloroform, 23 parts of ether, and 122 parts of benzene. 
Medical Properties. It has been employed by Dr. Bouchelle, of Mississippi, who believes 
it to be an excellent emmenagogue, and not inferior to ergot in promoting uterine contraction. 
He states that it was habitually resorted to by the slaves of the South for producing abortion. 
To assist labor, he employs a decoction made by boiling four ounces of the inner bark of the root 
in a quart of water to a pint, and gives a wineglassful (60 C.c.) every twenty or thirty minutes. 
( West. Journ. of Med. and Surg., Aug. 1840.) These opinions of Dr. Bouchelle have been 
confirmed by various Southern medical practitioners, and Dr. H. I. Garrigues asserts that the 
cotton root has great powers in arresting hemorrhage and ameliorating the other symptoms of 
uterine fibroids ; but, for some reason, the drug failed to come into general use. Dr. Bellany, of 
Columbus, Georgia, says that the root should be gathered as late as possible in the fall before 
frost. The official fluid extract may be used in doses of half a fluidrachm to one fluidrachm 
(1-9 to 3-75 C.c.), repeated at short intervals if necessary. 
GOSSYPIUM PURIFICATUM. U. S. (Br.) Purified Cotton. 
[Absorbent Cotton.] 
“ The hairs of the seed of Gossypium herbaceum, Linn6, and of other species of Gossypium 
(nat. ord. Malvaceae), freed from adhering; impurities and deprived of fatty matter.” U. S* 
“ The hairs of the seed of Gossypium barbadense, Linn., and of other species of Gossypium, 
freed from fatty matter.” Br. 
Gossypium, Br., Cotton Wool; Bonelyax, Lana (Lanugo, s. Pili) Gossypii; Coton, Fr.; Baumwolle, G.; Cotone, 
It.; Algodon, Sp. 
Cotton consists of “ white, soft, fine filaments, under the microscope appearing as flattened, 
hollow, and twisted bands, spirally striate and slightly thickened at the edges; inodorous, 
tasteless, insoluble in ordinary solvents; but soluble in copper ammonium sulphate solution.” 
It is without smell or taste, soluble in strong alkaline solutions, and decomposed by the con- 
centrated mineral acids. In chemical character it is related to but not identical with lignin, 
the latter being an alteration product and sometimes called oxycellulose. By nitric acid it 
is converted into that remarkable explosive substance denominated gun cotton, for an ac- 
count of which see Pyroxylinum and Collodium. Official cotton is made by boiling the raw 
cotton in a diluted alkaline solution, a process sometimes known as “ mercerizing,” as practised 
on a large scale in the technical preparation of cotton fibre. A soap is formed through the 
union of the fatty matter with the alkali, and this is subsequently dissolved out by repeated 
washings. Mr. F. L. Slocum published in 1881 a process for preparing it. For details see the 
foot-note* The U. S. P. tests are as follows: “ Purified Cotton should be perfectly free from 
* Take of the hest quality of carded cotton batting any desired quantity, and boil it with a 5 per cent, solution 
of caustic potassa or soda for one-half hour, or until the cotton is entirely saturated with the solution, and the alkali 
(GOS-SYP'I-UM PU-RI-FI-CA'TUM.) PART I. 
Gossypium Purificatum.—Granatum, 
669 
all visible impurities, and, on combustion, should not leave more than 0-8 per cent, of ash. 
When Purified Cotton, previously compressed in the hand, is thrown on the surface of cold 
water, it should readily absorb the latter and sink, and the water should not acquire either 
an acid or an alkaline reaction (evidence of proper purification).” The latter test proves 
the absence of fatty matter, for if even a small quantity be present the cotton will float in 
water. Repeated experiments have proved that cotton will take fire and burn spontaneously 
if impregnated with olive oil, linseed oil, or almost any other fixed oil, and allowed to stand. 
(P. J. Tr., 1872, p. 225.) Cotton, analyzed by M. Schunck, was found, independently of 
cellulose (C6H1006)n, of which it chiefly consists, to contain vegetable wax, a fatty acid, coloring 
matter, pectic acid, and a little of an albuminoid substance. (Joum. de Pharm., Sept. 1868, 
233.) For medical use it should be carded into thin sheets.* It is said that air passed through 
cotton loses the property of inducing fermentation, on account of the microscopic organisms 
being strained out of it; and this fact has been utilized in preserving infusions by placing them 
in bottles containing corks armed with tubes loosely filled with cotton, and drawing the infusion 
from a stop-cock near the bottom. 
Medical Properties. The use of cotton as a filtering medium and in the preparation of 
medicated waters has already been alluded to. It is much used in surgery as a dressing for 
burns, scalds, blisters, and wounds, in order to prevent the access of pathogenetic germs.f 
Cotton batting is often employed to maintain a uniform temperature in parts affected with 
acute rheumatic inflammation. 
GRANATUM. U. S. (Br.) Pomegranate 
(GBA-NA'TUM.) 
“ The bark of the stem and root of Punica Granatum, Linne (nat. ord. Lythrarieae).” U. S. 
“ The dried bark of the stem and root of Punica Granatum, Linn.” Br. 
Granati Cortex, Br., Pomegranate Bark; Cortex Radicis Granati, P. G.; Ecorce de la Racine de Grenadier (de 
Balaustier), Ecorce de Granade, Fr.; Granatwurzelrinde, Granatapfelschale, G.; Malicorio, Scorza del Melogranati, 
It.; Corteza de Granada, Sp. 
Punica granatum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 981 ; Woody. Med. Bot. p. 531, t. 190 ; Carson, 
Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 45, pi. 38. The pomegranate is a small shrubby tree, attaining in favor- 
able situations the height of twenty feet, with a very unequal trunk, and numerous branches 
which sometimes bear thorns. The leaves are opposite, entire, oblong or lance-shaped, pointed 
at each end, smooth, shining, of a bright-green color, and placed on short footstalks. The 
flowers are large, of a rich scarlet color, and stand at the end of the young branches. The 
petals are roundish and wrinkled, and are inserted into the upper part of the tube of the calyx, 
which is red, thick, and fleshy. The fruit is a globular berry, about the size of an orange, 
crowned with the calyx, covered with a reddish-yellow, thick, coriaceous rind, and divided inter- 
nally into many cells, which contain an acidulous pulp, and numerous oblong, angular seeds. 
This tree grows wild upon both shores of the Mediterranean, in Arabia, Persia, Bengal, 
China, and Japan, has been introduced into the East and West Indies, and is cultivated in all 
civilized countries where the climate is sufficiently warm to allow the fruit to ripen. In higher 
has saponified all oily matter. Then wash thoroughly, to remove all soap, and nearly all alkali; press out the excess 
of water, and immerse in a 5 per cent, solution of chlorinated lime for 15 or 20 minutes; again wash, first with a 
little water, then dip in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and thoroughly wash with water; press out the 
excess of water, and again boil for 15 or 20 minutes in a 5 per cent, solution of caustic potassa or soda; now wash 
well, dipping in the acidulated water and washing thoroughly with pure water. Afterwards press out and dry 
quickly. 
The amount of loss by this process is practically 10 per cent. A sample of 360 grs. lost, on boiling with alkali 
and bleaching, 15 grs., or 4-17 per cent., and 270 grs. of this bleached sample lost, on again boiling with an alkali, 14 
grs., or 5'18 per cent., a total loss of 9’35 per cent. (A. J. P., 1881, p. 53.) 
* Wood Wool. Under this name Prof. Bruns has introduced finely grained, purified wood-fibre, such as is used 
in making paper. It may be medicated like cotton. (N. R., 1883, p. 361.) 
t Absorbent cotton has been medicated in various ways and come largely into use. (See Iodized Cotton, under 
Iodum.) Picric Cotton is prepared by dissolving 0-25 Gm. of picric acid in 25 Gm. of ether, or of 94 per cent, 
alcohol, and immersing in the solution 10 Gm. of clean cotton, and drying. Salicylic Cotton (5 per cent.) may be 
prepared by Prof. Bruns’s process, by saturating 1 kilogramme of cotton with 4 liters of a solution of 50 Gm. of 
salicylic acid, and 20 Gm. of castor oil in 3’930 liters of alcohol. Benzoic Cotton is made in the same way, substi- 
tuting benzoic for salicylic acid. (A. J. P., Dec. 1878.) Chlorinated Cotton. Prof. Pavesi subjects cotton moistened 
with glycerin, and suspended at the top of a large wide-mouthed bottle, to the action of chlorine vapor, gener- 
ated by adding sulphuric acid to chlorinated lime. (N. R., July, 1880.) Mr. Joseph W. England communicates in 
A. J. P., 1887, p. 173, practical formulas for preparing the following medicated cottons and gauzes : Borated Cotton, 
Benzoated Cotton, Salicylated Cotton, Naphthalinated Cotton, Iodoformized Cotton, Carbolized Cotton, Sublimated 
Cotton, Carbolized Gauze, Sublimated Gauze, Absorbent Canton Flannel. For methods of assay of medicated cottons, 
gauzes, etc., see Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 457, 458, 459. Granatum. 
PART I. 
latitudes, where it does not bear fruit, it is raised in gardens and hot-houses for the beauty of its 
flowers, which become double and acquire increased splendor of coloring by cultivation. Doubts 
have been entertained as to its original country. The name of Punicum 
malum, applied by the ancients to its fruit, implies that it was abundant 
at an early age in the vicinity of Carthage. The fruit, for which the 
plant is cultivated, varies much in size and flavor. It is said to attain 
greater perfection in the West Indies than in its native country. The 
edible pulp is red, succulent, pleasantly acid, and sweetish. The flowers 
were recognized by the Dublin College, and the seeds are official in 
France. 
Rind of the Fruit. This is presented in commerce under the form 
of irregular fragments, hard, dry, brittle, of a yellowish or reddish- 
brown color externally, paler within, without smell, and of an astrin- 
gent, slightly bitter taste. It contains a large proportion of tannin, 
and, in countries where the tree abounds, has been employed for tan- 
ning leather. 
Flowers. The flowers, sometimes called halaustines, are inodorous, 
have a bitterish, astringent taste, and impart a violet-red color to the 
saliva. They contain tannic and gallic acids, and were used by the 
ancients in dyeing. 
Bark of the Root. The roots of the pomegranate are hard, heavy, 
knotty, ligneous, and covered with a bark which is yellowish-gray or 
ash-gray on the outer surface, and yellow on the inner. As officially 
described, the bark is “ in thin quills or fragments, from 5 to 10 Cm. 
long, and from 1 to 3 Mm. thick; outer surface yellowish-gray, some- 
what warty, or longitudinally and reticulately ridged; the stem-bark 
often partly covered with blackish lichens; the thicker pieces of the 
root-bark more or less scaly externally; inner surface smooth, finely 
striate, grayish-yellow; fracture short, granular, greenish-yellow, in- 
distinctly radiate; inodorous; taste astringent, very slightly bitter.” 
U. S. “ The transverse section exhibits numerous fine radial and tan- 
gential lines.” Br. It has little or no smell, colors the saliva yellow 
when chewed, and leaves in the mouth an astringent taste without 
disagreeable bitterness. The infusion of the bark yields a deep-blue 
precipitate with salts of iron, and a yellowish-white precipitate with solu- 
tion of gelatin. The inner surface of the bark, steeped in water and 
then rubbed on paper, produces a yellow stain, which by the contact of ferrous sulphate is ren- 
dered blue, and by that of nitric acid acquires a slight rose tint, which soon vanishes. These 
properties serve to distinguish this bark from those of the box root and barberry, with which 
it is said to be sometimes adulterated. When used, it should be separated from the ligneous 
portion of the root, as the latter is inert. The bark contains more than 22 per cent, of tannic 
acid, which Rembold (Ann. der Ch. und Pharm., 143, 285) found to consist for the most part 
of a peculiar variety, punico-tannic acid, C20H16013; when boiled with dilute sulphuric acid 
it is resolved into ellagic acid, C14H809, and sugar. Punico-tannic acid is accompanied by 
common tannic acid, yielding by means of sulphuric acid gallic acid, which appears some- 
times to pre-exist in the bark. Henry Trimble, however (A. J. P., 1897, 636), as the result 
of an ultimate analysis of the purified tannin and a study of its reactions, pronounced it to be 
identical with gallotannic acid. Pomegranate bark also yields a considerable quantity of 
mannite, which was formerly described under the names of punicin or granatin. The active 
power of the root, however, is due, according to Tanret (Compt.-Rend., 86, 1270, and 87, 
358), to an alkaloid pelletierine, C8H16N0, a dextrogyrate liquid boiling at 195° C., easily 
soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and specially so in chloroform. It has strong basic prop- 
erties, and precipitates many metallic salts: 1000 parts of dry bark yielded 4 parts of it.* 
Pomegranate bark, e, cork 
layer; o, middle bark; v, 
inner bark; q, medullary 
rays; r, sieve, parenchyma- 
tous tissue with calcium ox- 
alate crystals. (After Berg.) 
* The bark of the stem of the pomegranate is sold as root-bark: for microscopic diagnosis, see P. J. Tr., 1873. As 
the anthelmintic activity of the barks of different portions of the plant is important, the analyses of Mr. Stoeder are 
of interest. His results are: stem and branch bark, in thin quills, 0*612 per cent.; average quills, 0*350 per cent.; 
thick quills, 0*498 per cent.; root-bark from south of Europe, in thick quills, 1*010 per cent.; shaved root-bark from 
Java, 1*326 per cent.; exfoliated bark from dry thick roots of unknown age, 1*240 per cent.; finely rasped wood from 
these roots, 0*218 per cent. According to the same authority (Nederl. Tijd. Pharm,., 1890), of the bark of three varie- 
ties of the wild pomegranate recognized and used by the natives of Java, the red-flowered, “merah,” yielded 2*43 
per cent.; the white-flowered, “poetih,” yielded 3*75 per cent.; the black-flowered, “ hitam,” yielded 1*71 per cent. PART X. 
Granatum. 
671 
In a later communication (Compt.-Rend., 88, p. 716), Tanret announced that he had found 
three additional volatile bases in the bark, a liquid left-rotating one, a liquid optically inactive 
one, and a crystallizable inactive one, which latter has the formula C9H15NO -f- 2HaO, fuses at 
46° C., and boils at 246° C. His process for obtaining these alkaloids is as follows. A mix- 
ture of the salts of the alkaloids is prepared by mixing the powdered bark with a milk of lime, 
exhausting with water, shaking the resulting liquor with chloroform, and neutralizing the latter 
with dilute acid. A solution of the mixed alkaloids is thus obtained in which one or other of 
them predominates, according to the source of the bark. Two of the four alkaloids are dis- 
placed from their salts by sodium bicarbonate, and two are not. This solution is therefore 
treated with an excess of sodium bicarbonate and shaken with chloroform, and this in its turn 
is agitated with dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting solution contains the sulphates of two 
alkaloids, to which the names of “ methylpelletierine,” C9H17N0, and u pseudopellet mine," 
C9H16NO, have been given. Caustic potash is then added to the first liquor, and upon re- 
peating the treatment with chloroform and acid there is obtained a solution of “ pelletierine” 
and “ isopelletierine" sulphates. (P. J. Tr., 1880.) Carl J. Bender (Pharm. Centralh., 1885, 
p. 6) found three bases in pomegranate bark, one crystallizable and two amorphous. He objects 
to the name pelletierine, and substitutes “punicine.” Wm. F. Junkunz analyzed pomegranate 
bark, and believes that the alkaloid exists in the bark as a tannate. (A. J. P., 1884.) The old 
idea that the bark loses activity when kept seems to be negatived by the analysis of De Yrij. 
(P. J. Tr., xxi.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. The rind of the pomegranate fruit was formerly recog- 
nized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. It is astringent, and in the form of decoction is sometimes 
employed in diarrhoea and colliquative sweats, and, more frequently, as an injection in leucor- 
rhoea, and as a gargle in sore throat in the earlier stages, or after the inflammatory action has 
in some measure subsided. The powdered rind has also been recommended in intermittent 
fever. The flowers have the same medical properties and are used for the same purposes. The 
bark of the root was used by the ancients as a vermifuge, and is recommended in the writings 
of Avicenna, but was unknown in modern practice till brought into notice by Dr. F. Buchanan, 
who learned its powers in India. The Mahometan physicians of Hindostan consider it a specific 
against tsenia. One of these practitioners, having relieved an English gentleman in 1804, was 
induced to disclose his secret, which was then made public. The French writers prefer the 
product of the wild pomegranate, growing on the borders of the Mediterranean, to that of the 
plant cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes. The bark may be administered in powder 
or decoction ; but the latter form is usually preferred. The decoction is prepared by macerating 
two ounces of the bruised bark in two pints of water for twenty-four hours, and then boiling 
to a pint. Of this a wineglassful may be given every half-hour, hour, or two hours, until the 
whole is taken. It often nauseates and vomits, and usually purges. Portions of the worm 
often come away soon after the last dose. It is recommended to give a dose of castor oil and 
to diet the patient strictly on the day preceding the administration of the remedy, and, if it 
should not operate on the bowels, to follow it by castor oil, or an enema. If not successful on 
the first trial, it should be repeated daily for three or four days, until the worm is discharged. 
It appears to have been used by the negroes of San Domingo before its introduction into Europe. 
The efficacy of pelletierine as a tsenicide has been abundantly confirmed, and it appears to be 
established that the tannate is the most effective and the least dangerous form of the remedy, 
—probably because its insolubility prevents its rapid absorption and enables it to come in pro- 
longed contact with the worm. The experiments of Dr. Dujardin-Beaumetz have shown that 
the pelletierine alkaloids act upon the higher animals like curare, causing paralysis of the motor 
nerves without affecting sensation or muscular contractility. The same authority asserts that 
hypodermic injections of six grains produce in man severe vertigo, muscular weakness, and 
great retinal congestion. Double vision has also been noted, and Galezowski has been led by it 
to prescribe pelletierine in paralysis of the third and sixth pairs of nerves: he affirms that he 
has succeeded in affording relief after the failure of potassium iodide and blisters. The proper 
dose of pelletierine tannate is variously given by authorities. It has been stated to be from one- 
half to three-quarters of a grain (0 08-0 05 Gm.) (Bull. Therap., xcvi., xcvii.), but others 
place it as high as eight grains (0-52 Gm.). Commercially, it occurs almost exclusively as a 
syrupy solution, put up, we believe, under the supervision of its discoverer, each bottle contain- 
ing a single dose, it is stated, of about five grains. We have seen pronounced temporary general 
palsy produced in a female adult by this dose. The dose of pomegranate rind and flowers in 
powder is from twenty to thirty grains (1-3—1*95 Gm.). A decoction may be prepared in the 672 
Gi'indelm. 
PART I. 
proportion of an ounce of the medicine to a pint of water, and given in the dose of a fluidounce 
(30 C.c.). The remedy should always be given after a twelve hours’ fast, and be followed in 
two hours by a brisk cathartic. The seeds are demulcent. 
GRINDELIA. U. S. Grindelia. 
(gbIn-de'li-a.) 
“ The leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia robusta, Nuttall, and of Grindelia squarrosa, 
Dunal (nat. ord. Composite).” TJ. S. 
This genus inhabits the western side of both North and South America. Most if not all 
of the species produce a resinous exudation, especially from the flower-heads, and it is probable 
that medical properties are common to the genus. 
G. robusta, Nuttall, is an herbaceous plant, from one to three feet high, very glabrous, with 
leaves varying from broadly spatulate or oblong to lanceolate, or the upper cordate and clasp- 
ing, commonly obtuse, sharply more or less serrate; the scales of the involucre are produced 
into long circinate, squarrose, awn-like tips ; the pappus of two to three, rarely five, nearly 
smooth, flattish awns; akenes mostly one- to three-toothed at the apex. 
G. squarrosa, Dunal (1836) [Syn. Donia squarrosa, Pursh (1814), and G. squarrosa 
(Pursh) Dunal], is in general a less leafy and bushy plant than is G. robusta, but so closely 
resembles some varieties of the latter that, after a careful study of various published de- 
scriptions and of the specimens in the herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural 
Sciences, we are not satisfied of the specific distinctness. The character pointed out by Torrey 
and Gray, that in robusta the leaves are broader at the base than above, does not hold; for in 
a specimen in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences labelled in Nuttall’s hand- 
writing, and, therefore, probably the type of G. robusta, the leaves are not broader at the base ; 
whilst in various specimens of G. squarrosa they are not narrowed at the base. The most 
constant distinctive characters in the specimens at hand are that G. robusta has a more leafy 
involucre and its leaves usually are more coarsely serrate ; but Watson describes a variety of 
G. robusta in which the upper leaves are entire. There is no constant difference in the scales 
of the involucre. According to Joseph Beauvais (A. J. P., Feb. 1889), the resin of the leaf 
of G. robusta is contained in epidermal glands, and also in rather large resin-ducts situated in 
an interior collenchymatous layer. 
Properties. The official description of grindelia is as follows: “ Leaves about 5 Cm. or 
less long, varying from broadly spatulate or oblong to lanceolate, sessile or clasping, obtuse, 
more or less sharply serrate, often spinosely toothed, or even laciniate-pinnatifid, pale green, 
smooth, finely dotted, thickish, brittle ; heads many-flowered, subglobular or somewhat conical ; 
the involucre hemispherical, about 10 Mm. broad, composed of numerous imbricated, squar- 
rosely-tipped or spreading scales; ray-florets yellow, ligulate, pistillate; disk-florets yellow, 
tubular, perfect; pappus consisting of two or three awns of the length of the disk-florets; odor 
balsamic; taste pungently aromatic and bitter.” U. S. (See also Merck's Report, 1898, 362.) 
As it occurs in commerce, grindelia is in the form of the whole dried herb ; the stems are 
about eighteen inches in length, light brownish, very frequently stripped of their leaves, but 
with some of the floral heads adherent. The brittle leaves are much broken, and with sepa- 
rated floral heads are mixed with the stem. The taste is warmish, peculiar, and very persist- 
ent. The specimens we have examined seemed to contain numerous floral heads, some accord- 
ing with those of the typical G. robusta, others without trace of involucral leaves. Some of 
the latter may have been removed, it is true, by accidents of carriage; but if G. squarrosa and 
G. robusta be distinct species, it would appear that they are indiscriminately collected. The ac- 
tivity of the drug probably resides in the resinous exudation. Dr. C. J. Rademaker obtained 
from it an oil, the odor of which closely resembled that of oil of turpentine, resin, and a crys- 
talline body having an alkaline reaction. (N. R., 1876, p. 205.) W. H. Clark and John L. 
Fischer (A. J. P., 1888, p. 433) failed to verify all of Dr. Rademaker’s results, but obtained 
an alkaline principle to which the name of grindeline was given. Dr. A. Schneegans (A. J. P., 
1892, 369) found in grindelia robusta saponin, which, he states, is composed of two glucosides ; 
he also found indications of an alkaloid, but believes that its presence is not yet certainly 
proved. 
Medical Properties and Uses. According to Dr. Buffington, when given to the lower 
animals in very large doses grindelia produces narcosis, with dilated pupils, slowing of the 
action of the heart from stimulation of the inhibitory nerves, and elevation of the blood- Grindelia.— Guaiaci Lignum. 
673 
PART I. 
pressure from stimulation of the vaso-motor centre. Dobroklowsky has found that on the 
isolated frog’s heart it acts in small doses as a stimulant and in large doses as a paralyzant; he 
further states that it acts chiefly upon the motor nerves and muscles ; but Buffington asserts that 
it paralyzes first the sensory nerve-trunks, then the sensory side of the spinal cord, and after- 
wards involves the motor nerve-trunks and cord. Grindelia is not used in practical medicine 
for its influence upon the circulation, but as an antispasmodic, especially in asthma, and in bron- 
chitis when there is a distinct tendency to dyspnoea and bronchial spasm. It seems probable that 
it not only exerts an antispasmodic influence, but also stimulates the bronchial mucous mem- 
brane, and it may be confidently exhibited in chronic bronchitis, especially of the aged. It has 
been employed with asserted success in whooping-cough. Its active principles appear to be 
excreted from the kidneys: hence after large doses there are sometimes evidences of renal irri- 
tation, and in chronic catarrh of the bladder good has been effected by its stimulant influence 
upon the mucous membrane of the viscus. As a local application, grindelia has been employed 
with asserted advantage in burns, vaginitis, genito-urinary catarrh, etc., applied either in the 
form of a poultice or in solution. 
GUAIACI .LIGNUM. U. S., Br. Guaiacum Wood. 
(GUA'IA-CI LIG'NUM—gwa'ya-si.) 
“ The heart-wood of Guaiacum officinale, Linne, and of Guaiacum sanctum, Linne (nat. 
ord. Zygophyllese).” U. S. “ The heart-wood of Guaiacum officinale, Linn., or of Guaiacum 
sanctum, Linn.” Br. 
Lignum Guajaci, P. G.; Lignum Sanctum (vel Benedictum, vel Vitae); Lignum Vitae, Bois de Gayac, Fr.j 
Guajakholz, Franzosenholz, Pockenholz, G.; Legno Guaiaco, It.; Guayaco, Sp. 
Guaiacum officinale. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 538; Woodv. Med. Bot. 557, t. 200; Carson, 
Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 25, pi. 17. This is a large tree, of very slow growth. When of full 
size it is from forty to sixty feet high, with a trunk four or five feet in circumference. The 
branches are knotted, and covered with an ash-colored striated bark. That of the stem is of a 
dark-gray color, variegated with greenish or purplish spots. The leaves are opposite, and ab- 
ruptly pinnate, consisting of two, three, and sometimes four pairs of leaflets, which are ohovate, 
veined, smooth, shining, dark green, from an inch to an inch and a half long, and almost 
sessile. The flowers are of a rich blue color, stand on long peduncles, and grow to the num- 
ber of eight or ten at the axils of the upper leaves. The seeds are solitary, hard, and of an 
oblong shape. 
G. sanctum, L., is distinguished from G. officinale by its five-celled fruit and its oblong or 
obliquely obovate or sometimes rhomboid-ovate leaflets, six to eight to each leaf. It grows in 
Cuba and some other of the West India Islands, and in the Bahama Islands. Its wood is 
smaller than that of G. officinale, and is said by Fee to be paler and less dense. 
G. officinale grows in the West Indies, particularly in Hayti and Jamaica, and is found also 
in the warmer parts of the neighboring continent. All parts of the tree are possessed of me- 
dicinal properties; but the wood and the concrete juice only are official. The bark, though 
much more efficacious than the wood, does not enter commerce. G. arboreum of De Candolle 
has been said to furnish some of the guaiacum wood of commerce. 
Guaiacum wood is imported from Hayti and other West India islands, in the shape of logs 
or billets, covered with thick gray bark, which presents on its inner surface, and upon its edges 
when broken, numerous shining crystalline points. These were supposed by Guibourt to be 
benzoic acid, by others a resinous exudation from the vessels of the plant; but Dr. Otto Berg 
has determined that they are crystals of calcium sulphate. The billets are used by turners for 
the fabrication of various instruments and utensils, for which the wood is well adapted by 
its extreme hardness and density. It is kept by the druggists and apothecaries in the state 
of shavings or raspings, which they obtain from the turners. It is commonly called lignum 
vitse, a name which obviously originated from the supposition that the wood was possessed of 
extraordinary remedial powers. 
Properties. Guaiacum wood is hard and heavy. The color of the sap-wood is yellow, 
that of the older and central layers greenish brown, that of the shavings a mixture of the two. 
It is said that when the wood is brought into a state of minute division its color is rendered 
green by exposure to the air, and bluish green by the action of nitric acid fumes; and the 
latter change may be considered as a test of its genuineness. (Duncan.) An easier test is a 
solution of corrosive sublimate, which, added to the shavings and slightly heated, causes a 674 
Guaiaci Lignum.—Guaiaci Resina. 
part I. 
bluish-green color in the genuine wood. (Chem. Gaz., No. 80, Feb. 1846.) Guaiacum wood 
is almost without smell unless rubbed or heated, when it becomes odorous. When burnt, it 
emits an agreeable odor. It is bitterish and slightly pungent, but requires to be chewed for 
some time before the taste is developed. It contains, according to Trommsdorf, 26 per cent, of 
resin, and 0-8 of a bitter pungent extractive, upon both of which, probably, though chiefly on 
the former, its medicinal virtues depend. (See Guaiaci Resina.') It yields its virtues but par- 
tially to water. One pound of the wood afforded to Geiger two ounces of extract. “ Guaiacum 
Wood is generally used in the form of raspings or turnings, which should be greenish-brown, 
containing few particles of a whitish color, and should acquire a dark bluish-green color on the 
addition of nitric acid.” U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Guaiacum wood ranks among the stimulant diapho- 
retics. It is said to have been introduced to the notice of European practitioners by the na- 
tives of Hispaniola soon after the discovery of America. It was used in Europe so early as 
1508, and attained great celebrity as a remedy for lues venerea; but the general professional 
verdict is that it has no distinct influence in syphilis, nor yet in chronic rheumatism and gout. 
scrofula, or cutaneous eruptions, against which it was formerly much used. It is usually ex- 
hibited in decoction, and in combination with other medicines, as in the compound decoction 
of sarsaparilla. An aqueous extract is directed by the French Codex. 
GUAIACI RESINA. U. S., Br. Guaiac. 
“ The resin of the wood of Guaiacum officinale, Linn6 (nat. ord. Zygophylleae).” U. S. 
“ The resin obtained from the stem of Guaiacum officinale, Linn., or of Guaiacum sanctum, 
Linn.” Br. 
Resina Guajaci, P.G.; Guaiacum; Guaiacum Resin; Resine de Gayac, Fr.; Guajak, Guajakharz, G.; Resina 
de Guajaco, It.; Resina de Guayaco, Sp. 
For a description of Guaiacum officinale, see Guaiaci Lignum, p. 673. 
Guaiac is the concrete juice of this tree. It is obtained in several different modes. The 
most simple is by spontaneous exudation, or by incisions made into the trunk. Another 
method is by sawing the wood into billets about three feet long, boring them longitudinally 
with an auger, then placing one end of the billet on the fire, and receiving in a calabash the 
melted guaiac, which flows out through the hole at the opposite extremity. But the plan 
most frequently pursued is probably to boil the wood, in the state of chips or sawdust, in a 
solution of common salt, and skim off the matter which rises to the surface. Guaiac is brought 
to this market from the West Indies. It is usually in large irregular pieces of various sizes, in 
which small fragments of bark, sand, and other impurities are mixed with the genuine guaiac, 
so as to give to the mass a diversified appearance. Sometimes we find it in small roundish 
homogeneous portions, separate or agglutinated; sometimes in homogeneous masses, prepared 
by melting and straining the drug in its impure state. It is probable that the guaiac obtained 
from the billets in the manner above described is of uniform consistence* 
Properties. The masses are irregular or somewhat globular, of a glassy lustre and 
resinous fracture. They are of a deep greenish-brown or dark-olive color on their external 
surface, and internally wherever the air can penetrate. The predominant hue of those parts 
not exposed to the air is reddish brown or hyacinthine, diversified, however, with shades of 
various colors. The odor is feeble but fragrant, and is rendered stronger by heat. The taste, 
which is at first scarcely perceptible, becomes acrid after a short period ; and a permanent 
sense of heat and pungency is left in the mouth and fauces. Guaiac is brittle, and when 
broken presents a shining glass-like surface, conchoidal or splintery, with the smaller frag- 
ments more or less translucent. It is readily pulverized ; and the powder, at first of a light- 
gray color, becomes green on exposure to the light. Its sp. gr. varies from 1-2 to 1-23. It 
softens in the mouth, and melts with a moderate heat. Water dissolves a small proportion of 
guaiac, not exceeding nine parts in 100, forming an infusion of a greenish-brown color and 
sweetish taste, which upon evaporation yields a brown substance soluble in hot water and 
alcohol, but scarcely so in ether. Alcohol takes up the whole, with the exception of impurities. 
“ Soluble in potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution and in alcohol; the alcoholic solution 
(GUA'IA-Cl RE-§!'NA.) 
* Under the name of Resina Guaiaci Peruviana Aromatica there is a substance circulating in European com- 
merce which probably has no relation to guaiac. For a summary of our knowledge concerning it, see A. J. P., 
1877, p. 18. PAET I. 
Guaicici Resina. 
675 
is colored blue on the addition of tincture of ferric chloride.” U. S. The tincture is of a deep- 
brown color, is decomposed by water, and affords blue, green, and brown precipitates with 
the mineral acids. It is colored blue by nitric acid, by chlorine, and by tincture of ferric 
chloride, and usually by spirit of nitrous ether, and is similarly changed when treated suc- 
cessively by dilute hydrocyanic acid and solution of copper sulphate. Either in substance or 
tincture, guaiac gives a blue color to gluten and substances containing it, to mucilage of gum 
arabic, to milk, and to various freshly-cut roots, as the potato, carrot, and horseradish. It is 
soluble also in ether, alkaline solutions, and sulphuric acid. The solution in sulphuric acid is 
of a rich claret color, deposits, when diluted with water, a lilac precipitate, and, when heated, 
evolves charcoal. Exposed to air and light, guaiac absorbs oxygen and becomes green, and 
the change takes place rapidly in the sunshine. Tincture of guaiac has been used for the de- 
tection of blood-stains, which it does by the blue color produced by it, when in contact with 
the red coloring matter of blood, in connection with some ozonized substance, especially hy- 
drogen peroxide. (Guy's Hospital Reports, 3d ser., xiii. 432.) It may be used also to distin- 
guish the blood of man and other mammals, in which the corpuscles are non-nucleated, 
from that of other classes, as birds, fishes, and reptiles, which have nucleated corpuscles. The 
method of Dr. R. M. Bertolet may sometimes be advantageously used in jury trials. A micro- 
scopic preparation, duly mounted, is carefully irrigated with a simple tincture of guaiac resin, 
and then, under glass, exposed to the action of a very small quantity of an ethereal solution 
of hydrogen peroxide. The mammalian corpuscles will exhibit a uniform blue coloration 
throughout, of different shades in the different corpuscles, while, if the blood-corpuscle is 
nucleated, the nucleus is seen as a well-defined and deep-blue body, with a delicate violet- 
colored medium around it. (Am. Joum. Med. Sci., Jan. 1874.) 
The composition of guaiac resin was ascertained by Hadelich (Joum. f pr. Chem., 87, p. 335) 
to be as follows: guaiaconic acid 70-3 per cent., guaiaretic acid 105 per cent., guaiac beta-resin 
9-8 per cent., gum 3-7 per cent., ash constituents 0-8 per cent., guaiacic acid, coloring matter 
(guaiac yellow), and impurities 4-9 per cent. Of these constituents, guaiaretic acid, C20H2604, 
was discovered by Hlasiwetz in 1859. It may be extracted from the crude resin by alcoholic 
potash or by quicklime, forming a crystalline salt with the former and an amorphous com- 
pound with the latter. The free acid is obtained by decomposing one of these salts with hydro- 
chloric acid and crystallizing from alcohol. The crystals, which are soluble in ether, alcohol, 
benzol, chloroform, carbon disulphide, or acetic acid, but not in ammonia or in water, melt below 
80° C., and may be volatilized without decomposition. They are not colored blue by oxidizing 
agents. If the mother-liquor from the potassium salt of the guaiaretic acid be decomposed with 
hydrochloric acid and the precipitate washed with water, ether will extract guaiaconic acid, 
Ci9H2006. This compound, discovered by Hadelich in 1862, is a light-brown amorphous sub- 
stance, fusing at 100° C. It is without acid reaction, but decomposes alkaline carbonates, form- 
ing salts easily soluble in water and alcohol. It is insoluble in water, benzol, or carbon disulphide, 
but dissolves in ether, chloroform, acetic acid, or alcohol. With oxidizing agents it assumes a 
transient blue tint. After the extraction of the guaiaconic acid there remains a substance in- 
soluble in ether, to which the name of guaiac beta-resin has been applied. Its composition 
does not appear to differ greatly from that of guaiaconic acid. Guaiacic acid, C12H1606, 
obtained in 1841 by Thierry, from guaiacum wood, or from the resin, crystallizes in colorless 
needles. Hadelich states that not more than one part in 20,000 can be obtained from the 
resin. Lucker (Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 953), having reinvestigated guaiacum, states that it 
consists chiefly of three acids,—viz., guaiacic, C20H2404, occurring in crystals melting at 70° 
C.; guaiaconic, C20H2406, an amorphous body melting at from 73° to 76° C.; and guaiacinic, 
Ci9H20Oe. He considers all three of them to be probably condensation products from tiglic 
aldehyde and guaiacol. Guaiac yellow, the coloring matter of guaiac resin, was first ob- 
served by Pelletier. It crystallizes in pale yellow quadratic octahedra having a bitter taste, 
but is not a glucoside. Guaiac resin also yields interesting products on dry distillation. 
First, according to Hlasiwetz, is obtained guaiacene, C6H80, at 118° C., next guaiacol, 
CeII4 | qjj^3’ being the methyl ether of pyrocatechin, at 205°—210° C., and with it Jcreosol, 
C0H3(CH3)2OH, and finally pyroguaiacin, C38H440e (according to Wiesner, C18H1803), in pearly 
scales, melting at 180° C. According to Lieben and Zeisel (Ber. d. Chem. Ges., xiv. p. 932), 
guaiacene is the aldehyde of tiglic acid, C6H802, and can be made synthetically from a mixture 
of acetaldehyde and propionaldehyde. When distilled with zinc dust there is obtained creosol 
(50 per cent, in the case of resin purified by alcohol) and 30 per cent, of a mixture of 676 
Guaiaci Resina.—Guarana. 
PART I. 
toluene, meta- and paraxylene, with a little pseudocumene and yuaion, C12H12. (Botsch, Monats- 
hefte, 1880, 615.) 
It will be inferred, from what has been said, that the mineral acids are incompatible with 
the solutions of guaiac. 
Adulterations. This drug is sometimes adulterated with the resin of the pine. The 
fraud may be detected by the terebinthinate odor exhaled when the sophisticated guaiac is 
thrown upon burning coals, as well as by its partial solubility in hot oil of turpentine. This 
liquid dissolves resin, but leaves pure guaiac untouched. Amber is said to be another adultera- 
tion. Nitric acid affords an excellent test of guaiac. If paper moistened with the tincture be 
exposed to the fumes of this acid, it speedily becomes blue. Purgotti proposed guaiac resin as 
a test for copper. (See A. J. P., June, 1880.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Guaiac is stimulant and alterative, producing, when 
swallowed, a sense of warmth in the stomach, with dryness of the mouth and thirst, and promoting 
various secretions. If given to a patient when covered warm in bed, especially if accompanied 
with opium and ipecacuanha or the antimonials, and assisted by warm drinks, it often excites 
profuse perspiration; and hence it has been usually ranked among the diaphoretics. If the 
patient be kept cool during its administration, it is sometimes directed to the kidneys, the 
action of which it promotes. In large doses it purges, and it has been especially commended 
as a laxative in chronic rheumatism; and it is thought by some practitioners to be possessed 
of emmenagogue powers. It has been given with asserted advantage in chronic rheumatism, 
gouty affections, secondary syphilis, scrofulous diseases, and cutaneous eruptions. The medicine 
is given in substance or tincture. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains (0-65— 
1-95 Gm.), which may be exhibited in pill or bolus, in the shape of an emulsion formed with 
gum arabic, sugar, and water, or as a syrup* An objection to the form of powder is that it 
quickly aggregates. Guaiac is sometimes administered in combination with alkalies, with 
which it readily unites. Several European Pharmacopoeias direct a soap of guaiac, under the 
name of sapo guaiacinus, to be prepared by diluting liquor potassae with twice its weight of 
water, boiling lightly, then adding guaiac gradually, with continued agitation, so long as it 
continues to be dissolved, and finally filtering, and evaporating to the pilular consistence. One 
scruple (1-3 Gm.) may be taken daily, in divided doses. 
GUARANA. U. S. Guarana. 
fGUA-RA'NA.) 
“ A dried paste chiefly consisting of the crushed or pounded seeds of Paullinia cupana, 
Kunth (Paullinia sorbilis, Martius) (nat. ord. Sapindaceae).” U S. 
Paullinia, Brazilian Cocoa, Guarana Bread; Pao de Guarana, Port.; Pasta Guarana, P. G.; Guarana, Fr., G. 
There are described of the genus Paullinia 121 species, all of them confined in their geo- 
graphical range to tropical and subtropical South America, except one, which has strayed to 
Eastern and Western Africa, and two others which are found in Mexico and in the gardens of 
the Sandwich Islands. The name of the genus was given in honor of Christ. Fred. Paullini, 
a German medico-botanical writer, who died in 1712. P. sorbilis. Martius, Reise in Brasil, 
vol. iii. 1098; B. & T. 67.—Guarana uva. This woody climber grows in the northern and 
western provinces of Brazil, ripening its seeds in October and November. The leaves are 
alternate, on long stalks, impari-pinnate, with five oblong oval, coarsely irregularly sinuate- 
dentate leaflets, five to six inches long by two to three broad, contracted into a shortly attenu- 
ated blunt point. The flowers are arranged in axillary, spicate panicles, four inches or more 
in length. The fruit is about the size of a grape, ovoid or pyriform, on a short peduncle, 
with a short strong beak, glabrous, with six longitudinal ribs. The three-valved pericarp is 
thin, tough, and strongly hairy within. 
Preparation and Properties. The seeds, which look like small horse-chestnuts, are 
contained in a three-celled, three-valved, coriaceous capsule, are lenticular and almost thorny, 
and invested with a flesh-colored arillus, which is easily separable when dry. Guarana is made 
exclusively by the Guaranis, a tribe of South American Indians, and probably varies in the 
details of its preparation, as it certainly does in appearance and quality. The drug appears to 
* Syrup of Guaiac. Dr. T. C. Craig. (A. J. P., July, 1880.) Powd. Guaiac Resin, 640 grains; Caustic Potassa, 
58 grains; White Sugar, fbj (av.); Water, q. s. Dissolve the Potassa in 8 fluidounces of water; moisten the 
Guaiac with this solution; pack it in a percolator, and gradually pour on the remainder of the solution; when this 
ceases dropping, add sufficient water to make the percolate measure 8 fluidounces; add the sugar, and dissolve. PART I. 
Guarana. 
677 
be produced almost exclusively from plants cultivated in the region of the lower Madeira and 
southward. After the seeds are shelled and thoroughly washed they are roasted for about six 
hours, and their external papery shells are then removed by placing them in sacks and beating 
them with clubs; or, after the seeds have been broken in a mortar, the coarse powder is mixed 
with a little water, and then kneaded into a paste, which is shaped into cylindrical or globular 
masses. According to Rusby, the common belief that at this stage various foreign bodies are 
added to the paste is incorrect. The masses are dried, sometimes in the sun, or more usually 
by the heat of a slow fire so arranged as to avoid smoke. When finished, the masses are of a 
reddish-brown color, rugose on the surface, very hard, with an irregular fracture, and of a 
marbled appearance when broken, due to the fragments of the seeds and their black testa em- 
bedded in the mass. Paullinia is of a somewhat astringent and bitterish taste, and in this, as 
well as in its odor, bears some resemblance to chocolate, though not oleaginous. It swells up 
and softens in water, which partially dissolves it. It is also partly soluble in alcohol. Martius 
found in it a crystallizable principle, which he named guaranine, but which has been proved 
by MM. Berthemot and Dechastelus to be identical with caffeine. Alexander Bennett, in an 
elaborate series of physiological experiments, has confirmed this identity.* The discovery of 
caffeine in plants belonging to distinct natural families, namely, the coffee and tea plants, the 
Paraguay tea, and the Paullinia, is a highly interesting result of recent chemical investiga- 
tions. It is said to be more abundant in the Paullinia than in either of the other vegetables; 
5'07 per cent, having been found by Dr. Stenhouse in Paullinia, while he got only 2-13 per 
cent, from good black tea, l’OO from coffee, and 1*2 from Paraguay tea. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 213.) 
According to Berthemot and Dechastelus, it exists in the seeds united with tannic acid, with 
which it appears to form two compounds, one crystallizable and soluble in water, the other of 
a resinoid appearance and insoluble. Besides these ingredients, the seeds contain free tannic 
acid, gum, albumen, starch, and a greenish fixed oil. (Joum. de Pharm., xxvi. 514.) For a 
method of preparing guaranine, see Joum. de Pharm., 4e ser., xviii. 224. Rochefontaine and 
Gusset prepare guaranine by mixing one part of calcined magnesia with five parts of powdered 
guarana, moistening with water, and, after standing 24 hours, exhausting the mass with boiling 
chloroform, evaporating the chxoroform, treating the residue with boiling water, filtering, and 
evaporating over sulphuric acid. (A. J. P., 1886, p. 248.) Dr. F. V. Greene, U.S.N., prefers 
a process for obtaining caffeine from guarana similar to one proposed by Prof. Wayne for its 
extraction from tea and coffee. The details of the method are as follows. The powdered 
guarana is intimately mixed with three times its weight of finely divided litharge, and the 
mixture boiled in distilled water, until, on allowing the temperature to fall below the boiling 
point, the insoluble portion is found to subside rapidly, leaving the supernatant liquid clear 
and without color. When cool, the clear liquid is filtered, and the precipitate is transferred to 
the filter and washed with boiling water, the washing to be continued as long as yellowish pre- 
cipitates are produced with either pliosphomolybdic acid solution, auric or platinic chloride. 
A stream of hydrogen sulphide gas is now passed through the filtrate, and the lead sulphide 
thus formed separated by filtration. The solution is evaporated on a water-bath to expel 
the excess of hydrogen sulphide, filtered to remove a trace of sulphur, finally evaporated to 
the crystallizing point, and the caffeine, which crystallizes out on cooling, removed from the 
mother-liquor and pressed between folds of bibulous paper. After being thus treated, the 
crystals will be found to be perfectly white. A shorter process for the assay of guarana is 
given by C. H. Lawall. (A. J. P., 1897, 350.) Five Gm. of the drug and 5 C.c. of 16 per 
cent, ammonia water are placed in a separatory funnel of convenient size. After allowing the 
mixture to stand for thirty minutes, the alkaloid is shaken out with chloroform, using three 
portions of 20 C.c. each. Dr. F. Y. Greene has shown that the tannic acid from guarana has 
different properties from that found in other plants, and proposes to call it paullinitannic 
acid. (A. J. P., 1877, 390.) M. Fournier has found in paullinia, besides tannate of caffeine, 
the following principles: gum, starch, an acrid green fixed oil, a concrete volatile oil, an aro- 
matic liquid volatile oil soluble in water with a little alcohol, another liquid volatile oil scarcely 
soluble in water, a peculiar principle not precisely determined, and tannic acid. (Joum. de 
Pharm., Avril, 1861, 291.) Dr. E. R. Squibb examined commercial guarana, and obtained 
4-38 per cent, of alkaloid from good specimens. On account of the uncertainty of the composi- 
tion of guarana, he recommends fluid extract of green coffee as a substitute. (See Part II., 
National Formulary ; also Ephemeris, 1884, 612.) 
* This identity has been denied by Dr. T. J. Mays. (See H. C. Wood’s Therapeutics.) 678 
Hsematoxylon. 
PART I. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The effects of guarana upon the system are chiefly 
those of its alkaloid, although it contains enough tannin to have an appreciable influence. It 
is habitually employed by the Indians, either mixed with articles of diet, as with cassava or 
chocolate, or in the form of drink, prepared by scraping it, and suspending the powder in 
sweetened water, precisely as other nations use teas, coffees, etc. It is also considered by the 
Indians useful in the prevention and cure of bowel complaints. Dr. Gavrelle, who was at one 
time physician to Dom Pedro, in Brazil, and there became acquainted with the virtues of this 
medicine, called the attention of the profession to it some years since in France. It is now 
used in medicine almost exclusively to give relief during a paroxysm of migraine, and in 
atonic chronic diarrhoea, taken three or four times a day. Dose of the powder, one or two 
drachms (3-9-7‘8 Gm.), of the fluid extract, one fluidrachm (3-9 C.c.). 
HSEMATOXYLON. U. S. (Br.) Hsematoxylon. [Logwood.] 
(HiE-MA-TbX'y-LbN.) 
“ The heart-wood of Hsematoxylon Campechianum, Linn6 (nat. ord. Leguminosse).” U. S. 
“ The heart-wood of Hsematoxylon campechianum, Linn.” Br. 
Haematoxyli Lignum, Br.; Lignum Campechianum, P. G.; Lignum Coeruleum; Bois d’Inde, Bois de Sang, Bois 
de Campgche, Fr.; Blauholz, Campechebolz, Blutholz, Kampeschenholz, G.; Legno di Campeggio, It.; Palo de Cam- 
peche, Sp. 
Hsematoxylon canvpechianum. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 547 ; Woodv. Med. Bot. 455, t. 163 ; 
Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 33, pi. 25. This is a tree of middle size, usually not more than 
Hsematoxylon, longitudinal section, as seen under 
high and low powers. 
Hsematoxylon, transverse section, as seen 
under high and low powers. 
twenty-four feet high, though, under favorable circumstances, it sometimes rises forty or 
fifty feet. The trunk, seldom exceeding twenty inches in diameter, is often very crooked, and 
is covered with a dark rough bark. The branches are also crooked, with numerous smaller 
ramifications, which are beset with sharp spines. The sap-wood is yellowish, but the interior Haematoxylon.—Hamamelis. 
679 
PAET I. 
layers are of a deep-red color. The leaves are alternate, abruptly pinnate, and composed of 
three or four pairs of sessile, nearly obcordate, obliquely nerved leaflets. The flowers, which 
are in axillary spikes or racemes near the ends of the branches, have a brownish-purple calyx 
and lemon-yellow petals. They exhale an agreeable odor, said to resemble that of the jonquil. 
The tree is a native of Campeachy, the shores of Honduras Bay, and other parts of tropical 
America, and has become naturalized in Jamaica. The wood, which is the part used in medi- 
cine, is a valuable article of commerce, and largely employed in dyeing. It comes to us in 
logs deprived of the sap-wood and having a blackish-brown color externally. According to 
Mr. Louis Siebold, the ground or chipped logwood of commerce is unfit for use as a medicinal 
agent, because it has been prepared as a dyestuff by being exposed in large moist heaps until 
its hsematoxylin has been converted by oxidation into hsematein. As a coloring agent, for 
analytical purposes, this fermented logwood, according to Mr. Siebold, is much superior to the 
natural wood. 
Properties. Logwood is hard, compact, heavy, of a deep-red color, becoming purplish 
black by exposure, internally brown-red, and marked with irregular, concentric circles, splitting 
irregularly, of a slight peculiar odor, and a sweet, somewhat astringent taste. Logwood is 
generally found in commerce in small chips or coarse powder of a dark brown-red color, often 
with a greenish lustre. When chewed it colors the saliva dark pink. It imparts its color to 
water and to alcohol. The infusion made with cold water, though red, is less so than that with 
boiling water. It affords precipitates with sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic acids, 
alum, copper sulphate, lead acetate, and ferrous sulphate, striking a bluish-black color with the 
last-mentioned salt. Precipitates are also produced with it by lime water and gelatin. Chevreul 
found in logwood a volatile oil, an oleaginous or resinous matter, a brown substance the solu- 
tion of which is precipitated by gelatin (tannin), another brown substance soluble in alcohol 
but insoluble in water or ether, a nitrogenous substance resembling gluten, free acetic acid, 
various salts, and a peculiar principle called hematoxylin or hematin, on which the coloring 
properties of the wood depend. This is obtained by digesting the aqueous extract in alcohol, 
evaporating the tincture till it thickens, then adding a little water, and submitting the liquid to 
a new but gentle evaporation. Upon allowing it to rest, hsematoxylin is deposited in crystals, 
which may be purified by washing with alcohol and drying. Thus procured, the crystals are 
shining, of a yellowish-rose color, bitterish, acrid, and slightly astringent to the taste, readily 
soluble in boiling water, forming an orange-red solution which becomes yellow on cooling, and 
soluble also in alcohol and ether. According to Erdmann, who obtained hsematoxylin by the 
process of Chevreul, substituting ether for alcohol, its crystals, when quite pure, are colorless, 
without a tinge of redness; its taste is sweet, like that of liquorice, without bitterness or 
astringency ; and it is not of itself a coloring substance, but affords beautiful red, blue, and 
purple colors, by the joint action of an alkaline base and the oxygen of the air. He obtained 
from logwood 9 to 12 per cent, of crystallized hsematoxylin, to which he gave the formula 
CieH140e. It crystallizes with 1 or with 3 molecules of water, and is readily soluble in hot 
water or alcohol, but sparingly in cold water or in ether. (Journ. fur pr. Chem., 36, p. 205.) 
By the combined action of ammonia and oxygen dark violet crystalline scales of hematein, 
C16Hi2Oe-f- 3H20, are produced. They show a fine green hue, which is also very commonly 
observable on the surface of the logwood chips of commerce. Hsematein may again be trans- 
formed into hsematoxylin by means of hydrogen or of sulphurous acid. Commercial extract of 
logwood extracted from the wood by boiling water contains both hsematoxylin and haematein. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Logwood is a mild astringent, devoid of irritating 
properties, and well adapted to the treatment of that relaxed condition of bowels which is apt 
to succeed cholera infantum. It is also occasionally used with advantage in ordinary chronic 
diarrhoea and chronic dysentery. The only official preparation is the extract. Dose, from ten 
to twenty grains (O’GS-IB 6m.). Hematoxylin was found by Combemale (Bulletin Mid. du 
Nord, xxxiii. 1894) to be very feebly antiseptic, but capable in large doses of producing fatal 
gastro-enteritis in the lower animals. 
HAMAMELIS. U. S. (Br.) Hamamelis. [Witchhazel.] 
(hXm-a-me'lis.) 
“ The leaves of Hamamelis Virginiana, Linne (nat. ord. Hamamelaceae), collected in autumn.” 
U. S. “ The leaves, fresh and dried, of Hamamelis virginiana, Linn.” Br. 
Hamamelidis Folia, Br., Hamamelis Leaves, Witchhazel Leaves. 680 
Hamamelidis Cortex.—Hedeoma. 
PAET I. 
HAMAMELIDIS CORTEX. Br. Hamamelis Bark. 
“ The dried hark of Hamamelis virginiana, Linn.” Br. 
Witchhazel Bark. 
H. virginica. L. Witchhazel is an indigenous shrub, from five to fifteen feet high, growing 
in almost all sections of the United States, usually on hills or in stony places, and often on the 
banks of streams. It is the only species of the genus found in Eastern North America, and is 
specifically characterized by its leaves being obovate or oval, wavy-toothed, and somewhat 
downy when young. The seeds are black and shining externally, white, oily, and farinaceous 
within, and edible like the hazelnut. It is remarkable for the late appearance of its yellow 
flowers, which expand in September or October, and continue till the weather becomes very 
cold in winter. The fruit, which is a nut-like capsule not unlike the hazelnut, ripens in the 
following autumn, and is often mingled on the same plant with the new blossoms. According 
to Engler and Prantl, the correct name of the natural order is Hamamelidaceae. 
Properties. The leaves of the witchhazel are officially described as “ short-petiolate, 
about 10 Cm. long, obovate or oval, slightly heart-shaped and oblique at the base, sinuate- 
toothed, thickish, nearly smooth ; inodorous ; taste astringent and bitter.” U. S. The bark has 
a bitter, astringent, somewhat sweetish, and pungent taste. In the Br. Pharm. it is charac- 
terized as “ Usually in curved pieces about one-sixteenth of an inch (one and a half millimetres) 
thick, and varying from two to eight inches (one-half to two decimetres) in length, sometimes 
covered with a silvery-gray or dark-gray scaly cork marked with transverse lenticels, but 
frequently freed from the cork, and then exhibiting a nearly smooth reddish-brown outer 
surface. The inner surface is pale reddish pink in color, and finely striated longitudinally; 
the fracture is laminated and coarsely fibrous. The Bark has an astringent taste, but no 
marked odor. The transverse section exhibits a complete ring of sclerenchymatous cells and 
numerous tangentially elongated groups of bast fibres.” 
Walter B. Cheney examined witchhazel bark, and found tannin, resin, extractive, but no 
indication of an alkaloid or other crystalline principle. (A. J. P., 1886, p. 418.) It contains 
a trace of volatile oil, however. Dr. John Marshall, of the University of Pennsylvania, also 
found that hamamelis root contains tannic acid and a trace of volatile oil, but no other active 
substance. ( Therap. Gaz., ii. 295.) 
Medical Properties. The bark of the witchhazel is said to have first attracted atten- 
tion on account of its use by the North American Indians as a sedative application to external 
inflammations. It was many years ago strongly recommended by Dr. James Fountain and Dr. 
N. S. Davis (JV. Y. Journ. Med., x. 208 ; Trans. Amer. Med. Assoc., i. 350) in hemorrhage of the 
lungs and stomach. Dr. Fountain also used with alleged great advantage an ointment pre- 
pared from lard and the decoction of equal parts of hamamelis, white-oak bark, and apple-tree 
bark. Of late years professional attention has been very strongly directed to the remedy on 
account of the enormous sale of a much vaunted proprietary remedy said to be made by 
distilling the bark with very dilute alcohol (six per cent.), and used externally for sprains and 
bruises, and internally for most of the diseases to which flesh is heir. The pecuniary success 
of this remedy probably has depended in very small part upon the virtues of the witchhazel, 
which seems to possess no active physiological properties. At least we have injected a very 
concentrated distillate in large quantities into frogs and into mammals without perceiving any 
more effects than would be produced by the injection of similar quantities of distilled water, 
and Dr. Guy, in Paris, has reached similar conclusions. The fluid extract of the drug has 
been used as a remedy in various forms of venous dilatation and engorgement. It was very 
strongly commended by Dr. John H. Musser in varicose veins (Phila. Med. Times, vol. xiii.), 
and has been used by some practitioners with good results in cases of hemorrhoids, but has 
failed to yield in other hands corresponding advantage. (See Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., 
April 16, May, 1885; also Bull. Gen. de Therap., vol. cvi.) The dose of the fluid extract 
given by Dr. Musser was a teaspoonful four times a day. It may, however, be given in double 
the quantity with impunity, and probably in such doses is an advantageous astringent. 
(HAM-A-HEL'I-Ols COR'TfiX.) 
HEDEOMA. U. S. Hedeoma. [Pennyroyal.] 
“ The leaves and tops of Hedeoma pulegioides (Linne), Persoon (nat. ord. Labiatae).” IT. S. 
Herbe de Pouliot americaine, Fr.; Amerikanischer Poley, G. 
This plant is entirely distinct from Mentha pulegium, or European pennyroyal. It is prob- 
(hed-e-6'ma.) PART I. 
Hedeoma.—Hemidesmi Radix. 
681 
able that various other species of the genus are used in the localities in which they grow. 
Thus, H. piperita, Bentham, is said to be used in Mexico as a substitute for peppermint, and 
H. thymoides, Gray, in Texas as an aromatic diaphoretic. 
Hedeoma pidegioides (L.), Pers. (1807); Cunila pulegioides L. (1762); Melissa pulegioides 
L. (1753). This is an indigenous annual plant, from nine to fifteen inches high, with a small, 
branching, fibrous, yellowish root, and a pubescent, quadrangular stem, which sends off numer- 
ous slender erect branches. The leaves are opposite, having short petioles, about half an inch 
long, oblong-lanceolate or oval, nearly acute, attenuated at the base, remotely serrate, rough or 
pubescent, and prominently veined and glandular on the under surface. The flowers are very 
small, pale blue, supported on short peduncles, and arranged in axillary whorls along the whole 
length of the branches. They have a tubular-ovoid, two-lipped and five-toothed calyx, and a 
pale blue, spotted, two-lipped corolla, containing two sterile and two fertile exserted stamens. 
The plant is common in all parts of the United States, preferring dry grounds, and, where 
abundant, scenting the air for a considerable distance with its grateful odor. Both in the 
recent and in the dried state it has a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent, mint-like 
taste. It readily imparts its virtues to boiling water. The volatile oil upon which they depend 
may be separated by distillation, and employed instead of the herb itself. For the chemical 
nature of the oil, see Oleum Hedeomse. 
Medical Properties and Uses. American pennyroyal is a gently stimulant aromatic, 
and may be given in flatulent colic and sick stomach, or to qualify the action of other medi- 
cines. Like most of the aromatic herbs, it possesses the property, when administered in warm 
infusion, of promoting perspiration, and of exciting the menstrual flux when the system is 
predisposed to the effort. A large draught of the warm tea is in popular practice often given 
at bedtime, in recent cases of suppression of the menses, the feet having been previously 
bathed in warm water. 
HEMIDESMI RADIX. Br. Hemidesmus Root. 
(HEM-I-DE§'MI RA'DIX.) 
“ The dried root of Hemidesmus indicus, R.” Br. 
Nunnari, ERacine de Hemidesmus, Fr.; Hemidesmus-Wurzel, G.; Indian Sarsaparilla. 
Hemidesmus indicus. R. Brown, Hort. Kew. ii. 75; Bindley, Flor. Med. p. 543.—Periploca 
indica. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1251.—Hemidesmus indicus (Willd.), R. Br. Engler and Prantl. 
This is a climbing plant, with twining, woody, slender stems, and opposite petiolate leaves, 
which are entire, smooth, shining, and of a firm consistence. The leaves vary much in size 
and shape, some being linear and acute, others broad-lanceolate, and others again oval or ovate. 
The flowers are small, green on the outside, purple within, and disposed in axillary racemes. 
The calyx is five-parted, with acute divisions; the corolla flat, with oblong, pointed divisions. 
The fruit consists of two long, slender, spreading follicles. 
This plant is common over the whole peninsula of Hindostan. The official portion is the 
root, which has long been used in India as a substitute for sarsaparilla. It is long, rarely 
more than one-quarter of an inch in diameter, rigid, tortuous, cylindrical, and little branched, 
consisting of a ligneous centre, and a brownish, corky bark, marked with longitudinal furrows 
and transverse fissures. The odor is aromatic, the taste sweetish. On one side of the root 
the cork is frequently separated from and raised above the cortex, and is transversely fissured. 
The transverse section exhibits numerous laticiferous cells in the cortex. For details of micro- 
scopic structure, see P. J. Tr., 1872, 62. Mr. Garden obtained from hemidesmus a peculiar, 
volatilizable acid principle, which he named smilasperic acid, under the erroneous impression 
that the root was derived from Smilax aspera. Pereira proposed to call it hemidesmic acid. 
Scott (Chem. Gazette, 1843, 378) also obtained a stearopten by distillation with water, pre- 
sumably the same material. It has not been further investigated. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Indian sarsaparilla is said to be tonic, diuretic, and 
alterative. It was introduced into Great Britain from India, and was employed for some time 
under the name of smilax aspera. It is used for the same purposes as sarsaparilla. In some 
instances it is said to have proved successful in syphilis when that medicine had failed; but it 
cannot be relied on. The native practitioners in India are said to employ it in nephritic com- 
plaints, and in the sore mouth of children. It is used in the form of infusion or decoction, 
made in the proportion of two ounces of the root to a pint of water. A pint may be given in 
wineglassful doses in the course of the day. A syrup is directed in the British Pharmacopoeia. 682 
Hirudo. 
PART I. 
HIRUDO. Br. Leeches. 
“1. Sanguisuga medicinalis, Savigny, the Speckled Leech; and 2. Sanguisuga officinalis, 
Savigny, the Green Leech.” Br. 
Hirudines, P. G.; Sangsue, Fr.; Blutegel, Q.j Mignatta, It.; Sanguijuela, Sp. 
Hirudo. Class 1, Annelides. Order 3, Abrancliiatae. Family 2, Asetigerae. Cuvier. 
The leech belongs to that class of invertebrated articulated animals called Annelides. This 
class contains the worms with red blood, having soft retractile bodies composed of numerous 
segments or rings, breathing generally by means of branchiae, with a nervous system consist- 
ing in a double knotted cord, destitute of feet, and supplying their place by the contractile 
power of their segments or rings. The third order of this class—Abranchiate*s—comprehends 
those worms which have no apparent external organ of respiration. This order is again divided 
into two families, to the second of which—the Asetigerae, or those not having setae to enable 
them to crawl—the leech belongs. 
It is an aquatic worm with a flattened body, tapering towards each end, and terminating in 
circular flattened disks, the hinder one being the larger of the two. It swims with a vertical 
undulating motion, and moves when out of the water by means of these disks or suckers, 
fastening itself first by one and then by the other, and alternately stretching out and contract- 
ing its body. The mouth is placed in the centre of the anterior disk, and is furnished with 
three cartilaginous lens-shaped jaws at the entrance of the alimentary canal. These jaws are 
lined at their edges with fine sharp teeth, and meet so as to make a triangular incision in the 
flesh. The head is furnished with small raised points, supposed by some to be eyes. Respi- 
ration is carried on through small apertures ranged along the inferior surface. The nervous 
system consists of a cord extending the whole length, furnished with numerous ganglions. 
The intestinal canal is straight, and terminates in the anus, near the posterior disk. Although 
hermaphrodite, leeches mutually impregnate each other. They are oviparous; and the eggs, 
varying from six to fifteen, are contained in a sort of spongy, slimy cocoon, from half an inch 
to an inch in diameter. These are deposited near the edge of the water, and hatched by the 
heat of the sun. The leech is torpid during the winter, and casts off from time to time a 
thick slimy coating from its skin. It can live a considerable time in sphagnous moss or in 
moistened earth, and is frequently transported in this manner to great distances. 
Savigny has divided the genus Hirudo of Linnaeus into several genera. The true leech is the 
Sanguisuga of this author, and is characterized by its three lenticular jaws, each armed with 
two rows of teeth, and by having ten ocular points. Several species are used for medical 
purposes, of which the most common are the gray and the green leech of Europe, both of 
which are varieties of the Hirudo medicinalis of Linnaeus; and the Hirudo decora of this 
country. 
1. Hirudo medicinalis. Linn. Ed. Gmel. i. 3095.—Sanguisuga officinalis. Savigny, Mon. 
Hir. p. 112, t. 5, f. 1. The green leech.—Sanguisuga medicinalis. Savigny, Mon. Hir. p. 114, t. 
5, f. 2. The gray leech. Many of the best zoologists regard the Sanguisuga officinalis and S. 
medicinalis of Savigny as mere varieties. They are both marked with six longitudinal dorsal 
ferruginous stripes, the four lateral ones being interrupted or tessellated with black spots. The 
color of the black varies from a blackish to a grayish green. The belly in the first variety is 
of a yellowish-green color, free from spots, and bordered with longitudinal black stripes. In 
the second it is of a greon color, bordered and maculated with black. This leech varies from 
two to four inches in length. It inhabits marshes and running streams, and is abundant 
throughout Europe.* 
(HI-RU'DO.) 
* A variety of the leech has come into use in Europe, called in commerce African leeches. They are of a beautiful 
light-green color, varying to a deep green, and often inclining to red, with black points on the back, and broad 
streaks of a bright orange-yellow, which are black towards the abdomen. They correspond perfectly with the San- 
guisuga interrupta of Moquin-Tandon. These leeches draw very well. (P. J. Tr., x. 38.) The leeches from Algiers, 
called in French commerce dragons (Sanguisuga troctena of Moquin-Tandon), of which considerable numbers have 
been taken to France, are said by M. A. de Quatrefages, contrary to former opinion, to be quite equal to the European. 
(Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., xxxiii.) It is stated (P. J. Tr., June, 1867) that great numbers of leeches are collected 
in Australia and sent to Melbourne, whence a large proportion are exported to Europe and America, chiefly to Lon- 
don and Paris in the former continent, and San Francisco, Panama, and New York in the latter. It is estimated that 
two or three millions annually pass through the hands of the Murray River Fishing Company. The leech is said 
(Ibid., March, 1865) to abound in almost every river and lagoon in Australia, and to differ from the ordinary English 
leech only in that the olive streaks are much lighter in the former. They are collected by throwing into the water a 
fresh sheepskin, to which they attach themselves. They bear transportation wonderfully well. In Hindostan and 
the island of Ceylon, where the varieties of leeches are said to be more numerous than in any other part of the world, 
it is stated by Mr. P. L. Simmonds that the propagation of the kind used in medicine is carefully kept secret. 
(P. J. Tr., Dec. 1870.) PART I. 
Hirudo. 
683 
The great use made of leeches in the modern practice of medicine has occasioned them to 
become a considerable article of commerce. They are collected in Spain, France, Italy, Ger- 
many, and Sweden, and carried in large numbers to London and Paris. They are also fre- 
quently brought to this country, as the practitioners in some of our large cities use only the 
foreign leech, although our own waters furnish an inexhaustible supply of this useful worm * 
The indigenous leech was formerly much used in the city of Philadelphia. 
2. Hirudo decora. Say, Colonel Long's Second Expedition, ii. 268. The medicinal leech of 
America has been described by Say under the name of Hirudo decora, in the Appendix to the 
Second Expedition of Colonel Long. Its back is of a deep pistachio-green color, with three 
longitudinal rows of square spots. These spots are placed on every fifth ring, and are twenty- 
two in number. The lateral rows of spots are black, and the middle range of a light brownish- 
orange color. The belly is of the latter color, variously and irregularly spotted with black. 
The American leech sometimes attains the length of four or five inches, although its usual 
length is from two to three. It does not make so large and deep an incision as the European 
leech, and draws less blood. 
The proper preservation of leeches is an object of importance to the practitioner, as they 
are liable to a great and sudden mortality. They are usually kept in jars, in clear, soft water, 
which should be changed twice a week in winter and every other day in summer. The jar 
must be covered with a linen cloth, and placed in a situation not liable to sudden changes of 
temperature. They will live a long time and continue active and healthy without any other 
attention than that of frequently changing the water in which they are kept. M. Derheims 
has proposed the following excellent method of preserving them. In the bottom of a large 
basin or trough of marble he places a bed, six or seven inches deep, of a mixture of moss, 
turf, and fragments of wood. He strews pebbles above, so as to retain them in their place 
without compressing them too much or preventing the water from freely penetrating them. 
At one end of the trough, and about midway of its height, is placed a thin slab of marble or 
earthenware, pierced with numerous holes, and covered with a bed of moss, which is compressed 
by a thick layer of pebbles. The reservoir being thus disposed is half filled with water, so 
that the moss and pebbles on the shelf shall be kept constantly moist. The basin is protected 
from the light by a linen cover stretched over it. By this arrangement the natural habits of 
the leech'are not counteracted. One of these habits, essential to its health, is that of drawing 
itself through the moss and roots to clear its body from the slimy coat which forms on its 
skin and is a principal cause of its disease and death. Mr. James Banes recommends that 
when kept in jars they should be cleansed by means of a whisk of very fine broom or willow, 
when the water is changed. M. Lahache, an apothecary at Bruyeres, strongly recommends 
carrageen, or Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), as admirably adapted to the habits and wants 
of the leech, furnishing the animal, he supposes, with nutriment, as it does not die of inani- 
tion when thus kept. The water should be renewed in the jars daily. (Journ. de Pharm. 
et de Chirn., 4e ser., iii. 128.) Mr. Alfred Allchin keeps them in aquaria with growing water- 
plants and snails, which keep the water pure.f (A. J. P., xxviii. 222.) 
Medical Uses. Leeches afford the least painful and in many instances the most effectual 
means for the local abstraction of blood. They are often applicable to parts which, either from 
their situation or from their great tenderness when inflamed, do not admit of the use of cups, 
and in the case of infants are under all circumstances preferable to that instrument. They are 
indeed a powerful therapeutic agent, and give to the physician, in many instances, a control 
over disease which he could obtain in no other way. 
In applying leeches to the skin, care should be taken to shave off the hair, if there be any, 
and'to have the part well cleansed with soap and water, and afterwards with pure water. If 
the leech does not bite readily, the skin should be moistened with a little blood, or milk and water. 
It is said to bite more freely if the skin have been previously reddened by a sinapism and then 
washed perfectly clean. Sometimes the leech is put into a large quill open at both ends, and 
applied with the head to the skin until it fastens itself, when the quill is withdrawn. If it be 
desirable that the leech shall bite in a particular spot, this end may be attained by cutting a 
* Attempts have been made, in France, on a large scale, to propagate leeches for sale. This is done by means of 
natural meadows, in which numerous small ponds are made, where the leeches, with certain cautions as to nourish- 
ment and preservation, multiply and grow so rapidly as to become a source of profit. In order that they may propa- 
gate, it is necessary that they should be fed on blood, which is given them either by causing animals, as horses, cows, 
etc., to be driven into the meadows, or by obtaining blood from slaughter-houses, and, after depriving it of fibrin by 
agitation, immersing the animals for a time in it while yet warm. (See Journ. de Pharm., Jan. and Mai, 1854.) 
■j- For other methods of keeping leeches, also for raising them, see U. S. D., 14th ed., 472. 684 
Hirudo. 
PART I. 
small hole in a piece of blotting paper, and then applying this moistened to the skin, so that the 
hole shall be immediately over the spot from which the blood is to be taken. Leeches continue 
to draw blood until they are gorged, when they drop off* The quantity of blood which they 
draw varies with the part to which they are applied, and the degree of inflammation existing 
in it. From the loose and vascular textures they will abstract more than from those which 
are firm and compact, and more from an inflamed than from a healthy part. As a rule, our 
leechers apply six for every fluidounce of blood. A single European leech will draw from half 
an ounce to an ounce. The quantity may often be much increased by bathing the wound with 
warm water. Leeches will continue to suck after their tails are cut off, which is sometimes 
done, although it is a barbarous practice.| It is said that they will draw better if put into 
cold beer, or diluted wine, and allowed to remain until they become very lively. They may 
be separated from the skin at any time by sprinkling a little salt upon them. After they drop 
off, the same application will make them disgorge the blood they have swallowed. Some leechers 
draw the leeches from the tail to the head through their fingers, and thus squeeze out the blood, 
after which all that is necessary is to put them in clean water, and change it frequently. J 
Leeches which are gorged with blood should be kept in a vessel by themselves, as they are 
more subject to disease, and often occasion a great mortality among the others. They should 
not be again used until they have recovered their activity. In cases where the bleeding from 
leech-bites continues longer than is desirable, it may be stopped by continued pressure, with the 
application of lint, by the use of collodium, or by touching the wounds with lunar caustic. A 
little cotton, impregnated with a saturated solution of alum in boiling-hot water, and, after it 
has become sufficiently cool, but before the alum has begun to crystallize, pressed upon the 
wound, will often prove effectual. Another mode of repressing the hemorrhage is to press upon 
the bite a piece of thin caoutchouc, previously softened upon one side by heat, so as to become 
adhesive. If lunar caustic be applied, the stick must first be brought to a fine point, which is 
to be inserted in the wound. Some have even recommended the use of a fine wire made red 
hot. When the part wounded is without a bony basis, pressure may be made by pinching the 
wound between the fingers. It may sometimes be necessary, in the case of a deep bite, to sew 
the wound, which is readily done with a single stitch of the needle, that need not penetrate 
deeper than the cutis.§ 
* As a very efficient mode of applying leeches, it is recommended, after having moistened the skin with pure warm 
water, to put the leeches into a tumbler half full of cold water, and by an adroit movement invert it upon the part. 
The leeches are said to attach themselves so rapidly that it seems to the patient as though they made but a single 
bite. When they are all attached, the glass is to be carefully removed, the water being absorbed, as it runs off on 
one side, by a sponge or linen cloths. 
t Under the name of bdellotomy, a practice has been introduced into Germany, of making a small incision in the 
side of the leech while drawing. The blood escapes through the wound, and the animal will continue to suck for a 
long time, so that one will perform the office of many in the quantity of blood taken. 
J MM. Soubeiran and Bouchardat, after numerous experiments upon the different modes of fitting the gorged leeches 
for use again, came to the conclusion that a carefully managed pressure is the best. Two conditions, however, are 
necessary to success; one that they should be disposed to disgorge the blood, and the other that they should be 
immersed in warm water previously to the stripping. The first object is effected by common salt. The following plan 
is recommended. The leeches are to be thrown into a solution of 16 parts of common salt in 100 of water, from which 
they are to be taken out one by one, and, being held by the tail, are to be dipped into water which feels hot to the 
hand, but yet can be borne by it, aud then passed lightly between the fingers. Thus treated, they easily give up the 
blood. After being stripped, they should be placed in vessels containing fresh water, which should be renewed once 
a day. At the end of eight or ten days they are fit for reapplication. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., xi. 343 and 350.) 
It is said that in the French military hospitals a mixture of one part of vinegar with eight parts of water is pre- 
ferred to salt water for promoting disgorgement. (Lond. Med. 'Qimes and Gnz., Oct. 1856, p. 375.) It has been stated 
that if the leeches, after being stripped, be put into water sweetened with a little white sugar, and the solution be 
renewed several times, at intervals of six or twelve hours, they will speedily recover their activity, and may be reap- 
plied two or three times in the course of a few days. Immersion in camphor water for a few moments is said by 
Mr. Boyce to cause them to vomit the blood. They should afterwards be put into clean water, to be changed in half 
an hour. Dr. Frodsham, of England, has found camphor water preferable to either salt water or diluted vinegar, for 
disposing the gorged leech to part with blood. M. Grannat, a French military pharmaceutist, has found the natural 
process of disgorging preferable to all others. He placed some gorged leeches in wooden tubs containing at the bottoms 
a little clay and water, and renewed the water every forty-eight hours. After eight days, the leeches, now in good health, 
were transferred to a pond prepared for the purpose, where they propagated. He put 1000 leeches in the pond, and at 
the end of a year had taken out 850 fit for service, without interfering with the reproduction. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., 
xx. 186.) M. Yayson’s plan of preserving leeches has been highly recommended. It consists simply in putting them, 
after stripping, if they have been used, in an earthenware vessel of the shape of an inverted truncated cone, with 
holes in the bottom so small as to prevent the escape of the leech, and filled with turfy earth. After the introduction 
of the leech, the opening is to be closed with a coarse cloth. The vessel is then placed in a tub containing water four 
inches deep. If to be sent to a distance, the earth in the vessel should be moistened throughout. 
§ An instrument has been invented called the mechanical leech, by which the attempt has been made to imitate 
the action of the leech in drawing blood. It consists essentially of two parts, one for making the puncture, and the 
other for abstracting blood through the agency of atmospheric pressure. In other words, it is a minute cupping 
instrument. (Am. Journ. Med. Sci., xvi. 207.) PART I. 
Homatropinse Hydrobromidum.—Humulus. 
685 
HOMATROPINE HYDROBROMIDUM. Br. Homatropine Hydro- 
bromide. 
Ci6 H21 NO3 HBr. (HO-MiT-KO-Pf'N.® HY-DRO-BRO'MI-DfiM.) 
Homatropine Hydrobromate. 
“ The hydrobromide, C16H21N03,HBr, of an alkaloid prepared from tropine.” Br. 
This alkaloidal salt was first admitted to the British Pharmacopoeia in the additions of 1890. 
Homatropine, C16H2jN03, is prepared by evaporating a mixture of tropine, C8H15N0 (obtained 
through the saponification of hyoscyamine), and mandelic acid (phenyl-glycollic), CeH5.CH 
(OH)COOH, with diluted hydrochloric acid; mandelic acid may be produced by acting on 
amygdalin with hydrochloric acid, or synthetically from benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide. 
Homatropine hydrobromate is officially described as follows: “ A white crystalline powder 
or aggregation of minute trimetric crystals, soluble in 6 parts of cold water, and in 133 parts 
of absolute alcohol. The solutions should be neutral to litmus. A dilute aqueous solution, 
when applied to the eye, powerfully dilates the pupil. Heated on platinum foil it fuses and 
burns without leaving an appreciable residue. If 0-2 cubic centimetre of chloroform be 
shaken with 1 cubic centimetre of a 10 per cent, aqueous solution, to which solution of 
chlorine has been cautiously added, the chloroform will assume a brownish color. A 2 per 
cent, aqueous solution yields no precipitate on the cautious addition of solution of ammonia 
previously diluted with twice its volume of water, but dilute solution of potassium hydroxide 
produces in it a white precipitate, soluble in excess of the reagent. Solution of iodine causes 
a brown and test-solution of mercuric chloride a white precipitate. If about 0 01 gramme 
be dissolved in a little water and the solution rendered alkaline with solution of ammonia and 
shaken with chloroform, the separated chloroform will leave on evaporation a residue which 
will turn yellow, and finally brick-red, when warmed with about 1*5 cubic centimetres of a 2 
per cent, solution of mercuric chloride in a mixture of five volumes of alcohol (90 per cent.) 
and three volumes of water. When treated with fuming nitric acid and potassium hydroxide, 
as described under ‘ Atropina,’ no reddish-violet coloration is developed (distinction from 
atropine), the residue becoming reddish yellow. It affords the reactions characteristic of 
hydrobromides.” Br. 
Medical Properties. Homatropine is stated to produce, when taken internally, symp- 
toms somewhat similar to those caused by atropine, except that the pulse-rate is rendered more 
slow instead of more rapid. Experiments made upon the reptilian heart indicate that the slow- 
ness of the pulse and the fall of the arterial pressure which has been found to accompany it 
are due in large part or altogether to direct action upon the heart itself. No cases of fatal 
poisoning are, so far as we know, on record ; but in experiments made upon the lower animals 
death has been found to be due to a centric respiratory paralysis. 
Homatropine hydrobromide has not been used internally to any extent, but is largely em- 
ployed as a local mydriatic, having the advantage over atropine of being much less irritating 
to the conjunctiva and much less prone to produce serious systemic disturbance. The pupil 
begins to dilate in from seven to twenty minutes after the instillation; accommodation fails in 
from forty to ninety minutes ; whilst usually the recovery is complete in from one to three days. 
For simple dilatation of the pupil, a solution of the strength of four grains to the ounce is 
sufficient. When it is desired to paralyze accommodation completely, the 2-per-cent, solution 
may be employed. The internal dose directed by the Br. Pharm. is from one-eightieth to one- 
twentieth of a grain (0-0008-0-0032 Gim.). 
HUMULUS. U. S. (Br.) Hops. 
“ The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus, Linne (nat. ord. Urticacese).” TJ. S. “ The dried 
strobiles of Humulus Lupulus, Linn., from cultivated plants.” Br. 
Lupulus, Br.; Hop; Strobili Humuli, s. Lupuli; Hop; Houblon, Fr.; Hopfen, G.; Luppolo, It.; Lupulo, Hom- 
brecillo, Sp. 
Humulus lupulus. L. Sp. PI. (1753), 1028 ; Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 769 ; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. 
iii. 163. The root of the hop is perennial, and sends up numerous annual, angular, rough, flex- 
ible stems, which twine around neighboring objects in a spiral direction from left to right, and 
climb to a great height. The leaves are opposite, and stand upon long footstalks. The smaller 
are sometimes cordate; the larger have three or five lobes; all are serrate, of a deep green 
color on the upper surface, and, together with the petioles, extremely rough, with minute 
prickles. At the base of the footstalks are two or four smooth, ovate, reflexed stipules. The 
(HU'MU-LUS.) 686 
Humulus. 
PART I. 
flowers are numerous, axillary, and furnished with bracts. The male flowers are a yellowish 
white, and arranged in panicles; the female, which grow on a separate plant, are pale green, 
and disposed in solitary, peduncled aments, composed of membranous scales, ovate, acute, and 
tubular at the base. Each scale bears near its base, on its inner surface, two flowers, consist- 
ing of a roundish compressed germ, and two styles, with long filiform stigmas. The aments 
are converted into ovate membranous cones or strobiles, the scales of which contain, each, at 
its base, two small seeds, surrounded by a yellow, granular powder. The genus Humulus is 
placed with Morus and Cannabis in a separate order, Moraceae, by Engler and Prantl. 
The hop-plant is a native of North America and Europe. In parts of New England, New 
York, and Michigan it is extensively cultivated, and most of the hops consumed in the United 
States are supplied by those districts. England probably produces the largest quantity of 
hops in the world, with Germany next in order. The part of the plant used is the fruit or 
strobiles. These, when fully ripe, are picked, dried by artificial heat, packed in bales, and 
sent into the market under the name of hops. 
Hops consist of numerous thin, translucent, veined, leaf-like scales, which are of a pale 
greenish-yellow color, and contain near the base two small, round, black seeds. They are 
officially described as “ ovate, about 3 Cm. long, consisting of a thin, hairy, undulated axis, and 
many obliquely ovate, membranous scales, in the upper part reticulately veined, and towards 
the base parallel-veined, glandular, and surrounding a subglobular achene; color of the scales 
greenish, free from reddish or brownish spots; odor aromatic; taste bitter, aromatic, and 
slightly astringent.” U. S. Though brittle when quite dry, they are pulverized with great 
difficulty. Their odor is strong, peculiar, somewhat narcotic, and fragrant; their taste very 
bitter, aromatic, and slightly astringent. Their aroma, bitterness, and astringency are imparted 
to water by decoction; but the first-mentioned property is dissipated by long boiling. The 
most active part of hops is a substance formed on the surface of the scales, and, in the dried 
fruit, existing in the state of very small granules. This substance was called lupulin, by the 
late Dr. A. W. Ives, of New York, by whom its properties were first investigated and made 
generally known ; though it was previously noticed by Sir J. E. Smith, of England, and M. 
Planche, of France. The scales themselves, however, are not destitute of virtues, and contain, 
as shown by MM. Payen and Chevallier, the same active principles as does lupulin, though in 
less proportion.* 
Lupulinum. U. S. Lupulin. Although lupulin is official (see Lupulinum), its characteristics 
are described here in order that the constituents of hops may be all considered together. Lupulin 
is obtained by rubbing or threshing and sifting the strobiles, of which it constitutes from one- 
sixth to one-tenth by weight. It is in the state of a yellowish powder, mixed with minute 
particles of the scales, from which it cannot be entirely freed when procured by a mechanical 
process. It has the peculiar flavor of hops, and appeared to MM. Lebaillif and Raspail, when 
examined by the microscope, to consist of globules filled with a yellow matter, resembling in this 
respect the pollen of vegetables; but from the investigations of M. Personne it would seem 
to be of the nature of a gland, commencing in a cell formed among those of the epidermis, 
and, when fully developed, secreting a resinous matter. (Journ. de Pharrn., 3e s6r., xxvi.) It is 
inflammable, and when moderately heated becomes somewhat adhesive. The odor of lupulinic 
* Hops are often subjected in Germany to the fumes of burning sulphur, from the supposition that they keep 
better when thus treated. Besides, by being partially bleached by the process, old hops, which have suffered from 
time, having become darker, generally spotted, and weaker, assume a brighter appearance, as if fresher, and generally 
command a better price in the market. To detect the consequent presence of sulphurous acid, the brewers put a 
silver spoon in a mixture of hops and water, under the impression that it will produce a black stain upon the silver. 
But this test will answer only when applied within a fortnight after the use of the sulphur. A more delicate method 
is that of Dr. Heidenreich, who puts 20 or 30 cones of the hops in a flask with zinc and hydrochloric acid, and passes 
the hydrogen evolved through solution of lead acetate. If sulphurous acid be present, hydrogen sulphide will 
be produced, which will occasion a dark precipitate with the solution. But even this plan often fails when the 
hops have been kept more than three or four weeks. A modification of this test has been proposed by Dr. R. Wagner. 
For the solution of lead acetate used in Heidenreich’s method there is to be substituted a solution of sodium nitro- 
prusside, so weak as to have a very light brown color, to which have been added a few drops of solution of potassa, 
If the gas evolved contain the minutest proportion of sulphur, a violet color will be produced when the first bubble 
passes into the solution; and this will by a continuance of the process become a magnificent purple. The least trace 
of sulphurous acid may thus be found; but a few months after the sulphuring of hops none at all can be detected. 
Hops are said to be sometimes threshed in order to separate the lupulin, which is sold separately. Their efficiency 
is thus, no doubt, greatly impaired. Hops thus treated have the scales more or less broken; and any parcel present- 
ing this appearance is to be suspected. Hops often contain a variable quantity of lupulin, in consequence of the 
granules of this substance separating, especially on agitation, and seeking the lower portion of the mass, which thus 
becomes richer, while the upper is poorer. They should always be examined in reference to the lupulin they contain, 
and, if nearly or quite destitute of it, should be deemed of inferior value and not be used medicinally. PART I. 
Humulus. 
687 
grains resides in the essential oil. This is obtained to the extent of 0 9 per cent, by distilling 
hops with water. Personne stated that it contained valerol, C0HloO, which passes into valeri- 
anic acid; the latter in fact occurs in the glands, yet, according to Mehn, only to the extent 
of 0-1 to 0-17 per cent. When distilled from the fresh strobiles the oil has a greenish color, 
but a reddish brown when old hops have been employed. It is devoid of rotatory power, 
neutral to litmus paper, and gives no remarkable coloration with concentrated sulphuric acid. 
The oil consists of a terpene, C1OH10, boiling at 175° C., and an oil, C10H,80, boiling at 210° 
C. The bitter principle formerly called lupulin or lupulite was first isolated by Lermer (Journ. 
fiir pr. Chem., 101), who called it the bitter acid of hops (Hopfenbittersdure). It crystallizes in 
large brittle rhombic prisms, and possesses the peculiar bitter taste of beer. Its composition 
is C32H6007. The main contents of the hop gland consist of wax (myricyl palmitate according 
to Lermer) and resins, one of which is crystalline and unites with bases. Besides the con- 
stituents of the glands, hops contain, according to Etti, lupulo-tannic acid and phlobaphene. 
The former is a whitish, amorphous mass, soluble in alcohol, hot water, or acetic ether, not in 
ether. By heating the humulo-tannic acid to 130° C., or by boiling its aqueous or alcoholic 
solution, it gives off water and is transformed into phlobaphene, a dark-red amorphous sub- 
stance, (C25II24013)2— H20=CboH40O„6. The latter substance, on boiling it with dilute mineral 
acids, again loses water, and furnishes glucose and hop-red, according to the reaction C60H46025 
-f- 2H20 = C38H26016 -j- 2CeH12Oe. From raw phlobaphene, ether removes the bitter principles 
of hops, a colorless crystallizable and a brown amorphous resin, besides chlorophyll and essen- 
tial oil. (Pharmacographia, 2d ed.) The existence of a peculiar alkaloid in hops, suggested 
by Lermer in 1863, has been determined by Griessmayer. A concentrated decoction of hops 
was distilled with potassa or magnesia, the distillate neutralized with hydrochloric acid, evap- 
orated to dryness, and treated with cold absolute alcohol to remove ammonium chloride; the 
alcoholic liquid was heated to boiling and cooled, when much trimethylamine chloride crystal- 
lized. The residuary liquid was filtered, the filtrate evaporated, first by a water-bath and then 
spontaneously, the residue was redissolved in water in a narrow cylinder, agitated with potassa 
and ether, and the ethereal liquid allowed to evaporate spontaneously. The remaining alkaline 
liquid had a peculiar odor recalling that of coniine, and a cooling but not bitter taste. It soon 
exhibited small crystals, and finally solidified completely. The author supposed that these 
crystals were impurities, and that the pure alkaloid is liquid or gaseous. He proposes for it 
the name of lupxdine. (A. J. P., 1874.) Lastly, Etti found arabic (pectic) acid, phosphates, 
nitrates, malates, citrates, and also sulphates, chiefly of potassium, to occur in hops. The 
amount of ash afforded by hops dried at 100° C. would appear to he on an average about 6-7 
per cent. Dr. H. Bungener has isolated from hops a bitter crystalline substance, C25H3604, 
which is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and alkaline solutions. He believes it to 
be identical with Lermer’s hop-bitter acid, to be feebly acid, and to possess the character of 
an aldehyde. (P. J. Tr., 1884.) A volatile oil has been found in hops, which was shown by 
Chapman to consist of two terpenes, C1OH10 and C10H18, and an oxygenated constituent. 
{Journ. Chem. Soc., 1893, 177, and P. J. Tr., 1895, 211 ; see also P. J. Tr., 1893, 988.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Hops are tonic and slightly narcotic, and have been 
highly recommended in diseases of general or local debility, associated with morbid vigilance 
or other nervous derangement. Diuretic properties have also been ascribed to them. The com- 
plaints in which they have been used are dyspepsia, and the nervous tremors, wakefulness, and 
delirium of drunkards. 
An infusion prepared with half an ounce of hops and a pint of boiling water may he given 
in the dose of two fluidounces (60 C.c.) three or four times a day. The tincture is now the 
only official preparation of hops, but the alcohol probably acts more decidedly upon the system 
than the hops. (See Tinctura Humuli.') A pillow of hops has proved useful in allaying rest- 
lessness and producing sleep in nervous disorders. They should be moistened with water con- 
taining a trace of glycerin previously to being placed under the head of the patient, in order 
to prevent rustling. Fomentations with hops, and cataplasms made by mixing them with some 
emollient substance, are often beneficial in local pains and tumefactions. 
The effects of hops may be obtained most conveniently by the use of lupulin, though Dr. 
Fronmiiller, having after two trials with it obtained no soporific effect, denies it a place among 
the narcotics with hypnotic properties, {B. and F. Med.-Chir. Rev., April, 1867, pp. 526—7.) 
Lupulin is a very feeble antaphrodisiac, and was formerly used as such in irritated conditions 
of the genito-urinary apparatus, also in irritable bladder. The dose of lupulin is from six to 
twelve grains (04-08 Gm.), given in capsules or in pills, which may be made by simply rubbing 688 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum. 
PART I. 
the powder in a warm mortar till it acquires the consistence of a ductile mass, and then mould- 
ing it into the proper shape* Lupulin may be incorporated with poultices, or formed into an 
ointment with lard, and used externally for the same purposes as hops. 
HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM CORROSIVUM. U. S. (Br.) Corrosive 
Mercuric Chloride. [Corrosive Chloride of Mercury. Corrosive Sublimate.] 
HgCl2; 270-54. f/HLO'RI-DUM C5R-RO-SI'V0m.) Hg Cl2; 270*5. 
“ A salt, HgCl2, obtained as a sublimate by heating a mixture of mercuric sulphate, sodium 
chloride, and a little black oxide of manganese.” Br. 
Hydrargyri Perchloridum, Br., Mercuric Chloride; Hydrargyrum Bichloratum Corrosivum, P. G.; Sublimatus 
Corrosivus Chloruretum (Chloretum) Hydrargyricum, Hydrargyrum Corrosivum Sublimatum, Hydrargyri Bichlo- 
ridum; Corrosive Chloride of Mercury, Perchloride of Mercury, Bichloride of Mercury ; Deuto-chlorure de Mercure, 
Sublime corrosif, Chlorure mercurique, Fr.; Aetzendes Quecksilberchlorid, Aetzender Quecksilbersublimat, G. 
The former official processes for this salt will be found in the foot-note.f 
The names given in the two Pharmacopoeias to this important chloride do not exactly cor- 
respond. It is called corrosive mercuric chloride in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and perchloride 
of mercury in the British. We prefer the former, as indicating, beyond any possibility of 
mistake, the article intended, as well as its corrosive property. Perchloride and subchloride 
are hardly sufficiently distinctive, when a mistake may be so serious as that of confounding cor- 
rosive sublimate and calomel. In the first British Pharmacopoeia corrosive sublimate was 
recognized as the official title, which was a sufficient guarantee of security ; but, unfortunately, 
it was deemed proper, immediately after the official title, and in close connection with it, to 
define the salt as chloride of mercury, in conformity with the view, adopted in that work, of 
the atomic weight of mercury. With many persons calomel is still the chloride of mercury, 
so that there is some chance that, should calomel be prescribed by this title, corrosive subli- 
mate may be dispensed for it, with dangerous if not fatal effects to the patient. Indeed, 
death has at least in one recorded instance occurred in consequence of this confusion of 
nomenclature; and our official guides should take especial care to guard against such mistakes, 
instead of contributing to them. 
Preparation and Properties. The first step in making corrosive sublimate is to form 
mercuric sulphate, by heating sulphuric acid and the metal together in an iron pot so arranged 
as to carry off the unwholesome fumes of sulphurous oxide, which are copiously generated. 
The dry salt obtained is then mixed with common salt, and the mixture sublimed in an iron 
pot lined with clay and covered by an inverted earthen pan. The late Br. A. T. Thomson, 
of London, took out a patent for forming corrosive sublimate on the large scale, by the direct 
combination, by combustion, of gaseous chlorine with heated mercury. The product is stated 
to be perfectly pure, and to be afforded at a lower price than the sublimate made in the usual 
way. In order that the combination may take place, the mercury need not be heated to its 
boiling point, but only to a temperature between 149° C. and 204° C. (300° and 400° F.). 
According to Br. Maclagan, corrosive sublimate made by this process is liable to the objec- 
* Dr. Dyce Duckworth, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, recommends, as the result of his own observation, 
the aromatic spirit of ammonia as a better solvent of lupulin than any other yet proposed. He offers the following 
formula : “ Lupulin ij, Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia Oj. Macerate for seven days, with occasional agitation, then 
filter, and add sufficient of the menstruum to make up a pint. The dose of this Tinctura Lupulinae Ammoniata is 
from TiPxx to fgj.” (P. J. Tr., Oct. 1868.) 
t “ Take of Mercury twenty-four troyounces ; Sulphuric Acid thirty-six troyounces ; Chloride of Sodium eighteen 
troyounces. Boil the Mercury with the Sulphuric Acid, by means of a sand-bath, until a dry white mass is left. 
Rub this, when cold, with the Chloride of Sodium in an earthenware mortar; then sublime with a gradually in- 
creasing heat.” U.S. 1870. “Take of Persulphate of Mercury twenty ounces [avoirdupois]; Chloride of Sodium, 
dried, sixteen ounces [av.] ; Black Oxide of Manganese, in fine powder, one ounce [av.]. Reduce the Persulphate of 
Mercury and the Chloride of Sodium each to fine powder, and, having mixed them and the Oxide of Manganese 
thoroughly by trituration in a mortar, put the mixture into an apparatus adapted for sublimation, and apply suffi- 
cient heat to cause vapors of perehloride of mercury to rise into the less heated part of the apparatus which has been 
arranged for their condensation.” Br. 1885. 
In order to understand the above processes, which are the same in principle, it is necessary to premise that cor- 
rosive sublimate is mercuric chloride, consisting of two atoms of chlorine and one atom of mercury. By boiling sul- 
phuric acid in excess with mercury to dryness, a white salt (mercuric sulphate) is formed, according to the reaction 
2H2S04 + Hg= HgSCh + S02 + 2H20. (See Hydrargyri Persulphas.) When this is mixed with sodium chloride 
(common salt), and the mixture exposed to a subliming heat, a mutual decomposition takes place, according to the 
reaction HgSC>4 + (NaCl)2 == Na2S04 + HgCl2. The mercurio chloride thus formed sublimes, and the sodium sulphate 
remains behind. The quantities for mutual decomposition are two mols. of sodium chloride and one mol. of mercuric 
sulphate. The British formula differs from that of the U. S. P. 1870 in ordering mercuric sulphate ready formed, 
instead of preparing it as the first step of the process, and in the use of a small proportion of manganese dioxide, 
intended to convert into mercuric any mercurous salt that may be in the sulphate, and thus prevent the formation 
of mercurous chloride. (See Hydrargyri Persulphas.) PART I. 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum. 
689 
tion that a proportion of calomel is always formed, occasionally amounting to 10 per cent. It 
may sometimes he useful to know how to make a small quantity of corrosive sublimate on an 
emergency. This may be done by dissolving mercuric oxide (red precipitate) in hydrochloric 
acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, dissolving the dry mass in water, and crystallizing. 
Here a double decomposition takes place, resulting in the formation of water and the chloride. 
Corrosive mercuric chloride is officially described as in “ heavy, colorless, rhombic crystals, 
or crystalline masses, odorless, and having an acrid and persistent, metallic taste; permanent 
in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.) in 16 parts of water, and in 3 parts of alcohol; in 2 
parts of boiling water, 1-2 parts of boiling alcohol, 4 parts of ether, and about 14 parts of 
glycerin. It fuses at 265° C. (509° F.) to a colorless liquid, and at about 300° C. (572° F.) 
it volatilizes in dense, white vapors, leaving no residue. The aqueous solution reddens blue 
litmus paper, but becomes neutral to litmus on the addition of sodium chloride. With am- 
monia water it yields a white precipitate ; with an excess of hydrogen sulphide a black one; 
with potassium iodide test-solution a red one, soluble in an excess of the reagent; and with 
silver nitrate test-solution a white precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. If a saturated, aqueous 
solution of the salt be heated nearly to boiling, then completely saturated with hydrogen sul- 
phide, and allowed to stand for several hours in a well-corked flask, it should yield a colorless 
filtrate which, on evaporation, should leave no residue (absence of many foreign salts). If 
the precipitated mercuric sulphide obtained in the last test be washed with water, then shaken 
for a few minutes with ammonia water, and filtered, the filtrate should be colorless, and, on 
the addition of a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, should afford neither a yellow color nor a 
yellow precipitate (absence of arsenic)." U. S. “ Heavy colorless masses of prismatic crystals, 
possessing a highly acrid metallic taste. Soluble in 16 parts of cold and 2 parts of boiling 
water, 3 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 parts of ether, and, on trituration, in 2 parts of cold 
glycerin. It affords the reactions characteristic of mercuric salts and of chlorides. When 
heated it sublimes without decomposition, leaving only a trace of fixed residue. When heated 
with excess of lime it yields 72-8 to 73'8 per cent, of metallic mercury.” Br. 
Ether is capable of removing corrosive sublimate, to a considerable extent, from its aqueous 
solution when agitated with it. According to M. Mialhe, ether will not dissolve it when accom- 
panied by a considerable quantity of mercuric oxide and a chloride of an alkalifiable metal. 
Sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids dissolve it without alteration. When heated it melts, 
and readily sublimes in dense, white, acrid vapors, which condense, on cool surfaces, in white, 
shining needles. Its aqueous solution renders green the syrup of violets, and is precipitated 
brick-red, becoming yellow, by the fixed alkalies and alkaline earths, and white by ammonia. 
(See Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum.) The former precipitate is mercuric oxide, which has the 
property of evolving oxygen and of being reduced to metallic globules when exposed to heat. 
This oxide is formed in the process for preparing aqua phagedsenica, called also lotio flam,, or 
yellow wash, which is obtained by mixing half a drachm of corrosive sublimate with a pint of 
lime water. (See Lotio Flava, H. F.) Corrosive sublimate forms, with ammonium chloride 
and sodium chloride, compounds which are more soluble than the uncombined mercurial salt. 
It is on this account that aqueous solutions of sal ammoniac or of common salt dissolve much 
more corrosive sublimate than simple water. The combination of corrosive sublimate with 
ammonium chloride was formerly called sal alembroth, or salt of wisdom. According to F. 
Hinterberger, corrosive sublimate is capable of combining with quinine and cinchonine. ( Chem. 
Gaz., ix. 211.) By dissolving one part of corrosive sublimate and a hundred parts of common salt 
in distilled water and evaporating to dryness, a soluble preparation is obtained which does not 
coagulate albumen. (A. J. P., xliv. 11.) J. F. Brown (Chem. and Drug., 1896, 425) recom- 
mends for dispensing purposes a solution of mercuric chloride of such strength that ten minims 
contain one grain, made by dissolving ninety-six grains of corrosive sublimate in one and a 
half ounces avoirdupois of glycerin and six fluidrachms of distilled water by the aid of heat, 
then cooling the solution and adding distilled water until the solution measures two fluidounces. 
Test of Purity and Incompatibles. Pure corrosive chloride of mercury sublimes, 
when heated, without residue, and its powder is entirely and readily soluble in ether. Conse- 
quently, if a portion of any sample should not wholly dissolve in ether, or if it should not 
evaporate entirely, the presence of some impurity is proved. If calomel be present, and it 
frequently is, it will not be wholly soluble in water.* Arsenic is reported to be a frequent 
* M. Bullot, having noticed in some corrosive sublimate an insoluble portion consisting of minute yellowish 
granules, found on examination that it was an aniline product. He surmised that the drug had been thrown into 
commerce after having been used in the preparation of aniline dyes. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., xviii. 414.) 690 
Hgdrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum. 
PART I. 
impurity in corrosive sublimate. (See paper by J. Granville Smith, A. J. P., 1877, p. 397.) 
It can be readily detected by the test of U. S. P. 1880. (See p. 689.) Corrosive sublimate is 
incompatible with many of the metals, the alkalies and their carbonates, soap, lime water, tartar 
emetic, silver nitrate, the lead acetates, the potassium and sodium sulphides, the soluble iodides, 
and all the sulphydrates. It is decomposed by many vegetable and some animal substances. 
According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, it produces precipitates in infusions or decoctions of cham- 
omile, horseradish, columbo, catechu, cinchona, rhubarb, senna, simaruba, and oak bark. MM. 
Mialhe and Lepage have shown that corrosive sublimate is slowly converted into calomel by 
syrup of sarsaparilla and syrup of honey, but is not changed by contact with pure syrup. Dr. 
Samuel Kennedy {Pharm. Record, 1888, p. 201) proved conclusively that when corrosive sub- 
limate was dissolved in compound syrup of sarsaparilla, as frequently prescribed, precipitation 
invariably occurred. He found that if sodium chloride in quantity equalling that of the 
mercurial used were added, precipitation was greatly retarded. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Corrosive sublimate is a very powerful preparation, 
operating quickly, and, if not properly regulated, producing violent effects. It is less apt to 
salivate than most other mercurials. In doses of to fa of a grain (0-0006 to 0 0011 
Gm.) it often seems to act as a tonic to the general nutrition, and even in somewhat larger 
dose it may exert its peculiar influence without any obvious alteration of the vital func- 
tions, except, perhaps, a slight increase in the frequency of the pulse, and in the secretions 
from the skin and kidneys. Sometimes, however, it purges ; but this effect may be obviated 
by combining it with a little opium. In larger doses it occasions nausea, vomiting, griping pain 
in the bowels, diarrhoea, and other symptoms of gastric and intestinal irritation, and in still 
larger quantities produces all the effects of a violent corrosive poison. It has long been used 
as a remedy in syphilis, in all stages of which it has been highly recommended. It is espe- 
cially useful in the advanced stages of the disorder, when there is no cachexia. When a very 
rapid impression is desired it is not as useful as calomel. It is also used advantageously in 
some chronic cutaneous affections, and in obstinate chronic rheumatism. It is usually asso- 
ciated with alterative or diaphoretic medicines, such as the antimonials, and the compound 
decoction or syrup of sarsaparilla; and, in order to obviate the irritation it is apt to produce, 
it may often be advantageously united with opium. There is no doubt that many of the sub- 
stances in connection with which it is employed alter its chemical condition ; but it does not 
follow that even in its altered state it may not be very useful as a remedy. 
Externally employed, corrosive sublimate is stimulant, escharotic, and germicidal. A solution 
in water, containing from one-eighth to one-half grain in the fluidounce, is employed as an injec- 
tion in gleet, and as a collyrium in chronic venereal ophthalmia. A stronger solution, contain- 
ing one or two grains in the fluidounce, is an efficacious wash in lepra, and other scaly erup- 
tions. Dissolved in water, in the proportion of five to ten grains to the fluidounce, it may be 
used with much benefit in venereal ulcers of the throat, to which it should be applied by means 
of a camel’s-hair pencil. With lime water it forms the aqua phagedsenica of the older writers, 
employed as a wash for ill-conditioned ulcers. The powdered chloride has been used as an 
escharotic, but is, in general, inferior to silver nitrate or caustic potassa. In onychia maligna, 
however, it is employed with great advantage, mixed with an equal weight of zinc sulphate, 
and sprinkled thickly upon the surface of the ulcer, which is then to be covered with a pledget 
of lint saturated with tincture of myrrh. The whole diseased surface is thus removed, and 
the ulcer heals.* This practice originated, we believe, with the late Dr. Perkins, of Phila- 
* Antiseptic Dressings. The following directions are given in Pharm. Rundschau, Prague, for antiseptic dress- 
ings to be used in the German army: 
Corrosive Sublimate Gauze. Dissolve 50 Gm. mercuric chloride in 5000 Qm. alcohol, and add 7500 Gm. distilled 
water, 2500 Gm. glycerin, and 0‘5 Gm. fuchsin, the latter being added for the purpose of readily distinguishing the 
corrosive sublimate gauze from others. Four hundred metres of gauze are well kneaded in this solution and allowed 
to soak for fifteen minutes; the gauze is then strongly pressed and well dried on wash-lines, being protected from 
light and dust. 
Corrosive Sublimate Cotton. Absorbent cotton is soaked in the above solution and dried in loose layers. It has 
been stated that the cotton has a dissociating effect upon the mercuric chloride, mercury being fixed upon the cotton 
as oxide, a certain proportion of mercurous chloride being formed at the same time. (A. J. P., 1893, 451.) 
Corrosive Sublimate Catgut. A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate is prepared, in which thin cat- 
gut is soaked for about eight hours, and the thicker kinds for ten or twelve hours. The catgut is subsequently kept 
in vials with alcohol. 
Corrosive Sublimate Silk is prepared by soaking well-washed ligature silk in a solution of 5 parts of corrosive 
sublimate in 100 parts of water and 20 parts of glycerin. After drying it is wrapped in oiled silk or other water- 
proof material; and, before using, it is dipped into a 3-per-cent, phenol solution, or a 1-per-cent, solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate. PART I. 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum. 
691 
delphia, and was highly recommended by Dr. Physick. Dr. Geo. B. Wood often employed it 
with success. A solution of corrosive sublimate in collodion (four parts to thirty) has been 
used as a caustic, for the destruction of nsevi materni, and for other purposes. It can be very 
accurately applied, but its use requires care, as fatal poisoning has followed a single application 
of the alcoholic solution of corrosive sublimate to a moderate surface of ringworm. (London 
Lancet, 1871, ii. 413.) It is applied by means of a camel’s-hair pencil. 
The dose of corrosive sublimate is from the one-hundredth to the eighth of a grain (0-0006 
to 0-007 Gm.), preferably given after meals, in pill or solution. The pill is usually prepared 
with crumb of bread; care should be taken that the medicine be equally diffused through the 
pilular mass before it is divided. 
Corrosive sublimate is one of the most powerful of known germicides, a solution of one 
part of it in twenty thousand in water being sufficient to kill micrococci and bacilli in active 
growth ; whilst a solution of one in one thousand will rapidly destroy bacterial spores. Ac- 
cording to Koch, as little as one part of corrosive sublimate in three hundred thousand of a 
proteid solution will prevent the generation of the spores of the bacillus of anthrax. As, 
however, ammonia and several other chemical substances habitually found in masses of filth 
rapidly decompose mercuric chloride, the latter is scarcely available for most disinfectant pur- 
poses on a large scale. For the purposes of antisepsis in surgery, however, corrosive sublimate 
is probably the most generally useful and effective of the known germicides. The solution of 
one in one thousand may be used for washing the hands, disinfecting furniture, etc., and is 
even employed in the disinfecting of wounds; usually, however, a much weaker solution than 
that just mentioned is employed by the surgeon. It is very rarely if ever justifiable to use 
upon a mucous surface or a wound a solution stronger than one in two thousand, and if the 
solution is to be used freely and continuously, as in washing out the vagina, etc., one in ten 
thousand is as strong as should be employed; indeed, the employment of a vaginal wash of 
this strength has been followed by violent poisoning. In a number of cases a solution of one 
part in fifteen hundred used locally by the surgeon has produced death, preceded by constitu- 
tional symptoms. 
For the purpose of convenience to surgeons, corrosive sublimate tablets are now largely 
prepared and used. The amount of corrosive sublimate in these tablets should be so calcu- 
lated as to yield, with the measures of water ordinarily used, solutions of convenient strength. 
Thus, if each tablet contains 7-3 grains of corrosive sublimate, one tablet dissolved in a pint 
of water will yield a solution of one in one thousand. Tablets are found in the market one- 
half this strength, one tablet making only half a pint of 1-1000 solution. In order to make 
the tablets readily soluble, the corrosive sublimate is usually compressed with some powdered 
ammonium chloride or tartaric acid: it is asserted of the latter addition, upon the authority 
of Prof. Laplace, that tartaric acid prevents the precipitation of the mercury as an insoluble 
albuminate. The proportions used by the manufacturers are as follows: 7‘7 grains of corro- 
sive sublimate and 7-3 grains of ammonium chloride in each tablet, one tablet making one 
pint of 1-1000 solution. The tablets containing tartaric acid are usually made one-half this 
strength, as follows: 3-85 grains of corrosive sublimate and 19-25 grains of tartaric acid in 
each tablet. It is essential that the tablets be colored or in some way marked so that the atten- 
tion may be drawn to their nature, and accidental poisoning prevented. 
Toxicological Properties. Swallowed in poisonous doses, it produces burning heat in 
the throat, excruciating pain in the stomach and bowels, excessive thirst, anxiety, nausea and 
frequent retching with vomiting of bloody mucus, diarrhoea and sometimes bloody stools, small 
and frequent pulse, cold sweats, general debility, difficult respiration, cramps in the extremities, 
faintings, insensibility, convulsions, and death. The mucous membrane of the stomach ex- 
hibits, on dissection, signs of the operation of a violent corrosive poison. These symptoms are 
sometimes followed or conjoined with others indicating an excessive mercurial action upon the 
system, such as inflammation of the mouth and salivary glands, profuse salivation, fetid 
breath, etc. The chief symptom of corrosive sublimate poisoning which distinguishes it from 
poisoning by antimony, arsenic, or other corrosive metallic irritant is the fact that the stools 
are very frequent, smallish, and composed chiefly of mucus and blood. A case is on record 
of death, in an infant, from the constitutional effects of corrosive sublimate sprinkled upon an 
excoriated surface; and in two instances of children, the one seven and the other nine years 
old, death, with all the symptoms of internal poisoning, followed the application to the scalp 
of an ointment said to consist of one part of the corrosive chloride to four parts of tallow. 
{Bub. Quarterly, Aug. 1854.) In the inferior animals, in whatever mode introduced into the 692 
Hydrargyri Chlondum Corrosivum. 
PART I. 
system, it produces symptoms and lesions similar to those which it causes in man. In the 
treatment of poisoning by corrosive sublimate, Orfila recommends the free use of the white of 
eggs beaten up with water. The albumen forms an insoluble and comparatively innocent com- 
pound with the corrosive sublimate; and the liquid by its bulk dilutes the poison, and distends 
the stomach so as to produce vomiting. It is, however, asserted by M. Lassaigne that this 
compound of albumen and corrosive sublimate, when recently precipitated, is soluble in acid 
and alkaline liquids, and in solutions of potassium, sodium, and calcium chlorides. (See Joum. 
de Pharm., xxiii.) It is also soluble in an excess of albumen, whether introduced into the 
stomach or previously existing there. It is, therefore, important, at the same time that the 
antidote is used, to evacuate the stomach before the newly formed compound can be dissolved. 
If eggs cannot be procured, wheat flour may be substituted, gluten having, according to M. 
Taddei, the same effect as albumen. Milk also has been recommended, in consequence of the 
insoluble compound which casein forms with the poison. Besides the antidotes mentioned, 
Peruvian bark, meconic acid, ferrous sulphide, and iron filings have been proposed, all of 
which have the property of decomposing corrosive sublimate. The ferrous sulphide was found 
quite successful by M. Mialhe in experiments upon dogs, if given immediately after the poison 
was swallowed, but failed when delayed for ten minutes. Dr. T. H. Buckler, of Baltimore, 
made some successful experiments on lower animals upon the antidotal properties of a mixture 
of gold dust and iron filings {Med. and Surg. Journ., 1843) ; and a case of poisoning by corrosive 
sublimate has been recorded by Dr. C. Johnston, of the same city, in which this antidote was 
employed with the apparent result of saving life, after albumen had been used without effect. 
Dr. Johnston, however, employed the reduced iron of the Pharmacopoeia, and gold leaf, 
arranging them in alternate layers, so as to make boluses of convenient size. {Am. Journ. of 
Med. Set., April, 1863.) The method of operation of this antidote will be understood when 
the action of gold and iron as a test for corrosive sublimate is explained in the succeeding 
paragraph. It is of the utmost importance that whatever antidote is used should be given 
without delay, and in this respect the one nearest at hand may be considered the best. Under 
all circumstances the stomach should be rapidly and thoroughly washed out by abundance of 
mucilaginous fluids, the stomach-pump being used if necessary. The after-effects should be 
treated like other forms of toxic gastro-enteritis, i.e., by local bloodletting or counter-irritation, 
demulcent drinks, opiates, etc. 
Tests for Corrosive Sublimate. On account of the extreme virulence of this chloride 
as a poison, the reagents by which it may be detected form a subject of study of the utmost 
importance, as connected with medico-legal investigations. The best tests for determining its 
mercurial nature, mentioned in the order of their delicacy, are potassium ferrocyanide, lime 
water, potassium carbonate, potassium iodide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, and stannous chlo- 
ride. Potassium ferrocyanide gives rise to a white precipitate (mercuric ferrocyanide), be- 
coming slowly yellowish, and at length pale blue. Lime water throws down a yellow precipitate 
of hydrated mercuric oxide. Potassium carbonate causes a brick-red precipitate of mercuric 
carbonate. Potassium iodide produces a very characteristic pale-scarlet precipitate of mercuric 
iodide. This precipitate frequently appears at first yellow, especially if the corrosive sublimate 
be present in minute proportion. Ammonia gives rise to a white, flocculcnt precipitate, the 
official ammoniated mercury, or white precipitate. Hydrogen sulphide occasions a black pre- 
cipitate of mercuric sulphide; and the same precipitate is thrown dowrn by ammonium sulphy- 
drate. Finally, tin protochloride (stannous chloride) causes a grayish-black precipitate (mer- 
cury in a finely divided state). Taking the results of Devergie, the relative delicacy of these 
tests may be expressed numerically as follows : potassium ferrocyanide 1$ ; lime water 4 ; potas- 
sium carbonate 7 ; potassium iodide 8 ; ammonia 36 ; hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphy- 
drate 60; and stannous chloride 80. Wormley {Micro-Chemistry of Poisons, 2d ed., p. 348) 
states that the reaction of stannous chloride is interfered with or entirely prevented by the 
presence of alkaline chlorates, and also of free nitric acid. He especially commends, how- 
ever, the copper test, which is as follows: a bright plate of copper, immersed in a solution con- 
taining corrosive sublimate, is instantly tarnished, and, after the lapse of half an hour, be- 
comes covered with a grayish-white powder. A polished piece of gold, moistened with the 
clear mercurial solution, and touched through the liquid with a piece of iron, contracts a w'hite 
stain. This test, which was proposed by Mr. Sylvester and simplified by Dr. Paris, is conve- 
niently applied by moistening with the suspected solution a gold coin or ring, and touching 
it through the moistened spot with the point of a penknife. The object of the iron is to form 
with the gold a simple galvanic circle, which enables the latter metal to precipitate the mer- part I. 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Corrosivum.—Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite. 
693 
cury on its surface. Nearly all the above tests merely prove the presence of mercury. To 
determine whether the metal is united with chlorine, the mercurial liquid may be precipitated 
by lime water, and the filtered solution, acidulated with nitric acid, then tested with silver 
nitrate. If the mercury is in the state of chloride, the filtered solution will be one of calcium 
chloride, which with silver nitrate will yield a heavy, white precipitate (silver chloride), insol- 
uble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. The silver nitrate may be added directly to the 
mercurial liquid; and, if it contain corrosive sublimate, silver chloride will fall, but probably 
mixed with calomel. 
By the combined indications of the foregoing tests, corrosive sublimate may be infallibly 
detected, unless it exists in very minute quantity, associated with organic substances, by which 
its presence is often greatly obscured. When it exists in organic mixtures, made by boiling 
the contents or substance of the stomach in distilled water, Dr. Christison recommends that a 
preliminary trial be made with stannous chloride on a small portion filtered for the purpose. 
If this causes a grayish-black color, he shakes the mixture, as recommended by Orfila, with a 
fourth of its bulk of cold ether, which dissolves the corrosive sublimate and rises to the sur- 
face. The ethereal solution is then evaporated to dryness, and the dry salt obtained is dissolved 
in hot water, whereby a pure solution is procured, in which the poison may be readily detected 
by the ordinary tests. In using ether, however, it must be borne in mind that, as ascertained 
by M. Mialhe, the presence of a considerable quantity of mercuric oxide, and of a chloride 
of an alkalifiable metal, prevents the solvent power of ether. If the trial test should produce 
a light-gray color, the corrosive sublimate is indicated in still less quantity, and Dr. Christison 
recommends to proceed in the following manner. Treat the unfiltered mixture with stannous 
chloride, as long as any precipitate is formed, which will have a slate-gray color. Collect, wash, 
and drain it on a filter, and, having removed it without being dried, boil it, in a glass flask, 
with a moderately strong solution of caustic potassa, until all the lumps disappear. The alkali 
will dissolve all animal and vegetable matter; and, on allowing the solution to remain at rest, 
a heavy grayish-black powder will subside, which consists chiefly of metallic mercury, and in 
which small globules of the metal may sometimes be seen with the naked eye, or by the aid 
of a magnifier. Wormley (loc. cit.) suggests boiling the organic mixture with water acidulated 
with hydrochloric acid, and testing the filtered solution with a strip of copper foil. Probably 
advantage might be derived from the process of dialysis, in separating corrosive sublimate, 
among other crystallizable substances, from the colloidal matters contained in organic mixtures. 
(See Dialysis.') 
HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM MITE. U. S. (Br.) Mild Mercurous 
Chloride. [Calomel. Mild Chloride of Mercury.] 
Hg2 Cl2; 470*34.* Hg2 Cl2; 470-2. 
Hydrargyri Subchloridum, Br., Mercurous Chloride; Calomelas, Hydrargyrum Chloratum Mite, P. G.; Hy- 
drargyri Chloridum, Hydrargyrum Chloratum (Muriaticum), Mercurius Dulcis, Chloruretum Hydrargyrosum; Sub- 
muriate of Mercury, Protochloride of Mercury ; Subchloride of Mercury; Protochlorure ou Sous-muriate de Mercure, 
Calom&le, Fr.; Quecksilberchloriir, G. 
“ Obtained in the form of powder by tbe rapid condensation of the vapor of Mercurous 
Chloride. Mild Mercurous Chloride should be kept in dark amber-colored bottles.” U. S. 
“ A salt, Hg2Cl2, obtained as a sublimate when a mixture of mercurous sulphate and sodium 
chloride is heated.” Br. 
Very properly, processes for this compound have been omitted from tbe Pharmacopoeias, as 
it cannot be made by the pharmacist conveniently. For processes of the U. S. P. 1870 and of 
the Br. P. 1885, with remarks, see foot-note.f 
(HY-DRAR'qY-RI CHLO'RI-DUM MI'TE.) 
* The molecular formula and weight are sometimes stated as HgCl; 235-17. 
f “ Take of Mercury forty-eight, troyounces ; Sulphuric Acid thirty-six troyounces ; Chloride of Sodium eighteen 
troy ounces ; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity. Boil, by means of a sand-bath, twenty-four troyounces of the 
Mercury with the Sulphuric Acid, until a dry white mass is left. Rub this, when cold, with the remainder of the 
Mercury, in an earthenware mortar, until they are thoroughly mixed. Then add the Chloride of Sodium, and, having 
rubbed it with the other ingredients until globules of Mercury cease to be visible, sublime the mixture into a large 
chamber so that the sublimate may fall in powder. Wash the sublimed matter with boiling Distilled Water, until 
the washings afford no precipitate with water of ammonia, and dry it.” U. S. 1870. 
“ Take of Persulphate of Mercury ten ounces [avoirdupois]; Mercury seven ounces [av.]; Chloride of Sodium, 
dried, Jive ounces [av.] ; Boiling Distilled Water a sufficiency. Moisten the Persulphate of Mercury with some of the 
Water, and rub it and the Mercury together until globules are no longer visible; add the Chloride of Sodium, and 
thoroughly mix the whole by continued trituration. Sublime by a suitable apparatus into a chamber of such size 
that the Calomel, instead of adhering to its sides as a crystalline crust, shall fall as a fine powder on its floor. Wash 694 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite. 
PART I. 
Preparation on the Large Scale. The process for making calomel by means of mer- 
curic sulphate was originally practised at Apothecaries’ Hall, London. The proportions 
taken and the mode of proceeding in that establishment were, according to Mr. Brande, as 
follows: 50 lbs. of mercury are boiled to dryness with 70 lbs. of sulphuric acid, in a cast-iron 
vessel; and 62 lbs. of the dry salt formed are triturated with 40£ lbs. of mercury till the 
globules disappear, and the whole is mixed with 34 lbs. of common salt. The mixture is 
sublimed from an earthenware retort into an earthenware receiver, and the product is from 95 
to 100 lbs. of calomel in mass. This is then ground to an impalpable powder, and washed 
with a large quantity of distilled water. The object of bringing calomel into a state of mi- 
nute division is more perfectly accomplished by the method of Mr. Joseph Jewell, of London, 
improved by M. Ossian Henry. It consists in causing the calomel in vapor to come in con- 
tact with steam in a large receiver, whereby it is condensed into an impalpable powder, and 
perfectly washed from corrosive sublimate in the same operation. Calomel made by this 
process, sometimes called Jewell’s or Howard’s hydrosublimate of mercury, is free from all 
suspicion of containing corrosive sublimate, is much finer than when obtained by levigation 
and elutriation, and possesses more activity as a medicine. This kind of calomel is included in 
the French Codex under a distinct name (mercure doux a la vapeur). M. Soubeiran, of Paris, 
has perfected a process for obtaining calomel as an impalpable powder, by substituting the 
agency of cold air for that of steam for the purpose of condensing it; a process which he be- 
lieves to be precisely the same as that pursued by the English manufacturers, and which pro- 
duces a calomel equal to the best English. A description of his apparatus may be found in 
the Journal de Pharmacie (3e ser., ii.), and of the English apparatus, as described by F. C. 
Calvert, in the same journal (3e s6r., iii.). Both these papers are copied into the A. J. P. 
(xv.). Calomel may also be prepared in the dry way by taking four parts of corrosive subli- 
mate and rubbing it up in a mortar with three parts of mercury, after moistening the mass 
with alcohol. The powder is then dried and sublimed in glass flasks. The powder should be 
dried quickly before sublimation, so as to drive off- any trace of uncombined mercury. A 
comparative examination of English and American calomel was undertaken separately in 
1885 by Profs. Bedford and Patch. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1885.) Whilst there was no reason for 
preferring English calomel, none of the samples exhibited more than traces of mercuric 
chloride. Prof. Wohler has proposed to obtain calomel, in the humid way, by precipitating a 
solution of corrosive sublimate by a stream of sulphurous acid, taking advantage of a reaction 
first observed by Vogel. Calomel obtained in the humid way, called precipitated calomel, was 
formerly official with the Dublin College, and was adopted in the French Codex. This form 
of calomel is of doubtful utility; and when obtained by Prof. Wohler’s process it is a crys- 
talline powder, which is unfit for use unless after elaborate levigation and elutriation. 
Properties. When in mass, its form and appearance depend on the shape and tempera- 
this powder with boiling Distilled Water, until the washings cease to be darkened by a drop of sulphydrate of am- 
monium. Finally, dry at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. 1885. 
The mercurous chloride, according to the view generally received by chemists, consists of two atoms of mercury 
combined with two of chlorine (some chemists consider it to contain only one atom of each), so that it has relatively 
only half as much chlorine as corrosive sublimate. In the U. S. process, as in the case of corrosive sublimate, mer- 
curic sulphate is first formed; but, instead of being immediately sublimed with the sodium chloride, it undergoes a 
preparatory trituration with a quantity of mercury equal to that employed in forming it. This trituration may be 
conceived to take place between one mol. of mercuric sulphate and one atom of metallic mercury, which are thus 
converted into one mol. of mercurous sulphate, according to the reaction HgSC>4 + Hg — The one mol. of 
mercurous sulphate thus formed being heated with two of common salt, the two atoms of chlorine in the latter sub- 
lime in union with the two of mercury in the former, and generate one mol. of mercurous chloride, Hg2Cl2, while 
one molecule of sodium sulphate, Na2SC>4, remains as a residue. It is hence apparent that the residue of this process 
and of that for corrosive sublimate are the same. The calomel, as sublimed, is liable to contain a little corrosive 
sublimate; and hence the direction of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870 to wash it with boiling distilled water until 
ammonia produces no precipitate with the washings. Ammonia occasions a white preoipitate (ammoniated mercury) 
so long as the washings contain corrosive sublimate; and when it ceases to produce this effect the operator may rest 
satisfied that the whole of the poisonous salt has been removed. According to M. Berth€, calomel in contact with 
hot water is converted, to a small extent, into corrosive sublimate; and hence he recommends that the portion of 
water to be tested should be cold when passed through the calomel. The British process is a modification of that of 
the old Dublin Pharmacopoeia, including, like that, no directions for making the mercuric sulphate, because this salt 
is made by a separate formula, being designated as persulphate of mercury. It omits, however, as unnecessary, a 
partial preliminary sublimation, to test the production of corrosive sublimate, and, immediately after a thorough 
mixture of the materials, proceeds to the final sublimation. An improvement was to cause the vapors to enter for 
condensation a chamber of considerable size, so that they might fall in powder, instead of condensing on the sides 
of the receiver in a crystalline mass. The necessity of pulverizing the calomel is thus avoided. The Br. Pharma- 
copoeia directs the powder to be washed, but, instead of using ammonia as a test of the absence of corrosive sublimate 
in the washings, directs for the purpose ammonium sulphide, which throws down a black precipitate if corrosive 
sublimate be present. part r. 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite. 
695 
ture of the subliming vessel. In this state it is generally in the form of a white, fibrous, 
crystalline cake, the interior surface of which is often studded with shining transparent crys- 
tals, having the shape of quadrangular prisms, and a texture somewhat horny and elastic. 
When the mass is scratched it yields a yellow streak, which is very characteristic. Its sp. gr. 
is 7*2. Prof. Patch found in his examination (Proc. A. P. A., 1885, p. 477) the specific 
gravity of calomel to vary from 6-94 to 7*93, the standard being water at 39° F. The official 
form of this chloride is that of powder, in which state it is always kept in the shops. The 
powder has a light buff or ivory color, if obtained by the levigation of sublimed masses; but 
if condensed at once in the form of an impalpable powder, as is the case with Jewell’s calomel 
and in the official processes, it is perfectly white. To protect it from the action of the light, 
it should be kept in a dark place, or in bottles painted black or covered with black paper. 
By the action of the fixed alkalies or alkaline earths it immediately becomes black, in conse- 
quence of the formation of mercurous oxide, reducible by heat to the metallic state. The 
preparation employed under the name of lotio nigra, or black wash, as a local application to 
syphilitic ulcers, etc., is made by adding a drachm of calomel to a pint of lime water. (See 
Lotio Nigra, N. F.) By double decomposition between the calomel and lime, the black sub- 
oxide precipitates, and calcium chloride remains in solution, indicated by yielding a copious 
white precipitate with silver nitrate. The oxide, however, is not pure, but associated with 
undecomposed calomel. Before being applied, the wash should be well shaken. 
“ A white, impalpable powder, becoming yellowish-white on being triturated with strong 
pressure, and showing only small, isolated crystals under a magnifying power of one hundred 
diameters. It is odorless and tasteless, and permanent in the air. Insoluble in water, alcohol, 
or ether, and also in cold, dilute acids. When strongly heated, it is wholly volatilized, without 
melting. In contact with calcium hydrate test-solution, or with solutions of alkali hydrates, 
or with ammonia water, the salt is blackened. When heated with dried sodium carbonate in 
a dry glass tube, it yields metallic mercury. If 1 Gm. of the salt be shaken with 10 C.c. of 
water or alcohol, the respective filtrates should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solu- 
tion or silver nitrate test-solution (absence of mercuric chloride'), nor should they leave any 
residue on evaporation (absence of other soluble impurities'). On heating a portion of the salt, 
in a test-tube, with potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, it should not evolve the odor of 
ammonia ; and if another portion be shaken with acetic acid, the filtrate should not be affected 
by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, nor by silver nitrate test-solution (distinction from and 
absence of ammoniated mercury).” U. S. “ A dull-white heavy and nearly tasteless powder, 
sometimes rendered yellowish by prolonged trituration ; insoluble in water, alcohol (90 per 
cent.), or ether. It affords the reactions characteristic of mercurous salts and of chlorides. 
Hydrocyanic acid converts it into mercuric salt and a black powder readily yielding metallic 
mercury. It volatilizes when sufficiently heated, leaving only a trace of fixed residue. Warm 
ether with which it has been shaken leaves, on evaporation, no residue (absence of mercuric 
chloride). Warmed with solution of potassium hydroxide it becomes black and does not evolve 
ammonia (absence of mercuric-ammonium chloride). When heated with excess of lime it 
should yield 84-4 to 84-9 per cent, of metallic mercury.” Br. 
Tests of Purity and Incompatibles. Calomel, when pure, completely sublimes on the 
application of heat, a property which detects all fixed impurities, such as calcium carbonate, 
sulphate, and phosphate, barium sulphate, and lead carbonate. Under the influence of an 
elevated temperature, especially in the presence of alcohol or water, it gives rise to a small 
quantity of corrosive sublimate. (M. Berthe.) Calomel strikes a black color, free from reddish 
tinge, by the action of the fixed alkalies; and the black oxide thus produced is brought by 
heat to the metallic state. The buff' color indicates the absence of corrosive sublimate; but 
whiteness by no means shows the presence of this impurity. Its freedom from the corrosive 
chloride may be determined by washing a portion of it in warm distilled water, and then testing 
the water with ammonia, which will cause a white precipitate (ammoniated mercury) should 
the water have taken up any of the poisonous chloride. (See also the U.S.P. 1890 Tests, Part 
III.) An easy method of detecting corrosive sublimate, proposed by M. Bonnewyn, is to put 
some of the suspected powder upon a well-polished surface of iron, and then moisten it with a 
drop of alcohol or ether. If tbe calomel be pure the surface will remain quite unaffected, 
while it will be blackened by corrosive sublimate if present in the proportion of only one to 
50,000. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chirn., 4e ser., ii. 79.) The presence of any soluble chloride 
whatever in the calomel would be detected by the production of a precipitate with the wash- 
ing by silver nitrate. Soluble salts of mercury may be detected by rubbing the suspected 696 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite. 
PART I. 
calomel with ether on a bright surface of copper, when the metal will become amalgamated 
and exhibit a white stain. When this test shows impurity, the soluble salt present is probably 
corrosive sublimate. Calomel containing corrosive sublimate acts violently on the bowels, 
and, when the impurity has been present in considerable amount, has been known to cause death. 
Besides being incompatible with the alkalies and alkaline earths, calomel is also decomposed by 
the alkaline carbonates, soaps, sulphydrates, and, according to some authorities, by iron, lead, 
and copper. By boiling with the alkaline formiates it is decomposed, and metallic mercury 
liberated. (H. Rose, Annal. der Pliysik und Chem., cvi. 500.) According to M. Lebeaux, cal- 
omel should not be prescribed with iodine, unless the prescriber intends to give mercuric iodide 
(red iodide), when the dose must be reduced accordingly. (Annuaire de Therap., 1857, p. 180.) 
It should not be given at the same time with nitrohydrocliloric acid, for fear of generating cor- 
rosive sublimate. One of the authors has been informed of a case in which death, with symp- 
toms of violent gastro-intestinal irritation, followed their joint use. Agreeably to the experi- 
ments of M. Deschamps, calomel is decomposed by bitter almonds and by hydrocyanic acid. 
In the former case corrosive sublimate, mercuric cyanide, and ammonium chloride are formed; 
in the latter, corrosive sublimate and mercuric cyanide only. Hence this writer considers it 
very dangerous to associate calomel with bitter almonds or hydrocyanic acid in prescription. 
This conclusion has been confirmed by M. Mialhe and M. Prenleloup; and more recently it 
has been shown by Dr. E. Riegel that cherry-laurel water has the power of converting calomel 
into corrosive sublimate. According to M. Mialhe, calomel is in part converted into corrosive 
sublimate and metallic mercury by ammonium chloride and by sodium and potassium chlo- 
rides, even at the temperature of the body; and hence he believes that the conversion may 
take place in the primse viae. Popular belief coincides with M. Mialhe’s views in regard to the 
power of common salt to increase the activity of calomel. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Calomel unites to the general properties of the mer- 
curials those of a purgative and anthelmintic. It is the most valuable of the mercurial prepa- 
rations. Whether the object is to bring the system under the general influence of mercury, 
or to produce its alterative action upon the hepatic or other secretory function, calomel, on ac- 
count both of its certainty and of its mildness, is preferred to all other preparations, with the 
single exception of the blue pill, which, though less certain, is still milder, and is sometimes 
preferably employed. When used with the above objects, the tendency to purge which it 
sometimes evinces, even in very small doses, must be restrained by combining it with opium. 
As a purgative, calomel owes its chief value to its tendency to act on the liver, the secretory 
function of which it stimulates. It is usually slow and somewhat uncertain in its cathartic 
effect, and, though itself but slightly irritating, sometimes occasions severe griping pain with 
bilious vomiting, attributable to the acrid character of the bile which it causes the liver to 
secrete. It is peculiarly useful in the commencement of bilious fevers, in hepatitis, jaundice, 
bilious and painter’s colic, dysentery, especially that of tropical climates, and all other affec- 
tions attended with congestion of the portal system or torpidity of the hepatic function. The 
difficulty with which it is thrown from the stomach renders it highly useful in some cases of 
obstinate vomiting, when other remedies are rejected. In the case of children it is peculiarly 
valuable from the facility of its administration. In the treatment of worms it is often useful 
as an aid to other remedies, acting probably not only as a purgative, but also as an irritant to 
the worms, either by its immediate influence or that of the acrid bile which it causes to flow. 
The slowness and uncertainty of its action, and its liability to salivate if too long retained in 
the bowels, render it proper either to follow or combine it with other cathartics, in order to 
insure its purgative effect. When given alone, it should be followed, if it does not operate in 
six or seven hours, by a dose of castor oil or magnesium citrate. The cathartics with which it 
is most frequently combined are jalap, rhubarb, aloes, scammony, colocynth, and gamboge. 
It is often added in small quantities to purgative combinations, with a view to its influence 
on the liver. 
In very large doses, calomel is supposed by some to act directly as a sedative, and with this 
view has been given in yellow and malignant bilious fevers, violent dysentery, malignant 
cholera, etc. The quantities which have been administered in such affections, with asserted 
impunity and even advantage, are almost incredible. A common dose is one or two scruples, 
repeated every half-hour, or hour, or less frequently, according to the circumstances of the case. 
It is unquestionable that the effects obtained from calomel are not at all proportionate to the 
size of the dose. This is evidently due to the peculiarities of its absorption. It seems to be 
established that it is not, as was at one time supposed, converted in the stomach into corrosive PART I. 
Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite.—Hydrargyn Cyanidum. 
697 
sublimate, but is precipitated by the alkaline juices of the intestine in the form of black 
oxide, which black oxide is itself soluble in alkaline liquors and also in fatty matters. A 
small quantity of calomel coming into the intestines is, therefore, at once converted into black 
oxide and fully exhausts all the solvent pow.er of the alkaline juices, which may therefore be 
unable to take up any more rapidly a large than a small amount of the drug. It is possible 
that in some cases in which minute doses of calomel are given in powdered form, the excessive 
action of the drug is due to the conversion of part of the calomel into corrosive sublimate.* 
Externally applied, calomel is often used as an efficient alterative and desiccant in venereal 
and other ulcers, herpetic eruptions, etc. 
In syphilis, calomel vapor-baths once or twice a week are often of service. They may be 
extemporized by pouring an ounce and a half of water into a dish, putting twenty grains of 
calomel in it, and heating by means of a spirit-lamp, the patient being seated on a chair over 
the dish, and surrounded by blankets closely wrapped around the neck, spread out below. 
The dose as an alterative, in functional derangement of the liver, is from half a grain to a 
grain (0 03 to 0-065 Gm.) every night, or every other night, followed in the morning, if the 
bowels are not opened, by a gentle saline laxative. When the stomach or bowels are very irri- 
table, as in cholera and diarrhoea, from an eighth to a quarter of a grain (0-008 to 0-016 Gm.) 
may he given every hour or two, so as to amount to one or two grains (0-065 to 0-13 Gm.) in 
the course of the day. With a view to salivation, the dose is from half a grain to a grain 
(0-03 to 0-065 Gm.) three or four times a day, to be increased considerably in urgent cases. 
Sometimes very minute doses, as the twelfth of a grain (0-005 Gm.) or less, given very fre- 
quently, so as to amount to the ordinary quantity in twenty-four hours, will operate more 
effectually as a sialagogue than larger doses. When large doses are given with this view, it is 
often necessary to combine them with opium. As a purgative, from five to fifteen grains 
(0-33 to 1 Gm.) or more may be exhibited. The cathartic action is not increased in propor- 
tion to the dose, and enormous quantities have been given with impunity. On the other hand, 
the most effective method of influencing the liver and other intestinal glands is the exhibition 
of one-quarter to one-half grain doses every hour until the effect is produced or five or six 
grains have been taken. Even in very small single doses of not more than one, two, or three 
grains (0-065, 0-13, or 0-20 Gm.), calomel purges some individuals briskly. In these persons, 
large doses, though they do not proportionally increase the evacuation, often occasion spas- 
modic pain in the stomach and bowels. For children larger doses are generally required in 
proportion than for adults. Not less than from two to three grains (’0-13—0-20 Gm.) should be 
given as a purge to a child two or three years old; and this quantity often fails to act, unless 
assisted by castor oil or some other cathartic. Calomel may be given in pill made with gum 
arabic and syrup, or in powder mixed with syrup or molasses. 
HYDRARGYRI CYANIDUM. U. S. Mercuric Cyanide. 
Hg (CN)2; 251*76. (HY-DRAR'<?Y-r! CY-XN'I-dCm.) Hg (CN)j; 251-7. 
Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, U. S. 1850; Cyanide of Mercury; Hydrargyrum Cyanatum (Borussicum), Cyanuretum 
Hydrargyricum, Mercurius Cyanatus vel Borussicus; Cyanuret of Mercury, Bieyanide of Mercury, Prussiate of 
Mercury; Prussiate ou Cyanure ou Bicyanure de Mercure, Fr.; Cyanquecksilber, Quecksilber-Cyanid, G. 
A process for this preparation is no longer official; that of the U. S. P. 1870 is appended, f 
* G. Vulpius has investigated the conditions which favor the formation of corrosive sublimate in calomel 
mixtures, and reaches the following conclusions : 
1. No sublimate forms in the course of twenty-four hours in mixtures of calomel with white sugar, milk sugar, 
magnesia, magnesium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate. 
2. No such formation takes place in three months in mixtures of calomel with magnesia, magnesium carbonate, 
and sugar. 
3. Minute traces of corrosive sublimate are found at the expiration of the same time in a mixture of calomel, 
sodium bicarbonate, and sugar of milk. 
4. A large quantity of corrosive sublimate forms in the same time in a mixture of calomel, sodium bicarbonate, and 
cane sugar. 
5. Calomel powders containing magnesia or sodium bicarbonate alone will contain corrosive sublimate if digested 
with water. 
6. The formation of corrosive sublimate in mixtures of calomel and alkalies digested in water for a short time-is 
not favored, but, on the contrary, prevented, by the presence of hydrochloric acid in the water, the acid neutral- 
izing, to a certain extent, the alkalies which cause the formation. (A. J. P., July, 1879.) 
-j- Hydrargyri Cyanidum, IT. S. 1870. “Take of Ferrocyanide of Potassium fire troyounces ; Sulphuric Acid four 
troyounces and one hundred and twenty grains; Red Oxide of Mercury, in fine powder, Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity. Dissolve the Ferrocyanide of Potassium in twenty fluidounces of Water, and add the solution to the Sul- 
phuric Acid, previously diluted with ten fluidounces of Water, and contained in a glass retort. Distil the mixture 698 
Hydrargyri Cyanidum.—Hydrargyri Iodidum Flavum. 
The formula of the U. S. P. 1870 is based upon that of Winckler. Hydrocyanic acid is 
generated by the action of sulphuric acid on potassium ferrocyanide, and, being received in a 
vessel containing water and a portion of mercuric oxide, reacts with the oxide, according to the 
reaction (HCN)2 -)- HgO — Hg(CN)2 -|- H20, generating, by double decomposition, water, and 
mercuric cyanide which is held in solution. Sufficient mercuric oxide is not used at first to 
saturate the whole of the hydrocyanic acid generated, because should there happen to be any 
excess of the oxide there would be produced on evaporation, instead of the substance wanted, a 
peculiar salt composed of cyanide and mercuric oxide, which would crystallize in small acicular 
crystals. Hence a portion of the water still containing uncombined hydrocyanic acid is set 
aside, to be added to the liquid in which the acid had been completely saturated by the addition 
of mercuric oxide, and thus at least neutralize any mercuric oxide that might be present in 
it in excess. A surplus of hydrocyanic acid would be of no disservice, except for the loss of 
material incurred, as it is evaporated in the subsequent concentration. “ Mercuric Cyanide 
should be kept in well-stoppered, dark amber-colored bottles.” U. S. 
Properties, etc. “ Colorless or white, prismatic crystals, odorless, and having a bitter, 
metallic taste (the salt is exceedingly poisonous). Becoming dark-colored on exposure to light. 
Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 12-8 parts of water, and in 15 parts of alcohol; in 3 parts of 
boiling water, and in 6 parts of boiling alcohol; very sparingly soluble in ether. When slowly 
heated in a glass tube, the salt decrepitates, and decomposes into metallic mercury and inflam- 
mable cyanogen gas, which burns with a purple flame. On further heating, the blackish residue, 
consisting of paracyanogen with globules of metallic mercury, is wholly dissipated. If 1 part 
of the salt be gently heated with 1 part of iodine in a dry test-tube, it will afford at first a 
yellow sublimate which afterwards becomes red, and above this a sublimate of colorless, needle- 
shaped crystals will be formed. On adding hydrochloric acid to the aqueous solution of the 
salt, the odor of hydrocyanic acid is evolved. A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt should 
be neutral to litmus paper, and should not yield, on the gradual addition of a few drops of 
potassium iodide test-solution, either a red or a reddish precipitate, soluble in an excess of the 
precipitant, nor should it yield a white precipitate with silver nitrate test-solution (absence of 
mercuric chloride')." U. S. In composition, it is a normal mercuric cyanide, consisting of one 
atom of the metal and two atoms of cyanogen, its formula being HgCy2, or Hg(CN)2. 
Mercuric cyanide is a potent mercurial, which may be substituted for corrosive sublimate, 
than which it is less irritating, in the treatment of disease. Chibret affirms that as an anti- 
septic it is even more powerful than the bichloride, and that, unlike the latter substance, it does 
not attack instruments. Stellden claims extraordinary results in diphtheria from its conjoint 
use as a gargle (1 to 10,000 used every fifteen minutes) and as an internal medicine. Pro- 
chorow gives from twenty-five to thirty drops of a one-per-cent, solution hypodermically without 
causing local irritation, and with great asserted benefit, in chronic syphilis. Dose, internally, 
from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of a grain (0-004—0-008 Gm.). 
PART I. 
HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM FLAVUM. U. S. Yellow Mercurous Iodide. 
(HY-DRAB'<JY-Rl I-od'i-ddm fla'vum.) 
Hg2I2; G52«66. Hgl; 652-6. 
Hydrargyri Iodidum Viride, Phami. 1880; Hydrargyri Iodidum, U. S. 1850; Protiodide of Mercury; Yellow (or 
Green) Iodide of Mercury; Iodide of Mercury; Hydrargyrum Iodatum Flavum, P. G.; Hydrargyrum Iodatum, 
Hydrargyri Iodidum, Ioduretum Hydrargyrosum; Green Iodide of Mercury; Protiodure de Mercure, Iodure mer- 
cureux, Fr.; Quecksilberjodur, Gelbes Jodquecksilber, G. 
“ Mercury, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Nitric Acid, Potassium Iodide, Dis- 
tilled Water, Alcohol, each, a svjficient quantity. Mix twenty cubic centimeters [or 324 minims], 
each, of Nitric Acid and Distilled Water, and, when the liquid is cold, pour it upon the mer- 
cury contained in a small glass flask. Set the mixture aside in a cool and dark place, and agi- 
tate it occasionally, until the reaction ceases, and a little mercury still remains undissolved. 
Separate the crystals of mercurous nitrate, which will have formed, from the mother-liquid, 
allow them to drain in a glass funnel, and dry them on bibulous paper, in a dark place. When 
the salt is dry, weigh off forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] of it, and dissolve it in 
nearly to dryness into a receiver, containing ten fluidounces of Water and three troyounces of Red Oxide of Mercury. 
Set aside two fluidounces of the distilled liquid, and to the remainder add, with agitation, sufficient Red Oxide to 
destroy the odor of hydrocyanic acid. Then filter the solution, and, having added the reserved liquid, evaporate the 
whole in a dark place, in order that crystals may form. Lastly, dry the crystals, and keep them in a well-stopped 
bottle, protected from the light.” PART I. 
Hydrargyri Iodidum Flavum. 
699 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 62 fluidrachms] of Distilled Water to which 
ten cubic centimeters [or 162 minims] of Nitric Acid had previously been added. Having pre- 
pared a solution of twenty-four grammes [or 370 grains] of Potassium Iodide in one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fluidrachms] of Distilled Water, slowly pour the solu- 
tion of Potassium Iodide into that of the Mercurous Nitrate, with constant stirring, allow 
the precipitate to subside, decant the supernatant liquid, and transfer the precipitate, together 
with the remainder of the liquid, to a filter. When the precipitate has drained, wash it 
with Distilled Water until the washings no longer have an acid reaction upon litmus paper, 
and afterwards wash it writh Alcohol, as long as the clear, colorless washings give any color 
with hydrogen sulphide test-solution. Lastly, dry the product in a dark place, between sheets 
of bibulous paper, at a temperature not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.). Keep it in dark amber- 
colored vials, with the least possible exposure to light. Instead of weighing off- forty grammes 
[or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] of the Mercurous Nitrate as above directed, the whole of the 
crystallized salt may be taken and the amount of Potassium Iodide, etc., adjusted on the pro- 
portions given above.” U. S. 
The Br. Pharmacopoeia dropped this salt at its 1885 revision, and the omission has been 
rather severely criticised. 
The process of the U. S. P. 1890 for this salt differs from that formerly official* for green iodide 
of mercury ; it is essentially the process recommended by Edward Soetje (Proc. A. P. A., 1888, 
p. 167), and is the product of double decomposition between mercurous nitrate and potassium 
iodide, in solution, yellow mercurous iodide and potassium nitrate being formed. This method 
of making mercurous iodide has long been known, but the disadvantage heretofore has been 
that some mercuric iodide was formed, which contaminated the product; in the present official 
product, alcohol is used to wash out all traces of the red mereuric iodide, hydrogen sulphide 
being used to test the washings. Several other methods of making mercurous iodide have been 
proposed. M. Roland Seeger suggests double decomposition between mercurous acetate and 
potassium iodide. (A. J. P., 1859, p. 204.) M. Boutigny proposes to decompose calomel by 
potassium iodide, and gives the following formula. Twenty-nine drachms of calomel are mixed 
with twenty drachms of pulverized potassium iodide in a glass mortar, and twelve ounces of 
boiling distilled water poured upon the mixture. After cooling the liquid is decanted, and the 
precipitate washed on a filter with distilled water, and dried in the shade. (See A. J. P., viii. 
326.) This process was not successful with Mr. Charles Bullock, when he used the react- 
ing ingredients in quantities six times those recommended by M. Boutigny. Mr. John Can- 
avan, of New York, ascribes the failure to insufficient trituration, which, to insure complete 
reaction, must be long continued. If the reaction be imperfect, the water washes away not only 
potassium chloride, but also potassium iodide, holding in solution a part of the mercurous iodide 
formed, which is ultimately decomposed into mercuric iodide and metallic mercury. The ex- 
periments of Prof. Maisch tend to confirm this view. He further found that a boiling tem- 
perature enables potassium chloride to decompose the mercurous iodide perceptibly, and infers 
that the use of cold water would give a purer product. He therefore concludes that the process 
of Boutigny cannot be depended upon for giving a pure mercurous iodide. As prepared by the 
U. S. formula of 1880, it was liable to contain a little mercuric iodide; but this is obviated in 
the present edition by the direction to wash it, near the close of the operation, with alcohol. 
It is known to be free from mercuric iodide when the alcoholic washings produce no cloudi- 
ness with water, and no color with hydrogen sulphide solution. According to Mr. F. R. Wil- 
liams, a boiling solution of common salt is much more efficacious as well as much more eco- 
nomical than alcohol as a solvent for washing out the mercuric from the mercurous iodide. (P. J. 
Tr., June, 1873, p. 1016 ; A. J. P., Jan. 1857.) M. P. Yvon has prepared mercurous iodide 
* Hydrargyri Iodidum Viride, U. S. 1880. “Mercury, eight parts [or one ounce av.] ; Iodine, five parts [or two 
hundred and seventy-four grains] ; Alcohol, a sufficient quantity. Pour about three parts [or half a fluidounce] of Al- 
cohol into a mortar containing the Mercury, add the Iodine in several, successive portions, and triturate the mixture, 
adding sufficient Alcohol from time to time to keep the mass constantly moist, and taking care that it shall neither 
become too hot, nor be exposed to light during the various steps of the process. Continue the trituration until all 
globules of Mercury have disappeared and the mixture has become nearly dry and has acquired a greenish-yellow 
color. Then add sufficient Alcohol to reduce the whole to a thin paste, pour this into a bottle, let it stand for several 
days, and then wash the Iodide twice with about fifty parts [or half a pint] of Alcohol each time, and decant the wash- 
ings. Transfer the Iodide to a filter and continue washing with Alcohol until the washings are no longer affected by 
hydrosulphuric acid. Lastly, dry the product in a dark place, between sheets of bibulous paper, at a temperature 
not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.). Keep the product in well-stopped bottles, protected from light.” U. S. This process 
for forming the mercurous iodide is a case of simple combination, the alcohol facilitating the union by dissolving 
the iodine. 700 
Hydrargyri Iodidum Flavum. 
PART I. 
by subliming iodine with an excess of mercury, and subsequently washing it with dilute nitric 
acid. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., xviii. p. 167.) Mr. George A. Haffa precipitates a solution 
of mercurous nitrate with potassium iodide, and obtains mercurous iodide of a yellow or green 
color according to the density of the solution. The solution of mercurous nitrate is prepared 
by acting upon 15,000 grs. of mercury with a cold mixture of nitric acid (6000 grs.) and 
water (4000 grs.), placing the vessel in cold water, and stirring the contents constantly until 
the reaction has entirely ceased; the white crystalline mass, without being separated from the 
excess of metallic mercury, is then dissolved in water acidulated with nitric acid (1 oz. to the 
gallon) until the solution measures four pints. For preparing green mercurous iodide, six ounces 
of a solution of mercurous nitrate are mixed with six pints of water, and there is added in a 
continuous stream, and with constant stirring, a solution of potassium iodide (3 oz. in 54 oz. of 
water) ; the precipitate is washed with water, and dried without the aid of heat. Yellow mer- 
curous iodide is prepared in the same manner, except that two ounces of solution of mercurous 
nitrate diluted with water (8 pints) are used with a solution of potassium iodide (1 oz. in 4 
pints of water). This salt darkens much more quickly when exposed to the light than that 
made by the pharmacopoeial process. (A. J. P., 1886.) Stoman practically confirms these re- 
sults. (Ber. d. Deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1887 ; see, also, Pharm. Era, 1888.) From experiments 
by Mr. C. H. Wood, it appears that the green iodide is a mixture of red iodide and metallic 
mercury. By continuing the trituration, the powders become more and more yellow, and 
at length have only a tinge of green. He infers that pure mercurous iodide is yellow, 
and that the green color is owing to an admixture of the blue of the mercury with the 
yellow of the mercurous iodide.* (P. J. Tr., 1868.) Fliickiger (Pharmaceutische Chemie, 
2d ed., 1888) agrees with this view, and says that by slow sublimation, at a very gentle heat, 
the true mercurous iodide can be obtained in small transparent yellow crystals of the quad- 
ratic system which are related to the forms of calomel. (See Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 
1894, 67.) 
Properties. “ A bright yellow, amorphous powder, odorless and tasteless. By exposure 
to light it becomes darker, in proportion as it undergoes decomposition into metallic mercury 
and mercuric iodide. Almost insoluble in water, and wholly insoluble in alcohol or ether. 
When slowly and moderately heated, it assumes at first an orange and then a red color, be- 
coming yellow again on cooling. When quickly and strongly heated, it is at first partially 
decomposed into mercury and mercuric iodide, and finally is completely volatilized. When 
it is heated with sulphuric acid and a little manganese dioxide, vapor of iodine is evolved. 
In contact with a solution of potassium iodide, the salt is decomposed into mercuric iodide, 
which dissolves, leaving a residue of metallic mercury. If 0-5 Gm. of the salt be shaken 
with 10 C.c. of alcohol, a portion of the filtrate should be scarcely affected by hydrogen 
sulphide test-solution, nor should it produce more than a very faint, transient opalescence 
when dropped into water; and if 5 C.c. of the filtrate be evaporated from a white por- 
celain surface, not more than a very faint, red stain should remain (absence of more than 
traces of mercuric iodide)." XJ. S. Its sp. gr. is 7-75. If quickly and cautiously heated, it 
sublimes in red crystals, which afterwards become yellow. “ Gradually heated in a test- 
tube, it yields a yellow sublimate, which, upon friction, or after cooling, becomes red, while 
globules of metallic mercury are left in the bottom of the tube.” Br. 1867. It is generally 
considered to be composed of two atoms of mercury united with two atoms of iodine, 
Hg2I2, 399-6 -f- 253-06 = 652-66, although some chemists make its formula Hgl, consisting 
of one atom of mercury 199-8, and one of iodine 126-53 = 326-33. (See Chem. News, 1896, 
12, 95, 306.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Mercurous iodide is used in advanced syphilis. The 
dose is half a grain (0-033 Gm.) daily, gradually increased to two grains (0.13 Gm.). It should 
never be given at the same time with potassium iodide, which converts it immediately into 
mercuric iodide and metallic mercury. (Mialhe, Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ix. 36.) 
* Patrouillard recommends Dublanc’s process, which consists in triturating together a mixture of mercuric (red) 
iodide and of metallic mercury, in the following proportions: mercuric iodide 227 parts; mercury 100 parts. The 
mercuric iodide may easily be obtained of absolute purity and in a state of perfect dryness; besides, during the 
trituration there is no risk of loss by volatilization. The mixture should merely be moistened with alcohol of eighty 
per cent., so as to form a thin paste, and well triturated; the reaction takes place in a very short time, and the 
product is of a dark greenish-yellow color. By way of precaution, it should be washed with boiling alcohol. (Rip. 
de Pharm., 1877, 549; N. R., Nov. 1877.) PART i. 
Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum. 
701 
HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM RUBRUM. U. S., Br. Red Mercuric Iodide. 
[Biniodide of Mercury. Red Iodide of Mercury.] 
Hgl2; 452*86. (HY-DRAR'gJY-Ri I-OD'J-DUH RU'BRfiM.) Hg I2; 452-9. 
“ Precipitated Mercuric Iodide, Hgl2, formed by the interaction of mercuric chloride and 
potassium iodide.” Br. 
Mercuric Iodide, Br.; Hydrargyrum Biiodatum Rubrum, P. G.; Mercurius Iodatus Ruber, Deutoioduretum Hy- 
drargyri, Ioduretum Hydrargyricum; Deuto-iodure (Bi-iodure) de Mercure, Iodure mercurique, Fr.; Quecksilber- 
jodid, Rothes Jodquecksilber, G. 
“ Corrosive Mercuric Chloride, forty grammes, [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; Potassium Iodide, 
fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the 
Corrosive Mercuric Chloride and the Potassium Iodide, each, in eight hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] of Distilled Water, and filter the solutions separately. Pour 
both solutions, simultaneously and in a thin stream, under constant and very active stirring, 
into two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms] of Distilled Water. When 
the precipitate has subsided, decant the supernatant liquid, collect the precipitate on a filter, 
and wash it with cold Distilled Water, until the washings give not more than a slight opales- 
cence with silver nitrate test-solution. Finally, dry it in a dark place, between sheets of 
bibulous paper, at a temperature not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.). Keep the product in well- 
stoppered bottles, protected from light.” TJ. S. 
In the above process for forming mercuric iodide a double decomposition takes place between 
corrosive sublimate and potassium iodide, resulting in the formation of potassium chloride 
which remains in solution, and mercuric iodide which precipitates. The precipitate is soluble 
in the reacting salts, and hence a loss of part of it is incurred by an excess of either. It is 
best, however, to have a slight excess of the potassium iodide, which is furnished by the pro- 
portion taken in the formula, as then the decomposition of the whole of the corrosive sublimate 
is insured, and any contamination of the mercuric iodide by it prevented; loss by solution in 
the supernatant liquid is largely prevented by the improvement introduced in the U. S. 1890 
process, whereby separate solutions are poured simultaneously into a large volume of water. 
The late process of the Edinburgh College consisted in a combination of the ingredients by 
trituration in due proportion with the aid of alcohol; but after the red powder was obtained it 
was treated with a boiling solution of common salt, which dissolved the mercuric iodide to the 
exclusion of any contaminating mercurous iodide; and the solution thus obtained, on cooling, 
deposited the pure mercuric salt in crystals. Mr. F. R. Williams states that in the manu- 
facture of the red iodide on a large scale the amount of water required by the official processes 
is very troublesome. He remedies it by using ammonium chloride, so as to get a very concen- 
trated solution of corrosive sublimate, which he adds to a concentrated solution of the iodide. 
The addition of the ammonium chloride does not interfere with the reaction, but is of material 
service in assisting in the solution of the corrosive sublimate. (P. J. Tr., June, 1873.) 
Dr. Chas. L. Mitchell has improved upon the process of Williams; see foot-note* 
Properties. As obtained by the late Edinburgh process, it is in splendid crimson acicular 
crystals. Kohler has found, however, that it crystallizes better from boiling hydrochloric acid. 
(.Ber. der Deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1879, p. 608.) It also crystallizes well from hot saturated solu- 
tions in acetone, glacial acetic acid, absolute alcohol, amyl alcohol, and nitric acid of 1*2 sp. gr. 
When heated the mass becomes yellow at about 150° C. (302° F.), melting at 254° C. (489-2° F.) 
to a blood-red liquid, and sublimes at 349° C. in yellow rhombic scales, which become red on 
cooling. Mercuric iodide is a dimorphous substance, having a different crystalline form in 
its red and yellow states. According to Schiff, it is only in its yellow form that it is solu- 
ble in alcohol; and hence it is that, when separated by water from its alcoholic solution, it 
falls in this condition. (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., cix. 371.) It forms definite compounds 
with the iodides of the alkali metals. The compound formed with potassium iodide has 
been used as a medicine. (See Potassium Iodohydrargyrate, in Part II.) “ When digested 
* Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, Mitchell’s Process. Mercury, 1000 grs.; Nitric Acid, 1700 grs.; Potassium Iodide, 
1662 grs. or q. s.; Distilled Water, q. s. (Instead of the mercury and nitric acid, gv £i 7)ii of Liq. Ilydrarg. Nit. 
can be used.) Dissolve the mercury in the nitric acid by the aid of a little heat (in large quantities this is not 
necessary, as the reaction between the acid and the mercury generates sufficient heat), and dilute with an equal bulk 
of water. Then add the potassium iodide, dissolved in eight fluidounces of water, until no further precipitation 
ensues, being careful towards the last to add the solution very gradually, so as to avoid dissolving the mercuric 
iodide in an excess of the liquid. Collect the precipitate on a filter, wash well with distilled water, drain and dry. 
{A. J. P., 1876, 116.) 702 
Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum.—Hydrargyri Oxidurn Flavum. 
PART I. 
with solution of soda it assumes a reddish-brown color, and the fluid, cleared by filtration 
and mixed with solution of starch, gives a blue precipitate on being acidulated with nitric 
acid,” showing that it is an iodide. Mercuric iodide consists of one atom of mercury 199-8, 
and two atoms of iodine 253-06 = 452-86, and its formula is Hgl2. It combines with mer- 
curous iodide, so as to form a yellow sesqui-iodide, represented by the formula Ilgl -f- Hgl2, 
or T 
1AC2 3’ 
“ A scarlet-red, amorphous powder, odorless and tasteless; permanent in the air. Almost 
insoluble in water, but soluble in 130 parts of alcohol at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 15 parts of 
boiling alcohol ;* also soluble in a solution of potassium iodide, or of mercuric chloride, and in a 
solution of sodium hyposulphite. When heated to about 150° C. (302° F.), the salt becomes 
yellow, but again assumes a red color on cooling ; at 238° C. (400-4° F.) it fuses to a dark 
yellow liquid, which, on cooling, forms a yellow, crystalline mass, and, at higher temperatures, 
volatilizes without decomposition, leaving no residue. On heating the salt with potassium or 
sodium hydrate test-solution, and adding a little sugar of milk, metallic mercury is precipitated. 
When it is heated with sulphuric acid and a little manganese dioxide, vapor of iodine is evolved. 
If the salt be dissolved in hot alcohol, the solution, after cooling, should be colorless ; and when 
this solution is diluted with an equal volume of water, it should not redden blue litmus paper 
(absence of mercuric chloride). If about 0-5 Gm. of the salt be shaken with 10 C.c. of water, 
the filtered liquid should not become more than very slightly colored by hydrogen sulphide test- 
solution, nor give more than a slight opalescepce with silver nitrate test-solution (limit of soluble 
chlorides or iodides')." US. “A crystalline powder of a vermilion color, becoming yellow when 
a film of it spread on a sheet of paper is gently heated over a lamp. It is almost insoluble in 
water, dissolves sparingly in alcohol (90 per cent.), but freely and entirely in ether (absence of 
mercurous iodide), or in solution of potassium iodide. It affords the reactions characteristic of 
mercuric compounds and of iodides. It volatilizes at a temperature under redness, leaving 
not more than a trace of fixed matter. When heated with excess of copper it should yield 
43-5 to 44 per cent, of metallic mercury.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Mercuric iodide is a powerful irritant poison. It has 
been used in similar diseases with the mercurous iodide, namely, in scrofula and syphilis, but is 
much more active. It is especially valuable in old, obstinate cases of syphilis, as in syphilitic 
rheumatic pains and diseases of the bones, thickening of the dura mater, etc. There seems to 
be in these cases no practical difference between its action and that of corrosive sublimate, 
although sometimes it is better borne by the stomach than is the latter preparation. The dose 
is one-sixteenth of a grain (0-004 Gm.), gradually increased to one-fourth of a grain (0-016 
Gm.), given in pill. It is sometimes administered in water with potassium iodide so as to 
make a solution of potassio-mercuric iodide.f M. Cazenave considers mercuric iodide to be the 
best topical application in lupus. He applies it in thin layers, every six or eight days, to small 
portions of the ulcerated surface at a time, in the form of a caustic ointment, made of equal 
parts of the iodide, oil, and lard. The application produces severe pain, and gives rise to a 
sharp inflammation, which soon terminates, leaving the ulcer in an improved condition, with 
a tendency to cicatrize smoothly and on a level with the surrounding skin. (Ann. de Therap., 
1852, 175.) A solution of mercuric iodide in olive oil (1 in 5000), for external application, 
has been prepared by Delacour. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 1893, 603.) 
HYDRARGYRI OXIDUM FLAVUM. U. S., Br. Yellow Mercuric Oxide. 
HgO; 215*76. (HY-DRAR'<?Y-R! Ox'I-DUM FLA'VUM.) HgO; 215*7. 
“ Precipitated Mercuric Oxide, HgO, obtained by the interaction of mercuric chloride and 
sodium hydroxide.” Br. 
Yellow Oxide of Mercury; Hydrargyrum Oxydatum Via Humida Paratum, P.G.; Hydrargyrum Oxidatum 
Flavum vel Praecipitatum; Precipitated Oxide of Mercury; Oxide de Mercure jaune ou precipite, Fr.; Praecipi- 
tirtes (Gelbes) Quecksilberoxyd, G. 
“ Corrosive Mercuric Chloride, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains] ; Soda, 
forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the 
* Bourgoin has given solubilities different from these. (See Amer. Drug., 1885, p. 97.) For paper on solubility in 
fatty bodies, by C. M6hu, see P. J. Tr., 1885, p. 327.) 
f A syrup has been largely used in the French hospitals and in this country which has received the name of Strop 
Gibert. It is made by dissolving three grains of mercuric iodide and one hundred and two grains of potassium iodide 
in three fluidrachrns of water, filtering, and adding sufficient simple syrup to make ten flnidounces. Each table- 
spoonful contains about one-seventh of a grain of mercuric iodide and five grains of potassium iodide. PART I. 
Hydrargyri Oxidum Flavum. 
703 
Corrosive Mercuric Chloride in one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 61 fluidrachms] 
of warm Distilled Water, and filter the solution. Dissolve the Soda (which should contain 90 
per cent, of sodium hydrate) in one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms] 
of cold Distilled Water, and into this solution pour gradually, and with constant stirring, the 
solution of Corrosive Mercuric Chloride. Allow the mixture to stand for an hour at a tempera- 
ture of about 30° C. (86° F.), stirring frequently. Then decant the supernatant, clear liquid 
from the precipitate, and wash the latter repeatedly by the allusion and decantation of Distilled 
Water, using one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 6£ fluidrachms] of Water each 
time. Collect the precipitate on a strainer, and continue the washing with warm Distilled 
Water, until a small portion of the w'asliings, when poured on a little mercuric chloride test- 
solution, no longer produces a yellowish turbidity at the line of contact of the two liquids. 
Then allow the precipitate to drain, and dry it between sheets of bibulous paper, in a dark 
place, at a temperature not exceeding 30° C. (86° F.). Keep the product in well-stoppered 
bottles, protected from light.” U. B. 
The process adopted for this preparation is that of Dr. Hoffmann. The United States 
Pharmacopoeia directs the alkaline solution in excess, and the addition of the corrosive sub- 
limate to the alkali. Both these points are important, for if the corrosive sublimate be in 
excess, brown oxychloride will be formed towards the last of the decomposition ; and when 
the alkali is added to the solution of corrosive sublimate, the same compound will be formed 
from the first, and is with difficulty decomposed by an excess of alkali. The solution of soda 
should be as free as possible from carbonate, to prevent the formation of brown mercuric 
carbonate. The mercuric chloride is precipitated by the alkalies, potassium or sodium chloride 
being left in solution. The object of the subsequent washing is to remove the potassium 
chloride and the excess of the alkali.* The process has been improved through the use of a 
freshly made solution of soda: the official solution of potassa used in the U. S. P. 1880 
process almost invariably contained potassium carbonate, except when it was freshly made, 
and the presence of carbonate gives the mercuric oxide a reddish-brown tint which is very 
objectionable. 
Properties. The official mercuric oxide is of a yellow color similar to that of the yolk 
of egg, and is a completely amorphous powder, exhibiting no evidence of crystalline particles 
even under the microscope. Yellow mercuric oxide differs only from the red by being amor- 
phous and in a much more minute state of division ; the red oxide by trituration acquiring an 
orange and finally a yellow color. In consequence of its different state of aggregation, it pre- 
sents some peculiarities in its 'chemical relations, and is much more quickly acted on by re- 
agents than is the red oxide. Thus, oxalic acid, which acts on the red oxide only with the aid 
of heat, immediately combines with the yellow oxide at ordinary temperatures, producing the 
white oxalate; and while the latter oxide, in contact with chlorine, gives up oxygen to that 
element, forming hypochlorous acid and corrosive sublimate, the former exercises scarcely any 
influence on the gas at common temperatures. It is described in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia as 
“ a light orange-yellow, amorphous, heavy, impalpable powder, odorless, and having a some- 
what metallic taste; permanent in the air, but turning darker on exposure to light. Almost 
insoluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, but readily and completely soluble in diluted hydro- 
chloric or nitric acid, forming colorless solutions. When moderately heated, the Oxide assumes 
a red color. At a red heat it is completely decomposed into oxygen and metallic mercury, and 
is finally volatilized, leaving no residue. If 0-5 Gm. of the Oxide be digested on a water-bath, 
for fifteen minutes, with a solution of 1 Gm. of oxalic acid in 10 C.c. of water, it will be con- 
verted into white mercuric oxalate (distinction from red mercuric oxide'). On dissolving 1 Gm. 
of the Oxide in 100 C.c. of diluted nitric acid, the resulting solution should be clear, and should 
not afford more than a slight opalescence with silver nitrate test-solution (limit of chloride)." 
U. S. “A yellow powder yielding nothing to water, but being readily dissolved by hydrochloric 
acid, the solution affordiug the reactions characteristic of mercuric salts. Gently heated it 
assumes a red color. Heated to incipient redness it is resolved into oxygen and the vapor of 
mercury, leaving only an insignificant amount of fixed residue; the proportion of metallic 
mercury obtained being 92 to 92-5 per cent.” Br. I. Comere explains in a paper in Repert. 
* Dr. Charles L. Mitchell proposes an improvement on the official process, which avoids the use of large vessels 
when it is made on a large scale. He takes of solution of mercuric nitrate (prepared by dissolving mercury in an 
excess of nitric acid), any convenient quantity; solution of soda, U. S. P., a sufficient quantity. The solution of 
mercuric nitrate is diluted with an equal bulk of water, and solution of soda added until in slight excess. The 
yellow precipitate is collected, washed well, and dried. 704 
Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum. 
PART I. 
de Pharm., 1881, 199, the various conditions and modifications in the process necessary to 
make the oxide vary in color. (W. R., 1882, 149.) 
Medical Properties. The attention which has been recently paid to the yellow oxide is 
owing to its peculiar applicability to the local treatment of diseases of the eye, in consequence 
of its amorphous character. Mr. B. Squire, of England, was the first to notice publicly this 
use of the oxide (P. J. Tr., 2d ser., vi. 512). At present the yellow oxide is very largely used 
by oculists throughout the world. The red oxide, however carefully it may be triturated, even 
though in a perfectly impalpable state, still shows under the microscope crystalline particles, 
which in contact with the conjunctiva cause more or less irritation ; and it can, therefore, be 
readily understood that, in the ordinary mode of preparing it for use as an ointment, it may 
sometimes be productive of serious annoyance. From this objection the yellow oxide is exempt. 
HYDRARGYRI OXIDUM RUBRUM. U. S., Br. Red Mercuric Oxide. 
[Red Precipitate.] 
HgO; 215*76. (HY-DRAR'gy-RI OX'I-DUM RU'BRCM.) HgO;215-7. 
“ Red Mercuric Oxide, HgO, is obtained by beating mercurous nitrate until acid vapors 
cease to be evolved.” Br. 
Red Oxide of Mercury; Hydrargyri Nitrico-oxidum; Hydrargyrum Oxydatum Rubrum, P. 0.; Hydrargyri 
Nitrico-oxydum, Mercurius Corrosivus Ruber vel Prsecipitatus, Oxydum Hydrargyricum; Deut-oxide ou Peroxide 
de Mercure, Oxide mercurique, Precipite rouge, Poudre de Jean de Vigo, Fr.; Rother Praecipitat, Quecksilber 
Praecipitat, Rothes Quecksilberoxyd, (). 
“ Red Mercuric Oxide should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U. S. 
Neither Pharmacopoeia gives at present an official process for this oxide. For former 
processes, see below* 
The preparation is still frequently called by its older name, red precipitate. The name of 
red mercuric oxide is appropriate, as mercuric nitrate exists in it merely as an accidental im- 
purity ; and there is no occasion to distinguish the preparation from the oxide obtained by 
calcining mercury, the latter not being official, and perhaps never employed. 
In the preparation of this mercurial, various circumstances influence the nature of the 
product, and must be attended to, if we desire to procure the oxide with that fine bright orange- 
red color, and shining scaly appearance, usually considered desirable. Among these circum- 
stances is the condition of the mercuric nitrate submitted to calcination. According to Gay- 
Lussac, it should be employed in the form of small crystalline grains. If previously pulverized, 
as directed in the official processes, it will yield an orange-yellow powder; if it be in the state 
of large and dense crystals, the oxide will have a deep orange color. Care must also be taken 
that the mercury and acid be free from impurities. It is highly important that sufficient nitric 
acid be employed fully to saturate the mercury. M. Paysse, who paid great attention to the 
manufacture of red precipitate, recommended 70 parts of nitric acid from 34° to 38° Baum6, 
to 50 parts of mercury. This, however, is an excess of acid. We have been told by a skilful 
practical chemist of Philadelphia that he has found, by repeated experiment, 7 parts of nitric 
acid of 35° Baume to be sufficient fully to saturate 6 parts of mercury. Less will not answer, 
and more will be useless. It is not necessary that the salt should be removed from the vessel 
in which it is formed; and it is even asserted that the product is always more beautiful when 
the calcination is performed in the same vessel. A matrass may be used with a large flat 
bottom, so that an extended surface may be exposed and all parts heated equally. The metal 
and acid having- been introduced, the matrass should be placed in a sand-bath, and covered with 
* “Take of Mercury thirty-six troyounces ; Nitric Acid twenty-four troyounces ; Water two pints. Dissolve the 
Mercury, with the aid of a gentle heat, in the Acid and Water previously mised, and evaporate to dryness. Rub 
the dry mass into powder, and heat it in a very shallow vessel until red vapors cease to rise.” U. S. 1870. “Take 
of Mercury, by weight, eight ounces [avoirdupois]; Nitric Acid four fiuidouncea and. a half [Imperial measure]; 
Water twofiuidounces [Imp. meas.]. Dissolve half the Mercury in the Nitric Acid diluted with the Water, evaporate 
the solution to dryness, and with the dry salt thus obtained, triturate the remainder of the Mercury until the two 
are uniformly blended together. Heat the mixture in a porcelain dish, with repeated stirring, until acid vapors 
cease to be evolved.” Br. 1885. 
In this process the mercury is dissolved by the nitric acid, forming either mercuric nitrate, or a mixture of this 
with mercurous nitrate. The resulting mass when exposed to a strong heat is decomposed, giving out red nitrous 
fumes, and assuming successively a yellow, an orange, and a brilliant purple-red color, which becomes orange-red on 
cooling. These changes are owing to the gradual separation and decomposition of the nitric acid, by the oxygen 
of which the mercurous oxide, if any be present, is converted into mercuric oxide, while nitrogen dioxide gas 
escapes, and becomes nitrogen tetroxide on contact with the air. The mercuric oxide is left behind, but in general 
not quite free from the nitrate, which cannot be wholly decomposed by heat without endangering the decomposition 
of the oxide itself, and the volatilization of the metal. Hydrargyn Oxidum Rubrum. 
PART I. 
705 
sand up to the neck. The solution of the mercury should be favored by a gentle heat, which, 
should afterwards be gradually increased till red vapors appear, then maintained as equably as 
possible till these vapors cease, and at last slightly elevated till oxygen gas begins to escape. 
This may be known by the increased brilliancy with which a taper will burn if placed in the 
mouth of the matrass, or by its rekindling if partially extinguished. Too high a temperature 
must be carefully avoided, as it decomposes the oxide and volatilizes the mercury. At the 
close of the operation, the mouth of the vessel should be stopped, and the heat gradually 
diminished, the matrass being still allowed to remain in the sand-bath. These last precautions 
are said to be essential to the fine red color of the preparation. It is best to operate upon a large 
quantity of materials, as the heat may be thus more uniformly maintained. The former direc- 
tion of the Br. Ph., to rub a portion of mercury with the nitrate before decomposing it, renders 
the process more economical; as the nitric acid, which would otherwise be dissipated, is thus 
employed in oxidizing an additional quantity of the metal. As the process is ordinarily con- 
ducted in laboratories, the mercuric nitrate is decomposed in shallow earthen vessels, several of 
which are placed upon a bed of sand, in the chamber of an oven or furnace, provided with a 
flue for the escape of the vapors. Each vessel may conveniently contain ten pounds of the 
nitrate. There is always loss in the operation thus conducted * 
Properties, etc. Red precipitate, well prepared, has a brilliant red color, with a shade 
of orange, a shining scaly appearance, and an acrid taste. It is very slightly soluble in water, 
of which Dr. Barker found 1000 parts to take up 0-62 of the oxide. Dr. Christison found 1 
part of the oxide to be dissolved by about 7000 parts of boiling water, and the solution to give 
a black precipitate with hydrogen sulphide. Tannic acid precipitates metallic mercury from 
an aqueous solution of the oxide, especially when heated. (Bullock, Proc. A. P. A., 1858, p. 
306.) It is insoluble in cold alcohol and ether. (Ibid.) Nitric and hydrochloric acids dissolve 
it without effervescence. “ Heavy, orange-red, crystalline scales, or a crystalline powder, 
becoming more yellow the finer it is divided, odorless, and having a somewhat metallic taste; 
permanent in the air. Almost insoluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, but readily and com- 
pletely soluble in diluted hydrochloric or nitric acid, forming colorless solutions. When heated 
to about 400° C. (752° F.), it becomes dark violet or almost black, but assumes its original 
color on cooling. At a red heat it is completely decomposed into oxygen and metallic mercury, 
and is finally volatilized, leaving no residue. If 0-5 Gm. of the Oxide be digested, on a water- 
bath, with a solution of 1 Gm. of oxalic acid in 10 C.c. of water, it will not change color 
within two hours (distinction from yellow mercuric oxide). If a little of the Oxide be strongly 
heated in a test-tube, the vapors should not redden moistened blue litmus paper (absence of 
nitrate). On dissolving 1 Gm. of the Oxide in 100 C.c. of diluted nitric acid, the resulting 
solution should be clear, and should not afford more than a slight opalescence with silver nitrate 
test-solution (limit of chloride)." U. S. “ Orange-red crystalline scales or powder answering 
to the tests given under ‘ Hydrargyri Oxidum Fiavum.’ When gently heated it becomes dark 
violet, but resumes its orange-red color on cooling. When heated in a dry test-tube it should 
not evolve orange fumes (absence of nitrates).” Br. It is essentially mercuric oxide, consist- 
ing of one atom of the metal 199-8, and one of oxygen 15-96 = 215-76; but in its ordinary 
state it always contains a minute proportion of nitric acid, probably in the state of subnitrate. 
According to Braude, when rubbed and washed with a solution of potassa, edulcorated with 
distilled water, and carefully dried, it may be regarded as nearly pure mercuric oxide. It is 
said to be sometimes adulterated with brickdust, red lead, etc.; but these may be readily 
detected, as mercuric oxide is wholly dissipated if thrown upon red-hot iron. The disengage- 
ment of red vapors when it is heated indicates the presence of mercuric nitrate. The same or 
some other saline impurity would be indicated should water, in which the oxide has been boiled, 
afford a precipitate with lime water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation is too harsh and irregular in its 
operation for internal use, but is still employed externally as a stimulant and escharotic in the 
state either of powder or of ointment, although to a great extent supplanted by the yellow 
oxide. The powder is sprinkled on the surface of chancres, and indolent, flabby, or fungous 
ulcers. The powder should be finely levigated.f 
* For a process for Hydrargyrum prsecipitatum per se, precipitate per se, or calcined mercury, all practically 
identical with red mercuric oxide, see TJ. S. £>., 17th ed., 704. 
f Hydrargyri Oxidum Nigrum. U. S. 1850. Black Mercurous Oxide. This preparation has been dropped from 
both Pharmacopoeias, and is now very rarely used. For a full account of its preparation, uses, and properties, see 
U. S. D., 14th ed., 1256. 706 
Hydrargyri Subsulphas Flavus. 
PART I. 
HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHAS FLAVUS. U. S. Yellow Mercuric Sub- 
Hg (HgO)j SO*; 727*14. (HY-DRAR'qY-RI SUB-SUL'PHXS FLA'VUS.) Hg(Hg0)2S04; 727-1. 
Hydrargyri Sulphas Flava, U. S. 1870; Hydrargyri Subsulphas, Mercurius Bmeticus Flavus, Sulphas Hydrar- 
gyricus Flavus, Hydrargyrum Sulphuricum Flavum, Turpethum Minerale; Sulfate jaune de Mercure, Turbith 
mineral, Sulfate trimercurique, Fr.; Basischwefelsaures Quecksilberoxyd, Mineraliseher Turpeth, G. 
“ Mercury, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Sulphuric Acid, thirty cubic 
centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 minims] ; Nitric Acid, twenty-five cubic centimeters [or 405 min- 
ims] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Upon the Mercury, contained in a capacious flask, 
pour the Sulphuric Acid, previously mixed with fifteen cubic centimeters [or 243 minims] of 
Distilled Water, then add, very gradually, the Nitric Acid, previously mixed with twenty-five 
cubic centimeter? [or 405 minims] of Distilled Water, and digest at a gentle heat until reddish 
fumes are no longer given off. Transfer the mixture to a porcelain capsule, and heat it on a 
sand-bath, under a hood or in the open air, with frequent stirring, until a dry, white mass 
remains. Reduce this to a fine powder, and add it in small portions at a time, with constant 
stirring, to two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms] of boiling Distilled 
Water. When all has been added, continue the boiling for ten minutes ; then allow the mix- 
ture to settle, decant the supernatant liquid, transfer the precipitate to a strainer, wash it 
with warm Distilled Water, until the washings no longer have an acid reaction, and dry it 
in a moderately warm place. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, protected from 
light.” U.S. 
By referring to the articles on corrosive sublimate and calomel, it will be found that the 
peculiar salt which is generated by boiling sulphuric acid with mercury to dryness is directed to 
be made as the first step for obtaining these chlorides ; and here the same salt is again directed 
to be formed in preparing turpeth mineral. The nitric acid assists in the process by hasten- 
ing the formation of the sulphate. We have already stated that this salt is normal mercuric 
sulphate. When thrown into boiling or even warm water it is instantly decomposed, and an 
insoluble salt is precipitated, which is the turpeth mineral. Its composition is Hg3S0e, or, 
more clearly expressed, HgS04 -f- 2HgO ; that is, a compound of one mol. of mercuric sulphate 
and two mols. of mercuric oxide. 
Properties, etc. Yellow mercuric subsulphate is “ a heavy, lemon-yellow powder, odor- 
less and almost tasteless; permanent in the air. Soluble in about 2000 parts of water at 15° 
C. (59° F.), and in 600 parts of boiling water; insoluble in alcohol; readily soluble in nitric 
or hydrochloric acid. When heated, the salt turns red, becoming yellow again on cooling. At 
a red heat it is volatilized, evolving vapors of mercury and of sulphur dioxide, and leaving no 
residue. A solution of the salt in nitric or hydrochloric acid, diluted with water, gives with 
potassium iodide test-solution a red precipitate, and with barium chloride test-solution a white 
one. The salt should be completely soluble in 10 parts of hydrochloric acid (absence of mer- 
curous salt or of lead).” U. S. It was originally called turpeth mineral, from its resemblance 
in color to the root of Ipomcea turpethum. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Turpeth mineral is alterative, and powerfully emetic 
and errhine. It operates with great promptness, and sometimes excites ptyalism. Dr. Hub- 
bard, of Maine, recommends it highly as an emetic in croup, on the ground of its promptness 
and certainty, and of its not producing catharsis, or the prostration caused by antimony. This 
practice has been followed with alleged extraordinarily good results by Dr. Fordyce Barker, 
of New York, and other practitioners, but is not without danger, since Dr. A. McPhedran 
reports (Med. Mews, vol. xliii., 1883) a case in which a child five months old was killed by two 
powders given as emetics at intervals of fifteen minutes. No vomiting ensued, but violent 
purging came on in the course of a short time, with intense abdominal pain and other symp- 
toms of poisoning resembling those caused by corrosive sublimate. A second similar case 
occurred in the practice of Dr. Cameron, of Toronto, Canada. The dose for a child two 
years old is two or three grains (0-13 or 0-20 Gm.), repeated in fifteen minutes if it should 
not operate. The dose as an alterative is from a quarter to half a grain (0-016-0-03 Gm.) ; 
as an emetic, from two to five grains (0-13-0-33 Gm.). When employed as an errhine, one 
grain (0-065 Gm.) may be mixed with five grains (0-33 Gm.) of starch or powdered liquorice 
root. One drachm taken internally has caused death in a boy sixteen years old. (Lon. Med. 
Gaz., 1847.) 
sulphate. [Basic Mercuric Sulphate. Turpeth Mineral.] PART I. 
Hydrargyrum. 
707 
HYDRARGYRUM. U. S., Br. Mercury. [Quicksilver.] 
Hg; 199*8. (HY-DRAR'<?Y-RUM.) Hg; 199*7. 
“ A metal obtained from native mercuric sulphide.” Br. 
Quicksilver; Mercurius Vivus; Argentum Vivumj Mercure, Vif Argent, Fr.; Quecksilber, G.; Mercurio, It.; 
Az6gue, Sp. and Port. 
Mercury is found pure, forming an amalgam with silver, in the form of chloride (native 
calomel), but most abundantly as the sulphide or native cinnabar. Mines of this metal are found 
at Almaden in Spain, at Idria in Carniola, in the former duchy of Deux-Ponts, in Belluno, a 
province of 'Venetia, in Corsica, in the Philippine Islands and China, near Huancavelica in 
Peru, near Azogue in Colombia, at Durango in Mexico, and at New Almaden, New Idria, 
and other localities in Santa Clara County, California, about sixty-six miles from San Fran- 
cisco. The most ancient mine is that of Almaden in Spain, which was worked before the 
Christian era. This mine, and the mines of California, are the most productive at the present 
day; the Spanish mine yielding about three and a quarter millions of pounds, and the Cali- 
fornia mines about two-thirds of this amount, annually. The ore in all the mines mentioned is 
cinnabar. The cinnabar from old Almaden is of a dull-red color in mass, of a dull brick-red 
color when in fine powder, and of the sp. gr. 3-6. That from New Almaden is of a bright-red 
color, slightly inclining to purple, not so hard as the Spanish ore, of a brilliant vermilion color 
in powder, and of the sp. gr. 4-4. The California cinnabar is richer in mercury, because purer, 
than the Spanish; the former yielding about 70 and the latter about 38 per cent, of mercury, 
according to the analysis of Mr. Adam Bealey. The California mine had been long known to the 
Indians, but its commercial value was first made known about 1843, by a Mexican, named Cas- 
tillero, who became its first owner. At present it is in the hands of Americans. Dr. Bus- 
chenberger has detected selenium in California cinnabar. A quicksilver ore has been found in 
Macon County, Tennessee, where it is said to exist in quantities. According to Mr. E. S. 
Wayne, it is a talcose rock, and contains mercury in the metallic state, yielding 7*5 per cent, 
of the metal. (A. J. P., 1868, p. 76.) Mercury has also been found in the island of Borneo, 
district of Sarawak. (Chem. News, Nov. 5, 1869, p. 224.) 
Extraction, etc. Mercury is obtained almost exclusively from the sulphide or native 
cinnabar. It is extracted by two principal processes. According to one process, the mineral 
is picked, pounded, and mixed with lime. The mixture is then introduced into cast-iron 
retorts, which are placed in rows, one above the other, in an oblong furnace, and connected 
with earthenware receivers one-third full of water. Heat being applied, the lime combines 
with the sulphur, so as to form calcium sulphide and sulphate; while the mercury distils over, 
and is condensed in the receivers. The other process is practised at Almaden in Spain. Here 
a square furnace is employed, the floor of which is pierced with many holes, for the passage 
of the flame from the fireplace beneath. In the upper and lateral part of the furnace, holes 
are made, communicating with several rows of aludels, formed of adapters passing into one 
another, which terminate in a small chamber that serves both as condenser and receiver. The 
mineral, having been picked by hand and pulverized, is kneaded with clay, and formed into 
small masses, which are placed on the floor of the furnace. Heat being applied, the sulphur 
burns, and the volatilized mercury passes through the aludels to be condensed in the chamber. 
The process pursued at New Almaden is described by Dr. Buschenberger. (A. J. P., 1856.) 
Mercury, as found in commerce, is contained in cylindrical wrought-iron bottles, called flasks, 
each containing 76| pounds. Since the regular working of the California mine of New Alma- 
den, the importation of the metal from Spain and Austria has gradually diminished, and at 
present the domestic production is sufficient not only to supply the home consumption, but to 
give an excess for exportation. In the year 1862 the different mines of California were 
said to be yielding mercury at the rate of four millions of pounds per annum (A. J. P., Sept. 
1862, 410), which had increased in 1877 to over six million pounds, but then fell off again. 
The production for 1895 was 33,978 flasks (of 76£ lbs.); for 1896, 29,863 flasks; for 
1897, 26,079 flasks. The world’s production for the year 1897 was about 111,765 flasks, or 
8,550,000 lbs. The exports are made principally to China, Mexico, Chili, and Peru. The 
chief uses of the metal are in mining silver and gold, in preparing vermilion, in making ther- 
mometers and barometers, in silvering looking-glasses, and in forming various pharmaceutical 
compounds. 
Properties. Mercury is “ a shining, silver-white metal, without odor or taste. It is liquid 
at the ordinary temperature, and easily divisible into spherical globules; but, when cooled to 708 
Hydrargyrum. 
PART I. 
—39-38° C. (—38-88° F.), it forms a ductile, malleable mass. Specific gravity: 13-5584 at 
15° C. (59° F.). Insoluble in the ordinary solvents, also in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and, 
at common temperatures, in sulphuric acid; but it dissolves in the latter, when boiled with it, 
and is readily and completely soluble in nitric acid. At ordinary temperatures it volatilizes 
very slowly, more rapidly as the temperature increases, and at 357-25° C. (675-05° F.) it boils, 
and is completely volatilized, yielding a colorless and very poisonous vapor. When globules of 
Mercury are dropped upon white paper, they should roll about freely, retaining their globular 
form, and leaving no streaks or traces. It should be perfectly dry and present a bright surface. 
On boiling 5 Gm. of Mercury with 5 C.c. of Water and 4-5 Gm. of sodium hyposulphite, in a 
test-tube, for about one minute, the Mercury should not lose its lustre, and should not acquire 
more than a slightly yellowish shade (absence of more than slight traces of foreign metals')." 
XJ. S. When perfectly pure it undergoes no alteration by the action of air or water, but in its 
ordinary state suffers a slight tarnish. When heated to near the boiling point, it gradually 
combines with oxygen, and is converted into mercuric oxide; but at the temperature of ebul- 
lition it parts with the oxygen with which it had combined, and is reduced again to the 
metallic state. Its sp. gr. is 13-5, and its atomic weight 199-8. It boils at 357-25° C. (669° 
F.), yielding a colorless vapor, and congeals at —39-4° C. (—39° F.), forming a malleable 
solid of tin-white color. It is a good conductor of heat, and its specific heat is small. It is 
not attacked by hydrochloric acid, nor by cold sulphuric acid; but boiling sulphuric acid or 
cold nitric acid dissolves it, producing mercurous sulphate and mercurous nitrate, respectively, 
with the extrication, in the former case, of sulphurous acid, in the latter, of nitrogen dioxide 
becoming hyponitric acid fumes. Its combinations are numerous, and several of them constitute 
important medicines. It forms two series of compounds, the mercurous compounds containing 
the group (Hg2)u, and the mercuric compounds containing the single atom Hg11. 
Mercury, as it occurs in commerce, is in general sufficiently pure for pharmaceutical pur- 
poses. Occasionally it contains foreign metals, as lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth. Mr. Brande 
informs us that in examining large quantities of this metal in the London market he found 
it in only one instance intentionally adulterated. When impure, the metal has a dull appear- 
ance, leaves a trace on white paper, is deficient in due fluidity and mobility, as shown by its 
not forming perfect globules, is not totally dissipated by heat, and when shaken in a glass 
bottle coats its sides with a pellicle, or, if very impure, deposits a black powder. If agitated 
with strong sulphuric acid, the adulterating metals become oxidized and dissolved, and thus 
the mercury may to a limited extent be purified. Lead is detected by shaking the suspected 
metal with equal parts of acetic acid and water, and then testing the acid by sodium sulphate 
or potassium iodide. The former will produce a white, the latter a yellow, precipitate, if lead 
be present. Bismuth is discovered by dropping a nitric solution of the mercury, prepared 
without heat, into distilled water, when bismuth subnitrate will be precipitated. The com- 
plete solubility of the metal in nitric acid shows that tin is not present; and, if hydrogen sul- 
phide does not act upon hydrochloric acid previously boiled upon the metal, the absence of 
contaminating metals is shown. Mercury may be purified by digesting it with a small portion 
of weak nitric acid, or with a solution of mercuric chloride, whereby all the ordinary con- 
taminating metals will be removed. The purification by nitric acid is, according to L. Meyer 
(Zeit. Anal. Chem., ii. 241), best effected as follows. The metal is allowed to flow in a very 
thin stream from a small opening in a glass funnel into a wide glass tube 1-25 m. high and 5 
cm. in diameter, which contains a dilute mixture of water and nitric acid. A narrow tube 
is fastened to the bottom of this, from which the pure metal flows; it has then only to 
be washed with water and dried. The above operation may have to be repeated several times, 
and the metal if pure must leave no residue when dissolved in pure nitric acid, evaporated to 
dryness, and ignited. To separate mechanical impurities, moisture, or small quantities of oxide, 
mercury may be filtered by collecting it in a sound piece of chamois leather and gathering the 
corners together, forcibly squeezing the particles through the pores of the leather. Mercury, 
however, is usually purified by distillation* Being much more volatile than the contami- 
* The British Pharmacopoeia of 1864 gave the following process for the purification of mercury, using for this 
purpose an impure form of the metal, under the name of Commercial Mercury or Quicksilver : 
“ Take of Mercury of Commerce three pounds [avoirdupois]; Hydrochloric Acid three fluidrachms; Distilled 
Water a sufficiency. Place the Commercial Mercury in a glass retort or iron bottle, and applying heat cause two 
pounds and a half of the metal to distil over into a flask employed as a receiver. Boil on this for five minutes the 
Hydrochloric Acid diluted with nine fluidrachms of Distilled Water, and having, by repeated affusions of Distilled 
Water and decantations, removed every trace of acid, let the mercury be transferred to a porcelain capsule, and dried 
first by filtering paper, and finally on a water-bath.” Br. Hydrargyrum. 
709 
PART i. 
nating metals, it rises first in distillation, while they are left behind. But it is necessary to 
avoid pushing the distillation too far; for in that event some of the foreign metals are apt to 
be carried over. The British Council, on account of this danger, directed only five-sixths of 
the mercury to be distilled. The distilled product is boiled for a few minutes with diluted 
hydrochloric acid, which, while it does not attack the mercury, dissolves any contaminating 
metals which may have passed over. The distillation is directed to be performed from a glass 
retort or iron bottle ; but it is more conveniently conducted from the latter, over a common fire, 
into water contained in a receiver. In small operations a wash-hand basin will answer for a 
receiver. Millon has ascertained the curious fact that the presence of so small a quantity as 
one ten-thousandth of lead or zinc in mercury raises its boiling point. M. Violette has made 
known a method of distilling mercury, or amalgamated silver, which presents many advantages. 
It consists in subjecting the metal, in iron vessels, to a current of high-pressure steam, which 
serves the double purpose of imparting the necessary heat, and carrying over the mercurial vapor 
by a mechanical agency. (Philos. Mag., Dec. 1850.) As it is difficult and troublesome to purify 
mercury by distillation, it is better to purchase pure samples of the metal, which may always 
be found in the market. 
Mercury is detected with great delicacy by Smithson’s process, which consists in the use of a 
plate of tin, lined with one of gold, in the form of a spiral. When immersed in a mercurial 
solution, this galvanic combination causes the precipitation of the mercury on the gold, which 
consequently contracts a white stain. In order to he sure that the stain is caused by mercury, 
the metal must be volatilized in a small tube, so as to obtain a characteristic globule. MM. 
Danger and Flandin have improved on Smithson’s process. (See Chem. Gaz., No. 61, p. 191.) 
A minute portion of any of the preparations of mercury, either in the solid state or in concen- 
trated solution, being placed on a bright plate of copper, and a drop of a strong solution of 
potassium iodide added, a silvery characteristic stain will immediately appear on the copper. 
Medical Properties. Mercury in its uncombined state is inert, but in combination acts 
as a peculiar and universal stimulant. When exhibited in minute division, as it exists in several 
preparations, it produces its peculiar effects ; but this does not prove that the uncomhined metal 
is active, hut only that the condition of minute division is favorable to chemical combination, 
and consequently to its solution in the stomach. Its compounds exhibit certain general medical 
properties and effects which belong to the whole as a class; while each individual preparation 
is characterized by some peculiarity in its operation. In this place we shall consider the physio- 
logical action of mercury, and the principles by which its administration should be regulated; 
while its effects as modified in its different combinations will be noticed under the head of the 
several preparations. Of the modus operandi of mercury we know nothing, except that it 
possesses a peculiar alterative power over the vital functions. This alterative power is some- 
times exerted without being attended with any other vital phenomenon than the removal of 
disease ; while at other times it is accompanied with certain obvious effects, such as a quickened 
circulation, a frequent jerking pulse, and increased activity of all the secretory functions, par- 
ticularly those of the salivary glands and the liver. When mercury acts slowly as an alterative, 
there is not the least apparent disturbance of the circulation. When it operates decidedly and 
obviously, it is very prone to cause an immoderate flow of saliva and produce the condition 
denominated ptyalism or salivation. Mercury has been detected in most of the solids and fluids 
of the body, including the blood. When in the blood it cannot be detected by the ordinary 
tests, on account of its intimate union with the organic matter of that liquid. To discover it, 
the blood must he subjected to destructive distillation. The liver is the organ which retains 
mercury the longest. It has been detected in that viscus though absent in the lungs, heart, 
bile, and spinal marrow.* Mercury has been used in almost every disease, hut too often with 
evil results. In functional derangement of the digestive organs, mercurials in minute doses 
often exert a salutary operation, subverting the morbid action, and that, too, by their slow, 
alterative effect, without affecting the mouth. In these cases no decided disturbance of the 
vital functions takes place; but the alvine discharges, if clay-colored, are generally restored 
to their natural hue: whether the liver be torpid and obstructed as in jaundice, or pouring 
out a redundancy of morbid bile as in melaena, the judicious use of mercury seems equally effica- 
cious in unloading the viscus, or restoring its secretion to a healthy state. In chronic inflamma- 
tion of the mucous and serous membranes, the alterative effects of mercury are sometimes at- 
tended with much benefit. In many of these cases effusion has taken place; and under these 
* For a method of detecting mercury in the urine, see P. J. Tr., Aug. 1873, 145. 710 
Hydrargyrum. 
PART I. 
circumstances the mercury often proves useful as well by promoting absorption as by removing 
the chronic inflammation on which the effusion depends. Hence it is often given with advantage 
in chronic forms of meningitis, bronchitis, phuritis,pneumonitis, dysentery, rheumatism, etc., and in 
hydrocephalus, hydrothorax, ascites, and general dropsy. Mercury may also be advantageously 
resorted to in certain states of febrile disease. In some forms of remittent and typhoid fever, 
a particular stage is marked by a parched tongue, torpor of the bowels, scanty urine, and dry- 
ness of the surface. Here the very cautious employment of mercury is sometimes serviceable. 
It acts in such cases by increasing the secretions. 
In syphilitic affections, mercury, until of late years, was held to be indispensable. Of its 
mode of action in these affections we know nothing. Without entering into the question of 
the necessity of mercury in venereal complaints, we are free to admit that the discussion which 
has grown out of it has shown that this remedy has frequently been unnecessarily resorted to 
in syphilis. For inducing the specific effects of mercury on the constitution, blue pill or calo- 
mel is generally resorted to. In order to procure what we have called the slow alterative effects 
of the metal, from half a grain to a grain (0-03 to 0 067 Gm.) of blue pill may be given in the 
twenty-four hours, or from a sixth to a fourth of a grain (0-01 to 0 016 Gm.) of calomel; or, 
if a gentle ptyalism be our object, two or three grains (0-13 or 0-20 Gm.) of the former, or a 
grain of the latter (0-067 Gm.) two or three times a day. Where the bowels are peculiarly 
irritable, it is often necessary to introduce the metal by means of friction with mercurial oint- 
ment ; and where a speedy effect is desired, the internal and external use of the remedy may 
be simultaneously resorted to. 
The first observable effects of mercury in inducing ptyalism are a coppery taste in the mouth, 
a slight soreness of the gums, and an unpleasant sensation in the sockets of the teeth when 
the jaws are firmly closed. Shortly afterwards the gums begin to swell, a line of whitish mat- 
ter is seen along their edges, and the breath is infected with a peculiar and very disagreeable 
smell, called the mercurial fetor. The saliva at the same time begins to flow; and, if the 
affection proceed, the gums, tongue, throat, and face become much swollen ; ulcerations attack 
the lining membrane of the mouth and fauces; the jaws become excessively painful; the 
tongue is coated with a thick whitish fur; and the saliva flows in streams from the mouth. 
It occasionally happens that the affection of the mouth proceeds to a dangerous extent, in- 
ducing extensive ulceration, gangrene, and even hemorrhage. The best remedies are astringent 
and detergent gargles, used weak at first, as the parts are extremely tender. In cases attended 
with swelling and protrusion of the tongue, the wash is best applied by injection by means of 
a large syringe. We have found lead water among the best applications in these cases; and 
dilute solutions of chlorinated soda or of chlorinated lime, while they correct the fetor, will 
be found to exert a curative influence on the ulcerated surfaces. A wash of silver nitrate, 
made by dissolving eight grains (0-52 Gm.) in a fluidounce (30 C.c.) of water, has also been 
used with benefit. While the system is under the action of mercury the blood is more watery 
than in health, less charged with albumen, fibrin, and red globules. 
In the foregoing observations we have described the ordinary effects of mercury; but occa- 
sionally, in peculiar constitutions, its operation is quite different, being productive of a dan- 
gerous disturbance of the vital functions. The late Mr. Pearson gave a detailed account of 
this occasional peculiarity in the operation of mercury, in his work on the venereal disease. 
The symptoms which characterize it are a small and frequent pulse, anxiety about the prae- 
cordia, pale and contracted countenance, great nervous agitation, and alarming debility. Their 
appearance is the signal for discontinuing the mercury, as a further perseverance with it 
might be attended with fatal consequences. Mercury also produces a peculiar eruption of the 
skin, which is described by writers under the various names of hydrargyria, eczema mercuriale, 
and lepra mercurialh. Those who work in mercury, and are, therefore, exposed to its vapor, 
such as water-gilders, looking-glass silverers, and quicksilver miners, are injured seriously in 
their health, and not unfrequently affected with shaking palsy, attended with vertigo and other 
cerebral disorders. The miners are often salivated. 
Many plants, exposed to the influence of the vapor spontaneously rising from mercury 
in confined air, perish in a few days; while if sulphur be placed by the side of the metal no 
effect of the kind is experienced. (Boussingault, Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Sept. 1867, 
p. 176.) A probable inference from this fact is that workmen necessarily exposed to the 
vapor of mercury might be protected by the presence of sulphur in sufficient quantity. 
Mercury is sometimes given in the metallic state, in the quantity of a pound or two, in 
obstruction of the bowels, to act by its weight; but the practice is of doubtful advantage. PART I. 
Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum. 
711 
HYDRARGYRUM AMMONIATUM. U. S., Br. Ammoniated Mercury. 
[White Precipitate. Mercuric Ammonium Chloride.] 
NH2HgCl; 251*18. AM-MO-NI-A'TUM.) NH2 HgCl; 251 *1. 
Ammonio-Chloride of Mercury ; Hydrargyri Precipitatum Album; Hydrargyri Ammonio-Chloridum. 
u Corrosive Mercuric Chloride, in powder, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 
grains] ; Ammonia Water, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Corrosive 
Mercuric Chloride in two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 5 fluidrachms] of warm 
Distilled Water, filter the solution, and allow it to cool. Pour the filtered liquid gradually, 
and with constant stirring, into one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 34 
minims] of Ammonia Water, taking care that the latter shall remain in slight excess. Collect 
the precipitate on a filter, and, when the liquid has drained from it as much as possible, wash 
it with a mixture of four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of Dis- 
tilled Water and twenty cubic centimeters [or 324 minims] of Ammonia Water. Finally, dry 
the precipitate between sheets of bibulous paper, in a dark place, at a temperature not exceed- 
ing 30° C. (86° F.). Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” U S. 
“ Mercuric Chloride, 3 ounces (Imperial) or 60 grammes; Solution of Ammonia, 4 fl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 80 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the 
Mercuric Chloride in three pints (Imp. meas.) or twelve hundred cubic centimetres of the 
Distilled Water with the aid of heat; pour the liquid into the Solution of Ammonia diluted 
with one pint (Imp. meas.) or four hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water, constantly 
stirring; collect the precipitate on a filter; wash it well with cold Distilled Water until the 
liquid which passes through is free from chloride; dry the product at a temperature not 
exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. 
The Pharmacopoeias now agree in obtaining white precipitate by precipitating a solution of 
mercuric chloride by ammonia. When ammonia, in slight excess, is added to a cold solution 
of mercuric chloride, ammonium chloride is formed in solution, and the white precipitate of the 
Pharmacopoeias thrown down. The precipitate is washed twice, according to the U. S. formula, 
according to the British, with greater precision, until the washings cease to give evidence of 
the presence of a chloride by producing a precipitate with silver nitrate acidulated with nitric 
acid. The substance washed away is ammonium chloride with the excess of ammonia em- 
ployed ; and hence the washings, agreeably to the directions of the British formula, are tested 
with an acid solution of silver nitrate. The white precipitate forms according to the following 
reaction : HgCl2 + 2NH3 — NH4C1 -f- NH2HgCl. In other words, one molecule of mercuric 
chloride reacts with two of ammonia, and yields one molecule of ammonium chloride and one 
of mercur-ammonium chloride, or white precipitate. A method of making white precipitate, 
said to be employed by large manufacturers, substitutes ammonium chloride and sodium car- 
bonate for ammonia. As the product contains less mercury than the official preparation, and 
is in commerce, it is important to be able to distinguish the two. According to Prof. Red- 
wood, this can be done by heating, the official preparation volatilizing without fusing, the un- 
authorized fusing before volatilizing : Prof. Attfield has, however, shown that fusibility does 
not necessarily indicate that the specimen contains only 65 per cent, of mercury, nor infusibility 
demonstrate that it contains the official proportion of 791 per cent. The commercial variety 
differs somewhat from the present official preparation in composition, its formula being 
N2H6HgCl2 (or mercur-diammonium chloride'). (See paper by F. X. Moerk, A. J. P., 1888.) 
Properties. “ White, pulverulent pieces, or a white, amorphous powder, without odor, and 
having an earthy, afterwards styptic and metallic taste. Permanent in the air. Almost 
insoluble in water or in alcohol. By prolonged washing with water it is gradually decomposed, 
assuming a yellow color, and becoming converted into a basic salt. Readily soluble in warm 
hydrochloric, nitric, or acetic acid, and in a cold solution of ammonium carbonate. Also 
completely soluble in a cold solution of sodium hyposulphite, with the evolution of ammonia. 
When this solution is heated for a short time, red mercuric sulphide is separated, which, on 
protracted boiling, turns black. At a temperature below a red heat the salt is decomposed 
without fusion, and at a red heat it is wholly volatilized. When heated with potassium or 
sodium hydrate test-solution, the salt turns yellow, and evolves vapor of ammonia. The 
solution of the salt in diluted nitric acid gives with potassium iodide test-solution a red precipi- 
tate, and with silver nitrate test-solution a white one. The salt should be soluble in hydrochloric 
acid without effervescence (absence of carbonate), and without leaving a residue (absence of 
mercurous salt). Its solution in acetic acid should not be rendered turbid by diluted sulphuric 712 
Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum.—Hydrargyrum cum Creta. 
PART I. 
acid (absence of lead).” U. S. “A white powder on which water has but little action, and 
alcohol (90 per cent.) or ether no action. Digested with solution of potassium hydroxide, it 
evolves ammonia, acquiring a pale yellow color, and the liquid, filtered and acidulated with 
nitric acid, gives a white precipitate with solution of silver nitrate. Boiled with solution of 
stannous chloride it becomes gray, and yields globules of metallic mercury. It volatilizes at 
a temperature under redness, without fusing, leaving only an insignificant amount of fixed 
residue. When heated with excess of lime it should yield 78 to 79 per cent, of metallic 
mercury.” Br. 
Adulteration with white lead, chalk, or calcium sulphate may he detected by exposing a 
sample to a strong red heat, when these impurities will remain. Should starch he mixed with 
it, a charred residue will be obtained on the application of heat. Lead or starch may be found 
by digesting it with acetic acid, and testing the acetic solution with the compound solution of 
iodine, which will give a yellow precipitate if lead and a blue one if starch he present. The 
absence of mercurous oxide is shown by its not being blackened when rubbed with lime water. 
Ammoniated mercury is used only as an external application. Mercur-diammonium chloride 
is said to produce an ointment more translucent and less beautifully white than the genuine, 
and more apt to become yellow on being kept. (J. Borland, P. J. Tr., Dec. 1867, p. 262.) 
Ammoniated mercury has been swallowed by mistake. It is highly poisonous, producing 
gastric pain, nausea, and purging. For recovery after taking half a drachm, see London 
Lancet, July 4, 1857. The remedies employed were an emetic of zinc sulphate and milk. 
HYDRARGYRUM CUM CRETA. U. S., Br. Mercury with Chalk. 
Grey Powder; Mereure avec la Craie, Poudre de Mercure crayeux, Fr.; Quecksilber mit Kreide, G. 
“ Mercury, thirty-eight grammes [or 1 ounce av., 149 grains] ; Clarified Honey, ten grammes 
[or 154 grains] ; Prepared Chalk, fifty-seven grammes [or 1 ounce av., 442 grains] ; Water, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains]. Weigh the 
Mercury and Clarified Honey successively into a strong bottle of the capacity of one hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims], and add two cubic centimeters [or 32 minims] 
of Water. Cork the bottle, and shake it for about half an hour at a time, until the aggregate 
time of shaking reaches ten hours, or until the globules of Mercury are no longer visible under 
a lens magnifying four diameters. (The shaking may be more conveniently performed by 
mechanical means.) Rub the Prepared Chalk with Water, in a mortar, to a thick, creamy 
paste, and, having added the contents of the bottle, washing the last portions in with a little 
Water, triturate the whole to a uniform mixture. Finally, dry the mixture, first between 
ample layers of bibulous paper, and afterwards in a capsule, at the ordinary temperature, 
until it weighs one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains]. Then reduce it to a 
uniform powder, without trituration, and keep it in well-stoppered bottles, protected from 
light.” U.S. 
“ Mercury, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Prepared Chalk, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 40 
grammes. Rub the Mercury and Prepared Chalk in a porcelain mortar until metallic globules 
cease to be visible to the naked eye, and the mixture acquires a uniform grey color.” Br. 
The method of making this mercurial directed by the U. S. P. 1880 was so faulty as to 
be inoperative, and it has been abandoned ; the U. S. P. 1890 process for making mercury with 
chalk is based upon Hr. Squibb’s method of succussion, which is described at length farther on. 
When mercury is triturated with certain dry and pulverulent substances, such as chalk or mag- 
nesia, it gradually loses its fluidity and metallic lustre and becomes a blackish or dark-gray 
powder. A similar change takes place when it is rubbed with viscid or greasy substances, such 
as honey or lard. The globules disappear, so as in some instances not to be visible even through 
a good lens; and the mercury is said to be extinguished. It was formerly thought that the 
metal was oxidized in the process. At present the change is generally ascribed to the me- 
chanical division of the metal, which in this state is supposed to be capable of acting on the 
system. There is good reason, however, to believe that in this, as in all the analogous prepa- 
rations of mercury in which the metal is extinguished by trituration, a very small portion is 
converted into mercurous oxide, while by far the greater part remains in the metallic state. 
Mercury with chalk is officially described as a “ a light gray, rather damp powder, free from 
grittiness, without odor, and having a slightly sweetish taste. If a portion of the powder be 
digested with warm acetic acid, the chalk is dissolved with effervescence, leaving a residue of 
(HY-DEAK'gY-RDM CUM CRE'TA.) Hydrargyrum cum Creta. 
713 
PART I. 
finely divided mercury. The filtrate should not become more than slightly opalescent on the 
addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid (limit of mercurous oxide). If another portion of 
the powder be digested with warm, diluted hydrochloric acid, the filtrate should not be affected 
by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, or by stannous chloride test-solution (absence of mercuric 
oxide)." IT. S. “A powder of a light grey color; free from grittiness; insoluble in water; 
partly dissolved by diluted hydrochloric acid, leaving the mercury in a finely divided state. 
The solution formed with hydrochloric acid does not yield any white or grey precipitate on the 
addition of solution of stannous chloride (absence of mercuric compounds).” Br. Robert B. 
Matter suggests an improved process for its preparation whereby labor and time are saved ; it 
is as follows. Mix twelve parts of finely powdered gum arabic with twelve parts of prepared 
chalk, triturate with sufficient water to form a rather thin paste, add thirty-eight parts of 
mercury, and continue the trituration until the globules of mercury have disappeared. Now 
add thirty-eight parts of finely powdered prepared chalk and sufficient water to form a thin 
paste, triturate, and when all the globules of mercury have disappeared, place the mortar in a 
hot water-bath. The mixture distributed around the sides of the mortar will dry rapidly, 
when it can be easily scraped out, powdered in a clean mortar, passed through bolting-cloth, 
or a fine sieve, and finally rubbed lightly in a clean dry mortar: 8 ounces may be made by 
this process in an hour. (A. J. P., 1886, 119.) 
Mercury with chalk is a smooth, grayish powder, insoluble in water. Globules of mercury 
can generally be seen in it by the aid of a microscope, as the metal can scarcely be com- 
pletely extinguished with chalk alone by any length of trituration. Mr. Jacob Bell found 
that by powerfully pressing it a considerable quantity of metal was separated in the form of 
globules. Mr. Phillips states that the extinguishment of the mercury is greatly accelerated by 
the addition of a little water. Dr. Stewart, of Baltimore, proposed the following process, by 
which he stated that the preparation might be completed in a short time, so that no globules 
should be visible with a powerful lens. Three ounces of mercury and six ounces of resin are 
to be rubbed together for three hours ; five ounces of chalk are to be added, and the trituration 
continued for an hour; the mixture is then to be heated with alcohol so as to dissolve the 
resin; and the remaining powder is to be dried on bibulous paper and well rubbed in a mortar. 
(A. J. P., xv. 162.) But Professor Procter showed that the preparation thus made contains 
mercuric oxide, and is, therefore, injuriously harsh in its operation. (Ibid., xxii. 113.) It is 
said that the precipitated black oxide is sometimes added with a view to save time in the tritura- 
tion ; but this must be considered as an adulteration, until it can be shown that the same oxide 
exists in the same proportion in the preparation made according to the official directions. Dr. 
Ed. Jenner Coxe, of New Orleans, found that the extinguishment of the mercury may be 
effected much more speedily than in the ordinary manner, by putting the ingredients into a 
quart bottle, to be well corked, and kept in constant agitation till the object is attained. A 
portion of chalk may be thus shaken with the metal until no globules can be seen, and the 
process completed by trituration with the remainder of the chalk in a mortar. This mode of 
proceeding was suggested to Dr. Coxe by Mr. W. Hewson, of Augusta, Ga. (Ibid., xxii. 317.) 
Dr. Squibb, having ascertained that the preparation cannot be satisfactorily made in this way 
on a large scale (Proc. A. P. A., 1858, p. 424), has invented a machine for accomplishing the 
same object, by which the requisite motion is imparted to the materials contained in two large 
bottles, and which is said to answer the purpose well. By means of this apparatus, Dr. Squibb 
prepares mercury with chalk on a large scale, mixing the materials in the official proportions, 
but aiding the extinguishment of the metal by adding about one-seventh of its weight of 
honey, and adding this to the chalk made into a paste with water, and afterwards drying. 
(Ibid., 1859, p. 359.) It has been shown that the preparation thus made resists oxidation 
most effectually, owing probably to the presence of saccharine matter. (J. P. Remington, A. 
J. P., Jan. 1869.) W. E. Bibby (A. J. P., 1876, p. 269) recommends the rubbing of 3 troy- 
ounces of mercury, 4 troyounces of prepared chalk, and 1 troyounce of sugar of milk together 
in a mortar into an impalpable powder and passing the powder through a fine sieve. As found 
in commerce, mercury with chalk, instead of being the mild preparation intended, sometimes 
acts very harshly, causing vomiting, gastric pains, etc. This has been ascribed to the presence 
of antimony or arsenic, which, however, must be rare : the ordinary cause of the harshness is 
no doubt mercuric oxide, produced in minute proportion either during the trituration, or by 
the spontaneous change which occurs with time, mercurous oxide becoming mercuric oxide by 
the influence of light. The only sure method to guard against such results is to test the prep- 
aration carefully before dispensing it. (See A. J. P., 1878, p. 325.) If the mercury contained 714 
Hydrargyrum, cum Creta.—Hydrastininse Hydrochloras. 
PART I. 
in it be volatilized by heat, and the remaining chalk be dissolved by dilute acetic acid, the 
solution should not be colored by hydrogen sulphide. The presence of any probable metallic 
impurity may be detected in this way. To detect mercuric oxide, a portion of the powder may 
be treated with diluted hydrochloric acid with a moderate heat, and the solution tested by 
stannous chloride, which, if there be any mercuric oxide present, will cause a precipitation 
of metallic mercury as a black powder. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Mercury with chalk is a very mild mercurial, similar 
in its properties to the blue mass, but much weaker. It is sometimes used as an alterative, 
particularly in the complaints of children attended with deficient biliary secretion, indicated by 
white or clay-colored stools. The chalk is antacid, and, though in small quantity, may some- 
times be a useful accompaniment of the mercury in diarrhoea. Eight grains of the U. S. 
preparation contain about three grains of mercury. The dose is from five grains to half a 
drachm (0-33-1-95 Gm.) twice a day. From two to three grains (0-13-0-20 Gm.) is the dose 
for a child. It should not be given in pill with substances which become hard on keeping, as 
the contraction of the mass presses together the particles of mercury, which in time appear in 
globules in the interior of the pill. 
HYDRASTININiE HYDROCHLORAS. U. S. Hydrastinine Hydro- 
chlorate. 
CnHnNOaHCI; 224*97. hy-dbo-BHLO'bXs.) 
“ The hydrochlorate of an artificial alkaloid derived from hydrastine, the latter being a color- 
less alkaloid obtained from Hydrastis. Hydrastinine Hydrochlorate should be kept in well- 
stoppered vials.” U. S. 
This is a new official salt, being introduced for the first time in the U. S. P. 1890. Hydras- 
tinine is an artificial alkaloid, produced by acting on hydrastine, the alkaloid from hydrastis, 
with oxidizing agents. When manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid are used together, or when 
platinic chloride is employed, hydrastinine and opianic acid are the products.* (See Hydrastis.) 
Hydrastinine hydrochlorate is officially described as in “ light yellow, amorphous granules, or 
a pale yellow, crystalline powder, odorless, and having a bitter, saline taste; deliquescent on 
exposure to damp air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-3 part of water, and in 3 parts of 
alcohol; difficultly soluble in ether or chloroform. When heated to 173° C. (343-4° F.), the 
salt undergoes partial fusion, but does not liquefy. Upon ignition, it is consumed, leaving no 
residue. The salt has an acid reaction upon litmus paper. A dilute aqueous solution of the 
salt (up to about 1 in 100,000) has a decided blue fluorescence. The salt dissolves in sulphuric 
acid with effervescence, coloring the acid yellowish-red. An aqueous solution of the salt is 
not precipitated by ammonia water. An aqueous solution of the salt yields, with silver nitrate 
test-solution, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. On adding to 2 C.c. of an aqueous 
solution of the salt (1 in 100) an excess of bromine water, a yellow precipitate is produced, 
which is dissolved by ammonia water to a nearly colorless liquid (difference from hydrastine, 
with which the ammonia produces a brick-red precipitate.” f US. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Hydrastinine is, when given in large enough amount, 
a powerful depressant to the whole motor tract, affecting the psycho-motor centres of the 
cerebral cortex, the motor nerve, and the muscle itself. In the present state of our knowledge 
it is uncertain whether the depression is or is not preceded by a brief period of excitation, but 
it is almost certain that there is a primary stimulation of the muscles. The alkaloid slows 
the action of the heart but increases the force of the beat, and markedly augments the blood- 
pressure, contracting actively the blood-vessels by stimulating both the vaso-motor centres 
and the muscles in the walls of the arterioles. In the toxic dose it finally paralyzes respira- 
tion, although there is reason for believing that in the beginning it stimulates the function. 
* E. Schmidt, in studying this production of hydrastinine by oxidation from hydrastine, was led to make some 
interesting comparisons between hydrastine and narcotine. The latter of these he considers to contain three methyl 
groups, thus, Ci9Hu(0Me)3N04, while the former contains only two, thus, Since the oxidation of 
narcotine with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid yields opianic acid and cotamine, and under the same conditions 
hydrastine gives opianic acid and hydrastinine, and, further, as opianic acid contains two methyl groups and cota- 
mine one of these groups, as shown by Wright, it follows that hydrastinine contains no methyl group, and cotamine 
may prove to be a methylated hydrastinine. The author hopes later to succeed in converting hydrastine into narco- 
tine. (A. J. P., 1888, p."635.) 
f Hydrohydrastine hydrochlorate, C11H13NO2HCI, is obtained by fractioning hydrastinine. It occurs as a white 
powder, soluble in water. The dose in uterine hemorrhage is one-third of a grain (0-021 Gm.), preferably given in 
capsules. PART i. 
Hydrastininse Hydrochloras.—Hydrastis. 
715 
Death occurs from asphyxia, to which is usually ascribed the final fall of the arterial pressure. 
Although there has been some conflict of evidence, it seems finally established that liydrastinine 
is a powerful oxytocic. According to the experiments of Archangelsky, its administration to 
pregnant animals is very commonly followed by abortion. According to Faber, when given 
hypodermically during human parturition, it very notably increases the force and length of 
the uterine contraction, and is capable, in sufficient dose, of causing a tonic spasm of the uterus 
similar to that produced by ergot. Its action upon the uterus appears to be independent of 
any other of its influences, and to be direct. It would seem that it is a universal muscle- 
poison, primarily stimulant in its action, and that in this way it affects the heart, the arterioles, 
and the uterus. According to Yon Bunge, it markedly increases peristalsis, so that even the 
intestines do not escape its muscular action. 
liydrastinine was originally recommended by Falck in the treatment of menorrhagia, me- 
trorrhagia, dysmenorrhcea, and even endometritis. The testimony as to its value in all forms 
of uterine hemorrhage seems to be conclusive, and it is affirmed by many gynaecologists that 
it has a pronounced alterative influence upon the mucous membrane of the uterus. From our 
own experience we are convinced that it has value as a cardiac tonic, not equal in power or 
certainty of action to digitalis, but often useful as a substitute for that drug, especially in 
minor cases of heart-failure. Its sedative action on the centric nervous system, conjoined 
with its stimulating influence upon the circulation and its pronounced effects upon the genital 
system, make it a very valuable remedy in the treatment of feeble women of hysterical tem- 
perament, with tendency to uterine fluxes. The dose usually employed is from three-quarters 
of a grain to one and a half grains (0-05 to 0-09 Gm.) every three to six hours, but probably 
larger doses might often be used with advantage, since no ill effects have been as yet recorded 
as being produced by it. The salt may be given hypodermically. 
HYDRASTIS. U. S. (Br.) Hydrastis. [Golden Seal.] 
“ The rhizome and roots of Hydrastis Canadensis, Linne (nat. ord. Ranunculacese).” U. S. 
“ The dried rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis, Linn.” Br. 
Hydrastis Ehizoma, Br.; Hydrastis Rhizome; Rhizoma Hydrastis; Golden Seal, Yellow Root, Yellow Puccoon, 
Orange Root, Indian Dye, Indian Turmeric; Racine d’Hydrastis de Canada, Fr.; Canadische Gelbwurzel, G. 
Hydrastis canadensis. Gray, Manual of Bot., 14; figured in Griffith's Med. Bot., 82. This 
is a small, herbaceous, perennial plant, with a thick, fleshy, yellow rhizome, from which 
numerous long roots arise, and an erect, simple, pubescent stem, from six inches to a foot in 
height. There are usually but two leaves, which are unequal, one sessile at the top of the stem, 
the other attached to the stem a short distance below by a thick roundish footstalk, causing the 
stem to appear as if bifurcate near the summit. The leaves are pubescent, roundish-cordate, 
with from three to seven, but generally five, lobes, which are pointed and unequally serrate. 
A solitary flower stands upon a peduncle rising from the basis of the upper leaf. It is whitish, 
rose-colored, or purplish, without corolla, but with a colored calyx, the sepals of which closely 
resemble petals, and are very caducous, falling very soon after the flower has expanded. The 
fruit is a globose, compound, red or purple berry, half an inch or more in diameter, composed 
of many fleshy carpels, each tipped with a short curved beak, and containing one or rarely two 
seeds. The plant grows in moist, rich woodlands in most parts of the United States, but 
abundantly in the North and West. The fruit bears a close resemblance to the raspberry, but 
is not edible. The root is the part used. The Indians employed it for staining and dyeing 
yellow, and it is said to impart a rich and permanent yellow, and with indigo a fine green, to 
wool, silk, and cotton. There is but one other species of Hydrastis known,—viz., H. jezoensis 
Sieb. et Zucc., which is found in Northern Japan. 
Properties. The fresh root is juicy, and loses much of its weight in drying. The 
dried caudex is officially described as “ about 4 Cm. long and 6 Mm. thick ; oblique, with 
short branches, somewhat annulate and longitudinally wrinkled; externally brownish gray; 
fracture short, waxy, bright reddish yellow, with a thickish bark, about ten narrow wood- 
wedges, broad medullary rays, and large pith. Roots thin, brittle, with a thick, yellow bark 
and subquadrangular, woody centre. Odor slight; taste bitter.” U. S. The rhizome breaks 
with a clean resinous fracture, leaving a smooth brownish-yellow or greenish-yellow surface, 
exhibiting a ring of bright yellow with somewhat distant narrow wood-bundles. Many of the 
(hy-dkXs'tis.) 716 
Hydrastis. 
PART I. 
detached rootlets are mixed with the rhizomes in mass. The color of the rhizome, though yellow 
in the recent root, becomes a dark yellowish brown by age; that of the rootlets and the in- 
terior of the root is yellow, and that of the powder still more so. The odor is sweetish, and 
somewhat narcotic, the taste bitter and peculiar. The medicine imparts its virtues and color- 
ing matters to water and alcohol. Examined by Mr. Alfred A. B. Durand, of Philadelphia, 
it was found to contain albumen, starch, fatty matter, resin, yellow coloring matter, sugar, lig- 
nin, and various salts. He also discovered a peculiar nitrogenous, crystallizable substance, for 
which he proposed the name of hydrastine. (A. J. P., 1851, p. 112.) It has also been deter- 
mined that the root contains another alkaloid, to which it owes its yellow color, and which is 
probably identical with the yellow coloring matter of Mr. Durand. Mr. F. Mahla first ascer- 
tained that this new alkaloid of hydrastis is berberine.* (Am. Journ. of Sci. and Arts, Jan. 
1862, p. 43.) It exists in large proportion in hydrastis, constituting, according to Perrins, 
nearly 4 per cent. There can be no doubt that this medicine owes much of its virtue to ber- 
berine. For a valuable paper by Prof. J. U. Lloyd on the preparation of salts of berberine, 
see A. J. P., 1879, p. 11. A substance obtained by the precipitation of an infusion of the 
root by hydrochloric acid has been for some time known and used by the “ Eclectics,” under 
the name of hydrastin ; it consists of variable proportions of hydrastine, berberine, and resin 
(A. J. P., 1876, p. 386), and the reader must be cautious not to confound this substance with 
the alkaloid to which the name properly belongs. 
Hydrastine, which is the characteristic alkaloid, may be obtained by exhausting the pow- 
dered root as far as possible with water by percolation, adding hydrochloric acid to the infusion 
so as to precipitate the berberine in the form of hydrochlorate, and treating the mother-liquor 
with solution of ammonia in slight excess. The hydrastine is precipitated, in an impure state, 
and may be purified by repeated solution in boiling alcohol, which deposits it in crystals on 
cooling. A little animal charcoal may be used towards the close of the process, in order to 
deprive the crystals completely of color. To Mr. Mahla, of Chicago, and Mr. Perrins, of Lon- 
* Berberine. This alkaloid appears to have been first discovered, in 1826, in a species of Xanthoxylum, by 
Chevallier and Pelletan, who, from its color and taste, named it xantliopicrite; Buchner and Herberger, in 1836, 
found it in Berberis vulgaris, and named it berberine; but none of these chemists were aware of its alkaline proper- 
ties. Indeed, the substance obtained by them, at least the berberine of Buchner, must have been a native salt of 
the proper alkaloid, which was not, therefore, procured in a pure state. Subsequently Fleitmann demonstrated its 
basic character, and published an account of several of its salts. It is not confined to the barberry, but has been 
found, by various chemists, in several other plants, particularly those combining bitterness and a yellow color, as in 
various products of Cocculus palmatus, Hydrastis canadensis,Xanthorrhiza apiifolia, Coptis teeta, Xanthoxylum clava 
herculis, Coscinium fenestratum, and others belonging to the natural families of Berberace®, Menispermace®, and 
Banunculace®. Indeed, few if any of the known alkaloids are so widely diffused as this appears to be in tbe vege- 
table kingdom. A list of the plants from which it has been obtained is contained in A../. P., Sept. 1863, p. 466. 
Berberine may be obtained most readily from its sulphate. Prof. Procter has given the following process for pre- 
paring it, based upon a suggestion of Mr. Merrill, of Cincinnati. The coarsely-powdered root is to be exhausted by re- 
peated decoction with boiling water, and the mixed liquids, after filtration, are to be evaporated to a soft extract. This 
is to be digested several times with stronger alcohol, in the proportion of a pint to half a pound of the root, until ex- 
hausted, one-fourth of its bulk of water is to be added to the tincture, and five-sixths of the alcohol to be distilled 
off. To the residue, while still hot, sulphuric acid is to be added in excess, and the liquid allowed to cool. The sul- 
phate of berberine is deposited in crystals, and, having been purified by recrystallization, is to be decomposed by 
the addition, in excess, to its solution in boiling water, of freshly precipitated lead protoxide, the solution being 
kept hot until the decomposition is completed. This may be known by tbe absence of a precipitate when lead ace- 
tate is added to a drop of the clear liquid. The liquid is then to be filtered, and set aside to crystallize. Thus ob- 
tained, berberine is in the form of a yellow powder, which, under the microscope, appears to consist of groups of 
minute, acicular crystals. It has a bitter taste, is soluble in about 100 parts of cold water, still less soluble in cold 
alcohol, freely soluble in both these liquids when hot, and insoluble in ether. It forms salts of difficult solubility 
with hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, and is distinguished by being copiously precipitated by the former acid 
from its cold watery solution in the form of crystals of the hydrochlorate. It is freely dissolved by acetic acid, 
which forms with it a readily soluble salt. (A. J. Pi, Jan. 1864, 10.) Its formula is, on the authority of Perrins, 
C20H17NO4. (P. J. Tr., April, 1863, 464.) Hlasiwetz (Ann. Ch. Pharm., 115, 45) also confirms this formula, which 
may therefore be assumed as correct. Berberine hydrochlorate, which is the salt that has attracted most notice, may 
be readily obtained by using hydrochloric instead of sulphuric acid in the above process, and purifying the precipi- 
tate by solution in hot alcohol, and subsequent refrigeration. It is in fine acicular crystals of a bright yellow color 
and intensely bitter taste, very slightly soluble in cold water, to which, however, it imparts a deep yellow color, 
slightly soluble also in cold alcohol, but dissolved in large proportion by both liquids when hot. By concentrated 
nitric acid both this salt and its base are decomposed, with the production of a dark red color and the escape of 
nitrous fumes. A process for berberine hypophosphite, by Prof. ,T. U. Lloyd, may be found in A. J. P., July, 1877. 
Parsons (N. R., 1879, 109) analyzed berberine phosphate, and believes the formula to be C2oHi7N04,2H3P04. 
According to the studies of Falck and Guenste, berberine causes in dogs and rabbits restlessness, convulsive 
tremblings, hurried respiration, and diarrhoea, followed, if the dose have been large enough, by decrease of the 
breathing-rate, wide-spread paralysis, dyspnoea, convulsions, and death. In man as yet no serious symptoms have 
been recorded as produced by it. Buchner is stated to have taken nearly twenty grains without causing anything 
more serious than a loose stool. It has been employed in internal medicine as a simple bitter, in doses of from 
two to five grains (0’13-0'33 Gm.). Hydrastis. 
717 
PART I. 
don, is due the credit of having fully investigated the properties of this alkaloid * Hydras- 
tine crystallizes in brilliant, four-sided prisms, which are white or colorless when pure, in- 
odorous, and almost tasteless in consequence of their insolubility in the saliva, but become 
bitter and somewhat acrid in saline combination. It melts at 132° C. (269-6° F.), is decom- 
posed at a higher temperature, and is inflammable. It is nearly insoluble in water, but is 
readily dissolved by alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzol. It has an alkaline reaction, and 
with the acids forms salts, most of which are readily soluble in water, and, according to Mr. 
Merrill, of Cincinnati, either uncrystallizable or crystallizable with difficulty. The alkalies and 
tannic acid precipitate it from its saline solutions. With sulphuric acid and potassium bi- 
chromate or red lead oxide, it assumes a red color; but it differs from strychnine in exhibiting 
no tint of blue or violet. Its composition is C21H21N06. Mr. Perrins obtained 15 per cent, 
of it from the root, and, having given five grains of it to a rabbit without any other effect 
than a slight uneasiness which soon ceased, concluded justly that it was not poisonous. 
Canadine (C20H21N04) was extracted by E. Schmidt; it occurs in the form of brilliant, 
small, white nodules, melting at 134° C. (273-2° F.). When canadine is dissolved in alcohol 
and treated with iodine, berberine iodohydrate (which is yellow in color) is formed. Canadine 
was believed to be identical with dihydromethylberberine (.Pharrn. Post, 1892, 230), and the 
formula C21H21N04 was given to it. E. Schmidt, however (Arcliiv der Pharm., 1894, 136- 
154), has found that its true formula is C20H21N04, and, owing to the fact that iodine forms 
with it berberine hydriodate, he believes that canadine is a tetrahydroberberine. Schmidt 
also obtained, as an additional product of the iodine reaction, the hydriodate of another 
base, which he believes is intermediate between berberine and canadine. For a process for 
isolating canadine, see Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 1103. The alkaloid discovered by A. K. Hale, 
and obtained later by Burt and by Lerchen, and which was named xanthopuccine, is now 
considered to be identical with canadine. For processes for making hydrastine and berberine, 
see Drug. Circ., 1897, 34,-f" It is probable, from the odor of hydrastis, that besides the two 
alkaloids here mentioned it contains also an active volatile principle; but this has not yet 
been isolated. 
Medical Properties and Uses. As a local remedy hydrastis has a remarkable effect 
upon mucous membranes. It has been used with asserted remarkable results in chronic gastro- 
intestinal catarrhs, especially those due to alcoholic excess, and as the commercial hydrastin is 
one of the drugs that was found in the experiments of Professor Rutherford to notably increase 
the biliary secretion in the lower animals, it is probable that in gastric diseases attended by 
hepatic congestion and lack of functional activity it exerts an almost specific influence. It has 
been strongly recommended in dyspepsia and the vomiting of pregnancy. It is much used by 
specialists as a local remedy in the treatment of otorrhoea, nasal, vaginal, and other catarrhs. 
In the second stage of gonorrhoea, as an addition to injection mixtures, it may be of great 
service. In chronic or subacute inflammations of the colon and rectum injections of hydrastis 
are often of great service, and it has been used in hemorrhoids with asserted excellent results. 
The strength of the local application of hydrastis to be used in various diseases of the mucous 
membranes varies from half a fluidrachm to two drachms of the fluid extract to the ounce of 
diluent. In gonorrhoea from five to ten grains of hydrastin, or forty to eighty minims of the 
fluid extract, may be used to the fluidounce. In hemorrhoids from two to four drachms to 
the fluidounce may be used. The glycerite is not so useful a local preparation as the fluid 
extract diluted with water, a deposit of the insoluble resinous substance upon the mucous 
membrane and its constant prolonged influence being important. 
The general action of hydrastis upon the system is probably chiefly due to its hydrastine, 
which is absorbed somewhat slowly from the alimentary canal and is eliminated through the 
* Wilhelm (P. J. Tr., 1888, 325) furnishes a process for obtaining the alkaloids from hydrastis as follows. The 
extract obtained by treating the coarsely powdered root with water acidified with acetic acid at 100° is evaporated 
to a syrup and excess of dilute sulphuric acid added, when berberine sulphate separates. The filtrate neutralized 
with ammonia gives a precipitate containing much hydrastine; this is separated, and on adding ammonia in excess 
to the filtrate a further precipitate is produced, which contains canadine. Both precipitates, boiled with ethyl ace- 
tate, give solutions which on cooling deposit hydrastine in large crystals, somewhat colored, but rendered pure by 
recrystallization. The crystals from the second ammonia precipitate are much purer than those from the first; by 
slow evaporation of the ethyl acetate solution they can be obtained as large as walnuts. 
Hydroberberine, whose molecule contains four atoms of hydrogen more than the molecule of berberine, is said by 
Dr. Marfori to differ from berberine physiologically; it produces in moderate dose an increase in the blood-pressure 
by stimulating the vaso-motor centre in the medulla. Opianic, hydrastinic, and berberinic acids are said by the 
same authority to be almost inert physiologically, except that they are feebly antiseptic. (Tlierap. Gaz., 1890.) 
f For a physiological study of the methylamine derivatives of hydrastine (hydrastine methylamine), see Virchow’s 
Archiv, cxlii., 1895. 718 
Hydrastis.—Hyoscinae Hydrobromas. 
PART I. 
kidneys, and also probably through the lower bowel, unchanged. In the physiological labo- 
ratory hydrastine has been found to increase reflex activity and to produce tetanic contractions 
by primarily stimulating the motor side of the spinal cord. If the dose have been sufficient 
the period of motor activity is followed by one of depression, in which the loss of reflex power 
and the paralysis are probably in part due to depression of the motor centres, and are certainly, 
at least in part, the outcome of depression of the motor nerves and also of the muscles them- 
selves. According to Cerna, the first loss of reflex activity is due to stimulation of Setschenow’s 
centre, and the final muscular depression is preceded by excitation of the muscle-fibres. Death 
may occur in a convulsion from cramp-asphyxia, or later from simultaneous paralysis of the 
respiratory centres and of the peripheral apparatus. The arterial pressure is first elevated and 
secondarily depressed ; the first rise of pressure is probably due to the stimulation of the heart- 
muscles, increasing the output of force, and also of both the vaso-motor centres and the muscle- 
fibres in the arteriole coats, causing contraction of the blood-vessels. The fall of pressure is 
probably the result of a direct paralytic action exerted upon the muscle-fibres in the heart and 
in the arterioles. Hydrastine notably increases intestinal peristalsis, and probably uterine con- 
tractions. It would seem to be a universal muscle-poison, which acts upon both striated and 
non-striated muscle-fibre in heart, arterioles, intestines, uterus, and generally throughout the 
body, its first stimulant action upon the muscle-fibres being followed by marked depression. 
Both Fellner and Slavatinski affirm that hydrastine has a distinct ecbolic action, causing 
uterine contractions in the non-pregnant uterus, and abortion in pregnant rabbits. Dr. Slava- 
tinski reports a case of premature labor produced by hypodermic injections of from two to three 
grammes repeated daily. These assertions are confirmed by the experiments of Tarachanow, 
who found that when hydrastine was given to the narcotized, recently pregnant animal, ener- 
getic contractions of the exposed uterus were produced. Total section of the uterine nerves 
prevented these contractions, which would seem, therefore, to be of centric origin. 
It is essential to recognize the non-identity, medically, of the preparations of hydrastis. 
The so-called hydrastin of commerce is really an impure body, containing berberine, canadine, 
hydrastine, and probably some resin. It is this mixture which Prof. Butherford found to have 
a pronounced influence upon the biliary secretion in the lower animals. Whether this action 
be or be not dependent upon the presence of berberine or other impurities is as yet uncertain. 
The practical deduction is, however, that when hydrastis is to be used in chronic gastrointes- 
tinal catarrh, or as a local application to mucous membranes, it is better to use hydrastin or 
the fluid extract rather than the pure alkaloid. The dose of hydrastin is from five to ten grains. 
There is some reason for believing that berberine has a special action upon the gastrointes- 
tinal tract. Marfori has, however, found that even in large therapeutic dose it is without 
perceptible influence upon the circulation or the nervous system. When, therefore, a prepara- 
tion of hydrastis is to be used for effects other than a local action on the gastrointestinal or 
other mucous membranes, the pure alkaloid hydrastine should be used. There is abundant 
clinical testimony to the great value of hydrastine in the treatment of uterine hemorrhages, 
whether occurring in the non-parturient, or in the parturient woman. The dose of hydrastine, 
or of its salts, is from one-eighth to one-half of a grain (0008-(M)32 Gin.).* 
HYOSCINE HYDROBROMAS. U. S. (Br.) Hyoscine Hydrobromate 
(HY-OS-CI'N.® IIY-DRO-BRO'MAS.) 
Cit H21 NO4 HBr. 3H2 O ; 436*98. 
“ The hydrobromate of an alkaloid obtained from Hyoscyamus. It should be kept in small, 
well-stoppered vials.” U. S. “ The hydrobromide, C17H21N04JIBr,3H20, of an alkaloid con- 
tained in Hyoscyamus Leaves, different species of Scopola, and possibly other solanaceous 
plants.” Br. 
Hyoscinae Hydrobromidum, Br., Hyoscine Hydrobromide; Hydrobromate of Hyoscine, Scopolamine Hydro- 
bromide. 
This salt was introduced for the first time in the TJ. S. P. 1890. Hyoscine, C17II21N04, is 
found in the leaves and seeds of Hyoscyamus, and the amorphous hyoscyamine of commerce 
*' Liquor Hydrastinas. Under the names of Liquid Hydrastis, Fluid Hydrastis, Colorless Hydrastis, etc., prepa- 
rations of the alkaloids of hydrastis have been largely used. In some cases these solutions have been made directly 
from the drug by depriving a fluid extract of coloring matter, in others the alkaloid has been dissolved in a suitable 
liquid. Gust. Steinmann (A. J. P., 1887, 296) examined several samples and found bydrastine in each, combined 
with either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, besides aluminum, potassium, boric acid, etc., in small proportion; by 
dissolving 20 grains of hydrastine sulphate or chloride in a pint of a solution of glycerin and water (sp. gr. 1*15), 
a liquid is produced from which the asserted good results can be obtained. Hyoscinse Hydrobromas. 
719 
PART I. 
appears in most cases to be hyoscine, and to be more powerful than the crystallized hyoscyamine 
itself. Pure hyoscine forms a syrupy liquid. The best salt for practical use is the hydro- 
bromate, which is in “ colorless, transparent, rhombic crystals, odorless, and having an acrid, 
slightly bitter taste; permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 1-9 parts of water, 
and in 13 parts of alcohol; very slightly soluble in ether or chloroform. When heated to 100° C. 
(212° F.), the salt loses its water of crystallization, and fuses to a thick, syrupy mass, which 
becomes quite fluid at 160° C. (320° F.). When ignited, it is consumed, leaving no residue. 
The salt is neutral to litmus paper. Addition of ammonia water to the aqueous solution of the 
salt (1 in GO) produces no change, but sodium or potassium hydrate test-solution causes a white 
turbidity. Addition of silver nitrate test-solution to the aqueous solution produces a yellowish- 
white precipitate, which is insoluble in nitric acid ; but, when filtered off and washed, is soluble 
in ammonia water diluted with its own volume of water. If 5 drops of fuming nitric acid be 
added to 0-01 Gm. of the salt, in a small porcelain capsule, and the mixture be evaporated to 
dryness on a water-bath, a scarcely tinted residue will be left, which, when treated, after cooling, 
with a few drops of an alcoholic solution of potassium hydrate, will assume a violet color.” U. S. 
“ It has an acrid, slightly bitter taste, and is odorless. It is soluble in 1 part of cold water 
and in 13 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), very slightly soluble in ether or chloroform. When 
heated to 212° F. (100° C.) it loses rather more than 12 per cent, of its weight and fuses to 
a viscid mass which becomes liquid at a temperature of 379-4° to 381-2° F. (193° to 194° C.). 
An aqueous solution yields a precipitate with test-solution of mercuric chloride, solution of iodine, 
or solution of potassium hydroxide, but not with solution of ammonia or solution of potassium 
bichromate. It forms with auric chloride a crystalline salt having a melting point of 388-4° 
F. (198° C.). It affords the reactions characteristic of hydrobromides. Its aqueous solution 
slightly reddens litmus. Heated to redness with access of air it leaves no residue.” Br. 
Prof. E. Schmidt (Apoth. Zeit., 1891, 522) believes that the hyoscine hydrobromate of 
commerce is essentially hydrobromate of scopolamine, C17H21N04. This view has been con- 
firmed by O. Hesse {Ann. d. Chem., 1893, 304), and the British Pharmacopoeia defines hyoscine 
as an alkaloid contained in hyoscyamus, different species of Scopola, and possibly other solana- 
ceous plants, while the committee of revision of the Herman Pharmacopoeia recommends the 
change of the official title of “ Hyoscin Hydrobromate” to “ Scopolamium Hydrobromium.” 
Atroscine was found by Hesse in variable amount in the hyoscine hydrobromide of commerce. 
It is a mydriatic equal in power to atropine or scopolamine. Scopolamine hydrochloride occurs 
in beautiful glassy crystals, 3 Cm. long and 2 Cm. broad. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Various observers have noted that the impure amor- 
phous hyoscyamine is more powerful than the crystallized alkaloid. These observations, with 
the chemical fact that amorphous hyoscyamine is chiefly hyoscine, in 1884 led Dr. H. C. Wood 
to make a careful physiological study of that alkaloid upon the lower animals and to apply it 
to clinical medicine. It was found that the pure hyoscine produced in the frog motor reflex 
paralysis, due to a depression of the spinal cord, and that in mammals it caused disturbance 
of respiration, loss of muscular power, pronounced tendency to stupor, and, finally, death by 
asphyxia. It exerted very little influence upon the circulation even when in toxic doses. It 
became evident that the drug was a depressant of the principal cerebral centres, of the respi- 
ratory centres, and also of the lower motor centres of the spinal cord. In man, the ingestion 
of hyoscine in decided doses is followed in a very short time by dryness of the mouth, flushings 
of the face, great sleepiness, associated in some cases with delirious mutterings, and giddiness 
akin to that of alcoholic intoxication. The respirations are usually lessened in frequency, and 
the pulse-rate is also somewhat diminished. Dilatation of the pupils is usually, but not in- 
variably, produced. After toxic doses these symptoms are intensified ; whilst the frequent loss 
or impairment of the power of swallowing, and a peculiar hoarseness of the voice, with, in some 
cases, laryngeal dyspnoea, indicate that the muscles of the larynx, as well as those of the pharynx, 
have a special tendency to be paralyzed by the alkaloid ; the respiration not only becomes slow 
and full, but sometimes takes on a distinctly Cheyne-Stokes character; the skin is not dry, as 
in atropine-poisoning, but is frequently covered with sweat. No cases of fatal poisoning are on 
record. One-fourth of a grain of very impure hyoscine produced in the case of Dr. Hutchin- 
son profound muscular relaxation, with quiet coma lasting for eleven hours. In applying hyos- 
cine to the treatment of disease, Dr. H. C. Wood found that it is a valuable soporific, especially 
useful in those cases in which the wakefulness is complicated with or due to cerebral excite- 
ment. In insomnia produced by overwork, when the brain seems to lose the capability of 
ceasing its action, hyoscine is of service; but it is especially valuable in active delirious con- 720 
Hyoscyaminse Hydrobromas.—Hyoscyaminse Sulphas. 
PART I. 
ditions, such as occur in acute mania or in exacerbations in the course of chronic mania. In 
those cases in which morphine increases the cerebral excitement hyoscine usually acts most 
happily. According to the statements of Drs. Bruce and Tirard, it is an entirely safe remedy 
in cases of severe kidney disease when morphine is contra-indicated. Dr. H. C. Wood has found 
that it is an efficient remedy in the treatment of sexual excitement, such as nymphomania, sper- 
matorrhoea, and allied affections, and that it will almost invariably control excessive seminal 
emissions. Hyoscine rarely, if ever, produces much more serious after-effects than a little dry- 
ness of the throat and headache, and does not disturb the alimentary canal. The reports of 
later clinicians indicate that excessive susceptibility to its influence is a not infrequent idiosyn- 
crasy, and it is even affirmed that of a grain has caused alarming symptoms. It is prob- 
able, however, that much larger doses were taken in these cases than is alleged. On account 
of its tendency to produce pharyngeal and laryngeal paralysis, it should not be employed in such 
diseases as scarlet fever or diphtheria when there is a tendency to throat difficulties. Being 
practically tasteless, hyoscine is readily given in food or drink without the knowledge of the 
patient. It acts well when taken by the mouth, but is especially efficient and prompt when 
administered hypodermically, and never produces local irritation. The effects of a hypodermic 
dose are usually manifested inside of ten minutes, and persist for six or eight hours. The dose 
by the mouth is from to (tV of a grain ; for hypodermic injections to of a grain. 
On account of the susceptibility of some persons to it, the commencing dose by the mouth should 
not be over T of a grain, by injection of a grain: after cautious trial, doses larger than 
the maximum just given may be employed. 
HYOSCYAMINE HYDROBROMAS. U. S. Hyoscyamine Hydrobromate. 
CnH23N03HBr ; 369*14. (HY-OS-CY-A-MI'NiE HY-DRO-BRO'MAS.) 
“ The hydrobromate of an alkaloid obtained from Hyoscyamus. It should be kept in small, 
well-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
There seems to have been little necessity for the introduction of this salt into the U. S. P. 
1890, particularly since hyoscyamine sulphate has been retained. It is officially described as 
“ a yellowish-white, amorphous, resin-like mass, or prismatic crystals, having, particularly when 
damp, a tobacco-like odor, and an acrid, nauseous, and bitter taste; deliquescent on exposure 
to air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in about 0-3 part of water, 2 parts of alcohol, 3000 parts 
of ether, or 250 parts of chloroform. At 78° C. (172-4° F.) the salt melts, forming a nearly 
colorless liquid. When ignited, it is consumed, leaving no residue. The salt is neutral to 
litmus paper. An aqueous solution of the salt is not precipitated by platinic chloride test- 
solution (difference from most other alkaloids). With gold chloride test-solution it yields a 
precipitate which, when recrystallized from a small quantity of boiling water acidulated with 
hydrochloric acid, is deposited, on cooling, in minute, lustrous, golden-yellow scales (difference 
from atropine). The aqueous solution of the salt yields, with silver nitrate test-solution, a 
yellowish-wliite precipitate, which is insoluble in nitric acid ; but, when filtered off and washed, 
is soluble in ammonia water diluted with its own volume of water.” U. S. 
The medical properties and the dose of this salt of hyoscyamine are precisely those of the 
sulphate, to which it is preferred by some. 
HYOSCYAMINE SULPHAS. U. S., Br. Hyoscyamine Sulphate. 
“ The neutral sulphate of an alkaloid obtained from Hyoscyamus. It should be kept in 
small, well-stoppered vials.” U. S. “ The sulphate, (C17II23N03)2,H2S04,2H20, of an alka- 
loid contained in Hyoscyamus Leaves and possibly other solanaceous plants.” Br. 
Sulfate d’Hyoscyamine, Ft-.; Ilyoscyaminum Sulfuricum, Schwefelsaures Hyoscyamin, G. 
Although Brandes announced the existence of an alkaloid in the seeds of Hyoscyamus niger, 
the process which he used to obtain it was not successful in other hands. The credit of first 
isolating the alkaloid hyoscyamine or hyoscyamia from the plant must be given to Geiger and 
Hesse, who obtained it as long ago as 1833. Hdhn and Reichardt’s process, in which the seed 
is used as the source, is as follows. They treat hyoscyamus seed first with ether to separate 
fatty matter, then with alcohol acidulated with a few drops of sulphuric acid, and afterwards 
distil the alcoholic solution. The aqueous residue is to be neutralized by soda, and the liquid 
precipitated by a solution of tannin. The precipitate, having been placed on a porcelain plate 
to dry, is mixed while yet moist with an excess of lime, and then exhausted by strong alcohol. 
(Ci7H23N03)2H2S04; 674*58. SUL'PHlS.) (Cij H23 N03)2. n2 SO4; 676. Hyoscyaminse Sulphas. 
721 
PART I. 
The alcoholic solution is treated with sulphuric acid, then with soda, and finally with ether, 
which dissolves the liberated hyoscyamine. By distilling off the ether a colorless oleaginous 
liquid is left, which at length concretes. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1872, p. 385.) 
These investigators gave to hyoscyamine the formula C16H23N03, but Ladenburg has shown 
by a study of its decomposition products that it is isomeric with atropine, C17H23N03. Laden- 
burg made the most complete study of atropine and hyoscyamine that we have, and has estab- 
lished their relations to each other in a clearer light. According to him (Ber. der Chem. Ges., 
xiii., pp. 251, 909, and 1549), hyoscyamus contains two alkaloids, a crystalline one, to which 
the name of hyoscyamine is given, and which is the one hitherto studied under that name, and 
an amorphous one, which remains in the mother-liquor after the removal of the crystallizable 
alkaloid, and comes into commerce as a brown thickish syrup. It can be extracted by the 
formation of the gold salt, which is less soluble than hyoscyamine gold chloride. This alkaloid, 
for which he proposed the name hyoscine, and to which he gave the same formula (C17H23N03) 
as hyoscyamine, yields different decomposition products upon decomposition by baryta water. 
Hyoscyamine treated with boiling baryta water assimilates a molecule of water and splits up 
into what were called hyoscinic acid, C9II1003, and hyoscine, C8H16N0, but which Ladenburg 
shows to be simply identical with the decomposition products of atropine, tropic acid and tropine. 
The non-existence of Ladenburg’s hyoscine of the formula C17H23N03 and the truth of the 
statement that commercial hyoscine is identical with scopolamine (see p. 719) is strongly sup- 
ported upon large experience in manufacturing these bases by Dr. L. Merck. Inasmuch as 
Ladenburg (Ber. der Chem. Ges., xii. 941) has succeeded in effecting the synthesis of atropine 
by the combination of tropic acid and tropine (the two decomposition products which are com- 
mon to the two alkaloids atropine and hyoscyamine), we must look for the differences between 
these two to physical and molecular sources rather than chemical. 
Hyoscyamine crystallizes in colorless, transparent, silky needles, fusing at 108-5° C., is in- 
odorous, of an acrid, disagreeable taste, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol and 
ether, and volatilizable with little change if carefully distilled. It is quickly altered by contact 
with water and an alkali, and when heated with potassa or soda is completely decomposed, 
with the disengagement of ammonia. It neutralizes the acids, forming crystallizable salts,* 
and is precipitated by infusion of galls. The alkaloid and its salts are very poisonous ; and the 
smallest quantity, introduced into the eye, produces dilatation of the pupil, which continues long. 
Hyoscine has been known in commerce as amorphous hyoscyamine. The best salts, according 
to Prof. Edlefsen, to prepare and dispense are the hydrobromate and hydriodate. Hyoscine 
hydriodate crystallizes from water, in which it is only moderately soluble, in small, hemihedral 
prisms, which mostly have a slight yellowish color. (See Hyoscinse Hydrohromas.) 
The double gold chloride, C17H21N04HC1 -{- AuC13, is less soluble than the corresponding 
gold salt of hyoscyamine, and so serves to separate them when together. 
Properties. The Pharmacopoeia describes the sulphate of hyoscyamine as “ white, in- 
distinct crystals, or a white powder, without odor, and having a bitter, acrid taste; deliquescent 
in damp air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-5 part of water, and in 2-5 parts of alcohol; 
very slightly soluble in ether or chloroform. At 140° to 160° C. (284° to 320° F.) the salt 
melts, and, upon ignition, is consumed, leaving no residue. The salt is neutral to litmus 
paper. An aqueous solution of the salt is not precipitated by platinic chloride test-solution 
(difference from most other alkaloids'). With gold chloride test-solution it yields a precipitate 
which, when recrystallized from a small quantity of boiling water acidulated with hydro- 
chloric acid, is deposited, on cooling, in minute, lustrous, golden-yellow scales (difference from 
atropine). The aqueous solution of the salt yields, with barium chloride test-solution, a white 
precipitate insoluble in hydrochloric acid.” U. S. “ A crystalline powder, deliquescent, odor- 
less, having a bitter acrid taste. Melting point 402-8° F. (206° C.). Soluble in 0-5 part of 
water, 2-5 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), very slightly soluble in ether or chloroform. It 
affords the reactions characteristic of sulphates. A solution in water acidulated with hydro- 
chloric acid yields no precipitate with solution of platinic chloride, but affords with solution of 
auric chloride a yellow precipitate soluble in boiling water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
and again deposited, as the solution cools, in brilliant, golden-yellow scales (distinction from 
atropine). Heated to redness with access of air it leaves no residue.” Br. 
* According to the latest chemical researches (see Belladonnm Radix, p. 261), duboisine is the same as hyoscya- 
mine: the symptoms which have been reported in cases of poisoning by duboisine are very similar to those which 
occur in atropine-poisoning, save only in the apparent presence of excessive muscular weakness and in the slow- 
ness of the pulse which has been noted by a number of observers. For abstracts of reported cases of poisoning by 
duboisine, see 16th ed. U. S. D., p. 288. 722 
Hyoscyaminse Sulphas.—Hyoscyamus. 
PART I. 
Medical Properties. Owing to the facts that until very recently commercial hyoscya- 
mine has usually been contaminated with hyoscine, and that few careful studies of a chemi- 
cally pure hyoscyamine have been made, its exact influence upon the human system is not 
positively determined. The studies of Dr. J. C. Shaw appear, however, to prove that hyoscy- 
amine acts upon the nervous system and the circulation, including the heart and the vaso-motor 
system, precisely as does atropine, except as regards respiration, which appears in most cases 
to have been slowed rather than increased in rapidity, an indication that hyoscyamine, unlike 
atropine, is not a respiratory stimulant. Dr. Shaw also found that hyoscyamine is less powerful 
as a mydriatic and more powerful as a soporific than is atropine. On the other hand, in studies 
upon normal men, Dr. Bichter could not perceive that hyoscyamine had a tendency to produce 
sleep. Prof. Sydney Linger, in a careful comparative study of hyoscyamine and atropine in 
acute mania, was unable to detect any important differences in the action of the two sub- 
stances. The dose of commercial hyoscyamine varies greatly according to its purity, but one- 
fortieth of a grain of the pure alkaloid has produced violent poisoning, with symptoms similar 
to those caused by atropine: not more than one-eightieth of a grain (0-0008 Gm.) should be 
given as a commencing dose. 
HYOSCYAMUS. U. S. (Br.) Hyoscyamus. [Henbane.] 
(HY-OS-CY'A-MUS.) 
“ The leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger, Linne (nat. ord. Solanaceae), collected 
from plants of the second year’s growth.” U. S. “ The fresh leaves and flowers, with the 
branches to which they are attached, of Hyoscyamus niger, Linn.; also the leaves and the 
flowering tops, separated from the branches and carefully dried. Collected from the flowering 
biennial plants.” Br. 
Hyoscyami Folia, Br.; Herba Hyoscyami; Feuilles de Jusquiame noire, Fr.; Bilsenkraut, 0. 
There are about eleven species of the genus Hyoscyamus known ; these are distributed from 
the Canary Islands over Europe and Northern Africa to Asia. 
Hyoscyamus niger. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 179 ; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1010 ; 
Woodv. Med. Bot., 204, t. 76; Carson, lllust. of Med. Bot., ii. 19, pi. 66. 
Henbane is usually a biennial plant, with a long, tapering, whitish, fleshy, 
somewhat branching root, not unlike that of parsley, for which it has 
been eaten by mistake, with poisonous effects. The stem, which rises 
in the second year, is erect, round, branching, from one to four feet 
high, and thickly furnished 'with leaves. These are large, oblong-ovate, 
deeply sinuated with pointed segments, undulated, soft to the touch, and 
at their base embrace the stem. The upper leaves are generally entire. 
Both the stem and leaves are hairy, viscid, and of a sea-green color. 
The flowers form long, one-sided, leafy spikes, which terminate the 
branches, and hang downward. They are composed of a calyx with 
five pointed divisions, a funnel-shaped corolla, with five unequal, obtuse 
segments at the border, five stamens inserted into the tube of the corolla, 
and a pistil with a blunt, round stigma. The corolla is of an obscure 
yellow color, beautifully variegated with purple veins. The fruit is a 
globular two-celled capsule, covered with a lid, invested with the per- 
sistent calyx, and containing numerous small seeds, which are discharged 
by the horizontal separation of the lid. The whole plant has a rank, 
offensive odor. 
II. niger is susceptible of considerable diversity of character, causing 
varieties which have by some been considered as distinct species. Thus, 
the plant is sometimes annual, the stem simple, smaller, and less downy 
than in the biennial plant, the leaves shorter and less hairy and viscid, 
and the flowers often yellow without the purple streaks. It has been 
ascertained that much difference of medical properties is connected with 
these diversities of character; and the British Pharmacopoeia directs 
the biennial variety as the most efficient. 
The plant is found in the northern and eastern sections of the United 
States, occupying waste grounds in the older settlements, particularly 
graveyards, old gardens, and the foundations of ruined houses. It grows in great abundance 
about Detroit, in Michigan. It is not, however, a native of this country, having been intro- 
Epithelium of Hyoscya- 
mus leaf, showing stoma 
and hair. Hyoscyamus. 
723 
PART I. 
duced from Europe. In Great Britain, and on the continent of Europe, it grows abundantly 
along the roads, around villages, amidst rubbish, and in uncultivated places. Both varieties 
were formerly cultivated in England, but at present the biennial is chiefly or solely grown. 
The annual plant flowers in July or August, the biennial in May or June. For an account 
of the cultivation of the biennial variety at Hitchin, England, see P. J. Tr., Feb. 1860. 
H. albus, so named from the whiteness of its flowers, is used in France indiscriminately with 
the former species, with which it appears to be identical in medicinal properties. 
All parts of Hyoscyamus niger are active. The official description of the plant is as follows : 
“ Leaves ovate, or ovate-oblong, up to 25 Cm. long and 10 Cm. broad ; sinuate-toothed, the teeth 
large, oblong or triangular; grayish green, and, particularly on the lower surface, glandular- 
hairy ; midrib prominent; flowers nearly sessile, with an urn-shaped, five-toothed calyx, and a 
light yellow, purple-veined corolla ; odor heavy, narcotic ; taste bitter and somewhat acrid.” U. S. 
The mesophyll of the leaf contains small prisms of calcium oxalate. Much of the efficacy of 
henbane depends upon the time at which it is gathered. The leaves should be collected soon 
after the plant has flowered. In the biennial plant, those of the second year are preferred to 
those of the first. The latter, according to Dr. Houlton, are less clammy and fetid, yield less 
extractive, and are medicinally much less efficient. It is said that the plant is sometimes 
destroyed by severe winters in England, and that no leaves of the second year’s growth are 
then obtainable. This is, perhaps, one of the causes of the great uncertainty of the medicine 
as found in commerce. The root also is said to be much more poisonous in the second year 
than in the first.* 
Properties. The recent leaves have, when bruised, a strong, disagreeable, narcotic odor, 
somewhat like that of tobacco. Their taste is mucilaginous and very slightly acrid. When 
dried, they have little smell or taste. Thrown upon the fire, they burn with a crackling noise, 
as if they contained a nitrate, and at the same time emit a strong odor. Their virtues are 
completely extracted by diluted alcohol. The aqueous infusion is of a pale-yellow color, insipid, 
with the narcotic odor of the plant. The leaves were analyzed by Lindbergsen, who obtained 
from them a narcotic principle. They contain a large proportion of potassium nitrate, 
Mr. F. Mahla having obtained, as nearly as he could estimate from his experiments, 2 per 
cent, of that salt. (A. J. P., 1859, p. 402.) The seeds are very small, roundish, compressed, 
somewhat kidney-shaped, a little wrinkled, of a gray or yellowish-gray color, of the odor of 
the plant, and of an oleaginous, bitterish taste. Geiger and Hesse (1833) were the first to 
demonstrate the existence of an alkaloid in hyoscyamus. Ladenburg has shown (1880) that 
there are two alkaloids in the plant,—one crystallizable, hyoscyamine, and the other amorphous, 
hyosdne (scopolamine, p. 719). (See Hyoscyamiase Sulphas, p. 720, and Hyoscinse Hydrobromas, 
p. 718.) Hbhn (Ann. Chem. Pharm., 157, 98) obtained from the seeds a bitter principle 
which proved to be a glucoside. He calls it hyoscypicrin, and gives it the formula C27H62014. 
From experiments made by Mr. Hirtz upon the relative medicinal power of extracts from 
the seeds and from the leaves, he inferred that the former had ten times the strength of the 
latter. Henbane leaves yield, by destructive distillation, a very poisonous empyreumatic oil. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Hyoscyamus was known to the ancients, and was 
employed by some of the earlier modern practitioners, but had fallen into disuse, and was almost 
forgotten, when Baron Storck again introduced it into notice. By this physician and some of 
his successors it was prescribed in numerous diseases, and, if we may credit their testimony, 
with the happiest effects; but subsequent experience of its operation has greatly narrowed the 
extent of its application. It is at present used almost exclusively to relieve pain, procure sleep, 
or quiet irregular nervous action, and is not supposed to exercise any specific curative in- 
fluence over particular diseases. It is similar in its physiological action to belladonna, and in 
poisonous doses produces similar symptoms, but it is more of a hypnotic and much feebler. It 
is chiefly employed to allay nervous irritation, in hysteria, and in various pectoral diseases with 
cough, also to prevent griping by the vegetable cathartics. In Europe, where the fresh leaves 
* The several products of the henbane plants are placed by Mr. R. Usher (P. J. Tr., Aug. 1867) in the following 
order as to efficiency: 1, the leaves of the biennial plant of the second year’s growth; 2, the biennial plant of the 
first year; 3, the British annual henbane; 4, the German annual henbane. The last two, though most extensively 
used are really nearly valueless, and should always be rejected. The British annual so nearly resembles the biennial 
of the second year, having flowers, that the two may be easily mistaken for each other; but a sufficient distinction 
is that the annual plant “ possesses no flavor or aroma.” Besides, the leaves are much shorter; and occasionally 
there is a pure primrose blossom, which never happens with the biennial, which is beautifully streaked. The biennial 
plant is so liable to the attacks of worms that at one time little of the second year’s growth was collected, and the 
market was consequently supplied with a very inferior article. 724 
Ichthyocolla. 
PART I. 
are readily obtained, it is often applied externally in the shape of lotion, cataplasm, or fomenta- 
tion, to allay pain and irritation, in scrofulous or cancerous ulcers, scirrhous, hemorrhoidal, or other 
painful tumors, gouty and rheumatic swellings, and nervous headaches. The treatment of hyos- 
cyamus-poisoning is identical with that of belladonna-poisoning. (See Belladonna.') 
Henbane may be given in fluid or solid extract or in tincture. The dose of the leaves is 
from five to ten grains (0-33-0-65 Gm.), that of the seeds somewhat smaller. The extract, 
or inspissated juice of the fresh leaves (Extractum Hyoscyami Viride, Br.), is exceedingly 
variable in its operation, being - sometimes active, sometimes almost inert. The usual dose is 
from two to three grains ((M3-0-20 dm.), repeated and gradually increased till its effects are 
obtained. The alcoholic extract (Extractum Hyoscyami, U. S.) is more certain. Dose, from 
one to two grains (0-065-0-13 Gm.), increased pro re nata. An extract from the seeds would 
be more efficacious. Dose of the tincture, from one to two fluidrachms (S-TS-T'fi C.c.). 
ICHTHYOCOLLA. U. S. Isinglass. 
(ij3h-thy-o-c5l'la.) 
“ The swimming-bladder of Aeipenser Huso, Linn6, and of other species of Acipenser (class, 
Pisces; order, Sturiones).” U. S. 
Colla Piscium, P. G.; Fish-Glue; Ichthyoeolle, Colie de Poisson, Fr.; Hausenhlase, Fischleim, G.; Colla di Pesce, 
It.; Cola de Pescado, Sp. 
Isinglass is a gelatinous substance, prepared chiefly from the sounds or 
of fishes, especially those of different species of sturgeon. In most fishes there is a membranous 
bag, placed in the anterior part of the abdomen, communicating frequently, though not always, 
by means of a duct, with the oesophagus or stomach, and containing usually a mixture of oxy- 
gen and nitrogen gases in various proportions. From the supposition that it was intended by 
its expansion or contraction to enable the fish to rise or sink in the water, it has been termed 
the swimming-bladder. It is of different shape in different fishes, and consists of three coats, 
of which the two interior are thin and delicate, the outer tough and of a silvery whiteness. 
The Acipenser huso, or beluga of the Russians, is particularly designated by the Pharma- 
copoeia as the species of sturgeon from which isinglass is procured; but three others, A. 
ruthenus, or sterlet, A. sturio, or common sturgeon, and A. stellatus, or starred sturgeon, also 
furnish large quantities to commerce. All these fish inhabit the interior waters of Russia, es- 
pecially the Volga and other streams which empty into the Caspian Sea. Immense numbers 
are annually taken, and consumed as food by the Russians. The air-bags are removed from 
the fish, and, having been split open and washed in water in order to separate the blood, fat, 
and adhering extraneous membranes, are spread out, and when sufficiently stiffened are formed 
into cylindrical rolls, the ends of which are brought together and secured by pegs. The shape 
given to the roll is that of a staple, or more accurately that of a lyre, which it firmly retains 
when dried. Thus prepared it is known in commerce by the name of staple isinglass, and is 
distinguished into the long and the short staple. Sometimes the membranes are dried in a flat 
state, or simply folded, and then receive the name of leaf or book isinglass. The scraps or 
fragments of these varieties, with various other parts of the fish, are boiled in water, which 
dissolves the gelatin, and upon evaporation leaves it in a solid state. This is called cake ism- 
glass, from the shape which it is made to assume. It is sometimes, however, in globular masses. 
Of these varieties, the long staple is said to be the best; but the finest book isinglass is not sur- 
passed by any brought to this country. It is remarkable for its beautiful iridescence by trans- 
mitted light. One hundred grains of this isinglass dissolve in ten ounces of water, forming a 
tremulous jelly when cold, and yield but two grains of insoluble residuum. That in cakes is 
brownish, of an unpleasant odor, and employed only in the arts. Inferior kinds, with the 
same commercial titles, are said to be prepared from the peritoneum and intestines of the fish. 
An inferior Russian product, known in English commerce by the name of Samovey isinglass, 
is procured, according to Pereira, from the Silurus glanis. It comes, like the better kind, in 
the shape of leaf book, and the short staple. Isinglass, little inferior to the Russian, is made in 
Iceland from the sounds of the cod and ling. It is said also to be prepared by the fishermen 
of Newfoundland. We receive from Brazil the air-bladders of a large fish, prepared by dry- 
ing them in their distended state. They are oblong, tapering, and pointed at one end, bifid 
with the remains of their pneumatic duct at the other, and of a firm consistence. The Bra- 
zilian isinglass is inferior to the Russian. Considerable quantities are manufactured in New 
England. This sort (American isinglass') is in thin ribbons several feet in length, and from an 
inch and a half to two inches in width. One hundred grains dissolve almost entirely in water, Ichthyocolla. 
725 
PART I. 
leaving but two grains of insoluble membrane, and form a jelly when cold with eight ounces of 
water. It is, therefore, as pure and nearly as strong a gelatin as the Russian isinglass; but it 
retains a fishy taste and odor, which render it unfit for culinary or medicinal purposes. Isin- 
glass of good quality has also been made in New York from the sounds of the weak-fish— 
Otolithus regalis of Cuvier (Storer, Rep. on Fishes of Mass., p. 33)—and perhaps of other fishes 
caught in the neighborhood. The sounds are dried whole, or merely split open, and vary much 
in size and texture, weighing from a drachm to an ounce. An article called refined or trans- 
parent isinglass is made by dissolving the New England isinglass in hot water, and spreading 
the solution to dry on oiled muslin. It is in very thin, transparent plates, and is an excellent 
glue, but retains a strong fishy odor. A variety of Ichthyocolla, called India or China isin- 
glass, has been consumed largely in China from time immemorial, and became known to the 
Europeans of India about 1839. It is now found in the markets of London, where it is chiefly 
employed in clarifying beer. (Journ. de Pharm., Fev. 1870, p. 153.) It is the swimming-blad- 
der derived from two species of Polynemus, and from several other species of fish in the Indian 
waters. (Ibid., Janv. 1873, p. 77.) Preparations such as Nelson's and Coxe's gelatin are largely 
used now as substitutes for isinglass in making jellies. They are made from selected bones, 
and the gelatin is concentrated in vacuo and filtered clear, and often bleached with sulphurous 
acid. (See Gelatinum, p. 647.) 
Mr. C. T. Carney states that the New England isinglass is prepared from the sounds of the 
hake ( Gadus merluccius), by the following process. Having been taken from the fish, split open, 
cleansed, and dried, they are soaked in water till sufficiently soft, then passed through rollers so 
as to form a large, homogeneous, dough-like sheet, which is cut into strips, and then again 
passed through rollers till reduced to a ribbon-like form. The pieces thus prepared are thor- 
oughly dried, and folded into bundles. (Proc. A. P. A., 1857 ; see also A. J. P, 1894, 447.) 
According to Dr. Y. Griessmayer, the skin of the ray (Raja, a tribe of deep-sea fishes, with 
flat body and naked and often leather-like skin) has been much used, particularly in France, 
in place of isinglass, as a clarifying agent in brewing. The skin of the thornback or rough ray 
(Raja clavata) is, according to Jericka, the best for this purpose. The clarifying mixture pre- 
pared from this is without color, odor, or taste, and clears any turbid liquid in a short time, 
or at least within three days, if the liquid is kept in a very cold place. This clarifier is said to 
be superior to either Russian or American isinglass. (N. R., Feb. 1879.) Isinglass is some- 
times kept in the shops cut into fine shreds, and is thus more easily acted on by boiling water. 
Properties. In its purest form it is “ in separate sheets, sometimes rolled, of a horny or 
pearly appearance; whitish or yellowish, semi-transparent, iridescent, inodorous, insipid ; almost 
entirely soluble in boiling water and in boiling diluted alcohol. A solution of isinglass in 24 
parts of boiling water forms, on cooling, a transparent jelly.” U. S. The inferior kinds are 
yellowish and more opaque. In cold water it softens, swells up, and becomes opalescent. Boil- 
ing water entirely dissolves it, with the exception of a minute proportion of impurities, amount- 
ing, according to Mr. Hatchet, to less than 2 per cent. The solution on cooling assumes the 
form of a jelly, which consists of pure gelatin and water. Isinglass is in fact the purest form 
of gelatin with which we are acquainted, and may be used whenever this principle is required 
as a test. It is insoluble iu alcohol, but is dissolved readily by most of the diluted acids, and 
by alkaline solutions. It has a strong affinity for tannin, with which it forms an insoluble com- 
pound. Boiled with sulphuric acid, it is converted into a peculiar substance, called glycocoll or 
sugar of gelatin, which is in reality amido-acetic acid, C2H3(NH2)02. Its aqueous solution 
speedily putrefies. (See Gelatinum, p. 647.) An ingenious adulteration has been practised by 
rolling a layer of gelatin between two layers of genuine isinglass. This may be detected by the 
disagreeable odor and taste of the adulterated drug, and the effects of water upon it. Genuine 
isinglass, cut into shreds and treated with water, becomes opalescent and more opaque than 
before ; while the shreds, though they soften and swell, remain unbroken, and when examined 
by the microscope are seen to be decidedly fibrous. Gelatin, on the contrary, when similarly 
treated, becomes more transparent than before; the shreds are disintegrated, and the structure 
appears amorphous under the microscope. In the adulterated article both these characters 
are presented in layers more or less distinct. (P. J. Tr., ix. 505.) Moreover, Redwood and 
Letheby observed that the ash of true isinglass does not exceed 0-9 per cent., while glue con- 
tains from 2 to 4 per cent, of ash. An adulterated isinglass would therefore yield more ash 
than the normal. A false isinglass has been imported into England from Para, in Brazil, 
consisting of the dried ovary of a large fish. It has somewhat the form of a bunch of grapes, 
consisting of ovoid or roundish masses attached by a footstalk to a central axis. It is not 726 
Illicium. 
PART I. 
gelatinous, and is unfit for the purposes to which isinglass is applied. (A. J. P., xxv. 144.)* 
For table showing value of different kinds of European isinglass, see P. J. Tr., 1884, p. 900. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Isinglass lias no peculiar medical properties. It may 
be given internally, in the form of jelly, as a slightly nutritious article of diet; but it has no 
advantage over the jelly made from calves’ feet. Three drachms impart sufficient consistency to 
a pint of water. It is employed for clarifying liquors, and imparting lustre to various woven 
fabrics. Added in small quantities to vegetable jellies, it gives them a tremulous appearance, 
which they lack when unmixed. As a test of tannin it is strongly recommended by Prof. Wm, 
T. Wenzell, who uses it instead of hide powder in the estimation of tannin. (A. J. P., 1894, 
447.) It forms the coating of court-piaster. 
ILLICIUM. U. S. Illicium. [Star-Anise.] 
“ The fruit of Illicium verum, Hooker filius (nat. ord. Magnoliaceae).” U. S. 
Chinese Anise, Fructus Anisi Stellati; Semen Badiani, Badiane, Anise 6toil6, Fr.; Sternanis, G. 
Of the genus Illicium, seven species are recognized, of which two are found on the Atlantic 
coast of Southern North America, two in Hindostan, and three in China and Japan. Many 
of the species are possessed of aromatic properties. I. Jloridanum, a small evergreen tree or 
shrub with oblong-lanceolate, acuminate leaves, which grows westward from Florida along the 
coast bounding the Gulf of Mexico, has its bark, leaves, and probably also seed-vessels endowed 
with a spicy odor and taste, analogous to those of anise. Another species, 1. parvijlorum, a 
shrub found by Michaux in the hilly regions of Georgia and Carolina, has a flavor closely 
resembling that of sassafras root. A decoction of the seeds is said to produce violent gastro- 
intestinal irritation, followed by motor and sensory paralysis, with convulsions and death if 
the dose have been sufficient. E. Barral (Revue Gen. de. Clin., Oct. 1889) states that he has 
obtained a poisonous glucoside from the kernel. The Illicium anisatum is a small tree, twenty- 
five or thirty feet high, bearing small yellow and white flowers. As was pointed out by Mr. 
Piry in 1878, and confirmed by Dr. Bretschneider, star-anise is chiefly produced in the extreme 
southeast portion of' China, in the provinces of Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, especially in the 
mountainous region between the Tso-kiang and the Yu-kiang, and also in Annam, and finds 
exit principally through the port of Pakhoi. Although Bentley and Trimen give I. anisatum 
as the botanical source of star-anise, yet the assertion of Bretschneider that the botanical 
source of the plant is unknown, led to seeds being sent from the Hong-Kong Botanical Gar- 
dens to Kew, and a successful cultivation resulted in the description by Sir Joseph Hooker of 
a new species of Illicium, under the name of I. verum. (Bot. Mag., t. 7005, July, 1888.) The 
leading features in the plant appear to be the solitary axillary globular flowers, which do not 
expand fully, the segments remaining convex, the inner segments being red, and the ten 
stamens, in which the filament forms with the connective an avoid body. The peduncles are 
curved and barely half an inch in length. 
Illicium anisatum was examined by C. E. Schlegel (A. J. P., 1885, p. 426), who found saponin 
in the aqueous extract; in the alcoholic extract a crystalline principle of a strong musk-like 
odor, which did not show alkaloidal or glucosidal reactions ; and oil of star-anise. I. floridanum 
was examined by Henry C. C. Maisch (A. J. P1885, p. 278), who obtained from the leaves, 
besides essential oil, crystals of a glucoside to which probably the bitter taste of the leaves is 
due. The root-bark and the capsules both yielded a neutral crystalline principle insoluble in 
alcohol and ether, but soluble in chloroform, melting at 110° C. (230° F.). 
The I. religiosum, or shikimi, of India, is very poisonous, causing vomiting and epileptiform 
(IL-LI'CI-UM.) 
* Japanese Isinglass. Two forms of this substance are described by Mr. Hanbury, one in irregularly four-sided 
sticks, about eleven inches long, very light and porous, the other in long shrivelled strips about one-eighth of an inch 
thick. It is translucent, yellowish white, without smell or taste, insoluble in cold water, but swelling up and soften- 
ing under its influence, and dissolved in great measure by boiling water, with which it gelatinizes on cooling. The 
peculiarities of this substance are owing to a principle denominated gelose by Payen, which resembles gelatin in its 
gelatinizing property, but differs in its chemical relations, and is probably peculiar. It’resembles the carrageenin of 
Irish moss, but has a greater gelatinizing power. The jelly formed by dissolving it in boiling water and allowing tbe 
solution to cool requires a higher temperature to liquefy it than gelatin jelly, and does not melt in the mouth. 
Gelose differs from gelatin in not being precipitated by tannic acid, and from rice jelly in not being rendered blue 
by iodine. Japan isinglass is used for the same purposes as that of animal origin. It is derived, according to Mr. 
Hanbury, from different species of various genera of sea-weed, and especially Gelidium corncum. (See A. J. P., 1860, 
p. 354.) The term Agar Agar, in the East Indies, is applied to several sea-weeds prepared for food. (See Part II.; 
also Proc. A. P. A., xxvi. 173; P. J. Tr., xi. 137.) Illicium. 
727 
PART I. 
convulsions, with dilated pupil and exceedingly cyanosed countenance :* in it has been found by 
Mr. J. F. Eykman (/J. J. Tr., xi. 1046) a crystalline principle, for which the name of shikiviine 
or sikimine j- has been proposed. The accompanying cuts portray the differences in the cap- 
sules of several species. 
Illieium anisatum. 
Illicium religiosum. 
Illicium griflithii. 
Illicium magus. 
Properties. “The fruit is pedunculate and consists of eight stellately arranged carpels, 
which are boat-shaped, about 10 Mm. long, rather woody, wrinkled, straight-beaked, brown, 
dehiscent on the upper suture, internally reddish-brown, glossy, and containing a single, flattish, 
oval, glossy, brownish-yellow seed; odor anise-like ; taste of the carpels sweet and aromatic, 
and of the seeds oily. Star-anise should not be confounded with the very similar but poisonous 
fruit of Illicium anisatum Linne (Illicium religiosum Siebold), the carpels of which are more 
woody, shrivelled, and have a thin, mostly curved beak, a faint, clove-like odor, and an unpleasant 
* The following table gives the distinctive characters which, according to Mr. J. F. Eykman, distinguish the oil 
of Illicium religiosum from allied oils (P. J. Tr., xi. 1048): 
01. Anisi Vulgaris. 
Oleum Fceniculi. 
Ol. Ulicii Anisati. 
Ol. Illicii Religiosi. 
Constituents. . . 
Chiefly solid and liquid 
anethol. 
Small quantity of ter- 
pene boiling at 190° 
C., and liquid and 
solid anethol. 
Chiefly solid and liq- 
uid anethol. 
Rather much of a ter- 
pene boiling at 173° 
to 176° C.; liquid an- 
ethol boiling at 232° 
to 233° C. 
Melting Point . . 
+6° to +18° C. 
—2° to +18° C. 
About 0° C. 
Not solid when cooled 
to 20° C. 
Specific Gravity . 
About 0-903. 
0-94 to 0-998. 
0-978. 
1-006. 
Molecular Rota- 
tion. 
0° to -4-0*5°. 
+13° to +19-6°. 
0° to —0-4.°, 
—8-6°. 
Alcoholic Hydro- 
chloric Acid. 
Colorless, afterwards 
reddish, then pale 
red. 
Colorless. 
Colorless. 
Colorless, afterwards 
blue. 
Chloral Reagent . 
Colorless, afterwards 
yellow and brownish. 
Colorless, then beauti- 
ful red. 
Colorless, then beau- 
tiful red. 
Colorless, afterwards 
dirty brown-yellow. 
Ammoniacal Sil- 
ver Solution. 
In 24 hours no reduc- 
tion. 
Like ol. anisi vulgaris. 
Like ol. anisi vul- 
garis. 
Reduction in a few 
hours. 
Hager's Reaction 
In alcohol, a portion of 
the sulphuric acid 
and oil mixture re- 
mains undissolved as 
a thick mass adhering 
to the sides of the 
tube. 
Mixture of oil, sul- 
phuric acid, and alco- 
hol is perfectly clear. 
Like ol. anisi vul- 
garis. 
Mixture is nearly clear; 
separation of a little 
reddish-white deposit. 
10 drops of oil, 
with 60 drops of 
ether and about 
0*15 gramme of 
sodium. 
Colorless; after 4 hours 
the mixture nearly 
colorless; deposit yel- 
lowish white. 
Colorless: after 4 
hours liquid and 
deposit yellow. 
Colorless; quickly blu- 
ish ; after 4 hours 
liquid pale yellow, de- 
posit yellow. 
f Sikimine is violently poisonous, belonging to the group of convulsants of which picrotoxin is the type. Plugge 
and Schutte associate in this group—Dioscorine, the alkaloid of Dioscorea hirsuta; Cicutoxine, the alkaloid of 
Cicuta virosa; Coriamyrtin, a glucoside of Coriaria myrtifolia; DigitalirSsine and Toxirisine, prepared by Schmiede- 
berg from digitalin and digitoxin ; Phytolaccatoxine, the alkaloid of Phytolacca acinosa; Sikimine; CEnanthotoxine, 
the alkaloid obtained from the (Enanthe crocata, by Pohl; Isonitroso-anilacStone, an artificial substance prepared 
by Holleman. (See Archiv. Internat. d. Pharmacodyn., iv., 1897.) 728 
Infusa. 
PART I. 
taste.” TJ. S. Star-anise is used principally as a source of oil of anise, which is prepared by 
distillation not only in Southwestern China, but also in enormous quantities in Annam, where 
it is enclosed in tinned vessels and sent into commerce through China. 
Eykman (Pharm. Journ., 1885, p. 985) has shown that in the essential oil of the fruit of 
Illicium religiosum safirol, C10H1002, is found, accompanied by eugenol, C10H120„. On the 
other hand, the chief constituent of the oil of Illicium anisatum is anethol, C10H120. The 
constituents of low boiling point in star-anise oil, consisting of terpenes essentially, have been 
reported upon by the chemists of Schimmel & Co. (Semi-annual Report, April, 1893). They find 
dextro-pinene, boiling at 157° to 163° C. (314-6° to 325-4° F.), and Isevo-phellandrene, boiling at 
from 170° to 175° C. (338° to 347° F.). The medical properties of the oil of star-anise are 
probably similar to those of oil of anise, for which its oil has been largely substituted. 
INFUSA. U. S. Infusions 
(iN-FU'gA.) 
Tisanes, Infusions, Fr.; Infusionen, Aufgiisse, G. 
These are aqueous solutions obtained by treating with water, without the aid of ebullition, 
vegetable products only partially soluble in that liquid. The water employed may be hot or 
cold, according to the objects to be accomplished. Infusions are generally prepared by pouring 
boiling water upon the vegetable substance and macerating in a tightly closed vessel till the 
liquid cools. The soluble principles are thus extracted more rapidly, and, as a rule, in a larger 
proportion, than at a lower temperature. Some substances, moreover, are dissolved in this 
manner which are nearly or quite insoluble in cold water. A prolonged application of heat 
is in some instances desirable; and this may be effected by placing the vessel near the fire. 
Cold water is preferred when the active principle is highly volatile, when it is injured by heat, 
or when any substance of difficult solubility at a low temperature exists in the vegetable, which 
it is desirable to avoid in the infusion. A longer continuance of the maceration is necessary 
in this case ; and in warm weather there is sometimes danger that spontaneous decomposition 
may commence before the process is completed. When a strong infusion is required, the 
process of percolation may be advantageously resorted to. The water employed should be free 
from saline impurities, which frequently produce precipitates and render the infusion turbid. 
Fresh river, rain, or distilled water is usually preferable to that of pumps or springs, except 
when the latter are known to produce water which will not react with any of the constituents 
of the infusion. 
The substance to be acted on should he sliced or bruised, or in the state of powder; but, 
unless when percolation is employed, this last condition is seldom requisite, and is always in- 
convenient, as it requires that the infusion should be filtered through paper in order completely to 
separate the undissolved portion. In other cases it is sufficient to strain it through tine linen 
or muslin. When percolation is resorted to, the substance should be more or less finely pow- 
dered. The United States Pharmacopoeia furnishes a general formula for infusions, which is 
to be used when the proportions are not specified. In the U. S. P. 1880 the strength of such 
infusions was fixed at 10 per cent. Experience has shown, however, that this was too strong 
for general purposes, and in the U. S. P. 1890, 5 per cent, has been chosen as the limit. 
General Formula for Infusions, U. S. P. 
“ An ordinary Infusion, the strength of which is not directed by the physician, nor specified 
by the Pharmacopoeia, shall be prepared by the following formula : 
“ Take of 
The Substance, coarsely comminuted, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; 
Boiling Water, one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, fluidrachms] ; 
Water, a sufficient quantity, 
To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 65 fluidrachms]. 
“ Put the substance into a suitable vessel provided with a cover, pour upon it the Boiling 
Water, cover the vessel tightly, and let it stand for half an hour. Then strain, and pass 
enough Water through the strainer to make the Infusion measure one thousand cubic centimeters 
[or 33 fluidounces, 6? fluidrachms]. 
“ Caution.—The strength of Infusions of energetic or powerful substances should he specially 
prescribed by the physician.” XJ. S. PART I. 
Infusa. 
729 
Infusions are usually prepared in glazed earthenware or porcelain vessels fitted with covers. 
Mr. Brande suggests the use of clean metallic vessels, which, when finely polished, retain the 
heat for a longer time ; but they are also more liable to chemical alteration, and may sometimes 
injuriously affect the preparation. Vessels of block-tin are generally well adapted for the 
purpose.* 
As infusions do not keep well, especially in warm weather, they should he made extempo- 
raneously and in small quantities. In this country they are usually prepared in families, and 
the propriety of their introduction into the Pharmacopoeia has been doubted ; hut it is desira- 
ble to have certain fixed standards for the regulation of the medical practitioner, and it is 
sometimes convenient to direct infusions from the apothecary, for whose guidance official for- 
mulas are necessary. Physicians would, indeed, find an advantage in more frequently direct- 
ing them to be prepared by the pharmacist, instead of leaving their preparation to the careless- 
ness or want of skill of attendants upon the sick. Infusions may he kept during hot weather, 
and for many months, by straining them while hot, and pouring them at once into bottles pro- 
vided with accurately ground stoppers. The bottle must be full, the stopper being made to 
displace its bulk of the fluid. A common bottle with a cork stopper may be used, if the soft- 
ened cork be forced into the full bottle, tied down, and at once dipped into hot sealing-wax. 
The hotter the liquid and the freer from air the better will the infusion keep. Sterilization 
of infusions by heating them to the boiling point, then preserving in bottles which have been 
kept hot to destroy germs, and stoppered with sterilized cotton, is effective, particularly if the 
bottles have a stop-cock near the bottom to draw the infusion when wanted. Prof. Alm6ns 
has proposed a very efficient method of preserving infusions. (A. J. P., April, 1875.) It is as 
follows. The infusion or decoction is heated for some time in a wrater-bath at 100° C. (212° 
F.), and the bottle is then fitted with a tight cork, through w’hich a glass tube passes, lightly 
filled with cotton wool. The cork has a second opening, through which a glass tube passes 
nearly to the bottom of the bottle; this tube is bent at a sharp angle and has fitted to it a 
piece of india-rubber tubing, to which a pinch-cock is attached, by means of wdiich the con- 
tents may be drawn as wanted. By making very concentrated infusions, as suggested by Mr. 
Donovan, with a mixture of three parts of water and one part of alcohol, they may be long 
* Alsop’s Infusion Jar. This presents a very neat and effectual method of making the hot infusions. It consists 
of an earthenware mug, represented in the marginal figure, with a spout (d) proceeding from the bottom, and 
placed closely to the side of the vessel to prevent fracture; a perforated plate or diaphragm (b), supported on a 
ledge (c), at about one-quarter or one-third of the height of the vessel from the top; and a lid (a), which may be 
fastened on by a string through holes (/f). The material to be submitted to infusion is placed on the perforated 
plate, and the hot water poured in so as to cover it, the vessel having been previously warmed so as not to chill the 
liquid. As the water becomes impregnated, it acquires an increased specific gravity, and sinks to the bottom, its 
place being supplied by the unsaturated portion ; and this circulation goes on until the whole of the soluble matter 
is extracted. In order to maintain a due warmth, the vessel may be placed upon a stove or an iron plate near the fire. 
The advantage of the process is that the material is subjected to the sol- 
vent power of the least impregnated portion of the menstruum. Such jars 
may now be had in Philadelphia. In order that the vessel may be adapted 
for the preparation of different quantities of infusions, it would be an ad- 
vantage to have ledges arranged within, at different heights, so that the 
diaphragm may be supported at any desirable point. The surface of the 
liquid (e) should of course always be above the medicinal substance placed 
upon the diaphragm. (See A. J. P., viii. 89.) 
Squire’s Infusion Mug. Mr. Squire, of London, has modified this jar 
by adding a colander of queensware, which is closely covered with a lid, 
and descends into the jar so as to form a diaphragm for the support of the 
substance to be infused. It has 
the advantage that the material, 
after having been exhausted, 
may be lifted out without disturb- 
ing the infusion. In the margin 
is a figure of the mug. It is made 
of queensware, of the capacity 
of two pints, into which a thim- 
ble-shaped colander descends to 
somewhat less than half its 
depth, supported on the rim of 
the mug by a projecting ledge, 
with a carefully fitted cover, 
which closes the whole. The 
substance to be submitted to in- 
fusion is introduced into the colander either before or after it has been fitted to the mug; the water, hot or cold, as 
the case may be, is then poured in so as to fill the lower vessel, and cover the materials in the upper; and, the cover 
having been applied, the vessel is set aside for the length of time required. The colander is then to be lifted out, 
and the infusion is ready for use. 730 
Infum. 
PART I. 
kept, and when used can be diluted with water to the proper strength. Thus, if made four 
times as strong as the official infusion, they may be diluted with three measures of water. 
The proportion of alcohol would thus be very small; but it might still be medically injurious; 
and infusions should not be prepared in this way unless with the cognizance of the prescriber. 
Mr. Battley, of London, has introduced a set of preparations, which he calls inspissated, infu- 
sions, the advantages of which are that the virtues are extracted by cold water, are not injured 
by heat used in the evaporation, are in a concentrated state, and are not impaired by time. 
To prepare them he macerates the material, coarsely powdered, bruised, or finely sliced, in 
twice its weight of cold distilled water, pressing the solid matter into the liquid repeatedly by 
a rammer or the hand ; then allows the liquid to drain out, or expresses it in the case of highly 
absorbent substances; and repeats the process, with an amount of water equal to that which 
has been separated, until the strength is exhausted. Four or six hours of maceration are 
usually sufficient. The infusion is then to be concentrated by evaporation, at a temperature 
not exceeding 71’1° C. (160° F.) to the sp. gr. 1-200, and as much alcohol is to be added 
as will make its sp. gr. 1-100. These preparations are very analogous to the fluid extracts 
already treated of. As a rule, it would probably be preferable to prepare the infusion by the 
process of percolation. The inspissated infusions must be diluted when administered. The 
presence of alcohol, though in small quantity, would sometimes be a serious objection. (P. J. 
Tr., x. 129.) Concentrated infusions of the strength of 50 per cent, were introduced into the 
British Pharmacopoeia (1898) ; they are mostly made by percolation, and are termed “ Liquors.” 
(See Liquor Chiratse, Concentratus.) This certainly leads to confusion in nomenclature, and 
it is difficult to understand why they were not called concentrated infusions, particularly as 
their almost universal use is for making ordinary infusions by diluting with water. 
As we have already treated of the chemical relations and medical properties of the sub- 
stances used in infusion, it would be useless repetition to enlarge upon these points in the 
following details. We shall touch upon them only in cases of peculiar interest, or where 
changes requiring particular notice may grow out of the nature of the process* 
* At the several revisions of the Pharmacopoeias the following Infusions have been dropped from the official lists. 
We give the former official formulae. 
Infusum Eupatorii. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Thoroughwort. “Take of Thoroughwort or Boneset [the dried 
herb] a troyounce; Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain.” As a tonic, 
this infusion should be taken cold in the dose of one or two fluidounces (30 or 60 C.c.) three or four times a day, or 
more frequently; as an emetic and a diaphoretic, in large tepid draughts. It is popularly called boneset tea. 
Infusum Juniper i. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Juniper. “Take of Juniper, bruised, a troyounce; Boiling Water 
a pint. Macerate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain.” The whole quantity may be taken in twenty-four 
hours, in doses of from two to three fluidounces (60-90 C.c.). 
Inf usum Pareirse. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Pareira Brava. “Take of Pareira Brava, bruised, a troyounce; 
Boiling Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain.” The infusion of pareira brava is 
highly esteemed by some English practitioners as a remedy in irritation and chronic inflammation of the urinary 
passages, and has been found useful in catarrh of the bladder. The doSe is from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
Brodie employed a decoction of the root, which he prepared by boiling half an ounce in three pints of water down 
to a pint, and gave in the quantity of from eight to twelve fluidounces daily. The British Pharmacopoeia has 
substituted the decoction for the infusion. 
Infusum Picis Liquidse. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Tar. Tar Water. “Take of Tar a pint; Water four pints. 
Mix them, and shake the mixture frequently during twenty-four hours. Then pour off the infusion, and filter 
through paper.” Water takes from tar a small portion of acetic acid, empyrCumatic oil including creosote, and 
resinous matter, acquiring a sharp empyreumatic taste, the odor of tar, and the color of Madeira wine. Thus im- 
pregnated, it is stimulant and diuretic, and may be taken in the quantity of from one to two pints daily. It is also 
used as a wash in chronic cutaneous affections, and is said to have proved beneficial, by injection into the bladder, 
in some cases of chronic cystitis. 
Infusum Salvise. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Sage. “Take of Sage half a troyounce; Boiling Water a pint. 
Macerate for half an hour in a covered vessel, and strain.” This preparation is less used internally than as a 
gargle, or as a vehicle for other substances, such as alum, employed in this way. 
Infusum Spigelise. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Spigelia. “ Take of Spigelia half a troyounce ; Boiling Water a pint. 
Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain.” The dose of this infusion, for a child two or three years 
old, is from four fluidrachms to a fluidounce (15-30 C.c.); for an adult, from four to eight fluidounces (118-236 
C.c.), repeated morning and evening. A quantity of senna equal to that of the spigelia is usually added, to insure 
a cathartic effect. 
Infusum Taraxaci. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Dandelion. “Take 6f Dandelion, bruised, two troyounces ; Boiling 
Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain.” The dose is a wineglassful two or three 
times a day, or oftener. 
Infusum Zingiberis. U. S. 1870. Infusion of Ginger. “Take of Ginger, bruised, half a troyounce; Boiling 
Water a pint. Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain.” The dose of this infusion is two fluid- 
ounces (60 C.c.). 
Infustim Catechu. Br. 1885. Infusion of Catechu. “Take of Catechu, in coarse powder, one hundred and sixty 
grains; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, thirty grains; Boiling Distilled Water, ten fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Infuse in 
a covered vessel, for half an hour, and strain.” Br. An agreeable mode of administering catechu. Dose, from one 
to three fluidounces (30-90 C.c.). PART I. 
Infusum Aurantii.—Infusum Calumbse. 
731 
INFUSUM AURANTII. Br. Infusion of Orange Peel. 
(IN-FU'§UM AU-KAN'TI-I—aw-rfin'shg-I.) 
Tisane d’Ecoree d’Orange, Fr.; Pomeranzenschalen-Aufguss, G. 
“ Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, 
boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen 
minutes; strain.” Br. 
A grateful stomachic. Dose, from one-half to one fluidounce (15-30 C.c.). 
INFUSUM AURANTII COMPOSITUM. Br. Compound Infusion of 
Orange Peel. 
(IN-FU'§UM AU-RAN'TI-I COM-P5§'l-TtJM.) 
Tisane d’Ecorce d’Orange composee, Fr.; Pomeranzen- und Citronenschalen-Aufguss, G. 
“ Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small, £ ounce (Imperial) or 25 grammes; Fresh Lemon 
Peel, cut small; J ounce (Imp.) or 12-5 grammes; Cloves, bruised, 55 grains (Imp.) or 6-25 
grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in 
a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; strain.” Br. 
A grateful stomachic in the dose of from one-half to one fluidounce (15-30 C.c.). 
INFUSUM BUCHU. Br. Infusion of Buchu 
(IN-FU'§UM BU'gHU—bu'ku.) 
Infusum Diosmae, s. Barosmae; Tisane de Bucco, FrBuchuaufguss, G. 
“ Buchu Leaves, freshly broken, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes ; Distilled Water, boiling, 
1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
It has the odor, taste, and medical virtues of the leaves, and affords a convenient method of 
administering the medicine. Dose, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
INFUSUM CALUMBA. Br. Infusion of Calumba 
Tisane de Colombo, Fr.; Kolombo-Infusion, G. 
“ Calumba Root, thinly sliced, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, cold, 1 
pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse for half an hour; strain.” Br. 
The infusion of columbo is apt to spoil very quickly, especially in warm weather. It has 
been generally supposed that the cold infusion would keep better than the hot, because it con- 
tains no starch. Mr. Thomas Greenish, however, upon comparing specimens of the two in- 
fusions, found that the spontaneous change began sooner in the cold than in the hot, though 
the former was clearer. Columbo contains starch and albumen. Cold water extracts the latter 
without the former; hot water the former with comparatively little of the latter, which is par- 
tially coagulated by the heat. Both starch and albumen are liable to spontaneous change ; but 
the former is much the more permanent of the two. Hence it is, according to Mr. Greenish, 
(IN-FU'§UM CA-LUM'B^!.) 
Infusum Cusso. Br. 1885. Infusion of Kousso. “ Take of Kousso, in coarse powder, one-half an ounce [avoir- 
dupois] ; Boiling Distilled Water eight fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Infuse in a covered vessel, for fifteen min- 
utes. Not to be strained.” Br. The whole may be taken for a dose. The infusion of brayera (kousso) was very 
properly dropped at the 1890 revision of the U. S. P. The old formula is as follows: “Brayera, in No. 20 powder, 
six parts [or one ounce avoirdupois]; Boiling Water, one hundred parts [or one pint]. Pour the Boiling Water 
upon the Brayera, and let it macerate in a covered vessel until cool. This infusion should be dispensed without 
straining it.” U. S. 1880. 
Infusum. Jaborandi. Br. 1885. Infusion of Jaborandi. “ Take of Jaborandi, cut small, half an ounce [avoirdu- 
pois] ; Boiling Distilled Water ten fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Infuse in a covered vessel, for half an hour, and 
strain.” Br. This preparation is efficient, but from its nauseousness and tendency to sicken the stomach is inferior 
to the alkaloid or even the fluid extract. Dose, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
Infusum Lini. Br. 1885. Infusion of Linseed. “ Take of Linseed one hundred and fifty grains ; Dried Liquorice 
Root, in No. 20 powder, fifty grains; Boiling Distilled Water ten fluidounces. Infuse in a covered vessel, for two 
hours, and strain.” Br. This is nearly identical with the Compound Infusion of Flaxseed of the U. S. P. 1870. It 
is a useful demulcent drink in inflammatory affections of the mucous membrane of the lungs and urinary passages. 
It may be taken ad libitum. 
Infusum Maticse. Br. 1885. Infusion of Matico. “Take of Matico Leaves, cut small, half an ounce [avoirdu- 
pois]; Boiling Distilled Water, ten fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Infuse in a covered vessel, for half an hour, and 
strain.” Br. The dose of this infusion is two fluidounces (60 C.c.). 
Infusum Valerianae. Br. 1885. Infusion of Valerian. “Take of Valerian Rhizome, bruised, a quarter of an 
ounce [avoirdupois] ; Boiling Distilled Water ten fluidounces [Imp. meas.]. Infuse in a covered vessel, for one hour, 
and strain.” Br. The dose of this infusion is two fluidounces (60 C.c.), repeated three or four times a day, or more 
frequently. 732 
Infusum Caryophylli.—Infusum Cinchonae. 
PAET I. 
that the hot infusion keeps best. Indeed, he ascribes the change which takes place in the 
starch of the hot infusion chiefly to the agency of a little albumen which has escaped coagu- 
lation. According to these views, the best plan of preparing infusion of columbo is to exhaust 
the root with cold water, by which the starch is left behind, and then to heat the infusion to 
the boiling point in order to coagulate the albumen. (A. J. P., xviii. 141 ; from P. J. Tr.) 
Upon comparing specimens of the cold and the hot infusion, we have not found the results of 
Mr. Greenish fully confirmed. The cold infusion appeared to keep better than the hot. Never- 
theless the plan of preparing the infusion above proposed is probably the best. The infusion 
of columbo is not disturbed by salts of iron, and may be conveniently administered in connec- 
tion with them. The dose is one fluidounce (30 C.c.) three or four times a day. 
INFUSUM CARYOPHYLLI. Br. Infusion of Cloves 
(IN-FU'§UM CiR-Y-O-PHYL'LI.) 
Tisane de Girofle, Fr.; Gewiirznelken-Infusion, G. 
“ Cloves, bruised, \ ounce (Imperial) or 25 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint (Imp. 
meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; strain.” Br. 
The infusion of cloves affords precipitates with lime water, and with the soluble salts of 
iron, zinc, lead, silver, and antimony. (Phillips.) Dose, one fluidounce (30 C.c.). 
INFUSUM CASCARILLAE. Br. Infusion of Cascarilla. 
(IN-FU'§UM ClS-CA-RIL'LiE.) 
Tisane de Casearille, Fr.; Kaskarilla-Aufguss, G. 
“ Cascarilla, in No. 10 powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 
1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes ; 
strain.” Br. 
This infusion affords precipitates with lime water, infusion of galls, silver nitrate, lead acetate 
and subacetate, zinc sulphate, and ferrous sulphate. Dose, one fluidounce (30 C.c.). 
INFUSUM CHIRATiE. Br. Infusion of Chiretta. 
(IN-FU'§C’M OHI-RA'TiE—kj-ra'te.) 
Tisane de Chirette, Fr.; Chiretta-Thee, 0. 
“ Chiretta, cut small, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 
pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
The dose of this simple bitter infusion is from one-half to one fluidounce (15-30 C.c.). 
INFUSUM CINCHONA. U. S. (Br.) Infusion of Cinchona. 
Infusum Cinchonae Acidum, Br.; Acid Infusion of Cinchona; Infusion of Yellow Bark; Infusion of Calisaya 
Bark; Tisane de Quinquina jaune, Fr.; Kalisaya-llindenaufguss, G. 
“ Cinchona, in No. 40 powder, sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Aromatic Sub 
phuric Acid, ten cubic centimeters [or 162 minims] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 391 minims]. Mix the Acid with Jive hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of Water, and moisten the powder with thirty 
cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 minims] of the mixture; pack it firmly in a conical glass 
percolator, and gradually pour upon it, first, the remainder of the mixture, and afterwards 
Water, until the Infusion measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 391 
minims].” U. S. 
“ Red Cinchona Bark, in No. 40 powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Aromatic 
Sulphuric Acid, 2 Ji. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 12-5 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, boiling, 
1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Mix the Red Cinchona Bark with the Distilled 
Water in a covered vessel; add the Aromatic Sulphuric Acid ; infuse for one hour ; strain.” Br. 
Though the infusion with boiling water is more quickly prepared than the cold infusion, and 
therefore better adapted to cases of emergency, yet the former is a more elegant preparation, 
not turbid like the latter, and at least equally efficient. We therefore prefer the process of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, provided it be skilfully conducted. 
The U. S. infusion is an efficient preparation. Water extracts from bark quinine and cin- 
chonine kinates, but leaves behind the compounds which these principles form with the cincho- 
tannic acid. The simple infusion, therefore, is rather feeble. But the addition of the acid 
(IN-FU'§UM ClN-)3H0'NiE—Btn-kO'ne.) PART I. 
Infusum Cusparise.—Infusum Digitalis. 
733 
insures the solution of all or nearly all the active matter. Dr. Geo. B. Wood placed much 
reliance on this infusion. It would be best to macerate the bark with the acidulated water 
some time before it is introduced into the percolator. The infusion of cinchona, made without 
acid, affords precipitates with the alkalies, alkaline carbonates, and alkaline earths ; the soluble 
salts of iron, zinc, and silver; corrosive mercuric chloride, arsenous acid, and tartar emetic; 
gelatinous solutions; and various vegetable infusions and decoctions, as those of galls, chamo- 
mile, columbo, cascarilla, horseradish, cloves, catechu, orange-peel, foxglove, senna, rhubarb, 
valerian, and simaruba. In some instances the precipitate occurs immediately, in others not 
for several hours. Few, however, of these substances diminish the efficacy of the infusion, as 
they do not affect the active principles. The alkalies, alkaline earths, and vegetable astringents 
are really incompatible. As gallic, tartaric, and oxalic acids form salts with quinine of some- 
what difficult solubility, the neutral and soluble gallates, tartrates, and oxalates produce in the 
infusion slight precipitates of corresponding salts of the alkaloids; but these are redissolved 
by an excess of the acid. Antimony and potassium tartrate does not precipitate the alkaloids. 
Solutions of iodine are incompatible, forming with the alkaloids insoluble compounds. For an 
account of the chemical reactions of the infusions of different varieties of cinchona bark, see 
A. J. P. ix. 128. The simple infusion of cinchona may be advantageously administered in 
cases which require tonic treatment but do not call for the full powers of the bark. The acid 
infusion has all the powers of cinchona itself. The medium dose is one fluidounce (30 C.c.), 
equivalent to a drachm of the bark. 
INFUSUM CUSPARI/E. Br. Infusion of Cusparia 
(IN-FU'§UM CUS-PA'RI-^E.) 
Tisane d’Angusture, Fr.; Angustura-Aufguss, G. 
“ Cusparia Bark, in No. 20 powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, 
boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen 
minutes; strain.” Br. 
Under the name of Infusum Angusturse this preparation was official in the U. S. Pharm. 
1870, made in the proportion of half a troyounce of Angustura bark in a pint of water. The 
dose of the infusion is two fluidounces (60 C.c.), repeated every two, three, or four hours. 
INFUSUM DIGITALIS. U. S., Br. Infusion of Digitalis 
Tisane de Digitale, Fr.; Fingerhutaufguss, G.; Infusion of Foxglove. 
“ Digitalis, bruised, fifteen grammes [or 231 grains] ; Alcohol, one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Cinnamon Water, one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 
5 fluidounces, 35 minims]; Boiling Water, five hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 
435 minims] ; Cold Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 391 minims]. Upon the Digitalis, contained in a suitable vessel, pour the Boiling 
Water, and allow it to macerate until the mixture is cold. Then strain, add the Alcohol and 
Cinnamon Water to the strained liquid, and pass enough Cold Water through the residue on 
the strainer to make the product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 391 
minims].” U. S. 
“ Digitalis Leaves, in No. 20 powder, 60 grains (Imperial) or 6-8 grammes ; Distilled Water, 
boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen 
minutes; strain.” Br. 
The U. S. P. infusion has, in our opinion, been improved. Cinnamon is used solely as a 
flavoring ingredient, as it has never been present in sufficient quantity to serve any other pur- 
pose. When either the tincture or the aromatic itself is used, precipitation is sure to take 
place. Cinnamon water is unobjectionable. The present process, which is modelled after the 
formula of L. Gr. Blakeslee (Pharm. Era, 1887, p. 288), yields a preparation which, while not 
differing essentially in strength from the former official infusion, keeps better and does not 
deposit to any extent. The addition of 10 per cent, of glycerin would be a still greater im- 
provement. Mr. D. E. Prall (A. J. P., 1878, p. 423) proved that the abundant precipitate in 
the old infusion was caused by the tincture of cinnamon, and recommended a simple infusion 
without any aromatic. J. W. England (A. J. P., 1892, 361) prefers to omit cinnamon entirely 
from the preparation and add ammonia water (90 minims in a pint). Dr. Gr. L. Humphreys 
suggests the addition of 8 Grm. of powdered cinnamon to the official ingredients, pouring the 
boiling water upon the digitalis and cinnamon and macerating until the mixture is cold, then 
(IN-FU'§UM DI<?-I-TA'LlS.) 734 
Infusum JErgotse.—Infusum Kramerise. 
PART I. 
following the official directions, and finally filtering the infusion through unwetted filtering paper. 
( West. Drug., 1897, 162.) 
The U. S. infusion is essentially the same as that employed by Withering. It affords pre- 
cipitates with ferrous sulphate, lead acetate, tannic acid, and infusion of cinchona. The dose 
has usually been stated at half a fluidounce (15 C.c.), repeated twice a day under ordinary 
circumstances, every eight hours in urgent cases, until the system is affected. The proportion 
of digitalis is scarcely half as great in the British preparation, and the dose is proportionally 
larger. It will not escape the close observer that the stated dose of digitalis in infusion is 
much larger than in substance, for which there does not appear to be a good reason, but which 
accounts for the fact that many physicians assert that they get better results from the infusion 
than from the digitalis itself. The British Pharmacopoeia, though its infusion has only about 
half the strength of ours, gives its dose as from two to four fluidrachms (7'5-15 C.c.). 
INFUSUM ERGOTAE. Br. Infusion of Ergot 
(lN-FU'§ftM EK'GO-TjE.) 
Tisane de Seigle ergots, Fr.; Mutterkornaufguss, G. 
“ Ergot, freshly crushed, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes ; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint 
(Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
The dose of this infusion is two fluidounces (60 C.c.). 
INFUSUM GENTIANS COMPOSITUM. Br. Compound Infusion of 
Gentian. 
(in-fc'§Cm 9£n-ti-a'n2e com-p5§'i-tum.) 
Tisane de Gentiane composfie, Fr.; Enzianaufguss, G. 
“Gentian Root, thinly sliced, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 12-5 grammes; Dried Bitter-Orange 
Peel, cut small, \ ounce (Imp.) or 12'5 grammes; Fresh Lemon Peel, cut small, £ ounce (Imp.) 
or 25 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. In- 
fuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; strain.” Br. 
“Take of Gentian, in moderately coarse powder, half a troyounce; Bitter Orange Peel, in 
moderately coarse powder, Coriander, in moderately coarse powder, each, sixty grains ; Alcohol 
two fluidounces; Water a sufficient quantity. Mix the Alcohol with fourteen fluidounces of 
Water, and, having moistened the mixed powders with three fluidrachms of the menstruum, 
pack them firmly in a conical percolator, and gradually pour upon them first the remainder of 
the menstruum, and afterwards Water, until the filtered liquid measures a pint.” U. S. 1870. 
It is, in our opinion, unfortunate that this, the most esteemed of all infusions, should not 
have been reinstated in the U. S. P. 1890 revision. We have inserted the formula of U. S. P. 
1870, as it will doubtless continue to be largely prescribed. It should be designated, however, 
as U. S. P. 1870. It has been the custom with some physicians to prescribe a concentrated 
infusion made with one-fourth the quantity of menstruum directed by the formula of U. S. P. 
1870. This permits the use of a valuable tonic with the presence of but a trifling amount of 
alcohol. This concentrated preparation keeps well, and it may be diluted with the right quan- 
tity of the proper menstruum by the pharmacist to make the infusion of U. S. P. 1870. The 
use of the alcohol is to assist in dissolving the bitter principle, and at the same time to con- 
tribute towards the preservation of the infusion, which, without this addition, is very apt to 
spoil. It has, however, been abandoned by the British Pharmacopoeia, and lemon peel substi- 
tuted : this is a very doubtful improvement. The dose is a fluidounce (30 C.c.), repeated three 
or four times a day. 
INFUSUM KRAMERIA. Br. Infusion of Krameria. 
Infusion of Rhatany; Tisane de Ratanhia, Fr.; Ratanha-Aufguss, G. 
“ Krameria Root, bruised, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes ; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint 
(Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
The infusion of rhatany is undoubtedly most efficient when prepared from the root in a 
state of moderately coarse powder by the mode of percolation with cold water, as directed in 
the U. S. process of 1870. Dose of the infusion, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
(IN-FU'§UM KKA-HE'KI-iE.) PART I. 
Infusum Lupuli.—Infusum Rhei. 
735 
INFUSUM LUPULI. Br. Infusion of Hops 
(IN-FO'§UM LU'PU-Ll.) 
Infusum Humuli, U. S. 1870; Tisane de Houblon, Fr.; Hopfenaufguss, G. 
“ Hops, freshly broken, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint 
(Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
The infusion of hops of the U. S. P. 1870 was made exactly like the above, except that the 
strength was half a troyounce to a pint. The dose of the British infusion is from one to two 
fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
INFUSUM PRUNI VIRGINIANS. U. S. Infusion of Wild Cherry. 
(IN-FU'§UM PIIU'NI VIR-IJIN-I-A'NiE.) 
Tisane d’Ecorce de Cerisier sauvage, Fr.; Wildkirschen-Thee, G. 
“ Wild Cherry, in No. 20 powder, forty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; Water, a suffi- 
cient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 391 minims]. Moisten 
the powder with sixty cubic centimeters [or 2 fluidounces, 14 minims] of Water, and macerate 
for one hour; then pack it firmly in a conical glass percolator, and gradually pour Water upon it 
until the Infusion measures one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 391 minims].” U. S. 
This is a peculiarly suitable object for official direction, as, in consequence of the volatile 
nature of one of its active ingredients, and for another reason (see Prunus Virginiana), it is 
better prepared with cold water than in the ordinary mode. The infusion of wild cherry bark 
is one of the preparations to which the process of percolation or displacement is well adapted. 
In this way the virtues of the bark can be more rapidly and thoroughly exhausted than by 
maceration alone. In order to allow time for the reaction necessary to the production of the 
hydrocyanic acid, an hour’s preliminary maceration is directed, which might perhaps be advan- 
tageously somewhat lengthened. If kept in a warm place this preparation undergoes a rapid 
alteration, and even under the best of circumstances it is unstable. According to the experi- 
ments of Mr. J. B. Moore (A. J. P., 1873, p. 242), confirmed by our own experience, the addition 
of two fluidounces of glycerin to the pint of menstruum is of great advantage in delaying the 
change. When properly made, infusion of wild cherry bark is beautifully transparent, has 
the color of Madeira wine, and the agreeable bitterness and peculiar flavor of the bark. The 
dose is from two to three fluidounces (60-90 C.c.) from three to six times a day. 
INFUSUM QUASSI./E. Br. Infusion of Quassia 
(IN-FU'§UM QUAS'SI-iE.) 
Tisane de Quassie, Fr.; Quassia-Aufguss, G. 
“ Quassia Wood, finely rasped, 88 grains (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Distilled Water, cold, 
1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes ; 
strain.” Br. 
Boiling water may be employed when it is desirable to obtain the preparation quickly; but 
cold water alfords a clearer infusion. The fifteen minutes maceration directed in the British 
Pharmacopoeia, considering that cold water is used, appears to us to be too short for the 
exhaustion of the wood. The dose is two fluidounces (60 C.c.) three or four times a day. 
INFUSUM RHEI. Br. Infusion of Rhubarb. 
Tisane de Rhubarbe, Fr.; Rhabarber-Aufguss, G. 
“Rhubarb Root, in thin slices, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 
1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
In order that the rhubarb may be exhausted, it should be digested with the water near the 
fire, at a temperature somewhat less than that of boiling water. It is customary to add some 
aromatic, such as cardamom, fennel-seed, or nutmeg, which improves the taste of the infusion 
and renders it more acceptable to the stomach. One drachm of either of these spices may be 
digested in connection with the rhubarb. 
This infusion may be given as a gentle laxative, in the dose of from one to two fluidounces 
(30—60 C.c.) every three or four hours till it operates. It is occasionally used as a vehicle for 
tonic, antacid, or more active cathartic medicines. The stronger acids and most metallic 
solutions are incompatible with it. 
(IN-FU'§UM BHE'f.) 736 
Infusum Rosse Addum.—Infusum Sennse. 
PART I. 
INFUSUM ROSJE ACIDUM. Br. Acid Infusion of Roses 
(IN-FU'§UM R0'§£: Ag'T-DUM.) 
Infusum Rosas Compositum, U. S. 1870; Compound Infusion of Rose; Acid Infusion of Rose; Tisane de Rose 
compose, Fr.; Saurer Rosenaufguss, G. 
“ Red-Rose Petals, dried and broken, \ ounce (Imperial), or 25 grammes; Diluted Sulphuric 
Acid, 2 jl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 12‘5 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint 
(Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Add the Diluted Sulphuric Acid to the Distilled 
Water; infuse the Red-Rose Petals in the mixture in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes; 
strain.” Br. 
The formula of the U. S. P. 1870 is preferable to that of the Br. Pharm. on account of 
the presence of sugar. It is unfortunate, in our opinion, that this elegant infusion was not 
reintroduced at the last revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. We append the formula of the 
U. S. P. 1870; “Take of Red Rose [dried petals] half a troyounce; Diluted Sulphuric Acid 
three Jtuidrachms; Sugar [refined], in coarse powder, a troyounce and a half; Boiling Water 
hvo pints and a half. Pour the Water upon the Rose in a covered glass or porcelain vessel; add 
the Acid, and macerate for half an hour. Lastly, dissolve the Sugar in the liquid, and strain.” 
u. s. 
The red rose' serves little other purpose than to impart a fine red color and a slight astrin- 
gent flavor to the preparation, which owes its medicinal virtues almost exclusively to the sul- 
phuric acid. According to Mr. J. B. Barnes, one part of glycerin added to eight or nine parts 
of infusion of rose increases greatly its brightness and transparency. It is refrigerant and 
astringent, and affords a useful and not unpleasant drink in hemorrhages and colliquative 
sweats. It is much used by British practitioners as a vehicle for saline medicines, particularly 
magnesium sulphate, the taste of which it serves to cover. It is also employed as a gargle, 
usually in connection with acids, nitre, alum, or tincture of Cayenne pepper. The dose is two 
fluidounces (60 C.c.). 
INFUSUM SCOPARII. Br. Infusion of Broom 
(IN-FU'§UM SCO-PA'RI-!.) 
“Broom Tops, dried and bruised, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Distilled Water, 
boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen 
minutes; strain.” Br. 
This preparation has been introduced in place of the Decoction of Broom of the British 
Pharmacopoeia of 1885. Water thoroughly extracts the virtues of broom, and the quantity of 
water in each dose aids the diuretic action. Dose, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
INFUSUM SENEGA. Br. Infusion of Senega. 
(IN-FU'§UM SfiN'E-<^E.) 
Tisane de Polygale de Virginie, Fr.; Senega-Aufguss, G. 
“Senega Boot, in No. 10 powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, boil- 
ing, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for half an 
hour; strain.” Br. 
The dose of the preparation is one fluidounce (30 C.c.). 
INFUSUM SENN/E. Br. Infusion of Senna. 
(IN-FU'§UM SfiN'N^:.) 
Senna Tea; Tisane de S6n6, Fr.; Senna-Aufguss, G. 
“Senna, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Ginger, sliced, 55 grains (Imp.) or 6-25 
grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in 
a covered vessel for fifteen minutes ; strain.” Br. 
“ Take of Senna a troyounce ; Coriander, bruised, sixty grains ; Boiling Water a pint. Macer- 
ate for an hour in a covered vessel, and strain.” U. S. 1870. 
We prefer the coriander of tbe U. S. P. 1870 to the ginger of the British. The strength 
of the British preparation has been increased in the present edition of the Br. Pharm., and 
is now nearly one and a half times as great as that of the U. S. infusion. The infusion de- 
posits, on exposure to the air, a yellowish precipitate, which is said to aggravate its griping 
tendency: it should, therefore, not be made in large quantities. It is customary to prescribe 
with it manna and some one of the saline cathartics, which increase its efficacy and render it 
less painful in its operation. (See Infusum Senna, Compositum.') The dose of the infusion is PART i. 
Infusurn Sennae Compositum.—Injectio Apomorphinae Hypodermicct. 
737 
about two fluidounces (60 C.c.). The cold infusion, especially if made by percolation from the 
coarsely powdered leaves, while probably not inferior in strength to that prepared with boiling 
water, is said to be less unpleasant to the taste. 
INFUSUM SENNE COMPOSITUM. U. S. Compound Infusion of Senna. 
[Black Draught.] 
Tisane de S6n6 composge, Fr.; Senna-Aufguss, G. 
“ Senna, sixty grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Manna, one hundred and twenty 
grammes [or 4 ounces av., 102 grains] ; Magnesium Sulphate, one hundred and twenty grammes 
[or 4 ounces av., 102 grains] ; Fennel, bruised, twenty grammes [or 309 grains] ; Boiling Water, 
eight hundred cubic centimeters [or 27 fluidounces, 24 minims] ; Cold Water, a sufficient quantity, 
To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Upon the Senna and 
Fennel, contained in a suitable vessel, pour the Boiling Water, and macerate until the mixture 
is cold. Then strain with expression, dissolve in the infusion the Magnesium Sulphate and 
Manna, and again strain. Lastly, add enough Cold Water through the strainer containing the 
Senna and Fennel to make the Infusion measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluid- 
ounces, 390 minims].” U. S. 
This preparation is the Black Draught of European pharmacy, and it is an excellent form 
of administering these cathartics in a liquid condition. The dose is about four fluidounces 
(118 C.c.). 
(IN-FU'§UM SEN'NJE C0M-P5S'I-TUM.) 
INFUSUM SERPENTARIE. Br. Infusion of Serpentary. 
Tisane de Serpentaire, Fr.; Schlangenwurzel-Aufguss, G. 
“ Serpentary Rhizome, in No. 10 powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled 
Water, boiling, 1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for 
fifteen minutes ; strain.” Br. 
The dose of this preparation is one fluidounce (30 C.c.) every two hours in low forms of 
fever, but less frequently in chronic affections. 
(IN-FU'§UM SEK-PEN-TA'RI-JS.) 
INFUSUM UVE URSI. Br. Infusion of Bearberry 
(IN-F0'!JUM U'ViE UB'SI.) 
Tisane d’Uva Ursi, Fr.; Barentraubenblatter-Aufguss, G. 
“ Bearberry Leaves, bruised, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, 
1 pint (Imp. meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres. Infuse in a covered vessel for fifteen minutes ; 
strain.” Br. 
The dose is from one to two fluidounces (30—60 C.c.) three or four times a day. 
INJECTIONES HYPODERMICS. Hypodermic Injections. 
Under this head are classed preparations which are recognized in the British Pharmacopoeia 
for hypodermic application. These preparations are really of very little value, on account of 
their proneness to undergo decomposition, and are greatly inferior to the hypodermic tablets 
of various strengths which are now supplied by manufacturing pharmacists,—the size of the 
tablets not varying with the strength, because it is always necessary to use so much diluent in 
order to make the tablet of sufficient size to handle conveniently. The tablets most used con- 
tain morphine, morphine and atropine, atropine, strychnine, pilocarpine, cocaine, hyoscyamine, 
eserine, hyoscine, or caffeine; each should be readily soluble in fifteen minims of water. These 
tablets should be made official, since their convenience, permanence, and accuracy in weight 
have caused them to come into universal use. The selection of the diluent is an important 
question : very finely powdered cane sugar has been employed, hut is apt to produce local 
irritation and even abscesses. Sodium chloride has also been recommended; but the best 
diluent seems to be dried neutral sodium sulphate. 
INJECTIO APOMORPHINE HYPODERMICA. Br. Hypodermic 
Injection of Apomorphine. 
“ Apomorphine Hydrochloride, 1 grain (Imperial) or 01 gramme; Diluted Hydrochloric 
Acid, 1 minim (Imp. meas.) or 0-1 cubic centimetre ; Distilled Water, 110 minims (Imp. meas.). 
(IN-JEC'TI-O Xp-O-MOK-PHI'TOE HY-PO-DER'MI-CA—jn-jSk'shg-o.) 738 
Injectio Cocainse Hypodermica.—Inula. 
PART I. 
or 10 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Boil the Distilled Water for a few minutes; 
cool; add the Diluted Hydrochloric Acid; dissolve the Apomorphine Hydrochloride in the 
resulting liquid; add, if necessary, sufficient recently boiled and cooled Distilled Water to 
produce one hundred and ten minims (Imp. meas.) or ten cubic centimetres of the Injection. 
This Injection should be recently prepared. 110 minims contain 1 grain of Apomorphine 
Hydrochloride; 100 cubic centimetres contain 1 gramme.” Br. The dose, by subcutaneous 
injection, is from two to eight minims (0-123-0-49 C.c.). 
INJECTIO COCAIN® HYPODERMICA. Br. Hypodermic Injection of 
Cocaine. 
(IN-JEC'TI-5 CO-OA-I'NiE HY-PO-DER'MI-CA.) 
“ Cocaine Hydrochloride, 33 grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Salicylic Acid, I grain (Imp.) 
or 0-015 gramme; Distilled Water, 6 Jl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 10 cubic centimetres or a 
sufficient quantity. Boil the Distilled Water ; add the Salicylic Acid ; dissolve the Cocaine 
Hydrochloride in the solution when cool; add, if necessary, sufficient recently boiled and 
cooled Distilled Water to produce six fluid drachms (Imp. meas.) or ten cubic centimetres of 
the Injection. 110 minims contain about 10 grains of Cocaine Hydrochloride; 100 cubic 
centimetres contain 10 grammes.” Br. Dose, by subcutaneous injection, from two to five 
minims (0123-0-3 C.c.). 
INJECTIO ERGOT.® HYPODERMICA. Br. Hypodermic Injection of 
Ergot. 
Hypodermic Injection of Ergotin. 
“ Extract of Ergot, 100 grains (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Phenol, 3 grains (Imp.) or 0-3 
gramme; Distilled Water, 220 minims (Imp. meas.) or 20 cubic centimetres or a sufficient 
quantity. Mix the Phenol with the Distilled Water; boil for a few minutes; cool; add the 
Extract of Ergot, and, if necessary, sufficient recently boiled and cooled Distilled Water to 
produce three hundred and thirty minims (Imp. meas.) or thirty cubic centimetres of the Injec- 
tion. This Injection should be recently prepared. 110 minims contain about 33 grains of 
Extract of Ergot; 100 cubic centimeters contain about 33 grammes.” Br. Dose, by subcu- 
taneous injection, from three to ten minims (018-0-61 C.c.).* 
(IN-JEC'TI-0 ER'GO-TiE HY-PO-DER'MI-CA.) 
INJECTIO MORPHINE HYPODERMICA. Br. Hypodermic Injection 
of Morphine. 
(IN-JEC'TI-0 MOK-PHI'NJE HY-PO-DER'MI-CA.) 
“ Morphine Tartrate, 50 grains (Imperial) or 5 grammes ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quan- 
tity. Dissolve the Morphine Tartrate in sufficient recently boiled and cooled Distilled Water 
to produce eleven hundred minims (Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubic centimetres of the In- 
jection.” Br. 
This solution is made from morphine tartrate in place of the morphine acetate formerly 
used; this is a great improvement, as the acetate is the most unstable of all morphine salts. 
The morphine strength of this Injection is slightly less than one-half that of the Hypo- 
dermic Injection of Morphine of the British Pharmacopoeia of 1885. 110 minims contain 5 
grains of Morphine Tartrate ; 100 cubic centimetres contain 5 grammes. Dose, by subcu- 
taneous injection, from two to five minims (0-123-0-3 C.c.). 
INULA. U. S. Inula. [Elecampane.] 
(In'u-la.) 
“The root of Inula Helenium, Linne (nat. ord. Compositse).” U. S. 
Aunee, Fr.; Alantwurzel, G.; Enula Campana, It., Sp. 
About ninety species of this genus are recognized and distributed in Europe, Asia, and 
Africa, one species being naturalized in North America. 
Inula helenium. L. Sp. PI. (1753), ed. 1, 881 ; Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 2089 ; Woody. Med. 
Bot. 64, t. 26. Elecampane has a perennial root, and an annual stem, which is round, fur- 
* Injectio Ergotini Hypodermica. Br. 1885. Hypodermic Injection of Ergotin. “ Take of Ergotin one hundred 
grains; Camphor Water two hundred fiuidgrains (or 3 fluidrachms). Dissolve by stirring them together. The 
solution should be made as required for use.” The dose, by subcutaneous injection, is from three to ten minims 
(0-18-0-61 C.c.). Inula. 
739 
PAET I. 
rowed, villous, leafy, from three to six feet high, and branched near the top. The leaves are 
large, ovate, serrate, crowded with reticular veins, smooth and deep green upon the upper sur- 
face, downy on the under, and furnished with a fleshy midrib. Those which spring directly 
from the root are petiolate, those from the stem sessile and clasping. The flower heads are 
large, of a golden-yellow color, and stand singly at the ends of the stem and branches. The 
involucre consists of several rows of imbricated ovate scales. The ray florets are numerous, 
spreading, linear, and tridentate at the apex. The achenes are striated, quadrangular, and 
furnished with a simple somewhat chaffy pappus. This large and handsome plant is a native 
of Europe, where it is also cultivated for medical use. It has been introduced into our gardens, 
and has become naturalized in some parts of the country, growing in low meadows, and on the 
roadsides, from Canada and Minnesota southward to North Carolina and Missouri. It flowers 
in July and August. The roots, which are the official part, should be dug up in autumn, and 
in their second year. When older they are often stringy and woody. 
The fresh root of elecampane is very thick and branched, having whitish cylindrical ramifi- 
cations, furnished with thread-like fibres. It is externally brown, internally whitish and fleshy ; 
and the transverse sections present radiating lines. The dried root is “in transverse, concave 
slices or longitudinal sections, with overlapping bark, externally wrinkled and brown; flexible 
in damp weather ; when dry, breaking with a short fracture ; internally grayish, fleshy, slightly 
radiate, and dotted with numerous shining, yellowish-brown resin-cells ; free from starch ; odor 
peculiar, aromatic; taste bitter and pungent.” U. S. Its medical virtues are extracted by 
alcohol and water, the former becoming most strongly impregnated with its bitterness and 
pungency. A peculiar principle, resembling starch, was discovered in elecampane by Valentine 
Rose, of Berlin, in 1804, who named it alantin ; but the title inulin, proposed by Dr. Thomson, 
has been generally adopted. It differs from starch in being deposited unchanged from its solu- 
tion in boiling water when the liquor cools, and in giving a yellowish instead of a blue color 
with iodine. It has been found in the roots of several other plants. It may be obtained white 
and pure by precipitating a concentrated decoction with twice its volume of alcohol, dissolving 
the precipitate in a little distilled water, treating the solution with purified animal charcoal, 
and again precipitating with alcohol. (A. J. P., xxxi. 69.) It readily dissolves in about three 
parts of boiling water; the laevogyre solution is perfectly clear and fluid, not paste-like, but on 
cooling deposits nearly all the inulin. Its formula, according to Kiliani (Tollens, Handbxich 
der Kohlenhydrate, 1888, p. 202), is 3C12H20010 H20. On prolonged heating with water, 
more rapidly under the influence of dilute acids, it is changed into levulose and reduces Fehling’s 
solution. As in the case of starch, intermediate products can be obtained before it is com- 
pletely changed into reducing sugar. Dragendorff obtained by heating with water for ten 
hours metinulin, and by heating for forty to fifty hours lemdin, an optically inactive amorphous 
substance easily changing into levulose. Tanret, who has since investigated inulin (Journ. de 
Pharm. et de Chim. 27, 449), confirms Kiliani’s formula as given above. He finds associated 
with inulin two closely related principles : pseudo-inulin and inulenin. The first of these, to which 
the formula (CeH1006)16H20 is given, forms irregular granules, very soluble in water and weak 
alcohol while hot, but only slightly soluble in cold water, and insoluble in cold alcohol ; the 
second is given the formula (CeH1006)10.2II20, and forms microscopical needles slightly soluble 
in cold water and weak alcohol. The amount of inulin varies according to the season, but 
is most abundant in autumn. Dragendorff obtained from the root in October not less than 
44 per cent., but in spring only 19 per cent. A crystallizable substance was long since noticed 
to collect in the head of the receiver when the elecampane root is submitted to distillation with 
water. Similar crystals may also be observed after carefully heating a thin slice of the root, 
and are even found as a natural efflorescence on the surface of a root that has been long kept. 
They can be extracted from the root by means of alcohol, and precipitated with water. Kallen 
(Deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1873,1876) has found that these crystals consist chiefly of the anhydride, 
C16H2002, of alantic add, melting at 66° C., and that what was formerly known as helenin was 
a mixture of these with a liquid, alantol, C10HieO, boiling at 200° C., the true helenin* and 
* Dr. Korab (London Lancet, vol. i., 1885, p. 672) states that helenin is a powerful antiseptic and bactericide, one 
part in ten thousand of urine being sufficient to arrest putrefaction, and a few drops of a solution of this strength 
immediately killing the ordinary bacterial organisms, including the tubercle-bacillus. He lauds it as antiseptic in 
surgery, and has given it with alleged success internally in doses of one-third to one grain in tubercular, infantile, 
and catarrhal diarrhoeas. It is also stated by Dr. J. B. Obiol (Lancet, April, 1886) to be an efficient local remedy in 
the treatment of diphtheria. Every four hours the false membrane is to be dusted over with powdered camphor, and 
then painted with a two-per-cent, solution of helenin in oil of sweet almond. It is affirmed that when the treatment 
was commenced on the first day of the patches the cure followed in twenty-four hours. The helenin was also given 
internally. Dose, one and a half grains to children six years of age. 740 
Iodoformum. 
alant camphor. The crystals of helenin, CeIIflO, have a bitterish taste, but no odor, and melt 
at 110° C. The camphor melts at 64° C., and in taste and smell is suggestive of peppermint. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Elecampane is tonic and gently stimulant, and has 
been supposed to possess diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, and emmenagogue properties. By 
the ancients it was much employed, especially in the complaints peculiar to females; and it is 
still occasionally resorted to in amenorrhoea. In this country it is chiefly used in chronic dis- 
eases of the lungs, and is sometimes beneficial when the affection of the chest is attended with 
weakness of the digestive organs or with general debility. From a belief in its deobstruent 
and diuretic virtues, it was formerly prescribed in chronic engorgements of the abdominal 
viscera, and the dropsy to which they so often give rise. It has also been highly recommended 
both as an internal and an external remedy in tetter, psora, and other diseases of the skin. The 
usual modes of administration are in powder and in decoction. The dose of the powder is 
from twenty grains to a drachm (1-3—3-9 Gm.). The decoction may be prepared by boiling 
half an ounce of the root in a pint of water: dose, from one to two fluidounces (30—60 C.c.). 
PART I. 
CHIj? 392*56. (f-O-DO-FOR'MUM.) CHIj; 392-8. 
IODOFORMUM. U. S., Br. Iodoform 
“ Iodoform should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool and dark place.” U. S. “ Iodo- 
form, or tri-iodomethane, CHI3, is a product of the action of iodine on ethylic alcohol in the 
presence of solution of potassium carbonate.” Br. 
Iodoformum, P. G.; Iodoforme, Fr.; Iodoform, G. 
This compound, discovered by Serullas in 1822, was introduced as a remedy, about the year 
1837, by Dr. It. M. Glover, of London, and M. Bouchardat, of Paris, and was first adopted as 
official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870. 
Preparation. Cornells and Grille published a process in Joum. de Pharm., 1852, p. 196. 
(See U.S.D.,14th ed., p. 511.) Wittstein’s process is an improvement on this. Take two 
parts of potassium carbonate, two of iodine, one of 95-per-cent, alcohol, and five of water, 
mix them in a retort, and heat the mixture, by means of a water-bath, until perfectly colorless ; 
then, after the cooling of the liquid, pour it into a suitable vessel, and allow it to settle. The 
yellow scaly mass deposited is collected on a filter, washed thoroughly with water, and dried 
between folds of bibulous paper. As iodoform is very volatile, it must be prepared in closed 
vessels. The liquid remaining after the deposition of iodoform contains potassium iodate and 
iodide, which may be decomposed with renewed formation of iodoform by adding potassium 
dichromate 2 to 3 parts, and hydrochloric acid 16 to 24 parts; this liberates iodine. 32 parts 
of sodium carbonate, 6 parts of iodine, and 16 parts of alcohol are now added, the liquid is 
again poured off- from the iodoform produced, and the operation again repeated if necessary. 
The formation of the iodoform is represented by the following equation : C2H6.0H -j- 4I2 -J- 
3K2C03 = CHI3 + CIIK02 + 5KI + 2HsO + 3C02. Other products, such as potassium 
iodate, are, however, formed. Mr. G. R. Bell (N. R., March, 1882) has practically tried nearly 
all the processes for the preparation of iodoform, and recommends Filhol’s, which is as follows. 
Put into a long-necked matrass or flask which is supplied with a perforated cork and long 
supply-tube a solution of 200 parts of crystallized sodium carbonate and 1000 parts of dis- 
tilled water, and add 100 parts of alcohol, heat in a water-bath from 60° to 71-1° C. (140° 
to 160° F.), then gradually add 100 parts of iodine, about ten parts at a time. When the 
liquid has become colorless, remove the flask from the water-bath, and allow it to cool three or 
four hours, then pour out on a filter; return the filtrate to the flask, add 200 parts of sodium 
carbonate, 100 parts of alcohol, heat to 71,1° C. (160° F.), and pass a slow current of chlorine 
gas through the mixture as long as iodine is separated, continuing until the brown liquid is 
again decolorized. A small excess of chlorine is of no consequence (Hager states that for 
every 100 parts of iodine it requires the chlorine which can be evolved from about 200 parts 
of hydrochloric acid by means of manganese dioxide). Let the flask stand twenty-four hours, 
then throw the contents on a filter and examine the filtrate with chlorine water to see whether 
it still contains an appreciable amount of iodine compounds, then if necessary subject the fil- 
trate to a second treatment of chlorine gas, adding previously only 20 parts of sodium carbonate 
and 10 parts of alcohol. Collect the iodoform after twenty-four hours. The filtrate may be 
concentrated and decomposed by excess of nitric acid, according to the method recommended 
in Bouchardat’s process. The collected crystals of iodoform are now well washed with the 
smallest quantity of cold distilled water, spread out on bibulous paper, and dried in the open air. 
Sulliot and Raynaud have devised a process for making iodoform from kelp ash. (Bull. PART I. 
Iodoformum. 
741 
JSoc. Chim., 1889, 3.) S. R. Boyce (Proc. A. P. A., 1890, 220) details a process which is 
essentially that of Sulliot and Raynaud. The advantages claimed for this method are that 98 
per cent, of the iodine used is converted into iodoform, and the use of the nitric acid in Fil- 
hol’s process is obviated. Solution of chlorinated soda is added by drops to a solution of fifty 
grammes of potassium iodide, five grammes of caustic soda, and forty grammes of acetone in 
one liter of water. The iodoform, which crystallizes out, should be protected from the light. 
The fact, noticed by Lieben in 1870, that many other compounds besides ethyl alcohol 
yield iodoform when treated with iodine and alkali, led Kramer (Per. Chem. Ges., 1880, p. 
1000) to propose the iodoform formation as an exact quantitative test for the presence of ace- 
tone in methyl alcohol. This “ iodoform test” is now used in testing the purity of methyl 
alcohol for use in the manufacture of aniline dye colors, as well as the purity of acetone itself. 
(See article Acetone, Part II.) Heinrich Spindler proposes to make iodoform from the chlo- 
rides, bromides, or chloro-bromides of the paraffin series by reaction with an inorganic iodide: 
thus, if chloroform and anhydrous calcium iodide are heated to 120° C. iodoform is produced. 
(Amer. Drug., 1886, p. 67.) F. Gunther recommends mixing alcohol containing 25 per cent, 
of aldehyde with ten times its weight of solution of soda, adding the iodine, and passing a 
current of carbonic acid gas through the mixture. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 373.) 
Properties. It is in the form of “ small, lemon-yellow, lustrous crystals of the hexago- 
nal system, having a peculiar, very penetrating and persistent odor somewhat resembling that 
of saffron and iodine, and an unpleasant slightly sweetish and iodine-like taste. Specific 
gravity, 2-000 at 15° C. (59° F.) Very slightly soluble in water, to which it, however, im- 
parts its odor and taste. Soluble in about 52 parts of alcohol at 15° C. (59° F.), in about 12 
parts of boiling alcohol, and in 5-2 parts of ether. Very soluble in chloroform, benzin, and 
fixed and volatile oils. Iodoform is slightly volatile even at ordinary temperatures, and in 
boiling water distils slowly over with its vapor. At about 115° C. (239° F.) it melts to a 
brown liquid, and at a higher temperature emits vapors of iodine, leaving behind a carbona- 
ceous mass which, upon full combustion, should be completely dissipated (absence of fixed im- 
purities'). On digesting about 0-1 Gm. of Iodoform with 5 C.c. of a 5-per-cent, solution of potas- 
sium hydrate in alcohol, and then slightly supersaturating with diluted nitric acid, the liquid will 
be rendered blue by starch test-solution. The solutions in neutral solvents are neutral to litmus 
paper. If 2 Gm. of Iodoform be thoroughly shaken with 10 C.c. of water, the filtrate should 
be colorless and free from bitter taste (absence of soluble yellow coloring matter, picric add, etc.), 
should not affect the color of litmus paper (absence of free acids), and should not be rendered 
more than faintly opalescent by silver nitrate test-solution (absence of soluble iodides)." U. S. 
“ Very slightly soluble in cold water, soluble in 80 parts of cold or 10 parts of boiling alcohol 
(90 per cent.), in 5 parts of cold ether, soluble also in chloroform, carbon bisulphide, or fixed and 
volatile oils, and, sparingly, in benzol; the solutions do not affect litmus. When heated it first 
melts to a brown liquid, then gives off brown and violet vapors, leaving a black residue which 
entirely disappears on continued incineration. When warmed with an alcoholic solution of 
potassium hydroxide and the resulting liquid acidulated with nitric acid, iodine is liberated, 
the mixture becoming brown, and, when cold, blue on the addition of mucilage of starch. 
Water with which Iodoform has been shaken should be colorless and not bitter (absence of 
soluble yellow coloring matters, picric acid, etc.), and should not yield any reaction with the 
tests for iodides.” Br. Iodoform is a volatile substance, soft to the touch, and totally devoid 
of corrosive properties. With potassa in solution, it is decomposed, yielding potassium formate 
and iodide. Hence these two principles are incompatible in prescriptions. Iodoform is some- 
times met with in commerce adulterated with water; Vulpius (Pharm. Central., 1894) on ex- 
amination detected 13 per cent, in one specimen. 
Medical Properties and Uses. M. Maitre, who has studied the physiological effects 
of iodoform on men, states that from a dose of 30 or 40 centigrammes (about 5 or 6 grains) 
no effects are observed except a slight increase of appetite. Two hours after it has been taken 
the presence of iodine can be detected in the urine and the saliva, and nearly three days elapse 
before the whole is eliminated. (See also Hoyges, Journ. de Pharm., Juillet, 1867.) It passes 
off also with the lacteal secretion. Given to dogs in much larger doses, several grammes for 
example, it produces narcotic effects; and two stages in its operation have been noticed: the 
first is marked with more or less prostration, with symptoms of intoxication, the animal totter- 
ing, inclining to one side with the head falling, with loss of appetite, but without vomiting. 
The next day, unless a very large dose has been given, complete recovery takes place. A still 
larger dose induces the second stage, characterized by a remarkably intense excitation, with 742 
Iodoformum. 
PART I. 
anxious breathing, strong and short pulse, a true opisthotonos, sometimes very striking, and 
convulsive movements or the paws, especially the hinder. After death fatty degeneration of 
the heart, liver, and kidneys may be found. (A. Hoyges.') The very free use of iodoform in 
Germany as an antiseptic dressing to wounds, ulcers, etc., has led to many cases of poisoning. 
In the most characteristic and severe cases the phenomena of iodoform-poisoning resemble 
somewhat those of meningitis: they are headache, somnolence deepening into stupor, con- 
tracted, motionless pupils, abnormal quiet or restlessness ending in active delirium, with, how- 
ever, a normal temperature and an exceedingly rapid pulse.* In cases of this character death 
almost always follows, although the symptoms may have developed abruptly and the dressing 
have been removed at once. In other cases the principal symptoms are general malaise and 
depression, faintness, headache, loss of appetite, and a persistent iodoform taste in the mouth. 
In some cases there is a slight temporary increase of temperature. Mental depression or ex- 
citement is especially noticed. Finally the pulse becomes accelerated, soft, and feeble ; in some 
cases the pulse is very rapid,—from 150 to 180,—while the temperature remains normal, or only 
slightly elevated. It is asserted by Samter and Retzlaff (T. G., 1889) that potassium bromide 
is an antidote in poisoning with iodoform, its antidotal powers being due to the fact that it 
exceeds all other salts in its power of dissolving iodine compounds. 
Iodoform, though containing 29 parts in 30 of its weight of iodine, is not locally irritant, 
but anaesthetic and antiseptic. It is said, when employed as a suppository, to produce uncon- 
sciousness of the act of defecation. In the form of vapor, it possesses anaesthetic properties, 
but inferior to those of chloroform. On account of its large proportion of iodine, it was sup- 
posed to be capable of replacing that element and the iodides as a remedy, with the advantages 
of being non-irritant, and of having an organic nature, qualities which favor its absorption and 
assimilation. The principal diseases in which it has been tried are goitre, rickets, scrofula, 
phthisis, syphilis, and glandular tumors. It may be given in doses of from one to three grains, 
three or four times a day, in pill form; but it has not met the expectation of its early advo- 
cates, and is not much used internally. The chief value of iodoform in practical medicine is as 
an external application. It has long been used in cases of painful ulcers, especially when of 
syphilitic origin, but has been found to act almost equally well in indolent leg ulcers and other 
non-specific abrasions, and will even produce marked relief in open cancers.f Within the last 
few years it has been freely employed as an antiseptic dressing to wounds, and the testimony 
from surgeons is so strong that it is difficult to avoid believing that it is one of the most certain 
remedies of the class. The good results which have been achieved have led to a series of studies 
of its action upon septic organisms, with results which are apparently at variance with prac- 
tical surgical teachings,! and which seem to prove that iodoform itself has little power as a 
bactericide. When, however, it is brought in contact with the living surface of a wound it 
undergoes a slow chemical change, resulting in the liberation of iodine, which element has a 
distinct influence upon the development of septic organisms. Moreover, iodoform appears to 
have a specific influence upon human tissue, by which it prevents the formation of purulent or 
serous exudations, and greatly diminishes the soil in which the bacteria develop. The local 
application of iodoform in surgical tuberculosis has received the highest commendation from 
numerous surgeons. In the treatment of tubercular abscesses, in tubercular empyema, in 
tubercular joints, in non-suppurating tuberculous glands, and even in tuberculous peritonitis, 
numerous cures have been claimed. That iodoform has a specific influence upon the tuber- 
cular organism would seem to follow from the experiments of Gosselin, of Caen, who found that 
guinea-pigs saturated with iodoform are incapable of contracting tuberculosis. Lawrence 
Flick recommends inunctions of iodoform or of europhen as of the greatest service in the 
treatment of early phthisis. Of the following formula a tablespoonful is to be rubbed thoroughly 
into the inside of the thigh or into the armpit before retiring at night: europhen or iodoform, 
1 drachm ; oil of rose, 1 drop ; oil of anise, 1 fluidrachm ; olive oil, 2£ fluidounces. 
* Diagnostic Sign of Iodic Poisoning. M. Burlureaux affirms that if a piece of silver be placed in the mouth of 
a person suffering from iodoform poisoning, immediately the taste of garlic will be perceived; and if some of the saliva 
be mixed with calomel, a canary-yellow precipitate of mercurial iodide will be obtained. The most that sueh a test 
can accomplish is to show, that the patient is under the influence of some compound of iodine. 
f Iodoform in Burns. At a discussion of the International Congress of Dermatology, in 1889, the conclusion was 
reached that the best treatment of burns in the beginning is to cut the bullae, wash the part with a very weak solu- 
tion of salt, and then dress with iodoform gauze or a pomade of iodoform, and cover with oil-silk. In the later stages, 
after the separation of the eschars, according to Hebra, iodoform retards cicatrization, whilst a one- or two-per-cent, 
solution of resorcin hastens epithelium formation. 
J For a more elaborate discussion of these investigations, the reader is referred to Dr. H. C. Wood’s Treatise oh 
Therapeutics, 7th edition. PART I. 
Iodofoi'mum.—lod um. 
743 
The manner of application varies with different surgeons. Verneuil, who has had an enor- 
mous experience, prefers in the treatment of abscesses and of tuberculous glands, and in most 
other cases, the injection of a 5-per-cent, ether solution. Others prefer glycerin as a vehicle, 
especially in empyema cases; whilst others, especially in peritonitis, dust the dry powder over 
the surface which has been laid open. In uterine affections, vaginal suppositories made by 
incorporating 5-5 grains of iodoform with 2-5 drachms of cacao butter have been largely used, 
and similar rectal suppositories have been employed with asserted advantage in enlargements of 
the prostate gland and in fissures of the anus. In surgical dressings with iodoform the powder 
is usually sprinkled freely upon the wounds and secured in place by a dry dressing. Iodoform 
gauze, or iodoform cotton wool, may be made by saturating suitable material with a concentrated 
ethereal solution and afterwards drying. 
The maximum amount of iodoform which may be used with safety as an external application 
is uncertain. Dr. Langenstein attributes a fatal result to one drachm, whilst one hundred and 
twenty grains have certainly caused death. Not more than half a drachm of iodoform should 
be ordinarily applied to a wound, although in cases of tuberculosis the surgeon is warranted in 
taking the risk of larger amounts. Verneuil sometimes injects at one sitting 75 grains of the 
iodoform. 
One of the principal obstacles to its employment is the odor, which, to some patients, is 
unbearable. Many methods of disguising the odor have been recommended, but in our expe- 
rience the large quantity required of each deodorizing agent would preclude its employment. 
Tannin has been recommended, but, as this operates by decomposing the iodoform, it is not to 
be thought of in this connection. Probably the best class of substances to use are the volatile 
oils, such as anise, peppermint, fennel, bergamot, almond, etc., tonka, coffee, and balsam of 
Peru, although the latter acts by forming a compound, and the aim should be not to destroy 
the odor,* but so to modify it as to remove its objectionable features. Olive oil saturated with 
camphor is said to dissolve 6 per cent, of iodoform, and is preferred by some surgeons. 
IODUM. U. Sv Br. Iodine. 
“ A solid non-metallic element obtained from the ashes of sea-weeds and from native iodides 
and iodates.” Br. 
Iodinium, U. S. 1870; lode, Fr.; Jod, G.; Iodina, It., Sp. 
The Iodine of the U. S. and Br. Pharmacopoeias is considered as pure; and in both, the 
tests are given by which its purity may be determined. “ Iodine should be kept in glass-stop- 
pered bottles, in a cool place.” U. S. 
Iodine is a non-metallic element, discovered in 1812 by Courtois, a soda-manufacturer of 
Paris. It exists in certain marine vegetables, particularly the fuci or common sea-weeds, which 
have long been its most abundant natural source. It has been detected in some fresh-water 
plants, among which are the water-cress, brooklime, and fine-leaved water-hemlock; also in 
the ashes of tobacco, and of Honduras sarsaparilla. ( Chatin.) It has been found in the beet- 
root of the grand-duchy of Baden. (Lamy.) Dr. Macadam detected a trace of iodine in 100 
gallons of water used for domestic purposes in Edinburgh, in several of the domestic animals, 
and in man. He detected it also in potatoes, beans, peas, wheat, barley, and oats. (P. J. Tr., 
Nov. 1854, p. 235.) Iodine is, moreover, found in the animal kingdom, as in the sponge, the 
oyster, various polypi, cod-liver oil, and eggs; and, in the mineral kingdom, in sea-water in 
minute quantity, in certain salt springs, as silver iodide in a rare Mexican mineral, in a 
zinc ore of Silesia, in native sodium nitrate, and in some kinds of rock salt. It is now ob- 
tained commercially from one of these sources,—viz., from the native sodium nitrate, or Chili 
saltpetre, with which it occurs as sodium iodate. The production of the province of Tarapaca 
(Chili) has assumed large dimensions within recent years, as a result of higher prices estab- 
lished by a combination of Scotch, French, and South American producers. The exportations 
of iodine from Chili amounted in 1893 to 595,000 kilos, valued at $5,953,420 ; in 1894 to 
323,000 kilos, valued at $3,332,780; and in 1895 to 144,000 kilos, valued at $1,442,580. 
M. Bussy has obtained iodine, in the proportion of one part in five thousand, from the coal-gas 
liquor of the gas-works of Paris. It was first discovered in the United States in the water of 
the Congress Spring, at Saratoga, by Dr. William Usher. It was detected in the Kanawha 
saline waters by the late Professor Emmet; and it occurs in the bittern of the salt-works of 
I; 126*53. (i-O'DUM.) I; 126-6. 
* The paTe yellow essential oil of Evodia fraxinifolia is asserted by Mr. H. Helbing (P. J. Tr., vol. xviii. 249) to 
have the power of covering the odor of iodoform. 744 
Iodum. 
PART I. 
Western Pennsylvania, in the amount of about eight grains to the gallon. In sea-weeds the 
iodine exists in the state probably of sodium iodide. In different countries sea-weeds are 
burned for the sake of their ashes, the product being a dark-colored fused mass called kelp. 
This substance, besides sodium carbonate and iodides, contains more or less common salt, potas- 
sium chloride, sodium sulphate, etc. The deep-sea fuci contain the most iodine ; and when 
these are burned at a low temperature for fuel, as is the case in the island of Guernsey, their 
ashes furnish more iodine than does ordinary kelp. (Graham.) According to Dr. Geo. Kemp, 
the laminarian species, especially Laminaria digit at a, L. saccharina, and L. bulbosa, which are 
deep-water sea-weeds, and contain more potassium than sodium, are particularly rich in iodine. 
Preparation. Although most largely produced in South America, iodine is still obtained 
from kelp, and in Great Britain is manufactured chiefly at Glasgow. The kelp, which on an 
average contains part of iodine, is lixiviated with water, in which about half dissolves. 
The solution is concentrated to a pellicle and allowed to cool, whereby nearly all the salts, 
except sodium iodide, are separated, they being less soluble than the iodide. The remaining 
liquor, which is dense and dark-colored, is made very sour by sulphuric acid, which causes the 
evolution of carbonic acid, hydrogen sulphide, and sulphurous acid, and the deposition of 
sulphur. The liquor is then introduced into a leaden still, and distilled with manganese diox- 
ide into a series of glass receivers, inserted into one another, in which the iodine is condensed. 
In this process the sodium iodide is decomposed, and the iodine evolved according to the re- 
action 2NaI -f- 2H2S04 -)- MnOa = MnS04 -j- Na2S04 -f- 2HaO -f- I2 which leaves as residue 
manganous sulphate and sodium sulphate* 
The methods for the separation of the iodine from its combinations in the mother-liquors as 
practised in South America may be divided essentially into three classes. (1.) The mother- 
liquors after the crystallization of the saltpetre without further concentration are treated with 
a solution of sodium sulphite of strength corresponding to the amount of iodine present; the 
iodine is liberated according to the reaction 2NaI03 -f- 4HNaS03 -f- S02 = Na2S04 -j- 
4HNaS04 -f-12; the iodine thus separated from the sodium iodate is filtered through linen 
cloth, washed, pressed, and sublimed. (2.) The mother-liquors are treated with sodium 
sulphite or bisulphite until the precipitated iodine is converted into HI, and this is precipitated 
as cuprous iodide by a solution of copper sulphate and sodium sulphite. (3.) The percentage 
of iodine is increased by fractional evaporation and crystallization of the mother-liquors, and 
then, after adding the calculated amount of sodium bisulphite, the iodine is distilled off from 
the acidified liquor. (Dingier s Polytech. Journ., 231, p. 375.) 
The British Pharmacopoeia of 1864 purified iodine as follows : u Take of Iodine of Commerce 
one ounce. Introduce the Commercial Iodine into a porcelain capsule of a circular shape, cover 
this as accurately as possible with a glass flask filled with cold water, and apply to the cap- 
sule the heat of boiling water for twenty minutes. Let the flask be now removed, and should 
colorless acicular prisms of a pungent odor be found attached to its bottom, let them be 
separated from it. This being done, the flask is to be restored to its previous position, and 
a gentle and steady heat (that of a gas-lamp answers well) applied, so as to sublime the whole 
of the iodine. Upon now allowing the capsule to cool, and lifting off the flask, the purified 
product will be found attached to the bottom of the latter. When separated it should be 
immediately enclosed in a bottle furnished with an accurately ground stopper. In this process 
a short preliminary sublimation by the heat of a water-bath is ordered, in which the bottom 
of a glass flask filled with cold water is the refrigerator. The object of this is to separate 
*Tbe methods formerly practised for obtaining iodine from sea-weeds were accompanied with great loss. A nota- 
ble improvement over the old kelp processes are the “ char” and “ wet” processes of Mr. E. C. C. Stanford (Journ. 
Soc. Chem. Ind., 1885, p. 518), which show the following results when compared with the old processes. Kelp pro- 
cess : per cent, utilized, 18; kelp, 18 tons, yield salts 9 tons and iodine 270 lbs.; residuals, kelp waste 18 tons, 
valueless. Char process: per cent, utilized, 36; char, 36 tons, yield salts 15 tons and iodine 600 lbs.; residuals, 
charcoal 36 tons, tar, and ammonia. Wet process: per cent, utilized, 70; water extract, 33 tons, yield salts 20 
tons and iodine 600 lbs.; residuals, algin 20 tons, cellulose 15 tons, dextrin, etc. 
Still another improvement has recently been made (A. James, German Patent No. 95,063, of March 17, 1897), 
whereby over 91 per cent, of the iodine present in the sea-weed has been recovered. Sea-weed either wet or dry is 
immersed in sea-water that has previously been treated with quicklime to precipitate the magnesia and give a dis- 
tinctly alkaline reaction. The sea-weed in the proportion of about one ton to the cubic metre of water is left im- 
mersed for twelve hours, during which time about 60 per cent, of the iodine is dissolved. It is then leached for six 
hours, each time in a second and a third portion of prepared sea-water. The combined extraction waters are then 
treated with ferrous sulphate, to coagulate mucilaginous matter, neutralized with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and 
the iodine then set free with an oxidizing agent like nitric acid or persulphate of ammonium, 1’5 kilos of nitric acid 
being required per cubic metre of solution. The iodine thus set free is extracted with petroleum naphtha, this solu- 
tion being agitated with caustic alkali to form iodide and iodate, which are then treated in the usual manner. PART I, 
Iodum, 
745 
any cyanogen iodide that may happen to be present. This impurity is sometimes present in 
considerable amount. Klohach obtained from eighty avoirdupois pounds of commercial iodine 
twelve ounces of this iodide, which is in the proportion of nearly one per cent. (Chem. Gaz., 
April 15, 1850.) Should the flask, upon its removal, have attached to its bottom white 
acicular crystals, these will be the iodide in question, and must be rejected. The flask having 
been replaced, heat is again applied until the whole of the iodine has sublimed and attaches 
itself to the cool bottom of the flask. 
Water has sometimes been found in iodine to the extent of 15 or 20 per cent. If consider- 
able, it is easily discovered by the iodine adhering to the inside of the bottle. M. Bolley 
estimates its amount by rubbing together, until the smell of iodine disappears, 30 grains of 
iodine with about 240 of mercury, in a small weighed porcelain dish, using a small weighed 
agate pestle. When complete combination has been effected, the whole is placed in a water- 
bath to dissipate the water. The loss of weight gives the amount of water in the iodine. 
( Chem. Gaz., March 15,1853, p. 118.) The presence of water is injurious only as it renders all 
the preparations of iodine weaker than they should be. In the former Ed. Pharmacopoeia, direc- 
tions were given to dry it, by placing it “ in a shallow basin of earthenware, in a small confined 
space of air, with ten or twelve times its weight of fresh-burnt lime, till it scarcely adheres to 
the inside of a dry bottle.” 
Properties. Iodine is described by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia as “ heavy, bluish-black, dry 
and friable, rhombic plates, having a metallic lustre, a distinctive odor, and a sharp and acrid 
taste. Specific gravity, 4-948 at 17° C. (62-6° F.). Iodine imparts a deep brown, slowly 
evanescing stain to the skin, and slowly destroys vegetable colors. Soluble in about 5000 parts 
of water, and in 10 parts of alcohol at 15° C. (59° F.) with a brown color; also freely soluble 
in ether, and in a solution of potassium iodide with a brown color; and in chloroform or carbon 
disulphide with a violet color. It volatilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures. When heated 
to 114° C. (237-2° F.), it melts, and is gradually dissipated in form of a purple vapor, leaving 
no residue. With starch test-solution it produces a dark blue color.” “ Soluble in about 
5000 parts of water, but freely dissolved by alcohol (90 per cent.), ether, chloroform, or solu- 
tion of potassium iodide. The aqueous solution strikes a deep blue color with mucilage of 
starch. It sublimes without residue, and the portion that first comes over does not include any 
slender colorless prisms emitting a pungent odor (absence of iodine cyanide).” Br. It is a vola- 
tile substance, and evaporates even at common temperatures. Its vapor has the sp. gr. 8-7, 
being the heaviest aeriform substance known. If inhaled mixed with air, it excites cough and 
irritates the nostrils. When it comes in contact with cool surfaces, it condenses in brilliant 
steel-gray crystals. Iodine is freely soluble in alcohol and ether, but requires 5000 times its 
weight of water to dissolve it. If water stands on iodine for some time, especially in a strong 
light, it apparently dissolves more iodine; but the result depends upon the formation of 
hydriodic acid, in a solution of which iodine is more soluble than in water. The solution of 
iodine in water has no taste, a feeble odor, and a light-brown color; its solution in alcohol or ether 
is nearly black. Its solubility in water is very much increased by the addition of certain salts, as 
sodium chloride, ammonium nitrate, or potassium iodide; and the same effect is produced, to 
some extent, by tannic acid. Its solution in tannic acid is called iodo-tannin, of which MM. 
Socquet and Guillermond make a syrup for internal and an aqueous solution for external 
use. For the formulas, see B. and F. Med.-Chir. Rev., 1854, p. 181. It is also soluble in 
glycerin, as ascertained by M. Cap in 1854. According to Dr. I. Walz, glacial acetic acid is an 
excellent solvent of iodine, at least equal to alcohol. When the acid is heated by boiling with 
excess of iodine, and then allowed to cool slowly, it deposits iodine in beautiful large slender 
crystals, sometimes half an inch long, much larger and more abundant than those formed from 
the alkaline solution. (Chem. News, May 9, 1873, p. 233; from the Journal of the Franklin 
Institute.') In chemical characters iodine resembles chlorine, but its affinities are weaker. It 
combines with most of the non-metallic and nearly all the metallic elements, forming a class 
of compounds called iodides. Some of these are official, as the iron, mercury, lead, potassium, 
and sulphur iodides. It forms with oxygen one oxide, iodic oxide, I206, and two acids, iodic * 
and periodic, and with hydrogen a gaseous acid, called hydriodic acid. 
Tests, etc. Iodine, in most cases, may be recognized by its characteristic purple vapor; 
* Dr. R. H. Brett, of Liverpool, has found that when a small portion of the alkaloids, or their salts, is mixed with 
about an equal portion of iodic acid and a few drops of water, and the mixture gently heated, a succession of distinct 
explosions, attended by the evolution of gas, takes place. Dr. Brett finds that this phenomenon does not occur with 
other organic substances, and suggests it as a general test for alkaloids. (P. J. Tr.t Nov. 1854.) 746 
Iodurn. 
PART I. 
but, where this canuot be made evident, it is detected unerringly by starch, which produces 
with it a deep-blue color. The test was discovered by Colin and Gaultier de Claubry, and is 
so delicate that it will indicate the presence of iodine in 450,000 times its weight of water. 
In order that the test may succeed, the iodine must be free, and the solutions cold. To render 
it free when in combination, as it always is in the animal fluids, a little nitric acid, free from 
iodine, must be added to the solution suspected to contain it. Thus, in testing urine for 
iodine, the secretion is mixed with starch, and acidulated with a drop or two of nitric acid; 
when, if iodine be present, the color produced will vary from a light purple to a deep indigo- 
blue, according to the amount of the element present. Sometimes in mineral waters the pro- 
portion of iodine is so minute that the starch test, in connection with nitric acid, gives a 
doubtful coloration. In such cases, Liebig recommends the addition to the water of a very 
small quantity of potassium iodate, followed by a little starch and hydrochloric acid. Assuming 
the iodine to be present as hydriodic acid, the liberated iodic acid sets free the iodine of the 
mineral water, and becomes itself deoxidized, thus increasing the amount of the free iodine 
(HI03 -f- 5HI == 3I2 -j- 3II20). This test would be fallacious if iodic acid, mixed with hy- 
drochloric acid, colored starch; but this is not the case. Still, Liebig’s test is inapplicable in 
the presence of reducing agents, such as sulphurous acid, which would give rise to free iodine 
from the test itself, independently of the presence of the element in the water tested. (JDr. W. 
Knop.) The U. S. Pharmacopoeia furnishes the following tests: “ A solution of Iodine in 
chloroform should be perfectly clear and limpid (absence of moisture). To determine the pres- 
ence of cyanogen, chlorine, or bromine, proceed as follows : Triturate 0-5 Gm. of finely-powdered 
Iodine with 20 C.c. of water, and filter off' the solution. To one-half of this solution, in a 
test-tube, carefully add sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution, until the solution 
is just decolorized. Then add a few drops of ferrous sulphate test-solution, and subsequently 
a little sodium hydrate test-solution, and heat the mixture gently. On now adding a slight 
excess of hydrochloric acid, the liquid should not assume a blue color (absence of iodine cya- 
nide). To the other half of the aqueous filtrate, in a test-tube, add a slight excess of silver 
nitrate test-solution, shake actively, allow the precipitate to subside, and, having poured off the 
clear, supernatant liquid completely, shake the precipitate with a mixture of 1 C.c. of ammo- 
nia water and 9 C.c. of water, and filter. Upon the addition of a slight excess of nitric acid 
to the filtrate, not more than a slight opalescence should make its appearance (limit of chlorine 
or bromine). If 0-32 Gm. of Iodine, together with 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, be dissolved in 
20 C.c. of water, and the solution mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should re- 
quire not less than 25 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge 
the blue or greenish color of the liquid (corresponding to at least 98-85 per cent, of pure Iodine).” 
The British Pharmacopoeia states that “ A solution of Iodine in chloroform should be 
perfectly clear (absence of moisture). Each gramme, dissolved in 50 cubic centimetres of 
water containing 2 grammes of potassium iodide, should require for decoloration at least 78 4 
cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium thiosulphate." M. Carey Lea proposes 
chromic acid as a substitute for the nitric, for the liberation of iodine, as a more delicate test. It 
may be most conveniently applied by first adding starch to the liquid to be tested, and then a 
little dilute solution of potassium bichromate, enough to cause a pale yellow color, followed by a 
few drops of hydrochloric acid. (Am. Journ. of Sci. and Arts, xlii. 109.) Another test for iodine, 
proposed by M. Rabourdin, is chloroform, by the use of which he supposes that the element 
may be not only detected in organic substances, but approximately estimated. Thus, if 150 
grains of a solution, containing one part in one hundred thousand of potassium iodide, be treated 
with 2 drops of nitric and 15 or 20 of sulphuric acid, and afterwards shaken with 15 grains 
of chloroform, the latter acquires a distinct violet tint. M. Rabourdin applies his test to the 
detection of iodine in the several varieties of cod-liver oil. For this purpose he incinerates, in 
an iron spoon, 50 parts of the specimen of oil with 5 of pure caustic potassa, dissolved in 15 
of water, and exhausts the cinder with the smallest possible quantity of water. The solution 
is filtered, acidulated with nitric and sulphuric acids, and agitated with 4 parts of chloroform. 
After a time the chloroform subsides, of a violet color more or less deep according to the pro- 
portion of iodine present. M. Lassaigne considers the starch test more delicate than that of 
chloroform. For detecting iodine in the iodides of the metals of the alkalies, he considers 
palladium bichloride as extremely delicate, producing brownish flocks of palladium biniodide. 
According to M. Moride, benzin is a good test for free iodine, which it readily dissolves, form- 
ing a solution of a bright-red color, deeper in proportion to the amount of iodine taken up. 
As benzin does not dissolve chlorine or bromine, it furnishes the means of separating iodine PART I. 
Iodum. 
747 
from these elements. Mr. D. S. Price has pointed out the nitrites as exceedingly sensitive tests 
of iodine combined as an iodide. The suspected liquid is mixed with starch paste, acidulated 
with hydrochloric acid, and treated with solution of potassium nitrite. The iodine is set free, 
and a blue color appears, more or less deep, according to the proportion of iodine present. By 
this test, iodine may be detected in an aqueous solution containing only one in 400,000 parts. 
A similar test had been previously proposed by M. Grange. 
It has been long known that when a mixture of iodine and starch in water is subjected 
to heat the blue color disappears, and that, if the heat be not too long continued, so as to vol- 
atilize the iodine or convert it into hydriodic acid, the color will return on the cooling of 
the liquid. Various explanations have been given of this curious fact by Personne and others, 
but the only one that is quite satisfactory is that by M. Magnes-Lahens, which he supports by 
experiment, that during the continuance of the heat the particles of starch and iodine sepa- 
rate, to unite again on refrigeration. {Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., iii. 405.) * 
Adulterations. Iodine is said to be occasionally adulterated with mineral coal, charcoal, 
plumbago, and black manganese oxide. These are easily detected by their fixed nature, while 
pure iodine is wholly volatilized by heat. Herberger found native antimony sulphide in one 
sample, and plumbago in another; and Righini has detected as much as 25 per cent, of cal- 
cium chloride. The presence of cyanogen iodide and of water has already been referred to, 
and the modes of detecting and separating them pointed out. (See page 745.) Besides the 
test given at page 745, the British Pharmacopoeia directs that the official iodine should be sol- 
uble in alcohol, ether, and a solution of potassium iodide, and should sublime without residue, 
and that the part which first comes over should contain no colorless prisms of a pungent odor. 
Medical Properties. Iodine was first employed as a medicine in 1819, by Dr. Coindet, 
Sr., of Geneva. It operates as a general excitant of the vital actions, especially of the ab- 
sorbent and glandular systems. Its effects are varied by its degree of concentration, state of 
combination, dose, etc.; and hence under different circumstances it may prove corrosive, irri- 
tant, or simply alterative. It is absorbed into the circulation, and may be found in all the 
secretions, but is chiefly eliminated by the kidneys, not, however, uncombined, but in the state 
of hydriodic acid or an iodide. Cantu detected it not only in the urine and saliva, but also in 
the sweat, milk, and blood. According to Dr. John C. Dalton, Jr., of New York, iodine, taken 
in a single moderate dose, appears in the urine in thirty minutes, and may be detected for nearly 
twenty-four hours. In two cases in which large doses of potassium iodide had been taken for 
six or eight weeks, and the medicine intermitted, all trace of iodine disappeared from the urine 
in eighty-four hours. 
In an overdose iodine acts as an irritant poison. From four to six grains (0*26 to 0*4 Gm.), 
in man, cause a sense of constriction in the throat, sickness and pain at the stomach, and at 
length vomiting and colic. Even in medicinal doses it sometimes causes alarming symptoms, 
such as fever, restlessness, disturbed sleep, palpitations, excessive thirst, acute pain in the 
stomach, vomiting and purging, violent cramps, frequent pulse, and, finally, progressive emaci- 
ation if the medicine be not laid aside. Such violent symptoms are, however, very rare, but 
where iodine or potassium iodide is given freely a mild iodism is not unfrequent. It is usually 
characterized by pain or heaviness in the region of the frontal sinuses, with or without coryza; 
in some instances soreness of the mucous membrane of the mouth and throat, or a mild ptya- 
lism, is the prominent symptom; or a papular eruption may be the first manifestation of the 
constitutional action of the remedy. Absorption of the mammae and wasting of the testicles 
have been reported as caused by the long-continued use of the drug, but such results are ex- 
tremely rare. Dr. Lebert noted that the accidents produced by iodine, with scarcely an excep- 
tion, were in those cases of goitre in which the remedy acted rapidly in removing the tumor, 
* Amylum Iodatum. U. S. 1880. Iodized Starch. (Amyli Iodidum, Iodide of Starch ; lodure d’Amidon, Fr. ; 
Jodstarke, G.) “Starch, ninety-five parts [or four hundred and eighteen grains] ; Iodine, five parts [or twenty-two 
grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred parts [or one ounce av.]. Triturate the Iodine 
with a little Distilled Water; add the Starch gradually, and continue triturating until the compound assumes a uni- 
form blue color, approaching black. Dry it at a temperature not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.), and rub it to a fine 
powder. Iodide of Starch should be preserved in glass-stoppered vials»” U. S. 
Medical Properties. This preparation has been highly recommended as free from local irritant properties. Prof. 
Dalton, of New York, found that nearly all the animal fluids decompose starch iodide and destroy its blue color. 
(Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., April, 1856, p. 327.) This result is owing, no doubt, to the alkaline nature of most of the 
animal fluids, especially those of the duodenum, alkaline iodides being formed at the expense of the starch. The dose 
is a heaped teaspoonful, given in water-gruel, three times a day, and afterwards increased to a tablespoonful. No 
nicety is necessary in apportioning the dose. In some cases Dr. Buchanan has given half-ounce (15'6 dm.) doses, 
increased to an ounce (31*1 dm.). 748 
Iodum. 
PART I. 
and believed that the bad effects arose from the too prompt absorption of the abnormal mate- 
rial of the tumor, and not from the iodine itself. (Ann. de Therap., 1855, 228.) The modern 
discovery that the active principle of the thyroid body is capable of producing rapid wasting 
singularly confirms the old observation and theory of Lebert. 
Iodine has been principally employed in diseases of the glandular system. It has been used 
with success in ascites, especially when connected with diseased liver. It acts most efficiently 
immediately after tapping. In glandular enlargements and chronic indurations it is often of 
great service. Dr. Coindet discovered its extraordinary power in curing goitre;* and it has 
been used with more or less advantage in enlargements and indurations of the liver, spleen, 
mammae, testes, and uterus. In hepatic affections of this kind, where mercury has failed or is 
inadmissible, iodine is our best resource. Dr. Morell Mackenzie reports very favorably of the 
effects of iodine injected hypodermically into the thyroid. (Am. Journ. Med. Sci., Oct. 1873, 
553.) In chronic diseases of the uterus, with induration and enlargement, and in hard tumors 
of the cervix and indurated puckerings of the edges of the os tincae, iodine has occasionally 
effected cures, when administered internally and locally applied. In the form of potassium 
iodide in advanced syphilis, mercurial cachexia, and lead-poisoning, it is one of our best remedies. 
It is habitually employed in scaly skin affections and in chronic rheumatism. Dr. Coindet first 
directed attention to its effects in scrofula, but Dr. Lugol, by numerous trials in the Hopital 
Saint-Louis, extending from 1827 to 1831, first established the value of the remedy. 
The most eligible form of iodine for internal administration is its solution in water, aided by 
potassium iodide. (See Liquor Iodi Compositus.') The solutions employed by Dr. Lugol con- 
tained one part of iodine and two parts of potassium iodide; and the doses given by him were 
equivalent to half a grain (0-03 Gm.) of iodine daily for the first fortnight, three quarters of 
a grain (0-05 Gm.) daily for the second and third fortnights, one grain (0-065 Gm.) daily during 
the fourth and fifth fortnights, and, in some cases, a grain and a quarter (0-081 Gm.) daily for 
the remainder of the treatment; always largely diluted. The tincture of iodine is not eligible 
for internal use ; for, when freshly prepared, the iodine is precipitated from it by dilution with 
water, and, as a consequence, the irritating solid iodine will come in contact with the stomach 
when the dose is swallowed. The same objection is not applicable to the compound tincture, or 
to the simple tincture after having been long kept. 
A mode of safely bringing and maintaining the system under the influence of iodine, pro- 
posed by M. Boinet and called by him iodic alimentation, is to mix the medicine with the food, 
as with bread and other farinaceous substances, so that the patient may take daily a due quan- 
tity, which, with this mode of administration, may be large, if desirable, without inconvenience. 
(See Amylum Iodatum.') f 
* M. Chatin, finding, according to his observations, a great variation in the amount of iodine in the air, water, and 
soil of different localities, has founded on this supposed fact an explanation of the prevalence of goitre and cretinism 
in some places and their absence in others. Thus, in certain parts of Prance, near Paris, which he calls the Paris 
zone, the amount of iodine thus distributed is comparatively large, and goitre and cretinism are unknown ; while in 
the Alpine valleys, where only one-tenth the amount of iodine is found, these affections are endemic. These con- 
clusions are controverted by M. Lohmeyer, of Gottingen, and M. Kletzinsky, of Vienna, who failed to detect iodine 
in the air of those cities the inhabitants of which are free from goitre. 
f Iodized Oil. The following is the original process of M. Personne. Five parts of iodine are mixed with a 
thousand parts of almond oil, and the mixture is subjected to a jet of steam, until decolorized. The same operation is 
repeated with five additional parts of iodine. The oil is then washed with a weak alkaline solution, to remove the 
hydriodic acid developed in the process. By this mode of proceeding it may be presumed that the iodine is inti- 
mately united with the oil, along with which it would find an easy entrance into the system, and that, while about 
half of the iodine is lost as hydriodic acid, the remainder takes the place of the hydrogen eliminated from the oil. 
In 1851 the French Academy appointed MM. Guibourt, Soubeiran, Gibert, and Ricord to report upon the thera- 
peutic value of a definite combination of iodine and oil. The reporter (Guibourt) approved of M. Personne’s process; 
and MM. Gibert and Ricord reported favorably of the therapeutic effects of the preparation. M. Personne’s iodized 
oil differs little in appearance and taste from almond oil, and is easily taken alone or in emulsion. The dose is two 
fluidounces (60 C.c.) daily, which may be increased to three fluidounces (90 C.c.) or more. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., 
xxiii. 502.) 
M. Berthe and M. Lepage have objected to M. Personne’s iodized oil, that it is of variable iodine strength, and that 
it is liable to become rancid, in consequence of the use of steam in its preparation. M. Berthe makes an iodized oil 
which he alleges to be free from these objections, by heating to about 176° five parts of iodine with a thousand parts 
of almond oil, in a water-bath, until decoloration has taken place. The resulting oil is colorless, perfectly trans- 
parent, without odor or rancidity, not acted on by starch, and of a constant composition. To shorten the time in 
preparing the oil, M. Lepage dissolves the iodine in three times its weight of ether, before adding it to the oil, and 
briskly shakes the mixture for eight or ten minutes. The preparation is then heated in a water-bath, to decolorize 
it and drive off the ether. M. Hugounenq objects to this process that, if the oil be completely deprived of the odor 
of ether, the heating must be continued for several hours. He also objects to any process which requires the con- 
tinued application of heat, as rendering the oil liable to become quickly rancid. His plan is to rub up the iodine, for 
five or six minutes, in a porcelain mortar, with a small portion of the oil, and then gradually to add the remainder. 
A red limpid liquor is obtained, which may be completely decolorized by exposure for fifteen minutes to the sun’s rays. PART I. 
Iodum. 
749 
According to M. Hutet, one grain of iodine is deprived entirely of taste and smell by one 
teaspoonful of a strong infusion of coffee, (P. J. Tr., Dec. 1870.) 
The external treatment of iodine may be divided into general and topical. By its use in this 
way it does not create a mere local effect, but, by its absorption, produces its peculiar constitu- 
tional impression. The external treatment, when general, consists in the use of the iodine bath. 
This for adults should contain from two to four drachms of iodine, with double that quantity 
of potassium iodide, dissolved in water, in a wooden bath-tub; the proportion of the water 
being about a gallon for every three grains of iodine employed. The quantity of ingredients 
for the baths of children is one-third as much as for adults, but dissolved in about the 
same quantity of water. The quantity of iodine and iodide for a bath having been deter- 
mined upon, it is best to dissolve them in a small quantity of water (half a pint, for ex- 
ample) before they are added to the water of the bath; as this mode of proceeding facilitates 
their thorough diffusion. The iodine baths, which may be directed three or four times a week, 
usually produce a slight rubefacient effect, but occasionally a stronger impression, causing the 
epidermis to peel off, particularly of the arms and legs. The skin at the same time acquires 
a deep yellow tinge, which usually disappears in the interval between the baths. 
The topical application of iodine is made by means of several official preparations. (See Uh- 
guentum Iodi and Tinctura Iodi.) Besides these, several others have been employed topically. 
Lugol’s iodine lotion consists of from two to four grains of iodine, and double that quantity of 
potassium iodide, dissolved in a pint of water. It is used as a wash or an injection in scrofulous 
ophthalmia, ozsena, and fistulous ulcers. His rubefacient iodine solution is formed by dissolving 
half an ounce of iodine and an ounce of potassium iodide in six fluidounces of water. This 
is useful for exciting scrofulous ulcers, for touching the eyelids, and as an application to recent 
scrofulous cicatrices, to render them smooth. The rubefacient solution, added to warm water 
in the proportion of about a fluidrachm to the gallon, makes a convenient local bath for the 
arms, legs, feet, or hands; and, mixed with linseed meal or some similar substance, it forms a 
cataplasm useful in certain eruptions, especially where the object is to promote the falling off 
of scabs. External applications of iodine have been recommended for the removal even of 
internal plastic exudations, as to the side, for example, in protracted pleurisy. The rubefa- 
cient preparation of iodine at present most commonly employed is the tincture. (See Tinctura 
Iodi.) The preparation called iodine paint is a tincture twice as strong as the official tincture, 
and is made by dissolving a drachm of iodine in a fluidounce of alcohol, and allowing the 
solution to stand in a glass-stoppered bottle for several months before it is used, when it will 
become thick and syrupy. It is applied with a glass or a camel’s-hair brush, in one or more 
coatings, according to the degree of effect desired. Iodine paint is used as a counter-irritant, 
with advantage, in almost all forms of deep-seated chronic inflammation. When thus used, 
it must be borne in mind that the iodine acts also by being absorbed. Another valuable 
application of it is for the removal of nsevi. Lugol’s caustic iodine solution is made of iodine 
and potassium iodide, each, an ounce, dissolved in two fluidounces of water. This is used 
to destroy soft and fungous granulations, and has been employed with decided benefit in lupus. 
The Strong Solution of Iodine of the British Pharmacopoeia is intermediate in strength be- 
tween the two solutions last mentioned. (See Liquor Iodi Fortis.) Another caustic solution of 
iodine, under the name of iodized glycerin, is made by dissolving one part of potassium iodide 
in two parts of glycerin, and adding the solution to one part of iodine, which it completely 
dissolves. Dr. Max Richter, of Vienna, to whom belongs the credit of having introduced into 
practice the solution of iodine in glycerin, found this caustic particularly useful in lupus, non- 
vascular goitre, and scrofulous and constitutional syphilitic ulcers. The solution is applied by 
means of a hair-pencil to the diseased surface, which must then be covered with gutta-percha 
paper, fix-ed at the edges by strips of adhesive plaster, in order to prevent the evaporation of the 
iodine. The application produces burning pain, which rarely lasts for more than two hours. 
The dressing is removed in twenty-four hours, and pledgets dipped in cold water applied. This 
iodine caustic is too strong for ordinary local use. A weaker solution is recommended by Dr. 
Szukits, formed of one part of iodine to five parts of glycerin, for application to the neck, female 
breast, abdomen, etc. After four or five paintings it causes excoriation, which requires its dis- 
continuance and the use of cold applications. A mode of applying iodine locally has been 
Iodized oil, thus prepared, has the odor and taste of almond oil, is not more liable to become rancid than the pure 
oil, and is free from hydriodic acid. (Journ. de Pharrn., Mars, 1856.) From the above statements it is not easy to 
determine which is the best method of preparing iodized oil; but the preparation may be made with good olive oil 
instead of the more expensive almond oil. 750 
Iodum.—Ipecacuanha. 
PART I. 
suggested by Dr. It. Greenhalgh, of London, which consists in thoroughly impregnating raw 
cotton with a solution in glycerin of potassium iodide and of iodine, in the proportion of two 
ounces of the former and one ounce of the latter to eight ounces of the menstruum, and then 
drying the “ iodized cotton." It is intended for application to the cervix or os uteri, which is 
effected through a speculum. (Lancet, May 26, 1866, p. 582.) Mehu’s method of making 
iodized cotton is as follows. Finely divided iodine (5 to 10 parts) is sprinkled between layers 
of loose cotton (100 parts) introduced into a tall glass vessel, and the latter placed horizon- 
tally on a water- or sand-bath. As soon as vapors of iodine are seen to rise, and the air has 
been expelled from the vessel, the latter is tightly stoppered. On continuing to apply a mod- 
erate and uniform heat, the iodine vapors penetrate the cotton, and color it yellow. After 
about two hours, the cotton will have assumed the color of burnt coffee, and the operation is 
finished. Cotton iodized in other ways, as by immersion in concentrated solutions of iodine in 
ether or carbon disulphide, retains merely traces of iodine. (N. R., April, 1867.) 
Iodine is used by injection into various cavities. It has been employed in this way for the 
cure or relief of hydrocephalus, pleuritic effusion, hydropericardium, ascites, ovarian dropsy, hernia, 
hydrocele, spina bifida, dropsy of the joints, large cystic bronchocele, and chronic abscesses. The 
discussion of the indications for the use of the injections in these cases, and of the precautions 
and the methods to be adopted, belongs rather to treatises upon the practice of medicine and 
surgery than to a work like the present. To such treatises, therefore, the reader is referred. 
Enemata containing iodine have been used, by several practitioners, in the chronic dysentery 
and diarrhoea of both adults and children, with decided benefit, a prominent effect being the 
relief of tenesmus. They are supposed to act locally on ulcers in the colon and rectum, and 
generally by absorption. The injection should be made of Lugol’s solution, one to ten 
fluidrachms in one or two quarts of water. It should be preceded by an emollient enema to 
empty the intestine, and should be repeated once or twice daily, gradually increasing its 
strength. If the pain be severe, a laudanum injection will bring immediate relief. 
Iodine, in the state of vapor, has been employed by inhalation ; and the experiments as yet 
tried have been in the treatment chiefly of phthisis and chronic bronchitis. Although very 
extraordinary results were claimed for the method, yet it has entirely failed to fulfil expecta- 
tions, and is at present very rarely practised. For details as to methods, the reader is referred 
to the 14th edition of the U. S. D.* 
Iodine or an iodide should not be given in solution with an alkaloid, as it forms insoluble 
compounds, and in Philadelphia death has been produced by the strychnine iodide which had 
crystallized out of a mixture. It has even been suggested by Mr. R. F. Fairthorne (A. J. P., 
1856) and Dr. H. W. Fuller (Lancet, March 21, 1868, p. 373) as an antidote to alkaloids; but 
the insoluble compounds of these substances would by no means be inert in the stomach. 
In cases of poisoning by iodine, the stomach must first be evacuated, and afterwards drinks 
administered containing an amylaceous substance, such as flour, starch, or arrow-root. 
IPECACUANHA. U. S. (Br.) Ipecac. 
(!p-e-cac-u-Xn’ha.) 
“ The root of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha (Brotero), A. Richard (nat. ord. Rubiaceae).” U. S. 
“ The dried root of Psychotria Ipecacuanha, Stokes.” Br. 
Ipecacuanhae Radix, Br., Ipecacuanha Root; Radix Ipecacuanha, P. 0.; Racine bresilienne, Ipecacuanha, Fr.; 
Ruhrwurzel, Brechwurzel, Ipecacuanha, G.; Ipecacuana, It., Sp. 
The term ipecacuanha, derived from the language of the aborigines of Brazil, has been applied 
to various emetic roots of South American origin.f The botanical character of the ipecacu- 
* M. Barrere has proposed the use, for inhalations, of iodized camphor, which is to be taken like snuff. This is 
prepared by putting powdered camphor in a snuff-box, with a hundredth part in bulk of iodine, contained in a 
muslin bag. In the ‘course of a few hours the substances, by occasional shaking, unite, forming a powder resem- 
bling iodine in color. The difficulty in practising ordinary iodine inhalation depends chiefly on the irritation 
caused by the vapor, which excites cough and fatigues the patient. According to M. Barrere, this inconvenience is 
avoided by the use of the iodized camphor. A pinch of it produces sneezing and some smarting in the nostrils, but 
when the vapor reaches the lungs it causes a refreshing sensation, which induces the patient to draw a long and 
deep breath. (Ann. de Thirap., 1855, p. 232.) M. Hutet recommends the inhalation of hydriodic ether in affections 
of the lungs. 
Dr. Brainard employs the vapor of iodine, with great advantage, in the treatment of indolent ulcers, first dressing 
the ulcer with simple cerate spread on lint, then applying over this several layers of lint in which from one to four 
grains of iodine have been folded, and covering the whole with oiled silk and tin foil, secured by a bandage, so as 
to prevent the escape of the iodine, which is vaporized by the heat of the body. ( Chicago Med. Journ., Jan. 1860.) 
f M. Weddell states that the word ipecacuanha is nowhere in Brazil used to designate the Cephaelis, which is 
generally called poaya. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e s6r., xvi. 34.) Ipecacuanha. 
751 
PART I. 
anha plant of commerce was long unknown. Piso and Marcgraf, who were the first to treat 
of this medicine, in their work on the Natural History of Brazil, published at Amsterdam 
in 1648, described in general terms two plants,—one producing a whitish root, distinguished by 
the name of white ipecacuanha, the other a brown root, which answers in their description 
precisely to the official drug. But their account was not sufficiently definite to enable bota- 
nists to decide upon the character of the plants. The medicine was generally thought to be 
derived from a species of Viola, which Linnaeus des- 
ignated as V. ipecacuanha. Opinion afterwards turned 
in favor of a plant sent to Linnaeus by Mutis from Colom- 
bia, as affording the ipecacuanha of that country and of 
Peru. This was described in the Supplementum of the 
younger Linnaeus, 1781, under the name of Psychotria 
emetica, and was long erroneously considered as the source 
of the true ipecacuanha. Dr. Gomez, of Lisbon, was the 
first who accurately described and figured the genuine 
plant, which he had seen in Brazil, and specimens of 
which he took with him to Portugal; but Brotero, pro- 
fessor of botany at Coimbra, with whom he had left 
specimens, having drawn up a description and inserted 
it with a figure in the Linnaean Transactions without 
acknowledgment, enjoyed for a time the credit due to 
his countryman. In the paper of Brotero (1802) the 
plant is named Callicocca ipecacuanha; but the term 
Callicocca, having been applied by Schreber (1789), 
without sufficient reason, to a genus already named, the name of Cephaelis Swartz (1788) has 
been largely used. As, however, the Linnaean name Uragoga was given in 1731, it will prob- 
ably be preferred by botanists. According to Engler and Prantl, the principal synonymes of 
the ipecacuanha plant are, besides the official botanical names, Cephaelis Ipecacuanha Willd., 
Psychotria Ipecacuanha Miill.-Arg., and Uragoga Ipecacuanha Baill., which latter is probably 
the name that will finally prevail. 150 species of the genus Uragoga, according to Engler and 
Prantl, are to be found in the tropics, of which 100 grow in Brazil. The genus is divided into 
4 sections, of which the Enuragoga comprises 73 species, most of which are found in Brazil. 
Cephaelis ipecacuanha. Bichard, Hist. Ipecac, p. 21, t. i.; Martius, Spec. Mat. Med. Brazil. 
t. i. p. 4 ; Curtis s Bot. Mag., N. S., vol. xvii. pi. 4083,1844.— Callicocca ipecacuanha. Brotero, 
Linn. Trans, vi. 137. This is a small shrubby plant, with a root from four to six inches long, 
about as thick as a goose-quill, marked with annular rugae, simple or somewhat branched, 
descending obliquely into the ground, and here and there sending forth slender fibrils. The 
stem is two or three feet long, but, being partly under ground, and often procumbent at the 
base, usually rises less than a foot in height. It is slender; in the lower portion leafless, 
smooth, brown or ash-colored, and knotted, with radicles frequently proceeding from the knots ; 
near the summit, pubescent, green, and furnished with leaves seldom exceeding six in number. 
These are opposite, petiolate, oblong'-obovate, acute, entire, from three to four inches long, from 
one to two broad, obscurely green and somewhat rough on their upper surface, pale, downy, 
and veined on the under. At the insertion of each pair of leaves are deciduous stipules, 
embracing the stem, membranous at the base, and separated above into numerous bristle-like 
divisions. The flowers are very small, white, and collected to the number of eight, twelve, or 
more, each accompanied with a green bract, into a semi-globular head, supported upon a round, 
solitary, axillary footstalk, and embraced by a monophyllous involucre, deeply divided into four, 
sometimes five or six, obovate, pointed segments. The fruit is an ovate, obtuse berry, which is 
at first purple, but becomes almost black when ripe, and contains two small plano-convex seeds* 
The plant is a native of Brazil, flourishing over a very wide extent of territory in moist, 
thick, and shady woods, and abounding most within the limits of the eighth and twentieth 
degrees of south latitude. According to Humboldt, it grows also in Colombia. It flowers 
in January and February, and ripens its fruit in May. The root is active in all seasons, but, 
as it has to be dried rapidly, collection during the rainy season is relaxed. The native collector, 
or poayero, seizes all the stems of a clump, loosens them by a zigzag motion, and then, thrusting 
a pointed stick under the roots, tears up the whole mass. The roots, freed from dirt by shaking, 
Ipecacuanha, transverse section. 
* Cepha'elu tomentosa, of Trinidad, has been studied by Mr. Francis Ransom, who finds that it contains emetine, 
"but in too small quantity for commercial purposes. For description of the root, etc., see P. J. Tr.y xix. p. 258. 752 
Ipecacuanha. 
PART I. 
are then dried. The amount gathered daily varies from 8 to 30 pounds, according to skill and 
locality. Extirpation does not take place, because, as shown by the Edinburgh gardeners 
McNab and Lindsay, a very small fragment of the root, or even a petiole of a leaf, will rapidly 
produce a new plant. Weddell, indeed, many years since, stated that the remains of the root, 
often purposely left in the ground, serve the purpose of propagation, each fragment giving rise 
to a new plant. Ipecacuanha of commerce comes chiefly from the interior province of Matto- 
Grrosso, upon the upper waters of the Paraguay (from which in some years as much as 450,000 
kilos are shipped), although some is said to be gathered near Philadelphia, north of Rio 
Janeiro. The chief places of export are Rio Janeiro, Bahia, and Pernambuco. It is brought 
to the United States in large bags or bales. 
The cultivation of ipecacuanha, which commenced in India as long ago as 1866, met with 
no success until within a very few years, and even yet the culture has not become commercially 
important. Ransom has shown that the India roots are equal in alkaloidal contents to the 
wild ipecacuanha of America* 
* Unofficial Ipecacuanhas. From time to time there have been imported into Europe various drugs stated 
to be ipecacuanha, but differing from the official drug. Of these the most important are White Ipecacuanha; the 
Larger Striated Ipecacuanha of M. Planchon (Journ. de Pharrn., Dec. 1872); and the Lesser Striated Ipecacuanha 
of Planchon. 
White Ipecacuanha. Amylaceous Ipecacuanha. Undulated Ipecacuanha. Larger Undulated Ipecacuanha. Ipe- 
cacuanha of Carthagena. The origin of this variety of ipecacuanha was attributed by Martius to species of 
Richardsonia (Richardia of Linnasus), especially R. scabra, R. braziliensis of Gomez, and R. emetica; but an 
authentic specimen of the plant, received from Colombia, was found by Hanbury to resemble very closely the 
official ipecacuanha plant; and H. Baillon has described the source of white ipecacuanha as a new species of Psy- 
chotria or Uragoga, under the specific name of granatensis, syn. Psychotria emetica Mutis (not Veil): the plant is 
probably merely a variety of the official species. White ipecacuanha occurs in fragments from 5 to 8 millimetres in 
diameter, cylindrical, marked with rings which are but little pronounced and often wanting. Its color is whitish 
gray, sometimes verging towards reddish or yellowish. When broken it shows a very thick, hard, horny bark, with 
a dry, whitish or grayish-brown or black, farinaceods surface, offering in the full sunlight little shining points. It is 
chiefly distinguished from the official drug by its greater size, its gray external color, the feebleness of its undulation, 
and the comparative smallness of its woody centre. It is inodorous and insipid, and contains, according to Pelletier, 
a very large proportion of starch, with only 6 per cent, of impure emetine and 2 per cent, of fatty matter. 
Richard found only three and one-half parts of emetine in the hundred; M. Palangif; found 3 per cent.: but in 1860 
Lefort obtained from a specimen nearly as much emetine as occurs in the official roots. White ipecacuanha evidently 
varies in its strength, and, as it sometimes gets mixed with genuine roots, it would seem probable that it is the root of 
the official plant modified by climatic influence, or is composed of inferior roots obtained from very old specimens of 
the official plants. This probability is confirmed by the microscopic characters, the structure of the root being very 
closely similar to that of the official drug, 
Larger Striated Ipecacuanha (Planchon). Violet Striated Ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanha of St. Martha. Ipe- 
cacuanha of Carthagena. Striated Elastic Ipecacuanha (Attfield). This variety of ipecacuanha is generally 
acknowledged to be the product of Psychotria (or Uragoga) emetica, growing in the deep forests of Colombia. 
This is a small shrub, with a stem twelve or eighteen inches high, simple, erect, round, slightly pubescent, and fur- 
nished with opposite, oblong-lanceolate, pointed leaves, narrowed at their base into a short petiole, and accompanied 
with pointed stipules. The flowers are small, white, and supported in small clusters towards the end of an axillary 
peduncle. The drug occurs in rather long fragments, sometimes 9 or 10 centimeters (3 or 4 inches), with a thick- 
ness of from 5 to 9 millimeters (£ to £ of an inch). The pieces are for the most part almost straight, sometimes 
sinuous, more rarely tortuous. At distant intervals they are marked by contractions, or circular furrows. Their 
whole surface is largely striated longitudinally. To their upper part are often attached one or more remaining por- 
tions of the stem, distinguished from the root by their much smoother surface. Their color is a grayish brown, 
tending sometimes to reddish brown. Like other ipecacuanhas, they have an outer cortical and a central ligneous 
portion. The former is soft, so that it may even be penetrated by the nail. It has a horny aspect, and a variable 
color, passing from whitish, by shades of rose, violaceous, and blackish violet. Its thickness is at least two-thirds 
of the root, and becomes still greater when this is immersed in water. The central part is yellowish white. The 
root has little odor, and a taste scarcely nauseous, sometimes flat, and often sweetish. As to the microscopic charac- 
ters, the most striking are probably the total absence of the starch granules, and the relatively very small diameter 
of the vessels in the central part. Chemically this variety is characterized by the presence of a principle capable 
of reducing the cupro-potassic reagent. It is so abundant in the cortical part that a simple digestion in water 
gives a liquid with strong reducing powers, but without deviating action on polarized light. The larger striated 
ipecacuanha comes from Colombia. 
lesser Striated Ipecacuanha (Planchon). Ipecacuanha des Cdtes d’Or (Pelletier). Black Ipecacuanha. Black 
Striated Ipecacuanha. Striated Brittle Ipecacuanha (Attfield). False Ipecacuanha (Holmes.) It is not known 
from what plant this is obtained. It occurs in very short fragments, 2 or 3 centimeters at most long, and 2 or 3 
millimeters in thickness; some nearly cylindrical, others narrowly fusiform; others again formed of roundish or 
pyriform segments, somewhat thicker than the preceding, placed end to end. The color is generally of a gray brown, 
darker than that of the other kind. The longitudinal striae are fine, and regular on the transverse section. The 
cortical portion is as it were horny, and its consistence firmer than in the larger kind; the central part is yellowish, 
and under the microscope exhibits numerous pores. The ligneous centre is at once distinguished by the size of its 
vessels, which give it a porous appearance. The presence of the starch granules is another of the distinguishing 
characters of this variety. It contains a larger proportion of emetine than the preceding, yielding, according to the 
analysis of Pelletier, 9 per cent. 
According to Martius, different species of Ionidium ( Viola, Linn.) also produce what is called ichite ipecacuanha. 
The roots of all the species of Ionidium possess emetic or purgative properties. The root of I. ipecacuanha is de- 
scribed by Guibourt as being six or seven inches long, as thick as a quill, somewhat tortuous, and exhibiting at the Ipecacuanha. 
753 
PART I. 
Properties. Genuine ipecacuanha is in pieces two or three lines thick, variously bent and 
contorted, simple or branched, consisting of an interior slender, light straw-colored, ligneous 
cord, with a thick, brittle, brownish, finely wrinkled, cortical covering, which presents on its 
surface a succession of circular, unequal, prominent rings or rugae, separated by very narrow 
fissures, frequently extending nearly down to the central fibre. This appearance of the surface 
has given rise to the term anneli, or annulated, by which the true ipecacuanha is designated by 
French pharmaceutists. The cortex is hard, horny, and semi-transparent, breaks with a resinous 
fracture, and easily separates from the tougher ligneous fibre, which possesses the medicinal 
virtues of the root in a much inferior degree. On microscopic examination the very thick 
bark is seen to be formed of uniform parenchymatous cells, without traces of the medullary 
rays, which are very distinct in the woody central cylinder. Attached to the root is frequently 
a smoother and more slender portion, which is the base of the stem, and should be separated 
before pulverization. Pereira has met, in the English market, with distinct bales composed of 
these fragments of stems, with occasionally portions of the root attached. Much stress has 
been laid upon the color of the external surface of the ipecacuanha root; and diversity in this 
respect has even led to the formation of distinct varieties. Thus, the epidermis is sometimes 
deep brown or even blackish, sometimes reddish brown or reddish gray, and sometimes light 
gray or ash-colored. Hence the distinction into brown, red, and gray ipecacuanha. But these 
are all derived from the same plant, are essentially the same in properties and composition, and 
probably differ only in consequence of difference in age, place of growth, or mode of desicca- 
tion. The colors are often so intermingled that it would be impossible to decide in which va- 
riety a particular specimen should be placed. The brown is the most abundant in the packages 
brought to our market. The red, besides the color of its epidermis, presents a rosy tint when 
broken, and is said to be somewhat more bitter than the preceding variety. The gray is much 
lighter-colored externally, usually rather larger, with less prominent rings and wider furrows, 
and is still more decidedly bitter. Ipecacuanha has been grown to some extent in India, 
without, however, being produced in commercial quantities. In the neighborhood of Johore 
(Straits Settlements) it is said to be cultivated with marked success. In 1887 some of the 
product found its way to the London markets under the name of Indian ipecacuanha. It is 
said to be commercially characterized by the presence of very large numbers of delicate root- 
lets, and, according to the analysis of Mr. Ransom, contained about per cent, of the 
alkaloids. Of recent years it has not entered general commerce, probably on account of the 
high price which it commands in the neighborhood of Johore. Many years ago there was 
imported from Caracas into the United States a large gray ipecacuanha with badly marked 
rings. This variety disappeared for a time, but is probably the Colombian or Carthagena 
Ipecacuanha of modern commerce, which is distinguished from the Brazilian drug by being 
a little larger, with less conspicuous annuli and more marked medullary rays. Many years 
ago Lefort found that it contained rather less emetine than does Brazilian ipecacuanha, and 
the elaborate studies of Paul and Cownley have (P. J. Tr., lvi.) shown that whilst the total 
alkaloidal strengths (2T0 to 2-65 per cent., Kebler, A. J. P, 1896) of the two ipecacuanhas 
are about the same, the proportion of cephaeline is much larger and of emetine much smaller 
in the Carthagena drug than in the Brazilian. It is still uncertain what plant yields the 
Carthagena ipecacuanha, and consequently whether this root comes under the official definition 
of the Pharmacopoeia. When the bark in either variety of ipecacuanha is opaque, with a 
dull amylaceous aspect, the root is less active. As the woody part is nearly inert, and much 
point of flexion semicircular fissures, which give it some resemblance to the root of the Cephaelis. It is often bifur- 
cated at both extremities, and terminates at the top in a great number of small ligneous stalks. It is wrinkled lon- 
gitudinally, and of a light yellowish-gray color. The bark is thin, and the interior ligneous portion very thick. 
The root has little taste or smell. According to Pelletier, 100 parts contain 5 of an emetic substance, 35 of gum, 1 
of nitrogenous matter, and 37 of lignin. (Histoire ahregee des Drogues simples, i. 514.) 
The root of a species of Ionidium growing in Quito has attracted some attention as a remedy in elephantiasis, 
under the South American name of cuichunchulli. The plant received from Dr. Bancroft the name of 7. marcucci ; 
but Sir W. Hooker found the specimen received from Dr. Bancroft to be the I. parviflorum of Ventenat. Lindley 
thinks a specimen he received under the same name from Quito to be the I. microphyllum of Humboldt. If useful 
in elephantiasis, it is so probably by its emeto-purgative action. (See A. J. P., vii. 186.) 
Under the name of East Indian Ipecacuanha there has appeared in the London markets a root of a pale pinkish- 
brown color, tapering rapidly from the base to the apex, and having annulations much closer than in the true ipecacu- 
anha. It is especially distinguished from the latter root by being evidently monocotyledonous,—that is, without the 
central woody column,—the vascular bundles appearing under a pocket-lens as a more or less irregular ring of brownish 
dots. R. A. Cripp obtained from it a minute quantity of an alkaloidal substance, certainly distinct from the alka- 
loids of ipecacuanha. (P. J. Tr., lv.). Ranwez and Campion have also described a false ipecacuanha derived from 
a monocotyledonous plant, Cryptocoryne Spiralis. {Ann. d. Pharm., i.) 754 
Ipecacuanha. 
PART I. 
more difficult of pulverization than the cortical, it often happens that, when the root is pow- 
dered, the portion last remaining in the mortar possesses scarcely any emetic power; and 
care should be taken to provide against any defect from this cause * The German Pharma- 
copoeia provides for the rejection of the last fourth of the powder. The color of the powder 
is a light grayish fawn.f “ When Ipecac is sound and free from mouldiness, its quality 
is proportionate to the thickness of the bark and the thinness of the ligneous portion.”! U. S. 
Microscopically, ipecacuanha root is composed on the outside of a suberous layer of thick- 
walled cells; next, of parenchj'inatous tissue, five or six strata of irregular four-sided cells, 
which from without inward at first increase and then diminish in size. Raphides are in small 
numbers, but all the cells are gorged with starch granules, which are mostly compound, being 
composed of from two to eight or even more grains, which are muller-shaped, with one or 
two flat surfaces. The hilum is usually distinct, with two or three radiating crevices, some- 
times scarcely apparent. The individual starch granules are 1.5 millimetres or less in diameter, 
the compound granules range from 7 to 19 millimetres in their longest diameter. The exist- 
ence of swollen grains indicates the use of artificial heat in drying the roots. The liber is 
composed of much smaller cells, is irregular in thickness, and is rather full of starch. The 
cambium layer is formed of three or four series of colorless cells. The wood has its medul- 
lary rays very slightly marked, and contains only a few vessels, which are situated near the 
centre of the root. 
Ipecacuanha has little smell in the aggregate state, but when powdered has a peculiar nau- 
seous odor, which in some persons excites violent sneezing, in others dyspnoea resembling an 
attack of asthma. The taste is bitter, acrid, and very nauseous. Water and alcohol extract 
its virtues, which are injured by decoction. Its emetic property is supposed to reside in an 
alkaloid, called emetine, discovered by Pelletier in the year 1817. The cortical portion of 
ipecacuanha, analyzed by this chemist under the erroneous name of Psychotria emetica, yielded, 
in 100 parts, 16 of an impure salt of emetine, which was at first considered the pure emetic 
principle, 2 of an odorous fatty matter, 6 of wax, 10 of gum, 42 of starch, and 20 of lignin, 
with 4 parts loss, the woody portion of the root containing no alkaloid. According to the re- 
searches of A. It. L. Dohrne (A. J. P., 1895), the adherent stems contain from 15 to 20 per cent, 
less of the alkaloid than do the roots. Roots entirely conforming to the official requirements 
vary in alkaloidal strength from a little over 1 to over 2 per cent.: 1-80 per cent, probably is 
about the average yield. In addition to the alkaloids, Bucholz found extractive, sugar, and 
resin ; and Erwin Willigk, afterwards, traces of a disagreeable-smelling volatile oil, phosphatic 
salts, and a peculiar acid, ipecacuanhic acid, which resembles caffeo-tannic and quinic acids, 
and has been shown by Reich (Arch, der Pliarm., [2] 113, 208) to be a glucoside, of the 
formula C14H180r (See A. J. P., xxiii. 352.) Good ipecacuanha has about 80 per cent, of 
cortical and 20 of ligneous matter. B. H. Paul and A. J. Cownley discovered that the alka- 
loid emetine is not homogeneous, but a mixture of two or more different substances. They 
have found an amorphous alkaloid associated with others which are distinctly crystalline, and 
very different from the amorphous alkaloid in physical characters. 
The crystalline alkaloid is very much less soluble in ether, chloroform, or benzene than is 
the amorphous alkaloid with which it is associated ; but, as is usual in such cases, it is not until 
separation has been carried to a considerable extent that this difference becomes apparent. 
The authors further seem to have obtained evidence that Carthagena ipecacuanha contains, in 
addition to a considerable amount of amorphous alkaloid, some proportion of another crystal- 
lizable alkaloid, which presents marked differences from the crystallizable alkaloid of Bra- 
zilian ipecacuanha. The authors are inclined to the conclusion that the percentage amount 
of alkaloid in ipecacuanha root does not vary very much from 3 per cent. (P. J. Tr., 1893, 61.) 
* For elaborately illustrated articles upon the microscopy of ipecacuanha and its adulterations, see Henry G. 
Greenish, P. J. Tr., 1895, 685, and Albert Schneider, Amer. Drug., 1897. According to Greenish, the distinctive 
characteristics of the powder of either Brazilian or Carthagena ipecacuanha are : (a) the form and size of the starch 
grains; (b) the absence of vessels, presence of perforated tracheides; (c) the acicular raphides: to these may be 
added (d) the emetine reaction with chlorine. The stem may in either case be distinguished from the root (in 
powder) by the presence (a) of sclerenchymatous cells; (b) of lignified cells of the pith ; (c) of spiral vessels. The 
Carthagena ipecacuanha can usually be distinguished by the great size of its starch grains, although there are some 
Carthagena roots that contain small granules of starch. 
f Attempts have been made to adulterate powdered ipecacuanha with the powder of almonds; but the fraud is 
readily detected by forming a paste with a little water and putting it into a hot place for half an hour, when, if the 
ipecacuanha be pure, only its own odor will be perceived, but, if adulterated, a decided odor of almonds will be 
noticed. (Journ. de Pliarm.. Juin, 1874, 479.) 
J See paper by Dr. A. E. L. Dohrne, Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 172; 1894, 233. PART I. 
Ipecacuanha. 
755 
A. R. L. Dohme obtained a little over 2 per cent, of tbe alkaloid. (A. J. P., 1895.) In a later 
article (A. J. P., 1895, 256) Paul and Cownley present additional results. They give to tbe 
amorphous alkaloid the name emetine, and find it to have the formula C16H23N02 and the 
melting point 68° C. The crystalline alkaloid accompanying it in the Brazilian ipecacuanha 
they call cephaeline, and give it the formula C14H20N02 and the melting point 102° C. Accord- 
ing to this, emetine is methyl-cephaeline. The third alkaloid found by them melts at 138° C., 
and apparently has a much higher molecular weight than emetine or cephaeline. This alka- 
loid and its salts, which are uncrystallizable, are rapidly decomposed on exposure to light; in 
this respect differing from emetine and cephaeline, both of which are unaffected by light. 
Various processes have been published for the isolation of emetine, and these will be found 
in previous editions of this work (see U. S. D., 17th ed., 752) ; but, in view of the researches 
above quoted, none yield pure emetine. The results of Paul and Cownley’s researches 
(1899) are summarized below. W. G. Whiffen patented in Germany in 1898 a process for 
making emetine, basing it on the separation of emetine hydrobromide from extract of ipecac; 
cephaeline hydrobromide crystallizes with great difficulty, whilst emetine hydrobromide is 
easily crystallized and separated. (Chem. and Drug., 1898, 694.) 
Emetine (C16H22N02) is an amorphous white powder ; melting point 68° C. It forms 
crystalline salts with the halogens and nitric acid; dissolves readily in chloroform, ether, 
benzol, or alcohol, its alcoholic solution giving no coloration with ferric chloride. It is in- 
soluble in solutions of caustic or carbonated alkalies, but easily dissolved in diluted acetic 
acid. Glacial acetic acid dissolves emetine without effecting substitution. From the acetic 
acid solution, potassium hydrate precipitates a white, flocculent precipitate, insoluble in excess, 
but readily soluble in ether. 
Cephaeline (C14H20N02) is crystalline, occurring in white, silky needles ; melting point, 96-9° 
C. Its salts are not crystalline. It dissolves easily in ether, benzol, chloroform, or alcohol. 
Ferric chloride added in small quantity to an alcoholic solution produces a dark reddish-brown 
coloration ; this is believed to be due to the presence of phenol-hydroxyl. Cephaeline dissolves 
easily in solution of potassium hydrate, and is not extracted by ether ; it is easily soluble in 
acetic acid, and is reprecipitated by the cautious addition of potassium hydrate as a white pre- 
cipitate which is soluble in excess of the alkali. It is upon the peculiar behavior of cephaeline 
with caustic alkali and ether that the separation of cephaeline and emetine depends. Dr. Hesse 
assigns to emetine the formula and to cephaeline C28H38N204. A third alkaloid 
has been isolated by Paul and Cownley (/*. J. Tr., 1895) ; it exists in a very small quantity 
in the root. 
Emetine hydrobromide (C15H22N02.HBr.9H20), which is suggested as the most convenient 
salt of emetine for medicinal use, is permanent, occurring in white, silky needles, readily soluble 
in water, difficultly soluble in absolute alcohol or chloroform. 
Professor Fliickiger (Pharm. Zeitung, 1886, p. 30) gives a process for assaying ipecacuanha, 
which consists in exhausting 10 to 15 grammes of the drug in very fine powder with boiling 
chloroform to which a drop of solution of ammonia has been added ; the extraction is con- 
tinued until the chloroform passing through shows no sign of alkaloid when treated with acidu- 
lated water. Upon distilling off the chloroform, the emetine is left in a very pure condition, 
and may be dried at 100° C. and weighed, or perhaps more conveniently titrated with Mayer’s 
reagent. He found the average quantity of emetine in ipecacuanha root not to exceed 1 per 
cent. (P. J. Tr., 1886, 643.) H. W. Jones approves of this method, and modifies it by treat- 
ing the residue from the chloroformic solution with water and dilute sulphuric acid, filtering, 
and recovering the alkaloid by means of chloroform and ammonia. (P. J. Tr., 1886, p. 277.) 
For other methods see a paper by Dr. A. B. Lyons, A. J. P., 1885, pp. 531, 542. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Ipecacuanha is in large doses emetic, in smaller doses 
diaphoretic and expectorant, and in still smaller, stimulant to the stomach, exciting appetite 
and facilitating digestion. In quantities not quite sufficient to vomit, it produces nausea, and 
frequently acts on the bowels. As an emetic, it is mild but tolerably certain, and, being free 
from corrosive or narcotic properties and usually thrown from the stomach by one or two efforts, 
never produces dangerous effects. It was employed as an emetic by the natives of Brazil when 
that country was first settled by the Portuguese ; but, though described in the work of Pison, 
it was not known in Europe till 1672, and did not come into use till some years afterwards. 
John Helvetius, grandfather of the famous author of that name, having been associated with a 
merchant who had imported a large quantity of ipecacuanha into Paris, employed it as a secret 
remedy, and with so much success in dysentery and other bowel affections that general atten- 756 
Ipecacuanha.—Iris. 
PART I. 
tion was drawn to it, and the fortunate physician received from Louis XIV. a large sum of 
money and public honors on the condition that he should make it public. As an emetic, ipecac- 
uanha is peculiarly adapted, by its mildness and efficiency, to cases in which the object is merely 
to evacuate the stomach, or where a gentle impression only is desired ; and in most other cases 
in which emetics are indicated it may be advantageously combined with the more energetic 
medicines, which it renders safer by insuring their discharge. It is especially useful where 
narcotic poisons have been swallowed, as, under these circumstances, it may be given in almost 
indefinite doses, with little comparative risk of injury. In tropical or typhoid dysentery it is 
of very great value. As a nauseating remedy it is used in croup, and as a diaphoretic combined 
with opium, in numerous diseases. (See Pulvis Ipecacuanhse et Opii.) Its expectorant properties 
render it useful in acute bronchitis. It has been given, also, with supposed advantage, in very 
minute doses, in dyspepsia, and in chronic disease of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane, 
and as an anti-emetic. It has been found especially useful in winter coughs and asthmatic catarrh, 
inhaled in the form of spray; the wine of ipecacuanha being the preparation used* Ipecac- 
uanha is most conveniently administered, as an emetic, in the form of powder suspended in water. 
The dose is about twenty grains (1-3 6m.), repeated, if necessary, at intervals of twenty minutes 
till it operates. In some persons much smaller quantities prove emetic, and we have known an 
individual who was generally vomited by the fraction of a grain. The operation may be facili- 
tated, and rendered milder, by draughts of warm water or warm chamomile tea. For the pro- 
duction of nausea, the dose in substance may be two grains (0-13 6m.), repeated more or less 
frequently according to circumstances. As a diaphoretic it may be given in the quantity of a 
grain (0065 Gm.) ; as an alterative, in diseases of the stomach and bowels, in that of one-quarter 
or one-half grain (0-016-0-03 Gm.) two or three times a day. 
According to the experiments of Dr. Robert B. Wild (London Lancet, ii., 1895), both cephae- 
line and emetine are powerful emetics,f which lower the arterial pressure by depressing the 
heart; they are also said to be muscle poisons, and to act directly upon the muscular coats of 
the blood-vessels. As an emetic, cephaeline was found to be twice as strong as emetine; but 
the emetic dose of it did not produce as much general depression as did that of emetine. On 
account of the violence of their action, these alkaloids are, however, inferior as practical 
remedies to ipecacuanha, and if given in overdoses may produce dangerous and even fatal con- 
sequences. The dose of impure emetine is about a grain (0 065 Gm.), of the pure not more 
than an eighth of a grain (0-008 Gm.), repeated at proper intervals till it vomits. In propor- 
tional doses, it may be applied to the other purposes for which ipecacuanha is used. It will 
excite vomiting when applied to a blistered surface after the removal of the cuticle. Wild 
gives one-fourth of a grain of emetine and from one-twelfth to one-sixth of a grain of cephae- 
line as the proper emetic dose. 
An ointment made with one part of powdered ipecacuanha, one of olive oil, and two of 
lard, rubbed once or twice a day for a few minutes upon the skin, produces a copious and very 
permanent eruption, but is at present only very rarely employed as a counter-irritant. 
IRIS. U. S. Iris. [Blue Flag.] 
(I'RlS.) 
“ The rhizome and rootlets of Iris versicolor, Linn6 (nat. ord. Iridese).” U. S. 
Rhizome d’lris varie, Glaieul bleu, Fr.; Versehiedenfarbige Schwertlilie, G. 
Gen. Ch. Corolla six-parted ; the alternate segments reflected. Stiff mas petal-shaped. Wittd. 
In all the species belonging to this genus, so far as examined, the roots are more or less acrid, 
and possessed of cathartic and emetic properties. In Europe, Iris feetidissima, I. florentina, 
I. germanica, I. pseudo-acorus, and I. tuberosa have at various times been admitted into use, 
and the unpeeled roots of I. germanica are still sold in the Indian bazaars under the name 
of Irisia. 
Iris versicolor. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 233; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. i. 155. This indigenous 
species of Iris has a perennial, fleshy, horizontal, fibrous root or rhizome, and a stem two or 
three feet high, round on one side, acute on the other, and frequently branching. The leaves 
are sheathed at the base, sword-shaped, and striated. The flowers are from two to six in num- 
ber, and are usually blue or purple, though varying much in color. The capsule has three 
* Sydney Ringer, M.D., and Wm. Murrell, Lancet, Sept. 5, 1874, 328. 
-j- These experiments, taken with those of Paul and Cownley, indicate that whilst for many therapeutic purposes 
Carthagena ipecacuanha is superior rather than inferior to the Brazilian variety, it is too slow in its action for use as 
an emetic in cases of poisoning. PART i. 
Iris.—Jalapa. 
757 
valves, is divided into three cells, and when mature is oblong, three-sided, with obtuse angles, 
and contains numerous flat seeds. The blue flag is found in all parts of the United States, 
flourishing in low wet places, in meadows, and on the borders of swamps, which it serves to 
adorn with its large and beautiful flowers. These make their appearance in June. The root 
is the medicinal portion. The flowers afford a fine blue infusion, which serves as a test for 
acids and alkalies. 
Properties. The recent root is without odor, and has a nauseous, acrid taste, which is 
imparted to water by decoction, and still more perfectly to alcohol. The acrimony as well as 
medicinal activity is impaired by age. If cut when fresh into slices, dried at the temperature 
of about 100° F., then powdered and kept in bottles excluded from the air, the root retains its 
virtues unimpaired for a considerable time. (Andrews.) It is officially described as follows: 
“ Rhizome of horizontal growth, consisting of joints, 5 to 10 Cm. long, cylindrical in the 
lower half, flattish near the upper extremity, and terminated by a circular scar, annulated from 
the leaf-sheaths, grayish-brown ; roots long, simple, crowded near the broad end ; odor slight; 
taste acrid and nauseous.” U. S. D. W. Cressler found in this plant starch, gum, tannin, 
sugar, an acid resin, fixed oil, and indications of an alkaloid. (A. J. P., 1881, p. 602.) 
Blue flag possesses the cathartic, emetic, and diuretic properties common to most of its 
congeners. It was said by Mr. Bartram to be much esteemed by the southern Indians; and 
Dr. Bigelow states that he has found it efficacious as a purgative, though inconvenient from the 
distressing nausea and prostration which it is apt to occasion; but other practitioners have 
employed it with less unpleasant effects. It may be given in substance, decoction, or tincture. 
The dose of the dried root is from ten to twenty grains (0-65-D3 Gm.). Under the unscientific 
name of iridin or irisin, which should be reserved for the pure active principle when discovered, 
the “ Eclectics” have for some time used an oleoresin, obtained by precipitating a tincture of 
the root with water, and mixing the precipitate with an equal weight of some absorbent 
powder, for which purpose powdered liquorice root would probably answer well. Wm. E. 
Jenks (A. J. P., 1881, p. 601) prepares the oleoresin of iris by exhausting the root with alco- 
hol sp. gr. *835, and distilling off the alcohol. See also paper on the constituents of the oleo- 
resin by W. L. Cliffe, A. J. P., 1884, p. 616. The so-called irisin is undoubtedly purgative, 
and is believed by some practitioners to have a very decided action upon the liver,—a belief 
which is confirmed by the researches of Prof. Rutherford, who proved that in dogs it is a 
powerful stimulant to the liver and has also a decided influence upon the intestinal glands; 
he ranks it as less irritant to the intestines than podophyllin, and more purgative than euony- 
min. It may be given in pill in the dose of from three to four grains (0-20-0-26 Gm.). 
JALAPA. U. S., Br. Jalap. 
(JA-LA'PA.) 
“The tuberous root of Ipomcea Jalapa, Nuttall (nat. ord. Convolvulaceae).” V. S. “The 
dried tubercules of Ipomcea Purga, Hayne.” Br. 
Tuber Jalap*, P.G.; Radix Jalapae; Jalap, Fr.; Jalape, Jalapenknollen, Jalapenwurzel, G.; Sciarappa, It.; 
Jalapa, Sp. 
The precise botanical origin of jalap remained long unknown. It was at first ascribed by 
Linnaeus to a Mirabilis, and afterwards to a new species of Convolvulus, to which he gave the 
name of C. jalapa. The correctness of the latter reference was generally admitted ; and, as 
the Ipomoea macrorrhiza of Michaux, growing in Florida and Georgia, was believed to be iden- 
tical with the C. jalapa of Linnaeus, it was thought that this valuable drug, which had been ob- 
tained exclusively from Mexico, might be collected within the limits of the United States. But 
the error of this opinion was soon demonstrated. Dr. John K. Coxe, of Philadelphia, received 
living roots of jalap from Mexico in 1827, and succeeded in producing a perfect flowering plant, 
of which a description, by Mr. Nuttall, was published in the Am. Joum. of Med. Sci. for January, 
1830. The same plant has since been cultivated in various parts of Europe,* and has been 
introduced into the Neilgherry Hills of India, where it grows vigorously. J. H. Balfour 
(Curtis's Bot. Mag., Feb. 1847) maintains that the plant belongs to the genus Exogonium of 
Choisy, as defined in De Candolle’s Prodromus, being distinguished from Ipomoea by its exserted 
stamens. Bentham and Hooker, however, do not acknowledge the validity of the various genera 
into which Ipomoea has been broken up by Choisy ( Genera Plantarum, ii.). Engler and Prantl 
* The jalap grows freely in the south of England, but the season is too short for the production of seed by it, 
although the root has yielded 11'97 per cent, of resin. (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1869.J 758 
Jalapa. 
PAET I. 
have restored the genus Exogonium \_E. Purga (Wender.) Benth.] for the plant yielding 
jalap. 
Exogonium purga. Balfour, Curtis's Bot. Mag., 3d ser., vol. iii. tab. 4280; B. & T. 186.— 
Ipomoea jalapa. Nuttall. Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. ii. 13, pi. 61.— Tpomcxa purga. Hayne, 
Darstell. und Beschreib., etc., xii. 33 and 34; Lindley, Flor. Med. 396. The root of this plant 
is a roundish somewhat pear-shaped tuber, externally blackish, inter- 
nally white, with long fibres proceeding from its lower part, as well as 
from the upper rootstalks. A tuber produced by Dr. Coxe was, in its 
third year, between two and three inches in diameter. The stem is 
round, smooth, much disposed to twist, and rises to a considerable 
height upon neighboring objects, about which it twines. The leaves 
are heart-shaped, entire, smooth, pointed, deeply sinuated at the base, 
prominently veined on their under surface, and supported upon long 
footstalks. The lower leaves are nearly hastate, or with diverging an- 
gular points. The flowers, which are large and of a lilac-purple color, 
stand upon peduncles about as long as the petioles. Each peduncle 
supports two or, more rarely, three flowers. The calyx is without 
bracts, five-leaved, obtuse, with two of the divisions external. The 
corolla is funnel-form. The stamens are five in number, with oblong, 
white, somewhat exserted anthers. The stigma is simple and capitate. 
The jalap-plant is a native of Mexico, where it is dug during the 
whole year, and mostly dried over the hearths of the Indian huts. 
It derives its name from the city of Jalapa, in the state of Vera Cruz, 
in the neighborhood of which it grows, at the height of about 6000 
feet above the ocean. The drug is brought from the port of Vera 
Cruz in bags containing usually between 100 and 200 pounds * The 
jalap plant is now successfully cultivated in the government cinchona 
plantations in India. Analyses of the Indian tubers show that when 
grown on fresh soil they contain from 16 to 17 per cent, of resin, and 
that by manuring the percentage is notably increased, even to 22 per 
cent. For an account of the cultivation of jalap in Madras, see Amer. 
Drug., 1896, 127. 
Properties. The tuber comes either whole, or divided longitudinally into two parts, or in 
transverse circular slices. The entire tubers are irregularly roundish, or ovate and pointed, or 
pear-shaped, usually much smaller than the fist, and the larger ones marked with circular or 
vertical incisions, made to facilitate their drying. The root is preferred in this state, as it is 
less apt to be defective and is more easily distinguished from the adulterations than when 
sliced. A much larger proportion comes entire than formerly, indicating a greater scarcity of 
the older roots, which it is necessary to slice in order to dry them properly. The tuber is 
heavy, compact, hard, brittle, with a shining undulated fracture, not fibrous, but exhibiting 
irregular dark concentric lines, and, when examined under the microscope, numerous compound 
starch grains, clustered crystals of calcium oxalate, and cells containing resin (resinous points 
when viewed under a low magnifying power). Externally the tuber is brown and wrinkled, 
internally of a grayish color, diversified by concentric darker circles, in which the matter is 
denser and harder than in the intervening spaces. Jalap is always kept by pharmacists 
in the state of powder, which is of a yellowish-gray color, and when inhaled irritates the 
nostrils and throat, and provokes sneezing and coughing. The odor of the root, when cut or 
broken, is heavy, sweetish, and rather nauseous; the taste is sweetish, somewhat acrid, and 
disagreeable. It yields its active properties partly to water, partly to alcohol, and completely 
to diluted alcohol, and the U. S. P. gives the following test of its efficiency: “ On exhausting 
100 parts of Jalap with alcohol, concentrating the tincture to 40 parts, and pouring it into 
water, a precipitate of resin should be obtained, which, when washed with water, and dried, 
should weigh not less than 12 parts, and of which not over 10 per cent, should be soluble in 
ether.” 
There can be no doubt that much of the commercial jalap is far below the official stand- 
ard. In June, 1888, a series of analyses yielded to Dr. Squibb, in New York, only about 
8 per cent., and the same chemist in 1889, as the result of applications made in Hamburg, 
Section of a fragment of 
jalap tuber, showing raphides 
and starch in cells. 
* The root of I. pandurata, Man Root, Man of the Earth, of this country, is sometimes met with in American 
commerce. Mr. C. Manz found a resin in it. (A. J. P., 1881, 384.) Jalapa. 
759 
PART I. 
London, and New York, for the finest jalap, obtained only one consignment yielding more than 
7'5 per cent. Dr. Squibb has indeed found jalap tubers yielding only 1‘8 per cent, of resin. 
(A. J. P., 1868.) These analyses, it is true, are contrary to the results of It. A. Cripps 
(P. J. Tr., xix., 1888), who found numerous specimens of jalap in the London market 
ranging 10 per cent, and over; but they are in accord with those of T. P. Suess (A. J. P., 
1890), and there seems to be little doubt that jalap has greatly decreased in quality of late 
years. Further, as 20 per cent, of resin does not seem to be an extraordinary yield of properly 
grown roots, the belief of Prof. Fliickiger, that jalap resin is extracted from the roots in Mexico 
before the latter are thrown into commerce, seems probable.* “ Jalap, when assayed by the 
process described under ‘ Jalapae Kesina,’ should yield not less than 9 nor more than 11 per 
cent, of resin having the properties of the official resin.” Br. For Alcock’s method of assay, 
see A. J. P, 1892, 533. 
M. Cadet de Gassicourt obtained from 500 parts of jalap, 24 of water, 50 of resin, 220 of 
gummy extract, 12-5 of fecula, 12-5 of albumen, 145 of lignin, 16-3 of saline matters, and 2-7 
of silica, with a loss of 17 parts. Buchner and Herberger supposed that they had discovered a 
basic substance, which they called jalapin. G. A. Kayser found that the resin of jalap con- 
sists of two portions, one of which, amounting to seven parts out of ten, is hard and insoluble 
in ether, the other is soft and soluble in that menstruum. The hard resin he named rhodeoretin, 
and found to be identical with the jalapin of Buchner and Herberger. By reaction with the 
alkalies it is converted into an acid, called rhodeoretinic acid. Bhodeoretin is slightly soluble 
in water, freely so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether, chloroform, or benzene; and the alcoholic 
solution is precipitated both by ether and water. It is dissolved by solutions of the alkalies, 
more quickly if heated, and is not precipitated by acids, having become soluble by conversion 
into the acid above referred to. It purges violently in the dose of three or four grains, and is 
supposed to be the active principle of jalap. Mayer confirmed and extended the observations 
of Kayser. He gave the name of convolvulin to Kayser’s rhodeoretin, and announced its 
formula as C31H60016. This substance is colorless when pure, dissolving easily in ammonia, 
and is not reprecipitated by acids, because of its conversion into convolvulic add, which is a hy- 
drate of the glucoside convolvulin. This, on being treated with nitric acid, yields sebacic acid. 
Convolvulin possesses in a high degree the purgative properties of jalap. Mayer obtained from 
Ipomoea orizabemis a resin which he called jalapin, which was afterwards shown by Mr. Keller 
to be identical with the resin of scammony. Mayer’s jalapin differs from convolvulin in being 
soluble in ether. The formula of jalapin, according to Dr. Samuelson, is C84H66016, which 
would show it to be a homologue of convolvulin, C31H50Oie. Poleck (A. J. Pi, 1892, p. 465) 
has continued the investigation of the jalapin from I. orizabensis, and confirms the identity of 
it with scammonin, giving it the formula C34II660e. He suggests that the name of jalapin, 
which is misleading, should be replaced by orizabin. To jalapic add he gives the formula 
H2C17H2809, and to jalapinolic add HC16H2003. A. Kromer (Pharm. Ztsch.f. Russl., 1894, 
Nos. 1-7) has made a study of convolvulin. He finds it to be laevogyre, and gives it the 
formula C61H108027, which is deduced from its analysis and decomposition products; alkalies 
decompose it into one molecule of volatile methylethyl-acetic add, C6H1002, and two molecules 
of monobasic convolvulinic add, C28H52014. This is amorphous, yielding a white hygroscopic 
powder soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether; strong sulphuric acid colors it red or 
brown-red; by the action of acids one molecule of convolvulinic acid yields two molecules of a 
glucose and one molecule of convolvulinolic acid, which is insoluble in water, melts 
at 46° C., is not colored by sulphuric acid, and is isomeric with jalapinolic acid and scam- 
monolic acid, both of which melt at from 63°-64° C. A. F. Stevenson (N'. R., 1879, 359) has 
studied the two resins found in jalap, and furnishes a tabular statement of the differences be- 
* The poor quality of Mexican jalap makes the question of the possibility of the cultivation of the plant im- 
portant. In 1834, Widnmann, an apothecary of Munich, showed that in the gardens of Munich the jalap plant would 
grow and produce tubers yielding as high as 22 per cent, of resin. His results have been confirmed, especially by 
Clamor Marquart, at Bonn. In England, jalap yielding nearly 12 per cent, of resin has been successfully grown. 
(P. J. Tr., Feb. 1869.) There seems to be no doubt that the jalap plant will flourish in a temperate climate. It 
is a question whether the medicinal results are not better in temperate than in hot climates. Thus, M. Warden 
(P. J. Tr., Aug. 1887) found tubers produced in Northwestern India to be somewhat below the standard. 
The question as to possible substitutes for the official species is also growing in importance. Prof. Fliickiger has 
pointed out that the seeds of the Ipomoea hederacea (Kaladana seeds) yield very readily 8 per cent, of resin identi- 
cal with that obtained from Ipomoea purga. As this plant is very abundant in India, it would appear to be a possi- 
ble commercial source for jalap resin. Prof. Shimoyama, of Tokio, has shown that jalap resin can also be obtained 
from the Ipomoea triloba (Pharbitis triloba) of Japan. M. K. Hyrano confirms this, and states that the seeds of the 
plant have long been used in Japan, under the name of “ kengashi.” (For details, and method of extracting the 
resin, see P. J. Tr., Oct. 1888.) 760 
Jalapa. 
PART I. 
tween the soft resin jalapin and the hard resin convolvulin, which we give in a foot-note* 
The proportion of resin to the other ingredients of the root varies considerably in different 
specimens. According to Gerber, the root contains 7-8 per cent, of hard resin, 3-2 of soft 
resin, 17-9 of extractive, 14-5 of gummy extract, 8-2 of a coloring substance which becomes 
red under the influence of the alkaline carbonates, T9 of uncrystallizable sugar, 15-6 of gum 
mixed with some saline matters, 3-2 of bassorin, 3-9 of albumen, 6-0 of starch, and 8-2 of lignin, 
with some water, and various salts. For the method of obtaining the resin of jalap pure, see 
Resina Jalapse. 
Jalap is apt to be attacked by worms, which, however, are said to devour the amylaceous or 
softer parts, and to leave the resin, so that the worm-eaten drug is more powerfully purgative 
than that which is sound. Thus, out of 397 parts of the former, M. Henry obtained 72 parts 
of resin, while from an equal quantity of the latter he procured only 48 parts. Hence worm- 
eaten jalap should be employed for obtaining the resin, but should not be pulverized, as it 
would afford a powder of more than the proper strength. The drug is also liable to various 
adulterations, or fraudulent substitutions, which, however, can usually be detected without dif- 
ficulty. Those which have attracted particular attention are mentioned in the note below.f 
*1. Solvents. 
2. Reactions with Oxidizing Agents on convolvulin and jalapin 
dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Solvent. 
Jalapin. 
Convolvulin. 
Agent. 
Jalapin. 
Convolvulin. 
Chloroform. 
Readily soluble. 
Slightlv soluble. 
Potassium bichro- 
Produces odor of 
Produces odor of 
Ether. 
Very soluble. 
Insoluble. 
mate. 
rancid butter 
rancid butter 
Petrol, naphtha. 
Slightly soluble. 
Insoluble. 
and reddish 
and olive-green 
Oil of turpentine. 
Slightly soluble. 
Insoluble. 
brown color. 
color. 
Benzene. 
Carbon disulph. 
W ater. 
Hydrochloric acid. 
Slightly soluble. 
Easily soluble. 
Slightly soluble. 
Slightly soluble. 
Insoluble. 
Insoluble. 
Slightly soluble. 
Readily soluble. 
Potassium per- 
manganate. 
Same reactions. 
Same reactions. 
Sulphuric acid. 
Very soluble, with 
production of 
maroon color, 
changing to 
black. 
Readily soluble, 
with production 
of bright red 
coloration. 
Potassium nitrate. 
Same reactions, 
but not so 
strong. 
Same reactions. 
Caustic potassa. 
Easily soluble. 
Easily soluble, 
with produc- 
tion of odor of 
whiskey when 
heated. 
Potassium chlo- 
rate. 
Same reactions, 
but not so 
strong. 
Same reactions. 
Ammonia. 
Readily soluble, 
more so than 
convolvulin. 
Slightly soluble. 
Manganese diox- 
ide. 
Same odor, and 
color dark 
green. 
Same odor, and 
color rose-pink. 
f Tampico Jalap. (Purgade Sierra Gorda, Mexican.) This drug closely resembles in appearance, odor, and taste 
the true jalap, but the tubers are somewhat smaller, more elongated and shrivelled. According to Mr. Ambrose Andou- 
ard, it jalap digits majeur of M. Guibourt. Through the efforts of Mr. Daniel Hanbury, of London, aided by two 
Prussian officials in Mexico, Mr. Hugo Finck, vice-consul at Cordova, and Mr. E. Bonecke, consul-general at Mexico, 
the origin of the drug was traced to the state of Guanajuato, where it grows along the Sierra Gorda, near San Luis de la 
Paz. In this place it is purchased from the Indians, and conveyed by mules to Tampico, where it enters into commerce. 
Through the agency of the same gentlemen, Mr. Hanbury, after some failures, succeeded in obtaining a living tuber, 
from which he raised a flourishing plant that proved to be an undescribed species of the genus Ipomoea, differing from 
I.purga by its bell-shaped corolla and pendulous flower-buds. To it Mr. Hanbury gave the name I. simulant. (A. J. 
P., July, 1870.) Prof. H. Spirgatis, of Konigsberg, obtained a resin by preparing a tincture of the Tampico jalap, 
evaporating, washing, boiling the residue in water, redissolving in alcohol, and decolorizing by charcoal. He gave it 
the name of tampicin. Its physical properties are similar to those of the jalap resin. It is brittle, tasteless, inodorous, 
insoluble in water, soluble in ether and alcohol, and in solution has a feeble acid reaction. By strong alkalies it is 
changed into a soluble acid which Prof. Spirgatis calls tampicic acid. By the action of dilute sulphuric, nitric, or 
hydrochloric acid, it is converted, slowly if cold, but rapidly with heat, into a peculiar acid called tampicolic, with 
sugar. For the mode of preparing these acids, and their properties, the reader is referred to an article in N. R., 
July, 1871, p. 50. The melting point of tampicin is 1.30° C.; its formula is C34H54O14. The percentage of it yielded 
by the drug varies from a minimum of 10 per cent. (Hanbury) to a maximum of 15 per cent. (Umney). Andouard 
states that it is purgative. 
According to Prof. Herlant, even in powder it is easy to detect the presence of the root of Mirabilis jalapi, which 
is sometimes used as an adulterant to jalap, by the presence of acicular raphides (calcium oxalate). Tampico 
jalap can also be distinguished from the Vera Cruz variety by the microscope. In Tampico jalap the starch is 
arranged in little compact masses in the cell, whilst in Vera Cruz jalap the starch occurs in grains irregularly united, 
or isolated and much larger than those of the Tampico variety. The agglomerated masses of resin in the Tampico 
jalap are smaller than in the Vera Cruz jalap. 
Mechoacan. Jalap is said feo be sometimes adulterated with bryonia root; but no instance of the kind has come Jalapa. 
761 
part 1. 
Jalap should be rejected when it is light, of a whitish color internally, of a dull fracture, 
spongy, or friable. Powders of calomel and jalap, taken on long voyages to southern climates, 
are said, when brought back, to have become consolidated, and so far chemically altered as 
plainly to exhibit globules of mercury. This change is ascribed by Schacht and Wackenroder 
under our notice; and the two drugs are so widely different that the fraud should be instantly detected. (See Bry- 
onia.) It is probable, however, that the adulteration which has been considered as bryonia root is the mecho- 
acan, which in Europe is sometimes called American bryony and was formerly erroneously supposed to be derived 
from a species of Bryonia. Mechoacan is a product of Mexico, which was taken to Europe even before the intro- 
duction of jalap. The plant producing it has been conjectured to be Ipomcea macrorrhiza of Michaux, which is 
believed to grow in Mexico near Vera Cruz, as well as in our Southern States, and the root of which is said to weigh, 
when of full size, from fifty to sixty pounds, and, according to Dr. Baldwin, has little or no purgative power. But 
this origin is quite uncertain: Guibourt states that the mechoacan of Europe is the product of Asclepias contra- 
yerva. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., iv. 1866.) Mechoacan is in circular slices, or fragments of various shapes, 
white and farinaceous within, and, as found in the European markets, generally destitute of bark, of which, however, 
portions of a yellowish color sometimes continue to adhere. The larger slices are sometimes marked with faint con- 
centric strias; and upon the exterior surface are brown spots and ligneous points, left by the radicles after removal. 
(Guibourt.) Though tasteless when first taken into the mouth, it becomes after a time slightly acrid. It is very 
feebly purgative. We have seen flat circular pieces of root, mixed with jalap, altogether answering this description, 
except that the cortical portion still remained, between which and thp starchy parenchyma there was an evident line 
of division. 
Orizaba Root. Male Jalap. Light, Woody, or Fusiform. Jalap. Jalap Stalks. Purgo Macho (Mexican). This 
is the product of a plant named by M. Ledanois Convolvulus orizabensis, from the city of Orizaba, in the neighbor- 
hood of which it grows abundantly. A description of it was first published in this country by Mr. D. B. Smith, in a 
paper in A. J. P. (ii. 22). For an account of the plant the reader is referred to the same journal (x. 224). The 
recent root is large, spindle-shaped, sometimes twenty inches in length, branched at its lower extremity, yellow on 
its outer surface, and white and milky within. The drug, as described by Guibourt, is in circular pieces, two or three 
inches in diameter, or in longer and more slender sections. As we have seen it, the shape of the pieces is often such 
as to indicate that the root has been sliced transversely and each circular slice divided vertically into quarters. The 
horizontal cut surface is dark from exposure, unequal from the greater shrinking in desiccation of some parts than 
others, and presents the extremities of numerous fibres, which are often concentrically arranged, and run in the 
longitudinal direction of the root. Internally the color is grayish, and the texture, though much less compact than 
that of jalap, is sometimes almost ligneous. The taste is at first slight, but after a time becomes somewhat acrid and 
nauseous. It has cathartic properties similar to those of the true jalap, but feebler, requiring to be given in a dose 
of from thirty to sixty grains in order to operate effectively. (Journ. de Pharm., xxiv. 166.) The resin of C. oriza- 
bensis, which has been unfortunately named jalapin by Meyer, is, according to that chemist, changed by boiling with 
baryta water into an acid called jalapic acid ; and both jalapin and jalapie acid are glucosides, being resolved by 
boiling dilute acid into glucose, and a peculiar substance which he designates as jalapinol. (See Journ. de Pharm., 
3e ser., xxix. 123.) It differs from jalap resin in consisting of only one principle, which is entirely soluble in ether. 
But both resins are distinguished from all others by being gradually dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, and 
deposited again after some hours in a soft state. (Chem. Gaz., No. 53; from Liebig’s Annalen.) Its formula is 
CS4H56O16, and it is homologous with convolvulin, or true jalap resin. Samuelson (Inaug. Biss., Breslau, 1883), who 
has made a study of it, considers it to be the anhydride of the dibasic jalapic acid, 2C17HS0O9 — 2H2O = CsiHgeOu. 
He gives to jalapic acid the formula C17II30O9, and states that it is formed from the jalapin by the action of alkalies. 
Jalapinol, C16H30O3 -f- lill/l, he says is an aldehyde, as it reduces ammoniacal silver solution, and yields a crystalline 
compound with acid potassium sulphite. Potassium permanganate oxidizes jalapinol to jalapinolic acid, C16H30O4. 
Hanbury and Fliickiger obtained 11*8 per cent, of it from the root, and state that it is probably the jalapin of Eng- 
lish pharmacy. It is considered by chemists identical with the resin of scammony, and is affirmed to have similar 
drastic properties. These results were confirmed by Poleck (loc. cit.), except that jalapinol could not be obtained. 
Rose-scented Jalap. Overgrown Jalap. A false jalap was some years since brought into market, imported from 
Mexico into New York in considerable quantities, and was offered for sale under the name of overgrown jalap. A 
specimen brought to Philadelphia and examined by a committee of the College of Pharmacy presented the following 
characters. It was in light, entire or vertically sliced tubers, of different forms and magnitudes, spindle-shaped, ovate 
and kidney-form, some as much as six inches long and three thick, others much smaller, externally somewhat 
wrinkled, with broad, flattish, light-brown ridges, and shallow darker furrows, internally grayish white, with distant 
darker concentric circles, sometimes uniformly amylaceous, of a dull rough fracture, a loose texture, a slight, peculiar, 
and sweetish odor, and a feeble jalap-like taste. The powder was of a light-gray color, and did not irritate the nos- 
trils or throat during pulverization. The root differed from mechoacan by the absence of the marks of rootlets, and 
from male jalap by the want of a fibrous structure. It yielded by analysis, in 100 parts, 3 of a soft and 4 of a hard 
and brittle resin, 17 of gummy extractive, 28 of starch and inulin, 10 of gum and albumen, 23*2 of lignin, and 14'8 
of saccharine matter and salts of lime, including loss. In doses of from fifteen to twenty grains it produced no 
effect on the system. A similar root was described by Guibourt by the name of rose-scented jalap. It was taken to 
France from Mexico, mixed with genuine jalap. It proved equally inefficacious as a purgative, and probably had 
the same origin. This spurious drug is probably the product of a Convolvulus or Ipomoea. (See A. J. P., xiv. 289.) 
Two varieties of false jalap, imported into New York, are described by Mr. John H. Currie in the N, Y. Journ. of 
Pharm. for Jan. 1852. The first corresponds with the root above described as that of Convolvulus orizabensis, or male 
Jalap, both in appearance and in the character of its resinous ingredient. The second is a tuberous root, resembling, 
in shape, color, and size, the butternut, or fruit of Juglans cinerea, being black or nearly so externally, dull over most 
of the surface but glossy in spots, with deep longitudinal incisions, internally yellow or yellowish white, with a horny 
fracture, and upon the transversely cut surface marked with sparse dots, as if from delicate fibres. It contains no 
resin, and appears to be inert. 
In the Journal de Pharmacie (Dec. 1863, p. 477, and March, 1864, p. 212) three other tubers are described by M. 
Guibourt which have been offered in the market for jalap,—one named false jalap of New Orleans, because imported 
into France from that city, the second digitate jalap (jalap digits), from the arrangement of its component tubers, 
and the third radiated false jalap (faux-jalap rayonni), from the stellate appearance of the cut surface. These 
jalaps do not closely resemble in physical properties the true root. 
Another false jalap, some tubers of which were exhibited to Prof. Procter by Mexicans, who stated that they were 762 
Jalapa.—Juglans. 
PART I. 
to a fungous growth. (Arch, der Pharm., xxxix. 239.) The best criterion of good quality 
in jalap is the proportion of its resinous constituent; and all specimens intended for use in 
the powdered form, or in any liquid preparation, should be rejected if they contain less than 
12 per cent, of resin. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Jalap is an active cathartic, operating briskly and 
sometimes painfully upon the bowels, and producing copious watery stools. The aqueous extract 
purges moderately, without much griping, and is said to increase the flow of urine. The portion 
not taken up by water gripes severely. The watery extract obtained from jalap, previously 
exhausted by rectified spirit, is said to have no cathartic effect, but to operate powerfully by 
urine. (Duncan.) The alcoholic extract, usually called resin of jalap, purges actively, and 
often produces severe griping. From these facts it would appear that the virtues of this 
cathartic do not depend exclusively upon any one principle. Experiments, however, by Mr. 
John C. Long, of Philadelphia, seem to show that the gummy extract, which he took in the 
quantity of a drachm without any effect, is inert; while the soft resin, or that soluble in ether, 
which was thought to have but feeble power, if any, acted powerfully as a hydragogue cathartic 
in the dose of three grains. (A. J. P., 1861, p. 489.) Jalap was introduced into Europe in the 
latter part of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century, and now ranks among 
the purgative medicines most extensively employed. It is applicable to most cases in which an 
active cathartic is required, and from its hydragogue powers is especially adapted to the treat- 
ment of dropsy. It is generally given in connection with other medicines, which assist or 
qualify its operation. In dropsical complaints it is usually combined with potassium bitar- 
trate. With calomel it forms a cathartic compound which has long been highly popular, in the 
United States, in bilious fever and other complaints attended with congestion of the liver or 
portal circle. In overdoses it may produce dangerous hypercatharsis. It is said to purge when 
applied to a wound. Jalapin when taken internally is probably absorbed, but as yet its 
presence has never been detected in the urine, and it remains uncertain whether it is eliminated 
or destroyed. Muller (Inaug. Diss., Dorpat, 1885) found traces of it in the blood, and even in 
the heart, lungs, and spleen, of cats poisoned with it. 
The dose of jalap in powder is from ten to twenty grains (0-65-1.3 Gm.) ; of the ex- 
tract, from four to eight grains (0-26-0-52 Gm.); of the resin, from two to four grains (0-13— 
0-26 Gm.). The dose of calomel and jalap is five grains (0 33 Gm.) of each; of potassium 
bitartrate and jalap, two drachms (7"8 Gm.) of the former and from ten to fifteen grains 
(0-65-0-97 Gm.) of the latter. 
JUGLANS. U. S. Juglans. [Butternut.] 
(JUG'LAN§.) 
“The bark of the root of Juglans cinerea, Linn6 (nat. ord. Juglandaceae), collected in 
autumn.” U. S. 
Ecorce de Noyer gris, Fr.; Graue Wallnussrinde, G. 
Gen. Ch. Male. Amentum imbricated. Calyx a scale. Corolla six-parted. Filaments 
four to eighteen. Female. Calyx four-cleft, superior. Corolla four-cleft. Styles two. Drupe 
coriaceous, with a furrowed nut. Willd. 
Several products of Juglans regia, or common European walnut, are used medicinally in 
Europe. The hull of the fruit has been employed as a vermifuge from the times of Hippoc- 
rates, and has been recommended in syphilis and for old ulcers. The expressed oil of the fruit 
has been deemed efficacious against the tape-worm, and is also used as a laxative injection. The 
leaves, long occasionally employed for various purposes in both regular and domestic practice, 
have been found by Professor Negrier, of Angers, in the highest degree efficacious in scrofula. 
He gave to children a teacupful of a pretty strong infusion, or six grains of the aqueous extract, 
or an equivalent dose of a syrup prepared from the extract, two, three, or four times a day, and 
at the same time applied a strong decoction to the ulcers, and as a collyrium when the eyes were 
diseased. No injury ever resulted from a long-continued use of the remedy. It appears to act 
as a moderately aromatic bitter and astringent. (Arch. 3e s6r., x. 399 and xi. 41.) They 
are said also to have proved useful as a topical application in malignant pustule. (Ibid., 5e ser., 
produced on grounds in Mexico belonging to them, is described by him in A. J. P. (Sept. 1868, p. 389), to which the 
reader is referred for a particular account of it. Though differing in shape and interior structure from genuine jalap, 
they had precisely the odor of that product, and a similar wrinkled appearance and mottled brown color externally, 
and were probably derived from a plant either of the same genus as jalap or of one closely related to it. PART I. 
Juglans. 
763 
x. 609.)* The leaves of our J. nigra, or common blacjc walnut,f and those of J. cinerea, prob- 
ably possess the same properties. 
Juglans cinerea. Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 456; Bigelow, Am. Med. Bot. ii. 115 ; Carson, Illust. 
of Med. Bot. ii. 42, pi. 86 ; B.& T. 247.—J. cathartica. Michaux, JV. Am. Sylva, i. 160. This 
is an indigenous forest tree, known in different sections of the country by the names of butternut, 
oilnut, and white walnut. In favorable situations it attains a great size, rising sometimes fifty 
feet, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter at the distance of five feet from the root. The 
stem divides, at a short distance from the ground, into numerous nearly horizontal branches, 
which spread widely and form a large tufted head. The young branches are smooth and of a 
grayish color, which has given origin to the specific name of the plant. The leaves are very 
long, and consist of from five to nine pairs of sessile leaflets, and a single petiolate leaflet at the 
end. These are two or three inches in length, oblong-lanceolate, rounded at the base, acuminate, 
finely serrate, and somewhat downy. The male and female flowers are distinct upon the same 
tree. The former are in large aments, four or five inches long, hanging down from the sides 
of the shoots of the preceding year’s growth, near their extremity. The fertile flowers are at 
the end of the shoots of the season. The ovary is surmounted by two large, feathery, rose- 
colored stigmas. Sometimes a single fruit is suspended by a thin pliable peduncle; sometimes 
several fruits are attached to the sides and extremity of the same peduncle. The drupe is 
oblong-oval, with a terminal projection, hairy, viscid, green in the immature state, but brown 
when ripe. It contains a hard, dark, oblong, pointed nut, with a rough, deeply and irregularly 
furrowed surface. The kernel is thick, oily, and pleasant to the taste. 
The butternut grows in Canada, and throughout the whole northern, eastern, and western 
sections of the old United States. In the Middle States, the flowers appear in May and the fruit 
ripens in September. The tree, if pierced immediately before the leaves unfold, yields a richly 
saccharine juice, from which sugar may be obtained, nearly if not quite equal to that from the 
sugar-maple. The wood, though neither strong nor compact, is useful for some purposes on 
account of its durability and its exemption from the attacks of worms. The fruit, when half 
grown, is sometimes made into pickles, and, when ripe, affords in its kernel a grateful article 
of food. The bark is used for dyeing wool a dark-brown color, though inferior for this purpose 
to that of the black walnut. It is said to be rubefacient when applied to the skin. The inner 
bark is the medicinal portion: that of the root, being considered most efficient, is directed 
by the Pharmacopoeia. It should be collected in May or June. 
On the living tree, the inner bark, when first uncovered, is of a pure white, which becomes 
immediately on exposure a fine lemon color, and ultimately changes to deep brown. It has a 
fibrous texture, and is officially described as follows: “ In flat or curved pieces, about 5 Mm. 
thick ; the outer surface dark gray and nearly smooth, or deprived of the soft cork and deep 
brown ; the inner surface smooth and striate ; transverse fracture short, delicately checkered, 
whitish and brown ; odor feeble ; taste bitter and somewhat acrid.” U. S. Its medical virtues 
are extracted by boiling water. Dr. Bigelow could detect no resin in the bark ; and the presence 
of tannin was not evinced by the test of gelatin, though a brownish-black color was produced 
by ferrous sulphate. Mr. Charles 0. Thiebaud found the bark to be destitute of tannic acid 
and of any vegetable alkaloid, but to contain bitter extractive oily matter in large proportion, a 
volatilizable acid crystallizing in bright, orange-yellow crystals, and appearing to bear some 
analogy with chrysophanic acid, named juglandic acid, another acid crystallizing in tabular 
colorless crystals, and a volatile acid, with ashes, potassium largely, with traces of sodium, cal- 
cium, and aluminum. {A. J. P., 1872, p. 253.) In a subsequent analysis, Mr. E. S. Dawson 
found resin in very small proportion, a volatile acid, and, in addition to the bases discovered by 
Mr. Thiebaud, magnesium, combined, as were the other bases, with carbonic, hydrochloric, 
phosphoric, and silicic acids. Prof. Maisch has no doubt that the juglandic acid of Mr. Thie- 
baud is the nucin of A. Vogel, Jr., found in green walnut peel. {Ibid., April, 1874, 167.) 
E. D. Truman {Ibid., 1893, 426) made proximate analyses of the root bark and the trunk 
* Nucitannic Acid. In the walnut, between the kernel and the shell, is a thin membrane, which closely embraces 
the cotyledon, called the episperm, which consists of two layers, the inner very thin, colorless, translucent, and per- 
fectly tasteless, the outer coarser, somewhat colored, and of a bitter, disagreeable taste. The latter, examined 
chemically by Dr. T. L. Phipson, was found to contain, among other principles, as gallic and ellagic acid, etc., a new 
variety of tannic acid, which he proposes to name nucitannic acid or nucitannin, to which the outer membrane chiefly 
owes its unpleasant taste. It is a glucoside; as when boiled for some hours with dilute hydrochloric acid it splits 
into glucose and a peculiar red acid substance, which he calls rothic acid, ChHijOt, and the properties of which he 
has pretty thoroughly investigated. (Chem. News, Sept. 3, 1869, p. 116.) 
f For an exhaustive chemical examination of black walnut leaves by Miss L. J. Martin, see A. J. P., 1886, p. 468. 764 
Juglans.—Kamala. 
PART I. 
bark for comparison. In the trunk instead of the crystallizable juglandic acid, he found 
an uncrystallizable acid and a crystalline resin. Tanret and Villiers isolated from the leaves 
a carbohydrate, nucite, CeII12Oe -j- 2HaO, which fuses at 218° C., is not fermentable, and does 
not reduce Fehling’s solution. It has since been shown to be identical with inosite. Tanret 
also (Jahresb. f Pharm., 1876, 198) thinks that he has obtained an alkaloid from walnut 
leaves, which he proposes to call juglandine. The European walnut bark yielded glycyrrhizin 
abundantly to Sestini. Juglon, C10H603, the characteristic constituent of Juglans regia, has 
been prepared synthetically by Bernthsen and Semper, and is now recognized as a-oxynaphtho- 
quinane, C10H?(0H)02, as it can be made from dioxynaphthalene by the action of chromic acid 
mixture. It is in brownish-red crystalline needles having a faint odor of walnut hulls, and is 
sternutatory. (Ber. der Chem. Ges., 1887, 934.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Butternut is a mild cathartic, operating without pain 
or irritation, and resembling rhubarb in the property of evacuating without debilitating the 
alimentary canal. It was much employed during our Revolutionary war by Dr. Rush and other 
physicians attached to the army. It is especially applicable to cases of habitual costiveness and 
other bowel affections, particularly dysentery, in which it has acquired considerable reputation. 
In connection with calomel it has sometimes been used in our intermittent and remittent fevers, 
and other complaints attended with congestion of the abdominal viscera. The official extract 
should always be preferred. The dose of it is from twenty to thirty grains (1-3—1*95 Gm.) as a 
purge, from five to ten grains (0‘33—0-65 Gm.) as a laxative. Mr. E. S. Dawson states that a 
tincture, two troyounces of the bark in a pint of diluted alcohol, will act decidedly as a cathartic 
in the dose of from one to two fluidrachms (3-75-75 C.c.). (A. J. P., 1874.) 
KAMALA. U. S. Kamala. 
(KA-MA'LA.) 
“ The glands and hairs from the capsules of Mallotus Philippinensis (Lamarck), Mueller 
Arg. (nat. ord. Euphorbiaceae).” U. S. 
Rottlera, U. S. 1870; Kameela, Spoonwood; Kalmie, Fr., G. 
The genus Rottlera was named in honor of the Rev. Dr. Rottler, a Danish missionary, and 
as now recognized was established by Roxburgh. It belongs to the natural order of Euphor- 
biaceae, and includes another species having medical virtues, the Rottlera schimperi, a large 
tree of Abyssinia, the bark of which, under the name of cortex musense, or musena bark, has 
attracted some attention from its presumed anthelmintic virtues,* 
Rottlera tinctoria (Mallotus philippinensis, De Cand. Prodrom. xv. 980 ; also (Lamarck) 
Mueller-Arg.), which is described and figured by Roxburgh in his treatise on The Plants of 
the Coast of Coromandel (ii. 36), is a small tree from fifteen to twenty feet in height, growing 
in Abyssinia and Southern Arabia, throughout Hindostan, in several of the East India islands, 
in China, and in Australia. The fruit is a roundish, three-valved, three-celled capsule, of 
about the size of a small cherry, marked externally with three furrows, and thickly covered 
with a red powder. This is the official part of the plant. Very large quantities of it are 
collected in Hindostan. The berries, placed in large baskets, are rolled about and rubbed with 
the hands, and the powder thus freed sifts through the open wicker-work.f 
Properties. Kamala, as brought to our market, is a light, finely granular, very mobile pow- 
der, of a brownish-red or madder color, with little smell or taste, but producing a slight sense 
of acrimony in the mouth, and feeling gritty under the teeth. (When the grittiness is excessive, 
the drug has probably been adulterated with earthy matters.) It is inflammable, and flashes 
almost like gunpowder when dropped into the flame of a candle. It is insoluble in cold and 
but very slightly soluble in boiling water; but alkaline solutions, alcohol, and ether dissolve a 
large proportion of it, forming a deep red solution, from which water precipitates resinous 
* Cortex Musenat. This bark is in quills several inches long, an inch or more in diameter, rough and fissured 
externally, with a brown epidermis, and beneath this successively a thin greenish cellular coat, a thicker pale yellow 
periderm, and a tough, very fibrous liber. It is inodorous, but has a sweetish nauseous taste, followed by an enduring 
sense of acrimony in the fauces. It was found by Mr. C. Thiel to contain an acrid substance analogous to saponin, a 
bitter principle, a fatty wax-like substance, yellow coloring matter, extractive, and various salts. It is said to be 
used in Abyssinia, with kousso, in the treatment of tape-worm. {Neues Jahrb. fur Pharm., Jan. 1863.) 
f A peculiar kind of kamala, evidently not the product of Rottlera tinctoria, has been imported from Aden. 
Under the microscope the grains are cylindrical or subconical, 170 to 200 mm. long by 70 to 100 broad, with oblong 
resin-cells arranged perpendicularly in three or four tiers. When heated to 212° P. the powder turns black. Under 
the name of Vars, Wars, or Wurrus, this drug is said to be used in Southern Arabia for the same purposes that 
kamala is employed for elsewhere. It is believed to be obtained from Hemingia grahamiana. (P. J. Tr., Sept. 1887.) PART i. 
Kamala. 
765 
matter, “ imparting a deep red color to alkaline liquids, alcohol, ether, or chloroform, and a 
pale yellow tinge to boiling water.” U. S. Under the microscope, it consists of garnet-red, 
semi-transparent, roundish, glandular granules, from to of an inch in diameter, and 
containing numerous red, club-shaped vesicles, more or less mixed with minute stellate hairs, 
and the remains of stalks and leaves, the latter of which are easily removed by careful sifting. 
It has been examined chemically by Dr. Thos. Anderson, of Glasgow, and by G. Leube, in 
Germany. As given by the former, the constituents are, in 100 parts, 78-19 of resinous color- 
ing matter, 7"34 of albumen, 7-14 of cellulose, etc., a trace of volatile oil and volatile coloring 
matters, 3-84 of ashes, and 3-49 of water. The amount of earthy impurities, chiefly sand, 
in commercial kamala, varies greatly, sometimes amounting to fifty or even sixty per cent. 
It can readily be estimated by heating the drug to redness and weighing the residue. The 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia allows of the presence of “ not more than 8 per cent, of ash.” Any 
specimen of kamala containing more than the official percentage of impurity should be rejected. 
Of the resinous coloring substances, Dr. Anderson obtained one in a pure state by allowing a 
concentrated ethereal solution to stand for two days, draining and pressing in bibulous paper 
the resulting mass of granular crystals, and purifying them from adhering resin by repeated 
solution in ether and recrystallization. To this substance he gave the name of rottlerin. It is 
in the form of minute crystalline plates, of a yellow color and a satin-like lustre, insoluble in 
water, sparingly soluble in cold but more so in boiling alcohol, and readily dissolved by ether, 
and by alkaline solutions, which assume a dark red color. Rottlerin melts when heated mod- 
erately, and at a higher heat is decomposed, giving off pungent vapors. Its formula, according 
to Dr. Anderson, is CnH1003. (Chem. Centralbl., 1855, 372.) A. and W. Perkin (Ber. d. 
Chem. Ges., 19, 3109) and Jawein (Ibid., 20, 182) both state that rottlerin can be extracted 
from kamala by the action of carbon disulphide. Jawein gives its fusing point as 200° C., and 
says that it is easily soluble in hot alcohol and acetic acid. In a later communication of A. G. 
Perkin (P. J. Tr., 1893, 159, 236), he states that when extracted with ether, kamala yields a 
dark brownish resinous product from which six distinct substances can be isolated. Five of 
these—viz., rottlerin, isorottlerin, a wax, and two resins, one of high and one of low melting 
point—form the principal constituents. There is also present a trace of a yellow crystalline 
coloring matter melting at from 192°-193° C. The formula CuH,0Og for rottlerin is confirmed. 
Perkin also finds in kamala a small quantity of a sugar soluble in water; in a still later com- 
munication (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1894, 230) he states that three colorless acids each containing 
nitrogen were produced by the action of nitric acid on rottlerin. Leube found a resin soluble 
in ether and cold alcohol, another resin soluble in ether and boiling alcohol, starch, gum extrac- 
tive, tannin, albumen, and citric acid. He failed to obtain the rottlerin of Dr. Anderson. 
The ashes were in the extraordinary proportion of 25-85 per cent., and of the ashes 83-8 per 
cent, consisted of insoluble silica. Silica probably enters essentially into the constitution of 
the minute granules, and its presence accounts for their grittiness under the teeth. Leube 
failed to find rottlerin, but its existence has been abundantly confirmed by Mr. Thos. B. 
Groves, who states that it is changed by exposure, and may, therefore, be absent in old speci- 
mens. (P. J. Tr., 1872, 228.) The active constituent is supposed to be the resin extracted 
by ether. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Kamala is actively or even violently purgative in full 
doses, occasionally causing nausea, but seldom vomiting. It has been long used in India in 
the treatment of tape-worm, but its properties were first brought to general notice by Dr. C. 
Mackinnon, a British army surgeon in India. (Indian Annals Med. Sci., 1854.) He found it 
extraordinarily efficient in the treatment of taenia, having used it in fifty cases and failed in 
bringing away the worm in two only. The testimony of other practitioners in India and Great 
Britain goes to confirm the statements of Dr. Mackinnon, and there can be little doubt of the 
vermifuge powers of the medicine. It is given, without previous preparation of the patient, in 
the dose of from one to three drachms (3-9-11-65 Gm.), suspended in water, mucilage, or 
syrup. In the latter dose it sometimes acts violently. The worm is usually expelled dead at 
the third or fourth stool. If the first dose fails to operate on the bowels, it may be repeated 
in four hours, or followed by a dose of castor oil. Dr. Anderson, a British army surgeon in 
India, has employed the medicine successfully in the form of tincture, made in the proportion 
of six ounces to sixteen fluidounces of rectified spirit, of which the dose is from one to four 
fluidrachms (3-75-15 C.c.). As an external remedy, kamala is used by the people of India in 
various affections of the skin, particularly scabies. Dr. Wm. Moore, of Dublin, has employed 
it usefully in herpetic ringworm. (Dub. IIosp. Gaz., Nov. 15, 1857.) 766 
Kaolinum.—Kino. 
PART I. 
KAOLINUM. Br. Kaolin. 
(KA-O-LI'NUM.) 
“ A native aluminium silicate, powdered, and freed from gritty particles by elutriation.” Br. 
Porcelain Clay, Fuller’s Earth, Bolus Alba. 
Kaolin, Al2(Si03)a -}- A120(0H)4, occurs in abundant deposits as a decomposition product 
of felspar; the latter is a double silicate of aluminum and alkali, and in its weathering, the 
alkali is gradually eliminated. A pure kaolin contains approximately 47 per cent, of silica, 
40 per cent, of alumina, and 13 per cent, of water. 
Large deposits of kaolin have been recently opened in Florida. It is now used extensively 
for clarifying oils, such as lard and cotton-seed oils and mineral lubricating oils. The British 
Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ A soft whitish powder insoluble in water or in diluted acids. 
The product of its fusion with alkalies, digested in water, and neutralized with hydrochloric 
acid, affords the reactions characteristic of aluminium, a gelatinous precipitate of silica being 
formed.” 
Kaolin is used as an absorbent powder when dusted upon the surface of the body in irritated 
conditions of the skin. Cimolite is a perfumed powder having similar physical properties to 
kaolin. Kaolin is not easily affected by most chemical reagents, and it forms a good diluent or 
excipient for silver nitrate, potassium permanganate, or other salts which are decomposed by 
organic substances. 
KINO. U. S., Br. Kino. 
“ The inspissated juice of Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxburgh (nat. ord. Leguminosae).” 
U. S. “ The juice obtained from incisions made in the trunk of Pterocarpus Marsupium, 
Roxb., evaporated to dryness.” Br. 
Gummi (s. Resina) Kino; Kino, Fr., G., It.; Quino, Sp. 
The term kino was originally applied to a vegetable extract or inspissated juice taken to 
London from the western coast of Africa, and introduced to the notice of the profession by 
l)r. Fothergill. Vegetable products obtained from various other parts of the world, resembling 
kino in appearance and properties, afterwards received the same name; and much confusion 
and uncertainty existed, and in some degree still exist, in relation to the botanical and com- 
mercial history of the drug. We shall first give an account of the general properties of the 
medicines denominated kino, and then treat of the several varieties. 
General Properties. Kino, as found in commerce, is usually in small, irregular, angu- 
lar, shining fragments, seldom as large as a pea, of a dark reddish-brown or blackish color, 
very brittle, easily pulverizable, and affording a reddish powder, much lighter colored than the 
drug in its aggregate state. If in large masses, it may be reduced without difficulty into 
these minute fragments. It is without odor, and has a bitter, highly astringent taste, with a 
somewhat sweetish after-taste. It burns with little flame, and does not soften with heat. 
It imparts its virtues and a deep red color to water and alcohol, but is nearly insoluble in 
other. Cold water forms with it a clear infusion. Boiling water dissolves it more largely; 
and the saturated decoction becomes turbid on cooling, and deposits a reddish sediment. The 
tincture is not disturbed by water. When long kept, it often gelatinizes, and loses its astrin- 
gency. (See Tinctura Kino.) Kino undoubtedly consists chiefly of a modification of tannic 
acid or tannin, which has received the name of kino-tannic acid, with extractive, gum, and 
sometimes probably a little resin ; but we need a careful analysis of the different well-ascer- 
tained varieties. The aqueous solution is precipitated by gelatin, the soluble salts of iron, sil- 
ver, lead, and antimony, mercuric chloride, and sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. The 
precipitate with iron is of an olive or greenish-black color. The alkalies favor the solubility 
of kino in water, but essentially change its nature and destroy its astringency. The Br. Ph. 
requires that kino should be almost entirely soluble in alcohol (90 per cent.), but should yield 
little or nothing to ether, and that not less than 80 per cent, should be soluble in boiling water. 
1. East India Kino. Malabar Kino. This is the variety at present probably most 
used and most highly esteemed, and the only one recognized by the British and United States 
Pharmacopoeias. Its origin was long unknown. It is now ascertained, through the researches 
of Drs. Pereira, Royle, Wight, and others, to be the product of Pterocarpus marsupium, a lofty 
tree growing upon the mountains of the Malabar coast of Hindostan. Kino is the juice of 
the tree extracted through longitudinal incisions in the bark and afterwards dried in the sun. 
Upon drying it breaks into small fragments, and is put into wooden boxes for exportation. It 
(KI'NO.) PART i. 
Kino. 
767 
is collected near Tellieherry, and exported from Bombay. It is sometimes imported into this 
country directly from the East Indies, but more commonly from London. From a communi- 
cation in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, by the Rev. F. Mason, it appears that 
kino is also collected in the Tenasserim provinces, in Farther India, and has been exported 
from Maulmain to Europe. It is produced by a tree called Pa-douck, which was supposed to 
be a species of Pterocarpus, although its precise characters were not certainly known. (A. J. 
P., xxi. 134.) Dr. Christison subsequently recognized, in a description of this tree furnished 
to him by Mr. Begbie, of Maulmain, the precise characters of Pterocarpus marsupium ; so that 
this kino has the same origin as that from Malabar. Pterocarpus indicus, of the Mauritius 
Islands, where it is known as sang dragon, also yields a red kino to commerce. 
East India kino is in small, angular, glistening fragments, of a uniform consistence, appear- 
ing as if formed by the breaking down of larger masses. The larger fragments are opaque 
and nearly black ; but minute splinters are sometimes translucent, and of a deep garnet redness 
when viewed by transmitted light. This variety of kino is very brittle, readily breaking be- 
tween the fingers, and easily pulverized, aflording a dark reddish powder, a portion of which, 
resulting from the mutual attrition of the fragments, is often found interspersed among them. 
When chewed, it softens in the mouth, adheres somewhat to the teeth, and tinges the saliva of 
a blood-red color. In odor, taste, and chemical relations it corresponds with the account already 
given of kino in general. When kino is boiled in water, the decoction deposits, on cooling, a 
bright red substance ; and a similar deposition takes place when a cold filtered aqueous solution 
is long exposed with a broad surface to the air. According to Hennig, kino consists of tannic 
acid with a trace of gallic acid, kinoic acid, pectin, ulmic acid, and inorganic salts, with excess 
of earthy bases. (See A. J. P., xv. 544.) C. Etti obtained a new constituent, kinoin, by extract- 
ing kino with ether. He finally adopted the following method as more practicable. One part of 
gum kino is added to 2 parts of boiling diluted (1-5) hydrochloric acid. Kino-red immedi- 
ately separates as a soft mass, becoming gradually solid on cooling, while the kinoin, mixed 
with a small quantity of kino-red, remains in solution. The solid residue is once more boiled 
with water, the liquids are united and shaken with ether. The ethereal solution, on evapora- 
tion, leaves a crystalline reddish residue, which is dissolved in hot water, on the cooling of 
which tolerably pure crystals of kinoin are obtained. By continued recrystallization they 
are obtained colorless. Their formula is C14H1206, and kino-red is the anhydride of this: 
2C14H1206 — H20 = C28H220u. This kino-red, heated to 160°-170° C., parts with a molecule 
of water and yields a lower anhydride, C28H20010. Both anhydrides are precipitated by 
gelatin, but kinoin itself is not. When heated with hydrochloric acid to 120°-130° C., kinoin 
yields methyl chloride, gallic acid, and catechol, and hence probably has the constitution of a 
guaiacol or methyl-catechol gallate. Kino contains about 1-5 per cent, of kinoin. (Ber. d. 
Deutsch. Chem. Ges.; N. R., Feb, 1879.) Kremel found Malabar kino, Butea gum, eucalyp- 
tus kino, and the kino from Coccoloha uvifera to be free from Etti’s kinoin, but to contain a 
body acquiring, like kinoin, a red color with ferric chloride, which proved to be pyrocatechuic 
acid; this was present either alone or mixed with gallic acid. (A. J. P., 1883, 267.) For a 
description of tbe seeds of Butea frondosa, from which Bengal kino is produced, see Pharm. 
Rev., 1896, 232. 
2. West India, or Jamaica Kino. This is believed to be the product of the Coccoloha 
uvifera, or sea-side grape, a tree twenty feet or more in height, bearing beautiful broad shining 
leaves, and large bunches of purple berries, to which it owes its vernacular name. It grows 
in the West Indies and neighboring parts of the continent. The kino is said to be obtained 
by evaporating a decoction of the wood and bark, which are very astringent. Many years 
since, a thick reddish-brown liquid was imported into Philadelphia from the West Indies, which, 
when dried by exposure to the air in shallow vessels or by heat, afforded an extract having all 
the properties of kino, for which it was sold by the druggists. This has long been exhausted; 
but some years since, a considerable quantity of West India kino was brought into this market, 
which may still enter into the consumption of the country. It was contained in large gourds, 
into which it was evidently poured while in a liquid or semi-liquid state, and then allowed to 
harden. When taken from the gourd it breaks into fragments of various sizes, upon an aver- 
age about as large as a hazelnut, and having some tendency to the rectangular form. The 
consistence of these fragments is uniform, their surface smooth and shining, and their color a 
dark reddish brown approaching to black. They are, however, neither so glistening nor so 
black as the East India kino. In mass they are quite opaque, but in thin splinters are trans- 
lucent and of a ruby redness. They are readily broken by the fingers into smaller fragments, 768 
Kino. 
PART I. 
are easily pulverized, and yield a dull-reddish powder, considerably lighter colored than that 
of the former variety. The West India kino is without color, and has a very astringent, bit- 
terish taste, with a scarcely observable sweetish after-taste. It adheres to the teeth when 
chewed, though rather less than the East India variety, and colors the saliva red. The solu- 
bility of Jamaica kino was very carefully examined by Prof. Robert Bridges, who found that 
cold water dissolved 89 per cent., and ordinary official alcohol 94 per cent. The portion dis- 
solved by alcohol and not by water was probably of a resinous nature, as it appeared to be 
viscid, and very much impeded the filtration of the watery solution. Considering the nature 
of this substance, the form of kino in which it was found is probably, like that from the East 
Indies, an inspissated juice. Guibourt, who states that Jamaica kino is but slightly dissolved 
by cold water, must have operated on a different product. 
3. South American Kino. Caraccas Kino. In 1839, when the 4th edition of this 
Dispensatory was published, an astringent extract was described which had recently been in- 
troduced into our market, derived from Caraccas, and known by that name to the druggists. 
Since that period it has come much more extensively into use. It is probably the same as that 
described by Guibourt, in the last edition of his History of Drugs, as the kino of Colombia. 
As imported, this variety of kino is in large masses, some weighing several pounds, covered 
with thin leaves, or exhibiting marks of leaves upon their unbroken surface, externally very 
dark, and internally of a deep reddish-brown or dark port-wine color. It is opaque in the 
mass, but translucent in thin splinters, very brittle, and of a fracture always shining, but in 
some masses wholly rough and irregular, in others rough only in the interior, while the outer 
portion, for an inch or two in depth, breaks with a rather smooth and uniform surface, like 
that of the West India kino. This outer portion is easily broken into fine angular fragments, 
while the interior crumbles quite irregularly. Some of the masses are very impure, containing 
pieces of bark, wood, leaves, etc.; others are more homogeneous, and almost free from im- 
purities. The masses are broken up by means of a mill so as to resemble East India kino, 
from which, however, this variety differs in being more irregular, less sharply angular, more 
powdery, and less black. On comparing the finer and more angular portions of the masses 
with the West India kino, the late Dr. Geo. B. Wood could discover no difference between the 
two varieties either in color, lustre, taste, or other sensible property. The colors of the pow- 
ders were also identical. South American kino was found by Dr. Bridges to yield 93-5 per 
cent, to cold water, and 93 per cent, to alcohol; so that, while it has almost the same solubility 
as Jamaica kino in alcohol, it is somewhat more soluble in cold water. The aqueous solution in 
this case was not embarrassed by the adhesive matter which impeded the filtration in the former 
variety; and the want of a minute proportion of resinous matter in the South American kino 
is the only apparent difference between the two drugs. It is not improbable that they are de- 
rived from the same plant; and there is no difficulty in supposing that this may be the Cocco- 
loba uvifera, as that tree grows as well upon the continent as in the islands. 
4. African Kino. The original kino employed by Dr. Fothergill was known to be the 
product of a tree growing in Senegal, and upon the banks of the Gambia, on the western coast 
of Africa; but the precise character of the tree was not ascertained until a specimen, sent 
home by Mungo Park during his last journey, enabled the English botanists to decide that it 
was the Pterocarpus erinaceus of Lamarck and Poirot.* The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges 
accordingly referred kino in chief to this plant, but, in so doing, overlooked the fact that not 
one of the varieties now used is brought from Africa. The importation of African kino has 
long ceased.f In 1896, however, a consignment of African kino reached London. It was 
* A particular account of Pterocarpua erinaceua and its concrete juice, with a figure, by Dr. W. F. Daniell, is 
contained in the P. J. Tr. for August, 1854 (vol. xiv. p. 55). 
j- Butea gum, which has sometimes been mistaken for African kino, is the concrete juice of the Butea frondosa, 
or Bhak-tree of Hindostan, and also to some extent of B. superba. The juice flows from natural fissures, and from 
wounds made in the bark of the tree, and quickly hardens. It is in small elongated tears, or irregular angular 
masses, less in size than a grain of barley, apparently black and opaque, but translucent and of a ruby-red color 
when examined in small fragments by transmitted light; in some specimens the tears are much paler than described, 
and of a very beautiful ruby tint. Many of the tears have small portions of bark adhering to them. They are very 
brittle, and readily pulverizable, yielding a reddish powder. They are very astringent to the taste, do not adhere to 
the teeth when chewed, and tinge the saliva red. The relations of this product to water, alcohol, and other chemical 
reagents are nearly the same as those of ordinary kino. When freed from impurities, consisting of from 15 to 25 
per cent, of wood, bark, sand, etc., it contains, according to Mr. E. Solly, 73'26 per cent, of tannin, 5'05 of soluble 
extractive, and 2P67 of gum and other soluble substances. It is used in the arts in India, and might undoubtedly 
be employed as kino in medicine. It is, however, very seldom imported into England, and never, at present, into 
this country. Dr. Pereira found a quantity in an old drug-store in London, and sent a portion to Guibourt, from 
which that writer drew up his description of African kino. It is possible that the kino which formerly reached us, 
full of small pieces of wood, bark, etc., may have been the Butea gum. Kino. 
769 
PART I. 
examined by E. M. Holmes, who stated that it was evidently yielded by P. erinaceus. (Chem. 
and Drug., 1896, 226.) It is said to be still used by the Portuguese of Angola, under the name 
of Sangue de Drago. As described by Fothergill, the African kino, for which he proposed the 
name of gummi rubrum astringens Gambinense, was in lumps of about the size of those of gum 
Senegal or dragon’s blood, and so similar in appearance to the latter that a good judge might 
easily be deceived. These lumps were hard, brittle, opaque, and almost black; but minute 
fragments were reddish and transparent like garnet. The drug was inodorous, of a strongly 
astringent and sweetish taste, and soluble in water to the extent of about five or six parts out 
of seven, forming a deep red astringent infusion. There can be little doubt that this variety 
of kino is a concrete juice, which exudes either spontaneously or from wounds in the bark, and 
hardens in the air. (Med. Ohs. and Inq., i. 358.) 
5. Australian Kino. Botany Bay Kino. This kino was formerly supposed to be yielded 
by Eucalyptus resinifera, but is now known to be produced by a very large number of species. 
It is occasionally obtained in dried masses in the crevices in trees, sometimes by incisions into 
the bark, but more usually is simply scraped off the outside of the tree. It has been stated 
that five hundred pounds of the kino are sometimes yielded in a single year by one tree; but 
this seems to be a great exaggeration. Occasionally the juice reaches England unevaporated.* 
Australian kino usually occurs in dark, reddish-brown masses or grains, which when sufficiently 
thin may be translucent and garnet-like. It is very apt to contain much foreign matter, espe- 
cially the scrapings from the bark. Coming from so many sources, it varies considerably in its 
physical characteristics and its relations to solvents. Although the Australian kino is produced 
by so many trees and is much used in Australia, it does not seem to be an important article of 
commerce. For further information concerning it the reader is referred to an elaborate paper 
on it by J. H. Maiden, in P. J. TrOct. 1889 ;j* also A. J. P., 1897, 1. Eucalyptus kino 
contains catechin, pyrocatechin, and kinoin, and in some specimens a volatile oil, giving a 
slightly aromatic odor to the drug which is especially developed by hydrochloric acid. (See 
also Eucalypti Gummi.') 
6. Myristica Kino. There has been produced in Southern India a kino consisting of 
smaller or larger angular pieces, of deep garnet color, in thin fragments, and having the general 
characteristics of Malabar kino ; according to E. Schaer, it is a product of Myristica malabarica, 
of M. fragrans, and probably of other species of the genus. In all important respects these 
kinos are said to correspond with Malabar kino, but to be distinguishable by containing crys- 
tals of calcium tartrate. As yet this variety of kino does not seem to have commercial im- 
portance. 
In a later paper J. H. Maiden (A. J. P., 1895, 575) announces the discovery in Australian 
kino of two new organic substances to which he gives the names eudcsmin and aromadendrin. 
The former of these when purified exists as a pure white mass with a lustre resembling sperma- 
ceti. It is soluble in hot water, but crystallizes out again on cooling. It is soluble in alcohol, 
ether, acetic ether, and chloroform, but not in benzene, petroleum spirit, or carbon disulphide. 
It is dissolved by sulphuric acid with a dark color changing to purple, by nitric acid with a 
beautiful yellow color. Its formula is given as 026H3oO8, and its melting point as 99° C. 
The second substance was also obtained crystallized from boiling water, and melted at 162° C. 
No analysis has been made of it. 
It is said that catechu, broken into small fragments, has sometimes been sold as kino. For- 
tunately, little injury can result from the substitution, as the medical virtues of the two sub- 
stances are very nearly the same. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Kino is powerfully astringent, and in this country is 
much used for the suppression of morbid discharges. In diarrhoea, not attended with febrile 
excitement or inflammation, it is often an excellent adjunct to opium and the absorbent medi- 
cines, and is a favorite addition to the chalk mixture. It is also used in chronic dysentery when 
astringents are admissible ; in leucorrhoea and diabetes ; and in passive hemorrhages, particularly 
* Kino juice has a fine deep red color, a slightly aromatic odor, and a decidedly astringent taste, and on evapora- 
tion yields a genuine kino in varying amount. It must not be confounded with the so-called Liquid Kino, or apple- 
tree juice, which is obtained from incisions in the Angophora intermedia or narrow-leaved apple-tree of Australia. 
This varies from the consistency and colorlessness of water to an orange-brown or reddish-brown liquid as thick as 
molasses. It contains catechin and tannic acid, and is said to be especially employed for the purposes of tanning 
nets. 
f The descriptions given by authors of this kino vary, because the Australian kinos themselves vary so much. 
Gathered with different degrees of care, and from probably fifty species of trees, they, of course, must be of varying 
character. 770 
Kramena. 
PART I. 
those from the uterus $md the intestines. The dose of the powder is from ten to thirty grains 
(0-65-195 Gm.). The infusion may be made by pouring eight fluidounces of boiling water 
on two drachms of the extract, and straining when cool. Aromatics may be added, if deemed 
advisable. The dose is a fluidounce (30 C.c.). The proportion of alcohol in the tincture 
renders it frequently an unsuitable preparation. Locally applied, kino is often productive of 
benefit. Its infusion is useful as an injection in leucorrhcea and obstinate gonorrhoea, and thrown 
up the nostrils we have found it very efficacious in suppressing epistaxis. The powder is also a 
very useful application to indolent and flabby ulcers. 
KRAMERIA. U. S. (Br.) Krameria. [Rhatany.] 
(KRA-ME'RI-A.) 
“ The root of Krameria triandra, Ruiz et Pavon, and of Krameria Ixina, Linn6 (nat. ord. 
Polygaleae).” U. S. “The dried root of (1) Para Rhatany, a species of Krameria, attributed 
to Krameria argentea, Mart.; or of (2) Peruvian Rhatany, Krameria triandra, Ruiz and 
Pavon.” Br. 
Krameriae Radix, Br., Rhatany Root; Radix Ratanhae, P. G.; Radix Ratanhiae; Ratanhia, Fr.; Ratanhia- 
wurzel, G.f Ratania, It., Sp. 
There is some dissension among botanists as to which natural order Krameria belongs. 
Chodat recently (Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et Nat., t. xxiv., Nov. 1890) placed the genus in a dis- 
tinct order by itself,—viz., the Krameriaceae. Engler and Prantl consider its proper place 
to be among the Caesalpinoideae-Kramerieae in the nat. ord. Leguminosae. 
Krameria triandra. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv. i. 61. The rhatany plant is a shrub, 
having a long, much-branched, spreading root, of a blackish-red color; with a round, procum- 
bent, very dark colored stem, divided into numerous branches, of which the younger are leafy 
and thickly covered with soft hairs, giving them a white, silky appearance. The leaves are few, 
sessile, oblong-ovate, pointed, entire, presenting on both surfaces the same silky whiteness with 
the young branches. The flowers are lake-colored, and stand singly on short peduncles at the 
axils of the upper leaves. There are only three stamens. The nectary consists of four leaflets, 
of which the two upper are spatulate, the lower roundish and much shorter. The fruit is 
globular, of the size of a pea, surrounded by stiff reddish-brown prickles, and furnished writh 
one or two seeds. It is a native of the Peruvian Andes, growing in dry argillaceous and 
sandy places. It flowers at all seasons, but is at the height of its bloom in October and 
November. The root is dug up after the rains, and, according to Tschudi, it is especially 
obtained in the southern provinces of Peru. Closely allied to it is K. Ixina L., which is, how- 
ever, distinguished by having four stamens, and occurs in Guinea and Northern Brazil. The 
name rhatany is said to express in the language of the Peruvian Indians the creeping char- 
acter of the plant which yields the root.* 
* There are various rhatanies in European commerce. Savanilla, or New Granada Rhatany, is yielded by the 
K. tomentosa, St. Hil. {K. ixina, var. /3), growing in Colombia, British Guiana, and Northern Brazil. According to 
Fliickiger and Hanbury, it is never so knotty and irregular as the true rhatany, and is well distinguished by its dull 
purplish-brown color, its thick, smooth bark (J to J the diameter of the wood), marked with longitudinal furrows 
and here and there deep transverse cracks, and by the bark not easily splitting oft'. Its tannic acid is different from 
that of the Peruvian drug. If the powdered root be shaken with water and reduced iron, filtered, and the liquid 
diluted with distilled water, an intense violaceous color will be produced. Peruvian Rhatany, similarly treated, 
gives a dingy brown. Thin sections of true rhatany, moistened with a ferrous salt, become grayish; Savanilla 
rhatany, violet. Para Rhatany was described by Berg in 1865, and is believed to be the root of K. argentea. It is 
in long pieces (some 16 to 20 inches), from an eighth to three-quarters of an inch in thickness, of a dark-gray or 
brownish color, and, like the Savanilla, becoming bluish black when immersed in a solution of ferrous sulphate, owing 
to the presence of tannic acid in the bark. In this variety the root has a peculiar elasticity distinguishing it from 
the Peruvian and Savanilla varieties. Some of the pieces exhibit numerous corky warts. There are also micro- 
scopical characters which distinguish it. Two forms of rhatany which M. Cotton has described as Black and Broicn 
Antilles Rhatany, because produced in these islands, though admitted also to be derived from different places on the 
neighboring continent, have been pronounced by Dr. Fliickiger, after a careful examination, to be identical with the 
Para rhatany. (Pharm. Journ., July, 1870, p. 84.) According to the studies of R. G. Dunwoody, this rhatany con- 
tains the same active principles as the root of K. triandra, but in slightly less quantity. (A. J. P., 1890.) 
A rhatany appeared not long since in the London market from Guayaquil. It is described as a large woody root 
from one-half inch to two inches in diameter. The bark is of a reddish-brown color with blackish streaks, is thin 
in comparison to the meditullium, is of a fibrous texture, and is somewhat striated on the surface and dotted over 
with small warts. It has a very astringent taste, but no marked odor. Mr. E. M. Holmes thinks that it is not the 
product of the genus Krameria. According to the analysis of Mr. Passmore, Guayaquil rhatany contains a larger 
quantity of tannin than the Peruvian drug, but less than the Para or the Savanilla rhatany. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 878.) 
According to an analysis made in the University of Wisconsin, the Krameria lanceolata, Torrey, of North 
America yields 34-5 per cent, of extract and 17 per cent, of tannin, and is therefore richer than the official drug. 
When treated with iron it strikes a deep-purple color, and is thus easily distinguished from Para rhatany, which 
gives a dirty brown, and from Savanilla rhatany, which gives a violet color. PART I. 
Krameria. 
771 
We receive rhatany in pieces of various shapes and dimensions, some being simple, some 
more or less branched, the largest as much as an inch in thickness, derived from the main body 
of the root, the smallest not thicker than a small quill, consisting of the minute ramifications. 
The pieces are often nearly cylindrical, and as much as two or three feet in length. Sometimes 
many of the radicles are united in a common head, which is short, and from half an inch to 
two inches or more in diameter. The roots are composed of a dark, reddish-brown, slightly 
fibrous, easily separable bark, and a central woody portion, less colored, but still reddish or 
reddish yellow: “ From 1 to 3 Cm. thick, knotty and several-headed above, branched below, 
the branches long; bark smooth or, in the thinner pieces, scaly, deep rust-brown, 1 to 2 Mm. 
thick, very astringent, inodorous; wood pale brownish-red, tough, with fine medullary rays, 
nearly tasteless. The root of Krameria Ixina (Savanilla Rhatany) is less knotty and more 
slender and has a dark purplish-brown bark, about 3 Mm. thick.” U. S. The British Phar- 
macopoeia now recognizes two varieties of rhatany, which it describes as follows: “1. Para 
Rhatany occurs in cylindrical pieces, and is characterized by its purplish-brown color and 
smooth thick bark, marked at intervals by deep transverse cracks, and adhering firmly to the 
wood, which is of a pale reddish-brown color. Fracture short. 2. Peruvian Rhatany is char- 
acterized by its dark reddish-brown color and its yellowish woody axis, from which the bark 
readily separates. The bark is thinner than that of Para Rhatany, bright reddish brown in- 
ternally, and rough and scaly except in the smaller pieces. Fracture splintery.” Rhatany is 
without smell, but has a bitter, very astringent, slightly sweetish taste, which is connected 
with its medical virtues, and is much stronger in the cortical than in the ligneous part. The 
smallest pieces are therefore preferable, as they contain the largest proportion of the bark. The 
powder is of a reddish color. The virtues of the root are extracted by water and alcohol, to 
which it imparts a deep reddish-brown color. From the researches of Vogel, Ganelin, Peschier, 
and Trommsdorff, it appears to contain tannic acid, lignin, and minute quantities of gum, starch, 
saccharine matter, and an acid which Peschier considered as peculiar and named krameric 
acid. The tannic acid is in three states : 1st, that of purity, in which it is without color; 2d, 
that of phlobaphene or anhydride, in which it has lost its astringency and been rendered in- 
soluble by the action of the air; and, 3d, that of extractive, which is a soluble combination 
of tannin and its. anhydride, and is the substance which imparts to the infusion and tincture 
their characteristic reddish-brown color. (Soubeiran, Joum. de Pharm., xix. 596.) The tannic 
acid of rhatany (krameria-tannic or r hat ania-tannic acid) is separated by treating the ethereal 
extract of the bark, with alcohol, and evaporating the alcoholic solution. It gives a dark-green 
precipitate with ferric chloride, a flesh-colored one with gelatin, and none with tartar emetic. 
( Gmelin.') The tannin of rhatany, in the presence of melted potassa, is transformed into proto- 
catechuic acid and phloroglucin, and with dilute acids gives glucose and a peculiar red coloring 
principle, called ratanhia red, C2QII22Oir (Joum. de Pharm. et de Chim., Janv. 1868, p. 73.) 
The proportion of red astringent matter obtained by Vogel was 40 per cent. The mineral 
acids and most of the metallic salts throw down precipitates with the infusion, decoction, and 
tincture of rhatany, and are incompatible in prescription. 
In examining a specimen of extract of rhatany from America, Wittstein discovered an alka- 
loid, which he thought to be identical with tyrosine. A somewhat different result was obtained 
by M. Ruge, who, after an examination, showed that the new alkaloid is not identical with 
tyrosine, for it has the formula C10H13N03, whilst that of tyrosine is C9HnN03, but is rather 
homologous with it. Like tyrosine, it is an amido-acid, and forms salts equally with mineral 
acids and with strong bases. It was called ratanhine by Ruge. Gintl (A. J. P., 1869, p 300) 
obtained ratanhine from resina d'angelim pedra, a resin from Brazil. Dr. Kreitmair has also 
obtained this principle from a sample of extract of rhatany. (See A. J. P., 1875, p. 266.) 
Cold water, by means of displacement or percolation, extracts all the astringency of rhatany, 
forming a clear deep-red infusion, which upon careful evaporation yields an almost perfectly 
soluble extract. The root yields its virtues also to boiling water by maceration; but the re- 
sulting infusion becomes turbid upon cooling, in consequence of the deposition of apotheme 
taken up by the water when heated. By boiling with water a still larger proportion of the 
apotheme is dissolved, and a considerable quantity of the pure tannin becomes insoluble in 
cold water, and medicinally inert, either by combining with the starch which is also dissolved, 
or by conversion into apotheme through the agency of the atmosphere. The decoction is, 
therefore, an ineligible preparation, and the extract resulting from its evaporation, though 
greater in weight than that from the cold infusion, contains much less soluble and active mat- 
ter. Alcohol dissolves a larger proportion of the root than water; but this success is owing to 772 
Krameria.—Lactucarium. 
PART I. 
the solution of apotheme, and the alcoholic extract contains little if any more of the astringent 
principle than that prepared by cold water, while it is encumbered with much inert matter. 
(See Extractum Kramerise.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Rliatany is generally tonic and powerfully astringent, 
and maybe advantageously given in chronic diarrhoea, passive hemorrhages, especially menorrha- 
gia, some forms of leucorrhoea, and in all those cases in which kino and catechu are beneficial. 
It has long been used in Peru as a remedy in bowel complaints, as a corroborant in cases of en- 
feebled stomach, and as a local application to spongy gums. Ruiz, one of the authors of the 
Peruvian Flora, first made it known in Europe. It was not till after the year 1816 that it 
began to come into general use. It has the advantage over the astringent extracts imported, 
that, being brought in the state of the root, it is free from adulteration, and may be prescribed 
with confidence. The dose of the powder is from twenty to thirty grains (1-3—1-95 Grin.) ; but 
the decoction (an ounce to the pint) is preferable; the dose being from one to two fluidounces 
(30—60 C.c.). The extract, tincture, and syrup are official, and may be given in the dose, the 
first of from fifteen to twenty grains (0 97-1 3 Gm.), the second of from two to three fluidrachms 
(7'4-ll-09 C.c.), and the third of half a fluidounce (14-8 C.c.). In the form of infusion, 
tincture, and extract, rhatany has been used locally in fissure of the anus, prolapsus ani, and 
leucorrhoea. 
LACTUCARIUM. U. S. Lactucarium. 
(LAC-TU-CA'RI-UM.) 
“The concrete milk-juice of Lactuca virosa, Linne (nat. ord. Composite).” U. S. 
Lactucarium, Fr.; Giftlattichsaft, 0. 
The plants of this genus yield when wounded a milky juice, to which, indeed, they owe 
their generic name. In some of them this juice possesses valuable narcotic properties. This 
is the case, among others, with L. sativa, L. virosa, and L. altissima. It was supposed that 
our native L. elongata, or wild lettuce, might have similar virtues; and Dr. Bigelow was in- 
formed by physicians who had employed it that it acts as an anodyne, and promotes the secre- 
tion from the skin and kidneys. But, according to M. Aubergier, the milky juice of this plant 
is of a flat and sweetish taste without bitterness, contains much mannite, but no bitter prin- 
ciple, and is destitute of narcotic properties. (Ann. de Therap., 1843, p. 18.) The probabil- 
ity is that it is nearly or quite inert.* Therefore, though formerly holding a place in our 
national Pharmacopoeia, it has been discarded. In Europe Lactuca scariola is said to be sub- 
stituted for the official plant. 
Lactuca sativa. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 1523; B. & T. 161. The garden lettuce is an annual 
plant. The stem, which rises above two feet, is erect, round, simple below, and branching in 
its upper part. The lower leaves are obovate, rounded at the end, and undulating; the upper 
are smaller, sessile, cordate, and toothed; both are shining, and of a yellowish-green color. 
The flowers are pale yellow, small, and disposed in an irregular terminal corymb. Before the 
flower-stem begins to shoot, the plant contains a bland pellucid juice, has little taste or smell, 
and is much used as a salad for the table; but during the period of inflorescence it abounds 
in a milky juice, which readily escapes from incisions in the stem, and has been found to pos- 
sess decided medicinal as well as sensible properties. The juice is more abundant in the wild 
than in the cultivated plants. The original native country of the garden lettuce is unknown. 
The plant has been cultivated from time immemorial, and flourishes equally in hot and tem- 
perate latitudes. Some botanists suppose that L. virosa of the old continent is the parent of 
all the varieties of the cultivated plant. 
Lactuca virosa. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1526; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 75, t. 31 ; B. & T. 160. 
The acrid or strong-scented, lettuce is biennial, with a stem from two to four feet high, erect, 
prickly near the base, above smooth and divided into branches. The lower leaves are large, 
oblong-ovate, undivided, toothed, commonly prickly on the under side of the midrib, sessile, 
and horizontal; the upper are smaller, clasping, and often lobed; the bracts are cordate and 
pointed. The flowers are numerous, of a sulphur-yellow color, and disposed in a panicle. The 
plant is a native of Europe. 
L. virosa is lactescent, and has a strong disagreeable smell like that of opium, and a hitter- 
* An investigation of our native Lactuca elongata by Prof. Maisch has led to conclusions differing essentially 
from those of M. Aubergier. The milky juice collected by Prof. Maisch himself from plants in his neighborhood 
was converted quickly into a gelatinous mass, that shrunk much in drying, and, so far from a flat taste, had a per- 
sistent bitterness, and a heavy, nauseous, narcotic odor. Having prepared a syrup from this concrete juice, he gave 
it for trial to Drs. Da Costa and August Miiller, who found it decidedly useful, and by the latter physician it was 
pronounced quite equal to the imported German lactucarium. (A. J. P., 1869, p. 145.) PART I. 
Lactucarium. 
773 
ish, acrid taste. It was admitted by the late Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias as one 
of the sources of lactucarium, which it is said to yield in greater quantity and of better qual- 
ity than the garden lettuce. Mr. Schutz, of Germany, obtained only 17 grains, on the aver- 
age, from a single plant of the garden lettuce, while a plant of L. virosa yielded 56 grains. 
Lactucarium is chiefly produced in Scotland, in Rhenish Prussia, and in France. Accord- 
ing to Mr. Fairgrieve, in Scotland * the plant cultivated is L. virosa, var. montana. Late in 
July or early in August the collectors proceed over the field, cutting the head of each stalk 
and scraping the flow into their vessels. This is repeated several times daily until the plants 
are exhausted. (P. J. Tr., iii. 972.) M. Aubergier is said to have been the only French pro- 
ducer. He cultivated the L. altissima, a gigantic Caucasian plant, which reaches the height of 
9 feet. In collecting, transverse incisions were made daily, beginning at the top. In Germany 
the plan is the same as that practised in Scotland.f 
Lactucarium,\ as brought from England, is in small, irregular lumps, about the size of a pea 
or larger, of a reddish-brown color externally, and of a narcotic odor and bitter taste. As 
prepared near Edinburgh, it is commonly in roundish, compact, and rather hard masses, weighing 
several ounces. (Christison.) A variety known in our market as German lactucarium is in 
pieces about an inch and a half long by an inch in thickness, four-sided, with one side convex 
and the three others flat, or slightly concave from shrinking, as if quarter sections of a saucer- 
shaped cake which had been divided before it was quite dry. The color on the outer or con- 
vex surface is darkish brown, that of the cut surfaces light yellowish brown. From experi- 
ments by Messrs. Parrish and Bakes, the German appears to be inferior to the English, as 
44 per cent, of spirituous extract was obtained from the latter, and only 36 per cent, from the 
former, while the two extracts were about equal in their sensible properties. (A. J. P, 1860, 
p. 226.) French lactucarium resembles the German, except in being in circular cakes about 
an inch and a half in diameter. The official description is as follows: “ In sections of plano- 
convex, circular cakes, or in irregular, angular pieces, externally grayish-brown or dull reddish- 
brown, internally whitish or yellowish, of a waxy lustre ; odor heavy, somewhat narcotic ; taste 
bitter. It is partly soluble in alcohol and in ether. When triturated with water, it yields a 
turbid mixture, and, when boiled with water, it softens and yields a brownish-colored liquid 
which, after cooling, is not colored blue by iodine test-solution.” U. S. In color, taste, and 
smell lactucarium bears considerable resemblance to opium, and has sometimes been called let- 
tuce opium. It does not attract moisture from the air. It yields nearly half its weight to 
water, with which it forms a deep-brown infusion. It is partly soluble in ether and alcohol. 
From its resemblance in sensible properties and therapeutical effects to opium, it was conjec- 
tured to contain morphine, or some analogous principle; but this conjecture has not yet been 
verified. Buchner, Aubergier, and Walz claim severally to have discovered the active princi- 
ple, which has been named lactucin; but the substances obtained by these different chemists 
are not exactly identical in properties; and the lactucin of Walz and Aubergier is considered 
by M. Lenoir as owing its bitterness to impurities, separated from which it is without taste and 
inert. For a full account of the earlier analyses of lactucarium, see 16th edition U. S. D. 
The later results are given below.§ 
* For the mode of cultivating and preparing lactucarium in England, see a communication by Mr. Thos. Fair- 
grieveto P. J. Tr., June, 1873, p. 972. 
f For various plans which have been suggested of collecting the drug, see 14th ed. U. S. D. 
j The thridace of Dr. Fran§ois, at one time supposed to be identical with lactucarium, is in all probability noth- 
ing more than the inspissated expressed juice of lettuce, and, indeed, was directed as such in the French Codex of 
1837; the leaves being rejected, and the stalks alone, near the flowering period, being subjected to pressure. 
$ Ludwig found, in 100 parts, 48-63 of substances insoluble in water, and 51'37 of substances soluble in water. Of 
the insoluble matter 42‘64 parts were of lactucerin or lactucone, which he obtained by first exhausting lactucarium 
with water, then treating the insoluble residue several times with hot alcohol of 0'833, allowing the alcoholic solu- 
tion to evaporate slowly, washing the yellowish substance thus procured with water, and purifying it by re-solution 
in alcohol, and crystallization. Thus obtained, it is in snow-white aggregated granules, dissolves in strong hot alco- 
hol which deposits it on cooling, is readily soluble in ether but insoluble in water, becomes transparent and tena- 
cious when moderately heated in a platinum dish, melts completely at a higher heat, with the escape of white odor- 
ous vapors, is incapable of saponification by caustic potassa, and is therefore not properly a fat, and in alcoholic solu- 
tion faintly reddens litmus-paper. Besides this principle there were 3‘99 parts of wax, and 2‘00 of lignin and of a 
substance which swelled in ammonia, and was insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Of the 51*37 parts soluble in 
water, 6‘98 were albumen, 1*75 lactucerin, held in solution by other substances, 27'68 bitter extract soluble in water 
and in alcohol, and 14'96 aqueous extract insoluble in alcohol of 0'830. The former of these extracts was found to 
contain a peculiar acid substance called lactucic acid, and the lactucin of Aubergier. Lactucic acid is of difficult 
crystallization, light yellow, strongly bitter, without sour taste, of an acid reaction, and readily soluble in alcohol 
and water. It has as much claim as any other discovered substance to be considered the active principle of lactu- 
carium. Lactucin, purified by animal charcoal, is in white pearly scales, the solution of which exhibits no reaction 
with lead subacetate or solution of iodine. It is dissolved without change of color by concentrated sulphuric acid. 774 
Lactucarium.—Lamellae Physostigminse. 
PART I. 
The ancients believed lettuce to be possessed of soporific properties, and many years ago 
Dr. J. R. Coxe, of Philadelphia, first proposed the employment of the inspissated milky juice 
as a medicine. It was chiefly, however, through the recommendation by Dr. Duncan, Sr., of 
Edinburgh, that the medicine came into use and was adopted as official in various pharmaco- 
poeias. It is claimed for it that it has, although in a very much inferior degree, the anodyne 
and calming properties of opium, without its disposition to derange the digestive organs. It 
has been employed in this country to some extent to allay cough and quiet nervous irritation, but 
we believe that the general experience is in accord with our own in finding it to be almost de- 
void of narcotic properties. We have never been able to obtain any good from its use. The 
dose is usually set down as from ten to twenty grains (0-65-1-3 Gm.), but much larger quan- 
tities may be given without obvious effects. Water distilled from lettuce (eau de laitue) is used 
in France as a mild sedative, in the quantity of from two to four ounces. The fresh leaves 
boiled in water are sometimes employed in the shape of cataplasm. It is said that in Egypt a 
mild oil is derived from the seeds, fit for culinary use. 
Under this head are included in the British Pharmacopoeia minute gelatin discs which con- 
tain traces of alkaloids, and which are designed to be inserted by oculists under the eyelid, in 
order to produce, through solution in the tears, such effects as they desire. A hot solution of 
gelatin containing the alkaloid in proper proportion is poured on a slightly greased glass or 
porcelain plate, cooled and dried, and then cut into discs, which, by previous calculation, will 
be found to contain the requisite quantity of medicament. A little glycerin is added to keep 
them from getting too hard and dry. 
LAMELL/E. Discs. 
LAMELLAE ATROPINE. Br. Discs of Atropine 
(LA-MEI/LiE AT-RO-PI'NiE.) 
“ Discs of Gelatin, with some Glycerin, each weighing about fa grain (1-3 milligrammes), 
and containing 5 grain (0-013 milligramme) of Atropine Sulphate.” Br. 
LAMELLAE COCAIN./E. Br. Discs of Cocaine. 
(LA-MfiL'LiE CO-CA-I'N.E.) 
“ Discs of Gelatin, with some Glycerin, each weighing about fa grain (2.17 milligrammes), 
and containing fa grain (1-3 milligrammes) of Cocaine Hydrochloride. 
“ Each Disc is four times the strength of a Disc of Cocaine of the British Pharmacopoeia of 
1885.” Br. 
LAMELLA HOMATROPINiE. Br. Discs of Homatropine. 
“ Discs of Gelatin, with some Glycerin, each weighing about fa grain (1-3 milligrammes), 
and containing grain (0-65 milligramme) of Homatropine Hydrobromide.” Br. 
(LA-MEL'liiE HO-MAT-RO-PI'N^:.) 
LAMELLA PHYSOSTIGMINiE. Br. Discs of Physostigmine. 
“ Discs of Gelatin, with some Glycerin, each weighing about fa grain (1*3 milligrammes), 
and containing grain (0-065 milligramme) of Physostigmine Sulphate.” Br. 
(LA-MEL'LjE phy-so-stig-mi'nve.) 
Besides the above ingredients, Ludwig found in lactucarium a substance resembling mannite, oxalic acid, another 
organic acid not well determined, a soft resin, potassa, magnesia, and ferric oxide. Distilled with diluted sulphuric 
acid, it gave an acid product smelling like lactucarium, which, saturated with calcium carbonate, and again distilled 
with potassium bisulphate, yielded an acid fluid having the odor of valerian. (A. J. P., xx. 57.) 
Kromayer (Ann. Ghent. Pharm., 105, p. 3) found also lactucopikrin, C44HS2O21, a brown, amorphous, and very 
bitter substance of weak acid reaction. It is easily soluble in water and alcohol. Ludwig’s lactucic acid Kro- 
mayer considers to be an oxidation product of lactucopikrin. 
Hesse (Hand wor ter buck, iv. p. 8) prepared lactucerin, and finds it to crystallize in white needles, fusing point 
210° C., soluble in hot ligroin, in chloroform, and in benzol. On fusion with potash it yields acetic acid and lactu- 
ceryl alcohol, C18H30O, which forms white needles, fusing at 162° C., and is easily soluble in ether, chloroform, and 
hot alcohol. Hesse has since (Ann. der Ch. nnd Phar., 234, p. 243) determined that lactucarium contains the ace- 
tates of a- and p-lactucerol, C18II30O. These compound ethers are saponified with alcoholic potash and water added, 
which precipitates a- and 0-lactucerol. These are washed, dried in the air, and taken up with boiling alcohol. On 
cooling, a-lactucerol separates out first and can be purified by recrystallization, while the 0-lactucerol is obtained 
from the mother-liquor. The acetate of a-lactucerol fuses at 210° C., while that of 0-lactucerol fuses at 230° C. For 
an examination of Hussion lactucarium, by L. Schiperovitch, see Pharm. Zcitschr. /. Russl., or Drug. Circ., 1886. PART I. 
Lappa.—Laurocerasi Folia. 
775 
LAPPA. U. S. Lappa. [Burdock.] 
(lXp'pa.) 
“ The root of Arctium Lappa, Linne, and of some other species of Arctium (nat. ord. Com- 
posite). ” u. s. 
Radix Bardanaj, P. G.; Bardane, Fr.; Klettenwurzel, G. 
Gen. Ch. Coarse and rank biennials, of the Old World, unarmed, except the hooked tips 
of the involucral bracts forming the bur; with large and roundish, mostly cordate leaves, the 
lower on stout petioles, and middle-sized heads of pink or purplish flowers, in summer. (Asa 
Gray!) 
The stem of the burdock is succulent, pubescent, branching, and three or four feet in height, 
bearing very large, cordate, denticulate leaves, which are green on their upper surface, whitish 
and downy on the under, and stand on long footstalks. The flowers are purple, globose, and 
in terminal panicles. The calyx consists of imbricated scales, with hooked extremities, by 
which they adhere to cloth and the coats of animals. The achenes are oblong, somewhat com- 
pressed and three-angled, ribbed, truncate. Although a native of Europe, burdock is abundant 
in the United States, where it grows on the roadsides, among rubbish, and in cultivated grounds. 
There are three recognized species of Arctium in North America,—viz., A. tomentosum (Lam.), 
Schk. (Woolly or Cottony Burdock); A. Lappa, L. (Burdock, Clotbur or Great Bur) ; and 
A. minus, Schk. (Common Burdock). 
The burdock has a simple, spindle-shaped root a foot or more in length, brown externally 
and white and spongy within, furnished with thread-like fibres, and having withered scales 
near the top. It is officially described as “ about 30 Cm. or more long, and, in its thickest por- 
tion, from 1 to 2 Cm. thick; nearly simple, fusiform, fleshy, longitudinally wrinkled, crowned 
with a tuft of whitish, soft, hairy leaf-stalks; grayish-brown, internally paler; fracture some- 
what horny; bark rather thick, the inner part and the wood radially striate, the parenchyma 
free from starch,—often with cavities lined with white remains of tissue; odor feeble and un- 
pleasant; taste mucilaginous, sweetish, and somewhat bitter.” U. S. For medicinal purposes 
the root should be gathered when about a year old. 
Inulin has been found in it by Guibourt, and sugar by F6e, while F. E. Hendershott believes 
that it contains a glucoside, besides arabin and pectin and extractives. (Proceedings of Mich. 
Pharm. Assoc., 1887.) Professor Trimble also obtained from the root a bitter, crystalline 
glucoside. {Pharm. Era, 1888, p. 133.) Thos. Donaldson {A. J. P., 1890, p. 123) found 8 6 
per cent, of yellow fixed oil and about 1 per cent, of white waxy matter. The inulin usually 
exists in parenchymatous cells in a different state, but if sections of the green root be dehy- 
drated by soaking in 95 per cent, alcohol, the inulin will be found in spheroidal form. 
An interesting account of burdock and its use as an edible vegetable in Japan, by Inazo 
Nitobe, may be found in A. J. P., 1897, 416. 
Medical Properties. Burdock root is considered to be a diuretic and diaphoretic altera- 
tive, especially useful in the gouty, scorbutic, and syphilitic and scrofulous diatheses; also in 
various chronic skin diseases, especially m psoriasis, prurigo, and acne. {Med. and Surg. Rep., 
1868.) To prove effectual, its administration must be long continued. A pint maybe given 
daily of the decoction, made by boiling two ounces of the root in three pints of water to two 
pints. The fluid extract and syrup have also been prepared. The fresh leaves have been 
employed both externally and internally in cutaneous eruptions and ulcerations. The fruit has 
been largely substituted for the root, especially in the form of the tincture of burdock fruit. 
LAUROCERASI FOLIA. Br. Cherry-Laurel Leaves. 
(lAu'RO-CER'A-SI FO'LI-A.) 
“ The fresh leaves of Prunus Laurocerasus, Linu.” Br. (Nat. ord. Rosaceae.) 
Laurier-cerise, Fr.; Kirschlorbeer, G.; Lauro-ceraso, It. 
Cerasus lauro-cerasus. De Cand. Prodrom. ii. 540.—Prunus lauro-cerasus. Willd. Bp. Plant. 
ii. 988 ; B. & T. 98. This is a small evergreen tree, rising 15 or 20 feet, with long spreading 
branches, which, as well as the trunk, are covered with a smooth, blackish bark. The leaves, 
standing alternately on short strong footstalks, are oval-oblong, from five to seven inches in 
length, acute, finely toothed, firm, coriaceous, smooth, beautifully green and shining, with ob- 
lique nerves, and yellowish glands at the base. The flowers are small, white, strongly odorous, 
and disposed in simple axillary racemes. The fruit is an oval drupe, very similar in shape and 
structure to a small black cherry. The cherry-laurel is a native of Asia Minor, but is culti- 776 
Laurocerasi Folia. —Leptandra. 
PART I. 
vated in Europe, both for medical use and for the beauty of its shining evergreen foliage. 
Almost all parts of it have more or less of the odor of hydrocyanic acid. 
In their recent and entire state cherry-laurel leaves have scarcely any smell; but, when 
bruised, they emit the characteristic odor of the plant in a high degree. Their taste is some- 
what astringent and strongly bitter, with the flavor of the peach kernel. They are officially 
described as “ Thick, coriaceous, on short strong petioles, oblong or somewhat obovate, from 
five to seven inches (twelve and a half to seventeen centimetres) in length, tapering towards 
each end, recurved at the apex, distantly but sharply serrate and slightly revolute at the mar- 
gins, dark green, smooth, and shining above, much paler beneath, and with a prominent mid- 
rib, on either side of which, near the base, are one or two glandular depressions.” Br. They 
yield a peculiar oil and hydrocyanic acid by distillation with water, which they strongly im- 
pregnate with their flavor. One pound, avoirdupois, of the fresh leaves yields 40 5 grains of 
the oil. (Centralhl., 1855, 205.) The oil resembles that of bitter almonds, for which it is said 
to be sometimes sold in Europe, where it is employed to flavor liquors and various culinary 
preparations, but, as the glucoside of cherry-laurel leaves is decomposed more slowly than 
ordinary crystallized amygdalin, it is liable to hold hydrocyanic acid, and hence to be poisonous. 
The glucoside referred to has been termed laurocerasin, or “ amorphous amygdalin.” It is 
decomposed by emulsion into hydrogen cyanide, benzaldehyde, and sugar, but more slowly 
than ordinary amygdalin. Its optical activity also differs from that of ordinary amygdalin. 
(Jacobsen, Die Glycoside, 25.) That the oil exists already formed, to a certain extent, in the 
fresh leaves, is rendered probable by the fact, stated by Winckler, that they yield it in con- 
siderable quantity when distilled without water. (Journ. de Pharm., xxv. 195.) The fresh 
leaves are used to flavor milk, cream, etc., and more safely than the oil; though they also are 
poisonous, when too largely employed. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The leaves of the cherry-laurel possess properties 
similar to those of hydrocyanic acid ; and the water distilled from them is much employed in 
various parts of Europe for the same purposes as that active medicine. But it is deteriorated 
by age, and therefore, as kept by pharmacists, must be of variable strength. Mr. J. Broker, 
a Butch pharmacologist, has satisfied himself, by numerous experiments, that the proportion 
of hydrocyanic acid in the leaves varies with the season, the age of the plant, the character 
of the soil and of the weather, and thinks that, in consequence of this variability, they are 
inferior for medical use to bitter almonds, which in this respect have a more uniform composi- 
tion. He found the proportion of the acid in the leaves greatest in July, and least in Febru- 
ary. (R. and F. Med.-Chir. Rev., Oct. 1868, p. 517.) It is not, therefore, to be regretted that 
the want of the plant in this country has prevented the general introduction of so variable a 
remedy as the distilled water. (See Aqua Laurocerasi.) 
LEPTANDRA. U. S. Leptandra. [Culver’s Root.] 
(lep-tXn'dra.) 
The rhizome and roots of Veronica Virginica, Linne (nat. ord. Scrophularineae).” U. S. 
Culver’s Physic, Black Root; Racine de Leptandra, ou de Veronique de Yirginie, Fr.; Leptandra-Wurzel, G. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, segments acuminate. Corolla tubular-campanulate, border four- 
lobed, a little ringent, unequal, the lower lamina narrower. Stamens and at length the pistils 
much exserted ; filaments below, and tube of the corolla pubescent. Capsule ovate, acuminate, 
two-celled, many-seeded, opening at the summit. NuttaU. 
Veronica virginica. Linn.; Gray, Man. of Bot., etc. p. 290.—Leptandra virginica. Nuttall, 
Genera of N. Am. Plants, i. 7 ; liafinesque, Med. Flora, vol. ii. This plant, commonly called 
Oidver's root, or Culver s physic, is an herbaceous perennial, with a simple, erect stem, three or 
four feet high, smooth or downy, furnished with leaves in whorls, and terminating in a long 
spike of white flowers. The leaves, of which there are from four to seven in each whorl, are 
lanceolate, pointed, and minutely serrate, and stand on short footstalks. A variety was seen 
by Pursh with purple flowers, which was described and figured as a distinct species by Rafi- 
nesque, under the name of L. purpurea. The plant flowers in July and August. It grows 
throughout the United States east of the Mississippi, affecting mountain meadows in the South 
and rich woods in the North, and is not unfrequently cultivated. 
Properties. The root consists of a rhizome or root-stalk several inches in length, some- 
times branched, with numerous long slender radicles. As found in commerce, the rhizome is 
usually broken into pieces an inch or more long, from two to four lines in thickness, either 
beset with the rootlets or very rough from their remains when broken, very hard and firm, and Leptan dr a.—Limonis Cortex. 
777 
PART I. 
of difficult fracture, dark brown externally, light-colored and ligneous within. The rootlets 
are round, smooth, slender, generally broken, hut, when not so, six inches or more in length, 
and almost black, being much darker colored than the caudex. The official description is as 
follows: “ Of horizontal growth, from 10 to 15 Cm. long, and about 5 Mm. thick, somewhat 
flattened, bent and branched, deep blackish-brown, with cup-shaped scars on the upper side, 
hard, of a woody fracture, with a thin, blackish bark, a hard, yellowish wood, and a large, 
purplish-brown, about six-rayed pith; roots thin, wrinkled, very fragile; inodorous; taste 
bitter and feebly acrid.” TJ. S. The odor is feeble and not disagreeable, the taste bitterish, 
somewhat nauseous, and feebly acrid. Water and alcohol extract the virtues of the root. 
For a microscopical description of leptandra, by A. P. Breithaupt, see A. J. P., 1897, 235. 
According to Prof. E. S. Wayne, of Cincinnati, it contains volatile oil, extractive, tannin, gum, 
resin, and a peculiar crystalline principle, to which the virtues of the medicine may be ascribed. 
To this principle the name of leptandrin properly belongs. Prof. F. F. Mayer confirmed the 
presence of the crystalline principle, and proved it to be a glucoside. Prof. Wayne obtained 
it by treating an infusion of the root with lead subacetate, filtering, precipitating the excess 
of lead by sodium carbonate, filtering to separate the lead carbonate, passing the filtered 
liquid through animal charcoal which absorbed all the active matter, washing the charcoal with 
water till the washings began to be bitter, then treating it with boiling alcohol, and allowing 
the alcoholic solution to evaporate spontaneously. By dissolving the powder thus obtained in 
water, treating this with ether, and allowing the ether to evaporate, needle-shaped crystals were 
obtained, which had the bitter taste of the root. The resinous matter obtained by making a 
tincture of the root and precipitating this with water has been improperly called leptandrin, 
and considered the active principle. The pure resin is probably inert; and the preparation 
referred to owes what activity it may possess to some of the true leptandrin associated with it. 
Leptandrin is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It has not been isolated for use. (Proc. 
A. P. A., 1856, p. 34.) Subsequently Mr. Wayne obtained from the root a saccharine prin- 
ciple having the properties of mannite. (A. J. P., 1859, p. 557.) G. Steinmann (A. J. P., 1887, 
p. 229) obtained pale lemon-yellow crystals of a peculiar agreeable odor and a very bitter taste. 
They were not precipitated from solution by Mayer’s reagent or by tannin, and did not yield 
glucose on being boiled with dilute sulphuric acid. 
Medical Properties. The recent root is said to act violently as a cathartic, and some- 
times as an emetic. In the dried state it is much milder, but less certain. The practitioners 
calling themselves Eclectics consider it an excellent cholagogue, and use both the impure resin, 
which they call leptandrin, and the root itself as a substitute for mercurials* Dr. A. P. 
Dutclier, of Cleveland, Ohio, has not found it to act decidedly on the liver, but believes that it 
has a special influence on the muciparous follicles of the intestines, and acts very advantage- 
ously in cases of duodenal indigestion and chronic constipation. {Med. and Surg. Rep., March 
28, 1868.) Prof. Rutherford, in his experiments upon dogs, found leptandrin to act rather 
feebly upon the liver. The full cathartic dose of the powder is from twenty grains to a drachm 
(1-3—3-9 Gm.) ; that of the impure resin referred to, from two to four grains (0-13—0-26 Gm.). 
Dr. J. Adolphus says that in the dose of from one to two grains (0-065-013 Gm.) the powder 
acts like rhubarb. On the same authority, from five to ten drops (0-3—0-6 C.c.) of a strong 
tincture, given every two hours, produce a mild aperient effect. {Ibid., Jan. 11, 1868, p. 23.) 
LIMONES. Lemons. 
(LI-MO'NE§.) 
The fruit of Citrus Limonum. 
Limons, Citrons, Fr.j Limonen, Citronen, G.; Limoni, It.; Limones, Sp. 
LIMONIS CORTEX. U. S., Br. Lemon Peel. 
(LI-MO'NlS COR'TEX.) 
“ The rind of the recent fruit of Citrus Limonum, Risso (nat. ord. Rutaceae).” TJ. S. “ The 
fresh outer part of the pericarp of the fruit of Citrus medica, Linn., var. /3 Limonum, Hook, f.” 
Br. (Nat. ord. Aurantiaceae.) 
Limonis Pericarpium; Cortex Pructus Citri, P. G.; Ecorce (Zeste) de Citron, de Limon, Fr.; Citronenschale, 
Limonenschale, G. 
* Prof. J. U. Lloyd communicated a process for resin of leptandra (or leptandrin) to the American Pharmaceutical 
Association in 1880. (See A. J. P., 1880, 491.) 778 
Limonis Succus. 
PART I. 
LIMONIS SUCCUS. U. S. (Br.) Lemon Juice. 
(LI-MO'NIS SUC'CUS.) 
“ The freshly expressed juice of the ripe fruit of Citrus Limonum, Risso (nat. ord. Ruta- 
ceae).” U. S. “ The freshly expressed juice of the ripe fruit of Citrus medica, Linn., var. 
jS Limonum, Hook, fil.” Br. 
Succus Limonis, Br., Succus Citri; Lime Juice; Sue de Citron (de Limon), Fr.; Citronensaft, Limonensaft, G. 
For some general remarks on the genus Citrus, see Aurantii Cortex. 
Citrus medica. Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 1426; Woodv. Med. Bot. p. 582, t. 189. This tree 
closely resembles Citrus aurantium, before described. The leaves, however, are larger, slightly 
indented at the edges, and stand upon footstalks which are destitute of the winged appendages 
that characterize the other species. The flowers, moreover, have a purplish tinge on their 
outer surface, and the fruit is entirely different in appearance from the orange. There are 
several varieties of Citrus medica, which some botanists consider as distinct species, but which 
scarcely differ except in the character of their fruit. Those particularly deserving of notice 
are the citron, lemon, and lime. 1. In the citron, C. medica of Risso (Bentley & Trimen, p. 
53), the fruit is very large, sometimes six inches in length, ovoidal, with a double rind, of 
which the outer layer is yellowish, thin, unequal, rugged, with innumerable vesicles filled with 
essential oil; the inner is white, very thick and spongy. It is divided in the interior into nine or 
ten cells, filled with oblong vesicles, which contain an acid juice precisely like that of the lemon, 
and used for the same purposes. The rind is applied to the preparation of conserves, to which 
it is adapted by its thickness. The fruit is called cedrat by the French. 2. The lemon (C. 
medica, var. limon of Linnaeus, Citrus limonum of Risso) (Bentley & Trimen, p. 54) is smaller 
than the preceding, with a smoother and thinner rind, a pointed nipple-shaped summit, and a 
very juicy, acid pulp. In other respects it closely resembles the citron, to which, however, it 
is usually preferred in consequence of the greater abundance of its juice. 3. The lime is still 
smaller than the lemon, with a smoother and thinner rind, oval, rounded at the extremities, of 
a pale-yellow or greenish-yellow color, and abounding in a very acid juice, which renders it 
highly useful for the purposes to which the lemon is applied. It is the product of the variety 
C. acris of Miller. 
The Citrus medica, like the orange-tree, is a native of Asia. It is now known to grow wild 
in Northern India, and was introduced into Europe from Persia or Media. It was first culti- 
vated in Greece, afterwards in Italy, as early as the second century, and has now spread over 
the whole civilized world, being raised by artificial heat where the climate is too cold to admit 
of its exposure during winter to the open air. 
We are supplied with lemons and limes chiefly from the West Indies and the Mediterranean. 
Though the former of these fruits only is directed by the United States Pharmacopoeia, both 
Linds are employed indiscriminately for most medicinal purposes; and the lime affords a juice 
at least equal, in proportional quantity and acidity, to that obtained from the lemon.* 
As lemons rapidly deteriorate on keeping, if exposed to the air, the suggestions of protecting 
them by dipping them in melted paraffin, or by using a varnish of shellac dissolved in alcohol, 
made by Mr. George Mee, of London, are not without value. Mr. Mee found that lemons 
thus covered with varnish continued sound for many months. (See A. J. P., 1866, p. 474.) 
Properties. The exterior rind of the lemon has a fragrant odor, and a warm, aromatic, 
bitter taste, somewhat similar to that of the orange, though less agreeable. It is usually found 
in narrow, thin bands, with very little of the spongy, white, inner layer adhering to it. “ The 
spongy, inner layer usually present in the segments should be removed before the Lemon Peel 
is used.” U. S. It contains a bitter principle, and yields, by expression or distillation, an 
essential oil, which is much used for its flavor. Both this and the rind itself are recognized 
in the Pharmacopoeias. (See Oleum Limonis.) When the white, spongy portion of the rind 
is boiled in water, and the decoction evaporated, crystals are deposited of a substance called 
hesperidin. This is a glucoside, and has the formula C22H26012, and is decomposed by dilute 
acids into hesperetin, C16H14Oe, and glucose, CeH12Oe. It turns dingy black when gently 
warmed with alcoholic solution of ferric chloride. It is bitter, but, as it is found most largely 
in the spongy and comparatively tasteless part of the rind, it may be doubted whether it is 
entitled to be considered as the active bitter principle. (See A. J. P., xxvi. 553.) Lemon peel 
yields its virtues to water, wine, and alcohol. E. G. Clayton {The Analyst, 19, 134) calls 
* Limeseed Oil. The seed of the lime contains 58 per cent, of fixed oil, which is said to equal in flavor the best 
olive oil. Its tendency to resist rancidity is reputed to be very great. (Brit, and Col. Drug., 1894, 411.) PART I. 
Limonis Succus. 
779 
attention to the distinction between lemon peel and orange peel when moistened by strong 
hydrochloric acid. Orange peel under these circumstances changes in color from a yellow to 
a rich dark green color, while lemon peel retains its hue or assumes a dingy yellowish-brown 
tint. The juice is the part for which the fruit is most esteemed. It is sharply acid, with a 
peculiar grateful flavor, and consists chiefly of citric acid (some 10 per cent.), gum and sugar 
(from 3 to 4 per cent.), and inorganic salts (2-28 per cent.). It sometimes has in it a little vola- 
tile oil, derived by pressure from the rind. The U. S. P. gives the following standard tests: 
“ Specific gravity : not less than 10-30 at 15° C. (59° F.). It has an acid reaction upon litmus- 
paper, due to the presence of about 7 per cent, of citric acid. On evaporating 100 Gin. of the 
juice to dryness, and igniting the residue, not more than 0-5 Gm. of ash should remain.” 
“ A slightly turbid yellowish liquid, with a sharply acid taste. Specific gravity 1-030 to 1-040. 
One fluid ounce contains 30 to 40 grains (or 100 cubic centimetres contain 7 to 9 grammes) 
of citric acid. When Lemon Juice is evaporated to dryness, and the residue is incinerated, 
it should yield not more than 3 per cent, of ash. 110 minims (or 100 cubic centimetres) of 
Lemon Juice are neutralized by about Ilf grains (or 11-4 grammes) of Potassium Bicarbonater 
by about 9f grains (or 9-5 grammes) of Sodium Bicarbonate, and by about 16f grains (or 
16-5 grammes) of Sodium Carbonate.” Br. As lemons cannot always be obtained, the juice is 
often kept in a separate state; but, from its liability to spontaneous decomposition, it speedily 
becomes unfit for medical use, and, though various means have been resorted to for its preser- 
vation, it can never be made to retain for any length of time its original flavor unaltered. 
The best substitute for lemon juice is a solution of crystallized citric acid in water, in the pro- 
portion of about an ounce to the pint, with the addition of a little oil of lemon ; but even this 
solution is nearly useless as an antiscorbutic. One of the most effectual methods of preserv- 
ing the juice is to allow it to stand for a short time after expression, till a coagulable matter 
separates, then to filter, and introduce it into glass bottles, with a stratum of almond oil or 
other sweet oil upon its surface. It will keep still better if the bottles containing the filtered 
juice be suffered, before being closed, to stand for fifteen minutes in a vessel of boiling water. 
Another mode is to add one-tenth of alcohol and to filter. The juice may also be preserved 
by concentrating it either by evaporation with a gentle heat, or by exposure to a freezing tem- 
perature, w'hich congeals the watery portion and leaves the juice much stronger than before. 
When used, it may be diluted to the former strength ; but, though the acid properties are re- 
tained, the flavor of the juice is found to have been deteriorated. Lemon syrup is another 
form in which the juice is preserved. 
The British Pharm. (1885) gave the sp. gr. of lemon juice at from 1-035 to 1-045, and the 
quantity of citric acid in a fluidounce of it from 30 to 40 grains. Mr. W. W. Stoddart found, 
in lemons from six different sources, an average of 42-53 grains in an ounce of the juice, 
and a mean sp. gr. of 1-044. By other authorities the proportions are given very differently. 
Thus, Mr. Watts gives 20-5 grains to the ounce, or 4-7 per cent, of the juice. The fact is that 
the quantity of acid varies very greatly. Mr. Stoddart found it to diminish rapidly with the 
advance of summer, with little change in the sp. gr. (P. J. Tr., Oct. 1868.) H. H. Robins, 
after examining large consignments of lemons, states that the average yield taken from a year’s 
receipts was 35-23 grains in a fluidounce. ( Chern. and Drug., 1896, 742.) A solution of tar- 
taric acid in water, with the addition of a little sulphuric acid, and flavored with the oil of 
lemon, has been fraudulently substituted for lemon juice, particularly as an antiscorbutic on 
long voyages, for which purpose it is quite useless. An application of the test for tartaric and 
sulphuric acids will at once detect the fraud. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The rind of the lemon is sometimes used to qualify 
the taste and increase the power of stomachic infusions and tinctures. The juice is refrigerant, 
and, properly diluted, forms a refreshing and agreeable beverage in febrile and inflammatory 
affections. It may be given with sweetened water in the shape of lemonade, or may be added 
to the mildly nutritive drinks, such as gum-water, barley-water, etc., usually administered in 
fevers. It is also much employed in the formation of those diaphoretic preparations known 
by the names of neutral mixture and effervescing draught. (See Mistura Potassii Citratis, 1880.) 
One of the most beneficial applications of lemon juice is to the prevention and cure of scurvy, 
for which it may be considered almost a specific. For this purpose, ships destined for long 
voyages should alw-ays be provided with a supply of the concentrated juice. In England every 
foreign-going ship is required by law to take such a supply of lemon juice that every seaman 
shall have a daily allowance of an ounce after having been ten days at sea. It has been 
employed with advantage in acute rheumatism in doses of from one to four fluidounces (30-120 780 
Linimenta. —Linimentum Ammonise. 
PART I. 
C.c.) from four to six times a day. It has been used with benefit as a local application in pru- 
ritus of the scrotum, in uterine hemorrhage after delivery, in sunburnand as a gargle in diph- 
theritic sore throat. 
LINIMENTA. Liniments. 
Embrocations, E., Fr.; Linimente, Einreibungen, G. 
These are preparations intended for external use, of such a consistence as to render them 
conveniently applicable to the skin by gentle friction with the hand. The former official prep- 
arations belonging to this class which have been omitted in the present edition of the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia are the Liniments of Cantharides and Subacetate of Lead. 
(LlN-I-MEN'TA.) 
LINIMENTUM ACONITI. Br. Liniment of Aconite. 
(LlN-I-MEN'TUM Ac-O-NI'TI.) 
Liniment d’Aconit, Fr.; Akonitliniment, G. 
“ Aconite Root, in No. 40 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Camphor, 1 ounce 
(Imp.) or 25 grammes; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Mix the powdered Aco- 
nite Root with twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the Alco- 
hol ; set aside in a closed vessel for three days, agitating occasionally ; transfer to a percolator ; 
when the liquid ceases to pass, continue the percolation with more of the Alcohol, allowing 
the liquid to drop into a receiver containing the Camphor, until thirty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or seven hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of the liniment are produced.” Br. 
The British preparation is simply a very strong tincture of aconite root and camphor; that 
of the U. S. P. 1870 f is almost equivalent to a fluid extract of aconite. Either may be ap- 
plied alone by means of a camel’s-hair pencil, or in connection with two parts or more of soap 
liniment or chloroform liniment, by rubbing it on the part affected. Experiments made by 
Mr. W. Donovan with a tincture prepared by macerating the fresh root, sliced, in rectified 
spirit for only twenty-four hours, proved that the preparation thus made, though acting in the 
same way, was much more powerful than the official (Br.). (P. J. Tr., 2d ser., vi. 57.) The 
inference is that the fresh root should be used in preparing this liniment, and that a simple 
maceration is all that is required. There is a great waste both of aconite and of spirit in the 
process, as no provision is made, either by displacement with water or by expression, to sepa- 
rate from the mass in the percolator the strongly impregnated spirit retained in it. According 
to Mr. J. T. Porter, it requires twenty-eight parts, by measure, for every sixteen parts, by 
weight, of the dry root. On expressing the marc the loss of spirit was reduced' to from 6 to 
12 per cent. (Ibid., xi. 66.) It is to be regretted that percolation to exhaustion and partial 
evaporation were not directed, as in the U. S. process for fluid extracts. 
LINIMENTUM AMMONIA. U. S., Br. Ammonia Liniment. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM AM-MO'NI-AS.) 
Liniment of Ammonia, Volatile Liniment; Linimentum Ammoniatum, P. G.; Linimentum volatile, Linimentum 
ammoniacalo; Liniment ammoniacal (volatil), Savon ammoniacal, Fr.; Fliichtiges Liniment, Fliichtige Salbe, G. 
“ Ammonia Water, three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 401 minims] ; 
Alcohol, fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Cotton Seed Oil, six hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 20 fluidounces, 138 minims], To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix them by agitation in a bottle, which should be well stop- 
pered. This Liniment should be freshly prepared, when wanted.” U. S. 
“Solution of Ammonia, 1 fi. ounce (Imperial measure) or 25 cubic centimetres; Almond 
Oil, 1 fi. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 25 cubic centimetres; Olive Oil, 2 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 
50 cubic centimetres. Shake together.” Br. 
The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia differs from that of the U. S. P. 1870 not only in 
the proportion of ammonia water, wdiich has been slightly reduced, but in the substitution of 
cotton seed oil for olive oil. The addition of 5 per cent, of alcohol prevents immediate sepa- 
ration, renders the mixture more uniform, and aids materially in binding together the oily and 
* An excellent formula for this purpose is : glycerin and lemon juice, each, a fluidounce, bismuth subnitrate one 
drachm ; to be applied freely to the affected parts. 
f Linimentum Aconiti, U. S. 1870. “ Take of Aconite Root, in fine powder, eight troyonnces ; Glycerin a fluid- 
ounce ; Alcohol a sufficient quantity. Moisten the powder with four fluidounces of Alcohol, and let it macerate 
for twenty-four hours ; then pack it in a conical percolator, and gradually pour Alcohol upon it until two pints 
of tincture have been obtained. Distil off a pint and a half of alcohol, and evaporate the remainder until it 
measures seven fluidounces; to this add the Glycerin, and mix them thoroughly.” PART I. 
Linimentum Belladonnse.—Linimentum Camphorae. 
781 
aqueous constituents. A liniment is now furnished which is liquid at ordinary temperatures. 
The ammonia liniment of the U. S. P. 1870 was usually solid and unmanageable. Whilst 
complete saponification is not a desideratum in this liniment, a better oil than cotton seed oil 
is lard oil, which will form a white, smooth mixture. 
The IT. S. and British Pharmacopoeias agree at present very nearly in the strength of this 
liniment; the U. S. preparation being somewhat the stronger. In the process, the ammonia 
reacts with the oil to form a soap, which is partly dissolved, partly suspended in the water, 
producing a white, opaque emulsion. The liniment is an excellent rubefacient, frequently em- 
ployed in inflammatory affections of the throat, in catarrhal and other pectoral complaints of 
children, and in rheumatic pains. It is applied by rubbing it, or placing a piece of flannel 
saturated with it, over the affected part. Should it occasion too much inflammation, it must 
be diluted with oil. 
LINIMENTUM BELLADONNA. U. S., Br. Belladonna Liniment. 
Liniment of Belladonna; Liniment de Belladone, Fr.; Belladonna-Liniment, G. 
“ Camphor, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Fluid Extract of Belladonna Root, 
a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. 
Dissolve the Camphor in about two hundred, cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] 
of the Fluid Extract, and then add enough of the latter to make the product measure one 
thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix thoroughly.” U. S. 
“ Liquid Extract of Belladonna, 10 fi. ou?ices (Imperial measure) or 250 cubic centimetres; 
Camphor, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 25 grammes; Distilled Water, 2 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 50 
cubic centimetres ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Camphor in six 
fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; add the 
Liquid Extract of Belladonna, the Distilled Water, and sufficient of the Alcohol to produce 
twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the Liniment. Set aside 
for twenty-four hours ; filter.” Br. The process for the liniment of the British Pharmacopoeia 
has been improved by using an assayed liquid extract. It affords a valuable means of apply- 
ing belladonna externally. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM BEL-LA-DON'N^.) 
LINIMENTUM CALCIS. U. S., Br. Lime Liniment. [Carron Oil.] 
Liniment of Lime; Liniment caleaire, Savon calcaire, Fr.; Kalkliniment, G. 
“Solution of Lime, Linseed Oil, of each, one volume. Mix them by agitation.” US. 
“ Solution of Lime, 2 Jl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 50 cubic centimetres; Olive Oil, 2 jl. 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres. Shake together.” Br. 
The lime forms a soap with the oil, of which there is a great excess, that separates upon 
standing. Olive oil, as directed by the British Pharmacopoeia, is often substituted for that of 
flaxseed, which was originally used, but it possesses no other advantage than that of having 
a less unpleasant odor. The use of cotton seed oil in the U. S. P. 1880 did not meet the 
expectations of those who proposed it, and the U. S. P. 1890 has reinstated linseed oil. This 
is a very useful application in recent bums and scalds, when smeared thickly upon lint or cotton 
batting. It is sometimes called Carron oil, from having been much employed at the Carron 
iron-works in Scotland. 
(LIN-I-MfiN'TUM CAL'CIS.) 
LINIMENTUM CAMPHORS. U. S., Br. Camphor Liniment. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM CXM'PHO-RiE.) 
Liniment of Camphor, Linimentum Camphoratum, Oleum Camphoratum; Camphorated Oil; Liniment eamphre, 
Huile eamphree, Fr.; Kampferliniment, G. 
“ Camphor, in coarse powder, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] ; Cotton 
Seed Oil, eight hundred grammes [or 28 ounces av., 96 grains], To make one thousand, grammes 
[or about two pints]. Introduce the Camphor and the Cotton Seed Oil into a suitable flask, 
and apply a gentle heat, by means of a water-bath, loosely stoppering the flask during the 
operation. Agitate from time to time, until the Camphor is dissolved.” U. S. 
“ Camphor, in flowers, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Olive Oil, 4 ji. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 80 cubic centimetres. Dissolve the Camphor in the Olive Oil.” Br. 
S. D. Wetterstroem prefers cold solution to the official method, thus avoiding any loss of 
camphor. ( West. Drug., 1897, 68.) This is employed as an anodyne embrocation in sprains, 
bruises, rheumatic or gouty affections of the joints, and other local pains. It is also supposed to Linivientum Camphorse Ammoniatum.—Linimentum Hydrargyri. 
782 
PART I. 
have a discutient effect when rubbed upon glandular swellings. J. Weichselbaum has found 
camphor liniment to be a specific for the itching produced by cowhage. (A. J. P., xlii. 519.) 
LINIMENTUM CAMPHORS AMMONIATUM. Br. Ammoniated 
(lIn-i-mEn'tum Xm-mo-ni'a-tum.) 
Liniment of Camphor. 
Compound Liniment of Camphor, Br.; Liniment camphrS ammoniacal, JPV.y Ammoniak- und Kampfer-Lini- 
ment, G. 
“ Camphor, 2? ounces (Imperial) or 50 grammes ; Oil of Lavender, 1 fl. drachm (Imp. meas.) 
or 2-5 cubic centimetres; Strong Solution of Ammonia, 5 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic 
■centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Camphor and Oil of 
Lavender in twelve fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and forty cubic centimetres of 
the Alcohol; add the Strong Solution of Ammonia gradually, shaking them together until, 
after adding sufficient of the Alcohol to produce twenty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or four hun- 
dred cubic centimetres of the Liniment, a clear solution is formed.” Br. 
This is used as a rubefacient and at the same time anodyne embrocation in local pains, par- 
ticularly of a rheumatic character. 
LINIMENTUM CHLOROFORMI. U. S., Br. Chloroform Liniment. 
Liniment of Chloroform; Liniment au Chloroforme, Fr.; Chloroform-Liniment, G. 
“ Chloroform, three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] ; Soap Liniment, 
seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims]. To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix them by agitation.” U. S. 
“ Chloroform, 2 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 50 cubic centimetres; Liniment of Cam- 
phor, 2 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres. Mix.” Br. 
A very great improvement was made in this preparation by the Committee of Revision of 
1880, in the substitution of soap liniment for the olive oil. This change had been proposed in 
a previous edition of this Dispensatory, and it was desirable on account of the greasy residue 
which was left on the skin by the old preparation. The British Pharmacopoeia has retained 
the oily vehicle. This is an excellent local application in painful affections. As the chloro- 
form rapidly evaporates, it is desirable, in order to obtain its full anodyne effect, to guard 
against this by using waxed paper, or some other impermeable covering. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM chlo-ro-for'mi.) 
LINIMENTUM CROTONIS. Br. Liniment of Croton Oil. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM CRO-TO'NIS.) 
“ Croton Oil, 1 fl. ounce (Imperial measure) or 20 cubic centimetres; Oil of Cajuput, 3$ 
Jl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 70 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 3£ fl. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 70 cubic centimetres. Mix.” Br. 
This is a pustulating preparation, the irritant influence of which has been increased by the 
substitution of the oil of cajuput and the spirit for the olive oil of the original formula. From 
ten to thirty minims (0-6-T9 C.c.) or more may be rubbed upon a limited surface, and repeated 
twice a day or oftener till an eruption is produced. 
Liniment crotonne, Fr.; Krotonol-Liniment, G. 
LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI. Br. Liniment of Mercury. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM HY-DRAR'<JY-Rf.) 
Linimentum Mercuriale; Liniment mercuriel, Fr.; Quecksilber-Liniment, G. 
“ Ointment of Mercury, 1 otince (Imperial) or 30 grammes; Strong Solution of Ammonia, 
160 minims (Imp. meas.) or 10 cubic centimetres; Liniment of Camphor, a sufficient quantity. 
Add the Strong Solution of Ammonia to sufficient of the Liniment of Camphor to produce 
one fluid ounce and a half (Imp. meas.) or forty-five cubic centimetres; triturate the Oint- 
ment of Mercury with sufficient of the Liniment of Camphor to produce one fluid ounce and a 
half (Imp. meas.) or forty-five cubic centimetres; mix the two liquids.” Br. 
This is a stimulating liniment, employed for the discussion of chronic glandular enlarge- 
ments, swellings of the joints, and venereal tumors, and to promote the absorption of fluid. 
It is said to be more apt to salivate than is mercurial ointment. One fluidrachm (3’7 C.c.) 
may be rubbed upon the affected part night and morning. It should be thoroughly agitated 
before being applied. Linimentum, Opii.—Linimentum Saponis. 
783 
part I. 
LINIMENTUM OPII. Br. Liniment of Opium. 
(LIN-I-MfiN'TUM O'PI-!.) 
Anodyne Liniment; Liniment opiacS, Fr.; Opiumliniment, G. 
“ Tincture of Opium, 2 ji. ounces (Imperial measure) or 50 cubic centimetres; Liniment of 
Soap, 2 Ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres. Mix; set aside for a few days; 
filter.” Br. 
This is commonly called anodyne liniment, and is employed as an anodyne and gently rube- 
facient embrocation in sprains, bruises, and rheumatic or gouty pains. We are informed that 
the preparation which has been commonly used under the name of anodyne liniment is that of 
the late London Pharmacopoeia, as given in former editions of the U. S. Dispensatory, consist- 
ing of one part by measure of tincture of opium and three parts of soap liniment, and conse- 
quently having only half the opiate strength of the present British liniment. 
LINIMENTUM POTASSII IODIDI CUM SAPONE. Br. Liniment of 
Potassium Iodide with Soap. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM PO-TXS'SI-I I-OD'I-DI CUM SA-PO'NE.) 
Liniment savonneux iodur6, Fr.; Jodkalium-Seifenliniment, G. 
“ Curd Soap, recently prepared and in shavings, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 40 grammes; Potas- 
sium Iodide, 1£ ounces (Imp.) or 30 grammes ; Glycerin, 1 ji. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 20 cubic 
centimetres; Oil of Lemon, 1 ji. drachm (Imp. meas.) or 2-5 cubic centimetres; Distilled 
Water, 10 Ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 200 cubic centimetres. Reduce the Curd Soap to fine 
shreds; mix it with the Distilled Water and Glycerin in a porcelain dish on a water-bath; 
when the Soap is dissolved, pour the liquid into a mortar in which the Potassium Iodide has 
previously been powdered; mix briskly by trituration ; continue the trituration until the 
mixture is cold; set aside for an hour; then rub well the Oil of Lemon into the cream-like 
product.” Br. 
This preparation is apparently intended, by application to the surface, which may he attended 
with a gentle friction, to produce the absorption of the iodide, and thus to obtain its alterative 
and deobstruent effects through the circulation. The soap and glycerin act as demulcents, and 
thus obviate in some measure the local irritation of the salt.* 
LINIMENTUM SAPONIS. U. S., Br. Soap Liniment 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM SA-PO'NIS.) 
Tinctura Saponis Camphorata, U. S. 1850; Camphorated Tincture of Soap; Linimentum Saponato-Camphoratum 
Liquidum, P. G.; Liquid Opodeldoc; Liniment savonneux camphre, Fr.; Pliissiger Opodeldok, G. 
“ Soap, in fine powder, seventy grammes [or 2 ounces av., 205 grains] ; Camphor, in small 
pieces, forty-jive grammes [or 1 ounce av., 257 grains] ; Oil of Rosemary, ten cubic centimeters 
[or 162 minims] ; Alcohol, seven hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 25 fluidounces, 173 
minims] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
390 minims]. Introduce the Camphor and the Alcohol into a suitable bottle, and shake until 
the Camphor is dissolved. Then add the Soap and Oil of Rosemary, and shake the bottle 
well for a few minutes. Lastly, add enough Water to make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 390 minims], and again shake until the liquid becomes clear. Set it aside, in 
a cool place, for twenty-four hours, then filter.” U S. 
“ Soft Soap, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 40 grammes; Camphor, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 20 grammes; 
Oil of Rosemary, 3 fi. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 75 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 
16 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 320 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, 4 fi. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 80 cubic centimetres. Dissolve the Soap in the Distilled Water; dissolve the Camphor and 
Oil of Rosemary in the Alcohol; mix the solutions; set aside for one week ; filter.” Br. 
* It seems to have been clearly established by the discussion carried on in P. J. Tr., 2d ser., xi., that Castile soap, 
and even individual brands of soap, vary so much that it is impossible to get uniform results from the former official 
process, the preparation sometimes being beautifully transparent and jelly-like, at other times opaque and ointment- 
like. Various remedies were proposed, but finally Mr. N. Smith called attention to the fact that the formula adopted 
by the reviewers of the Pharmacopoeia differs from the original one of Dr. Rumsey. This Mr. Smith states to he as 
follows: “Take of White Curd Soap (made from Russian tallow) two ounces; Potassium Iodide one ounce and a 
half; Glycerin one ounce; Distilled Water ten ounces; Essential Oil of Lemon one drachm. Reduce the Soap into 
fine shreds, and melt in a water-bath, with the whole of the Water and the Glycerin; when the Soap is perfectly 
dissolved, pour it into a No. 9 Wedgwood mortar in which the potassium iodide has been previously reduced to fine 
powder; mix briskly, and continue the trituration until the mortar has become cool and the liniment assumes the 
character of ice-cream. Set aside for an hour, after which gently rub in the Oil of Lemon.” It will be noticed that 
Dr. Rumsey’s process has been practically adopted by the present British Pharmacopoeia. 784 
Linimentum Saponis Mollis.—Linimentum Sinapis Compositum. 
PART I. 
This process is intended to furnish a saturated solution of Castile soap. The recommenda- 
tion in the 16th edition of this Dispensatory, that powdered soap be used in preference to soap 
in shavings in this liniment, has been adopted by the U. S. P. 1890, for powdered soap does 
not vary greatly in the proportion of water left in it; the process is one recommended by 
Prof. Geo. W. Sloan, of Indianapolis, and if all the details are carefully followed it is a 
great improvement over that of the U. S. P. 1880. The British preparation is now made 
with soft (potash) soap; this method was recommended by J. T. Hornblower. (Chem. and 
Drug., 1894, 571.) The liniment is said to be made more quickly and precipitation is 
avoided. In 1859 Mr. Dean showed that sodium oleate is freely soluble in alcohol, while the 
palmitate is nearly insoluble, consequently the latter salt is left behind in the British process. 
Although olive oil contains a large percentage of olein, yet it has been proposed to substitute 
almond oil,* for it is still richer. The economy of this is, however, very doubtful. Castor oil 
has also been suggested. (A. J. P., xliv. 529.) G. H. Barckhausen states that the potassa soaps 
are perfectly soluble in alcohol, and suggests rape-seed oil as a good base. (A. J. P., 1873, p. 17.) 
In former editions of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, this preparation, though commonly called 
Soap Liniment, received the name of Tinctura Saponis Gamphorata, to distinguish it from a 
similar preparation called Opodeldoc, which, having a soft semi-solid consistence, held the title 
Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum.f 
Soap Liniment is much used, as an anodyne and gently rubefacient embrocation, in sprains, 
bruises, and rheumatic or gouty pains. 
LINIMENTUM SAPONIS MOLLIS. U. S. Liniment of Soft Soap. 
[Tinctura Saponis Viridis, Pharm. 1880.] 
(lIn-i-men'tum sa-po'nIs mol'lis.) 
“ Soft Soap, six hundred and fifty grammes [or 22 ounces av., 406 grains] ; Oil of Lavender 
Flowers, twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] ; Alcohol, three hundred cubic centimeters [or 10 
fluidounces, 69 minims] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 
33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix the Oil of Lavender Flowers with the Alcohol, dissolve in 
this the Soft Soap by stirring or agitation, and set the solution aside for twenty-four hours. Then 
filter it through paper, and pass enough Water through the filter to make the product measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix thoroughly.” U. S. 
This is the tincture of green soap of Prof. Hebra under a new name : it should never have 
been called Tinctura Saponis Viridis, as it belongs clearly in the class of liniments and is 
always used externally. C. E. Smith suggested the preparation of this liniment from the fixed 
oil directly, which has the advantage of convenience as well as of greater uniformity of 
strength. | 
LINIMENTUM SINAPIS COMPOSITUM. U. S. (Br.) Compound 
Liniment of Mustard. 
Linimentum Sinapis, Br., Liniment of Mustard; Liniment sinapis6 compost, Fr.; Zusammengesetztes Senflin- 
iment, 0. 
“ Volatile Oil of Mustard, thirty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 minims] ; Fluid Extract 
of Mezereum, two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] ; Camphor, sixty 
(LlN-I-MKN'TUM si-na'pis com-p5§'i-tum.) 
* A formula for making almond oil soap on the small scale may be found in P. J. Tr., 2d ser., xi. 417. 
t Opodeldoc. “ Take of Common Soap, sliced, three ounces ; Camphor an ounce ; Oil of Rosemary, Oil of Origa- 
num, each, a fluidrachm ; Alcohol a pint. Digest the Soap with the Alcohol, by means of a sand-bath, till dis- 
solved ; then add the Camphor and Oils, and, when they are dissolved, pour the liquid into broad-mouthed bottles. 
This liniment has, when cold, the consistence of a soft ointment.” U. S. P. 1850. 
This preparation differs from the official Linimentum Saponis chiefly in being prepared with common white soap, 
made with animal fat, instead of Castile soap, which is made of olive oil. The former is peculiarly adapted to the 
purposes of this formula, in consequence of assuming, when its alcoholic solution cools, the consistence characteristic 
of the liniment. It is customary after the solution of the soap has been effected to pour the liquid into small wide- 
mouthed glass bottles, containing about four fluidounces, in which it concretes into a soft, translucent, uniform, 
yellowish-white mass. This liniment melts with the heat of the body. 
J Liniment of Soft Soap. Dissolve 75 Gm. potassa in 200 C.c. of water, put the solution in a bottle of about 
1500 C.c. capacity, add 325 Gm. linseed oil and 300 C.c. alcohol, and shake the mixture briskly for some time, until 
there is no further separation of oil on standing. Let the solution stand in a moderately warm place for twenty-four 
(to forty-eight) hours, then dissolve in it 20 C.c. oil of lavender, add enough water to make the product measure 
1000 C.c., mix and filter. The process is easily finished in ten days, the main precaution to be observed being that 
the potassa be neither stronger nor weaker than 90 per cent., unless allowance be made for difference in strength. 
Refined cotton-seed oil or olive oil may be used instead of linseed oil without changing the proportion of potassa, 
but these oils usually produce a liniment of lighter color than would be obtained from linseed oil. (A. J. P., 1896, 187.) Linimentum Terebinthinse.—Linimentum Terebinthinse Aceticum. 
785 
PART I. 
grammes [or 2 ounces av., 51 grains] ; Castor Oil, one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 
fluidounces, 35 minims] ; Alcohol, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters 
[or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Dissolve the Camphor in five hundred cubic centimeters [or 
16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of Alcohol, and add the Fluid Extract of Mezereum ; then add 
the Oil of Mustard and the Castor Oil and, finally, enough Alcohol to make the product measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix thoroughly.” U. 8. 
“Volatile Oil of Mustard, fl. drachms (Imperial measure) or 2 cubic centimetres; 
Camphor, 120 grains (Imp.) or 3 grammes ; Castor Oil, 5 fl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 7 cubic 
centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 43 cubic centimetres. Dis- 
solve the Camphor in the Alcohol; add the Oil of Mustard and Castor Oil; mix.” Br. 
This preparation is slightly weaker than the British. It affords a convenient method of 
applying the volatile oil of mustard, and may often be appropriately used as a substitute for 
sinapisms. The extract of mezereon is also a very energetic irritant. The castor oil seems 
to be added in order to increase somewhat the consistence of the liniment, and was probably 
chosen from among oleaginous substances in consequence of its solubility in alcohol. The effect 
is increased if the liniment be applied on flannel, and volatilization guarded against by covering 
it with oiled silk. For the circumstances calling for the use of this liniment, see Sinapis. 
LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHIN/E. U. S., Br. Turpentine Liniment. 
(LIN-I-MEN'TUM TER-E-BIN'THI-NA:.) 
Liniment of Turpentine; Liniment te re ben thine, Fr.; Terpentinliniment, G. 
“ Resin Cerate, six hundred and fifty grammes [or 22 ounces av., 406 grains] ; Oil of Tur- 
pentine, three hundred and fifty grammes [or 12 ounces av., 151 grains], To make one thousand 
grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Melt the Resin Cerate in a capsule, on a water-bath, 
then add the Oil of Turpentine, and mix them thoroughly.” U. 8. 
“ Soft Soap, 1? ounces (Imperial) or 375 grammes ; Distilled Water, 5 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 125 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity; Camphor, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 25 grammes; 
Oil of Turpentine, 13 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 325 cubic centimetres. Mix the Soft Soap 
with two fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or fifty cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; dissolve 
the Camphor in the Oil of Turpentine ; gradually add the latter solution to the former, tritu- 
rating until the mixture becomes a thick creamy emulsion; lastly mix with sufficient Distilled 
Water to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres.” Br. 
The U. S. preparation is the liniment originally proposed by Dr. Kentish, and subsequently 
so highly lauded as a remedy in burns and scalds. It should he applied as soon after the 
occurrence of the accident as possible, and should be discontinued when the peculiar inflam- 
mation excited by the fire is removed. The best mode of application is to cover the burnt or 
scalded surface with pledgets of patent lint saturated with the liniment. It should not be 
allowed to come in contact with the sound parts. This liniment may also be successfully applied 
in other cases of cutaneous inflammation requiring stimulation, as in certain conditions of 
erysipelas. The present British preparation, so far as regards its rubefacient operation, may 
be looked upon as almost undiluted oil of turpentine ; the soft soap having little other effect 
than to give consistence to the liniment, and the camphor acting as an anodyne, and both 
being too small in bulk to dilute the oil materially. It is a very ineligible and variable 
preparation. 
LINIMENTUM TEREBINTHIN.® ACETICUM. Br. Liniment of 
Turpentine and Acetic Acid. 
(LEN-I-MEN'TUM TER-E-BIN'TIII-N7E A-GET'I-CUM.) 
Liniment t6rebenthin6 acetique, Fr.; Terpentin- und Essig-Liniment, G. 
“ Oil of Turpentine, 4 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 100 cubic centimetres; Glacial Acetic 
Acid, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 25 grammes; Liniment of Camphor, 4 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 
cubic centimetres. Mix.” Br. 
This is a powerful rubefacient liniment, combining the irritant properties of the oil of tur- 
pentine and acetic acid, though somewhat diluted by the camphor liniment.* Glacial acetic 
acid was substituted for acetic acid in the 1885 revision in equivalent proportion : the change 
is an improvement pharmaceutically, as it now affords a clear solution. 
* St. John Long’8 Liniment. Under this name a liniment is often used which is made as follows: “ Take the yolk 
of one egg, 5 fluidrachms of Acetic Acid, 3 fluidounces of Oil of Turpentine, 2£ fluidounces of Rose Water, and J 
fluidrachm of Oil of Lemon. Make an emulsion.” 786 
Linum.—Linum Contusum. 
part I. 
LINUM. U. S., Br. Linseed. [Flaxseed.] 
“ The seed of Linum usitatissimum, Linne (nat. ord. Lineae).” U. S. “ The dried ripe seeds 
of Linum usitatissimum, Linn.” Br. 
Lini Semina, Br. (1885); Semen Lini, P. G.; Grains de Lin, Semence de Lin, Fr.; Leinsame, Flachssamen, G.; 
Semi di Lino, It.; Linaza, Sp. 
(LI'NUM.) 
LINUM CONTUSUM. Br. Crushed Linseed. 
(LI'NUM CON-TU'StlM.) 
“ Linseed reduced to a coarse powder.” Br. 
Linurn usitatissimum. Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1533; B. & T. 39. Common flax is an annual 
plant, with an erect, slender, round stem, about two feet in height, branching at top, and, like 
all other parts of the plant, entirely smooth. The leaves are small, lanceolate, acute, entire, 
of a pale-green color, sessile, and scattered alternately over the stem and branches. The 
flowers are terminal, and of a delicate-blue color. The calyx is persistent, and composed of 
five ovate, sharp-pointed, three-nerved leaflets, which are membranous on their border. The 
petals are five, obovate, striated, minutely scalloped at their extremities, and spread into funnel- 
shaped blossoms. The filaments are also five, united at the base; and the germ, which is 
ovate, supports five slender styles, terminating in obtuse stigmas. The fruit is a globular cap- 
sule, about the size of a small pea, having the persistent calyx at the base, crowned with a 
sharp spine, and containing ten seeds in distinct cells. This highly valuable plant, now almost 
everywhere cultivated, is said by some to have been originally derived from Egypt, by others 
from the great elevated plain of Central Asia. It flowers in June and July, and ripens its 
seeds in August.* 
The seeds are oval, oblong, flattened on both sides, with acute edges, somewhat pointed at 
one end, one to two lines in length, smooth, glossy, brown externally, and yellowish white 
within, “ covered with a transparent, mucilaginous epithelium, which swells considerably in 
water; the embryo whitish or pale greenish, with two large, oily, plano-convex cotyledons, and 
a thin perisperm.” U. S. They are inodorous, and have an oily mucilaginous taste. Meyer 
found in them fixed oil, wax, resin, extractive, tannin, gum, nitrogenous mucilage, starch, al- 
bumen, gluten, and various salts. M. Meurein could find no starch, but detected phosphates, 
which had escaped the notice of Meyer. (Joum. de Pharm., 3e s6r., xx. 97.) Their investing 
coat abounds in a peculiar gummy matter or mucilage, which is readily imparted to hot water, 
forming a thick viscid fluid, that lets fall white flakes upon the addition of alcohol, and affords 
a copious dense precipitate with lead subacetate. The viscid mucilage of linseed cannot be 
filtered until it has been boiled. It contains in the dry state more than 10 per cent, of min- 
eral substances; when freed from these and dried at 110° C., it corresponds, like althaea- 
mucilage, to the formula C12H20010. The seeds by exhaustion with cold or warm water afford 
of it about 15 per cent. By boiling with nitric acid, it yields crystals of mucic acid ; by dilute 
mineral acids, it is broken up into dextrogyre gum, sugar, and cellulose. (Kirchner and Tollens, 
Ann. der Chem., 175, 215.) Jorissen and Hairs (Brogues Simples, Planchon et Collin, t. ii. 
685) have obtained from the young plant a glucoside, to which they give the name of lina- 
marin, which crystallizes in colorless needles without odor, but possessing a fresh and bitter 
taste. It differs from amygdalin in not being decomposed by emulsion, but dilute acids de- 
compose it into sugar, hydrocyanic acid, and a third product which is volatile and possesses 
certain of the characters of the acetones. Linseed contains about 4 per cent, of nitrogen, cor- 
responding to about 25 per cent, of protein substances. After expression of the oil these sub- 
stances remain in the cake, so that the latter contains 5 per cent, of nitrogen and constitutes a 
very important article for feeding cattle. In the ripe state linseed is altogether destitute of starch, 
though this substance is found in the immature seed in the very cells which subsequently yield 
the mucilage. The mucilage may be considered, as in analogous cases, to be a product of the 
* The linseeds in commerce have been divided by Mr. E. M. Holmes into two groups. The first group, character- 
ized by the seeds being of sufficient size for six or seven to weigh a grain, contains Bombay, Bold Calcutta, Sicilian, 
and Ionian seed; in the group of small seeds (10 to 12 to the grain) are English, Dutch, Kussian, and ordinary Cal- 
cutta varieties. An important practical point noticed by Mr. Holmes is that many of these seeds are apparently 
purposely adulterated with weed seeds, which are nearly always smaller than the linseeds, and can therefore be sep- 
arated by the sieve. When linseed meal is to be made for medical use, this separation should always be insisted upon, 
as many of the weed seeds are from Crucifera, and are irritating. For detailed information as to varieties of linseed, 
weed seeds, etc., the reader is referred to Mr. Holmes’s paper. (P. J. T>\, July, 1881; also N. It., 1881.) PART I. 
Linum Contusum.—Liquores. 
787 
transformation of starch. (Fliickiger, Pharmacographia, 2d ed., p. 99.) The interior of the 
seed, or nucleus, is rich in a peculiar oil, which is separated by expression, and extensively em- 
ployed in the arts. (See Oleum I/ini.) 
The ground seeds are found in commerce under the name of flaxseed meal. This is of a dark- 
gray color, highly oleaginous, and when mixed with hot water forms a soft adhesive mass, 
much employed for luting by practical chemists. “ Ground Linseed (Linseed Meal, or Flax- 
seed Meal), for medicinal purposes, should be recently prepared, free from unpleasant or rancid 
odor. When extracted with carbon disulphide, it should yield not less than 25 [30 per cent., 
Br. Ph.] per cent, of fixed oil.* The filtered infusion of Ground Linseed, prepared with boil- 
ing water and allowed to cool, has an insipid, mucilaginous taste, and should not be colored 
blue by iodine test-solution (absence of starch)." U. S. The cake remaining after the expression 
of the oil, usually called oil-cake, or, when ground, cake-meal, retains the mucilaginous matter 
of the envelope, and affords a nutritious food for cattle. The average composition of linseed 
oil-cake is thus given by Schaedler ( Technolog ie der Fette und Oele., 1883) : moisture, 10-56 per 
cent.; oil, 9-83 per cent.; non-nitrogenous fibre, 44-61 per cent.; ash, 6-5 per cent.; proteid 
matter, 28-5 per cent. Much of the linseed meal of commerce is simply cake-meal, which was, 
indeed, official in the former Br. Ph.; but such meal is unfit for medicinal use, not only because 
it contains very little oil, but also because the oil which is in it has, through rupture of the 
cells and partial expression, been so exposed to the air as to produce rancidity. Linseed meal 
is sometimes adulterated with corn meal, or other meals containing starch, whose presence is 
at once revealed by the iodine test. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Flaxseed is demulcent and emollient. The mucilage 
obtained by infusing the entire seeds in boiling water, in the proportion of half an ounce to 
the pint, is much and very advantageously employed in catarrh, dysentery, nephritic and calcu- 
lous complaints, strangury, and other inflammatory affections of the mucous membranes of the 
lungs, intestines, and urinary passages. By decoction water extracts a portion of the oleagi- 
nous matter, which renders the mucilage less fit for administration by the mouth, but superior 
as a laxative enema. The meal mixed with hot water forms an excellent emollient poultice. 
LIQUORES. Solutions. 
Solutes, Fr.; Losungen, G. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia includes in this class of preparations all aqueous solutions with- 
out sugar in which the substance acted on is wholly soluble in water, excluding those in which 
the dissolved matter is gaseous or very volatile, as in the Aquae, or Waters. 
Although several changes were made in the strength of preparations of this class in the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 for the sake of round numbers and to adjust the relative quan- 
tity of solid to the solvent, so as to avoid fractions in the percentages, yet it was a question 
whether these were advantages sufficient to overbalance the disadvantage of changing the doses 
of important preparations. Since the important change was made then, which makes the 
powerful solution to contain one per cent, of active ingredient, it would certainly be a serious 
mistake to alter this proportion to any extent in the future. 
In the British Pharmacopoeia it has been deemed expedient, in almost all instances in which 
the substance to be dissolved is an isolated solid body, to make the solutions of uniform strength, 
without regard to the physiological powers of the medicine, or its ordinary dose. There is a 
convenience in this plan to the prescriber, in relation to all medicines which habitually present 
themselves to his mind in the solid state; but to alter the strength of a solution which has 
been long known, and the dose of which is familiar, in order to make it conform with others, 
is to run the risk of frequent serious errors for the sake of an idea. The Br. Pharm. 1898 
introduced under this head ten concentrated infusions, with the object of affording an easy 
method of making, through dilution, ordinary infusions. Their titles (see Liquor Calumbse 
Concentratus) are very inappropriate. 
(LI-QUO'BE§—lg-kwo'rez.) 
* The value of a sample of crushed linseed can be absolutely determined only by analysis. It should contain 
from 25 to 35 per cent, of oil, not more than 8 or 8-5 per cent, of husk, and less than 8 per cent, of ash. The follow- 
ing test is said to be sufficient for practical purposes: “ Put half an ounce of the meal into a glass vessel, pour six 
ounces of boiling water over it, stir well, and allow it to stand for twelve hours. If first-class, it should absorb all 
the water, and show a thin scum of white glutinous liquid on the top, which will adhere closely to a glass rod or a 
wooden pencil dipped into it. If the meal does not absorb nearly all the water, it is of inferior quality. The amount 
of inferiority must be judged by the amount of water not absorbed, and by the character of the fluid on the top of 
the solution. If it is thin and non-glutinous, the meal is of inferior quality.” 788 
Liquor Acidi Arsenosi.—Liquor Ammonii Acetatis. 
PART I. 
LIQUOR ACIDI ARSENOSI. U.S. (Br.) Solution of Arsenous Acid. 
(LI'QUOR XQ'I-DI AR-SE-NO'SI.) 
Liquor Arsenici Hydrochloricus, Br.; Liquor Arsenici Chloridi, U. S. P. 1870; Hydrochloric Solution of 
Arsenic, E.; Liqueur arsenicale hydrochlorique, Fr.; Chlorarsenik-Losung, G. 
11 Arsenous Acid, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Diluted Hydrochloric Acid, jifty cubic centi- 
meters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thou- 
sand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix the Diluted Hydrochloric Acid 
with two hundred and jifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 minims] of Distilled Water, 
add the Arsenous Acid, and boil the mixture until all the Arsenous Acid is dissolved. Filter 
the solution, and pass enough Distilled Water through the filter to make the product measure 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix thoroughly.” U. S. 
“ Arsenious Anhydride, in powder, 87\ grains (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Hydrochloric 
Acid, 2 Jl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 12-5 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quan- 
tity. Heat the Arsenious Anhydride and the Hydrochloric Acid with ten fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water in a one-pint (or one-litre) flask 
until a clear solution is obtained ; cool; add sufficient Distilled Water to produce one pint 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Solution.” Br. 
This solution is stronger than the Liquor Arsenici Chloridi of the U. S. P. 1870. It con- 
tains 4-5 grains of arsenous acid in a fluidounce; the U. S. P. 1870 preparation corresponded 
in strength with the old British solution (4 grains in a fluidounce). The increase in strength 
was made in order to make the relation one that would be easy to recollect, namely, 1 per cent, 
by weight, and the British Pharmacopoeia has wisely followed the example, so that both prep- 
arations are practically identical. The name has also been changed, as the former title was a 
misnomer. The hydrochloric acid does not enter into- combination with the arsenous acid ; it 
merely aids in its solution. The British title is, in our opinion, to be preferred, because the 
U. S. name does not indicate the presence of the hydrochloric acid. 
Properties. The hydrochloric solution of arsenous acid was first recognized by the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia at the revision of 1870. According to the British Pharmacopoeia, it is “ A 
colorless liquid having an acid reaction. 25 cubic centimetres diluted with water should dis- 
charge the color of 50-8 to 50-9 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of iodine, the 
presence of a slight excess of sodium bicarbonate being maintained throughout the opera- 
tion. 110 minims contain 1 grain of Arsenious Anhydride ; 100 cubic centimetres contain 
1 gramme.” The following test is given in the U. S. P. 1890: “ If 24-7 C.c. of Solution of 
Arsenous Acid be boiled for a few minutes with 2 Gm. of sodium bicarbonate, the liquid 
cooled, diluted with water to 100 C.c., and mixed with a little starch test solution, it should 
require from 49-4 to 50 C.c. of iodine decinormal volumetric solution to produce the blue tint 
of starch iodide (corresponding to 1 Gm. of arsenous acid in 100 C.c. of the Solution).” 
Medical Properties. The medical properties of this solution are the same as those of 
Fowler’s solution, with which it corresponds in strength, being nearly three times as strong as 
the former London solution of arsenic chloride. Dose, from two to eight minims (0-12-0-5 C.c.). 
LIQUOR ACIDI CHROMICI. Br. Solution of Chromic Acid. 
(LI'QUOR AQ'I-D! jBHRO'MI-CI.) 
“ An aqueous solution containing the equivalent of 25 per cent, of Chromic Anhydride, 
Cr03; or 29-5 per cent, of chromic acid regarded as H2Cr04.” Br. 
“ Chromic Anhydride, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 25 grammes; Distilled Water, 3 Jl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 75 cubic centimetres. Dissolve.” Br. 
This is officially described as “ an orange-red, inodorous, caustic, strongly acid liquid. Spe- 
cific gravity, 1-185. It should respond to the tests described under ‘ Acidum Chromicum.’ ” 
It is simply a definite solution of chromic acid, and will probably be found convenient as a 
caustic application. (See p. 43.) 
LIQUOR AMMONII ACETATIS. U. S., Br. Solution of Ammonium 
Acetate. [Spirit of Mindererus.] 
“An aqueous solution of Ammonium Acetate [NH4C2H302 = 76-87], containing about 7 
per cent, of the salt, together with small amounts of acetic and carbonic acids.” U. S. 
Liquor Ammonias Acetatis; Liquor Ammonii Acetici, P. G.; Acetate d’Ammoniaque liquide, Fr.; Essigsaure 
Ammonium-Losung, G. 
“ Ammonium Carbonate, five grammes [or 77 grains] ; Diluted Acetic Acid, one hundred 
(LI'QUOR AM-MO'NI-I XQ-E-TA'TIS.) Liquor Ammonii Acetatis. 
PART i. 
789 
cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Add the Ammonium Carbonate (which 
should be in translucent pieces, free from white, pulverulent bicarbonate) gradually to the 
cold Diluted Acetic Acid, and stir until it is dissolved. This preparation should be freshly 
made when wanted.” U. S. 
“ Ammonium Carbonate, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Acetic Acid, Distilled Water, 
of each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Ammonium Carbonate in ten times its weight of 
Distilled Water; neutralize with Acetic Acid; add sufficient Distilled Water to produce one 
pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Solution. A little of the Solution, 
heated in a test-tube to expel carbonic anhydride, should be neutral or only slightly acid to 
test-papers. Solution of Ammonium Acetate should be preserved in a green glass bottle.” Br. 
This preparation is an aqueous solution of ammonium acetate.* The U. S. process by which 
it is formed involves the decomposition of ammonium carbonate by dilute acetic acid. The 
formula of commercial ammonium carbonate is complex, but if we consider the salt as 
neutral carbonate, the reaction is expressed by the following equation: (NH4)2C03 -j- 
(C2H302.H)2= (C„H302.NH4)2 -f- H20 -f- C02. Distilled vinegar was formerly used, but it 
has been abandoned for diluted acetic acid, which is much to be preferred, because, besides 
furnishing a solution of the acetate of uniform strength, a result which cannot be attained by 
the employment of distilled vinegar, it avoids the production of a brownish solution, which 
uniformly follows the use of the latter, especially when it has been condensed in a metallic 
worm. The quantity of ammonium carbonate necessary to saturate a given weight of the 
acid of average strength cannot be laid down with precision, on account of the variable 
quality of the salt. The preparation, when made with the diluted acetic acid of the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia, contains about 7 per cent, of ammonium acetate. It is more convenient to 
add the salt to the acid than to add the acid to the salt, as the point of saturation is thus more 
easily attained. In ascertaining this point by test-paper, the alkaline reaction will begin, 
though a portion of free acetic acid may still remain; a little of it being insufficient to over- 
come the natural alkaline reaction of the salt. A complication is caused by the presence of 
free carbonic acid, which may be expelled from the liquid towards the end of the saturation 
by warming it. Supposing it to be free from carbonic acid, the best rule is to cease adding 
the ammonium carbonate upon the occurrence of the least sign of alkalinity. 
The formula of the U. S. P. 1890 differs from that formerly official in dropping what has 
been called the “ mixed solution process.” It is to be regretted that the old process of satu- 
rating the diluted acetic acid with the ammonium carbonate was not entirely abandoned in the 
last revision and the process of mixing the solutions alone directed. The separate solutions keep 
well, and the rapidity and ease with which this preparation can be made by the pharmacist, 
by simply mixing equal measures of the solutions, are advantages which at once recommend 
its exclusive use, whilst the physician is more apt to secure a fresh preparation, and one which 
usually retains a quantity of carbonic acid gas to render the preparation grateful to the patient. 
As some pharmacists will prefer to make solution of ammonium acetate in this way, the 
following process, based on that of the U. S. P. 1880, is offered. Ammonium Carbonate, one 
hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Acetic Acid, two hundred and seventy cubic 
centimeters [or 9 fluidounces, 62 minims] ; Distilled Water, one thousand seven hundred and 
thirty cubic centimeters [or 58 fluidounces, 240 minims]. Dissolve the Ammonium Carbonate 
in nine hundred and'fifty cubic centimeters [or 32 fluidounces, 60 minims] of Distilled Water, 
and filter the solution. To the Acetic Acid add seven hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 
26 fluidounces, 180 minims] of Distilled Water. Keep the solutions in separate, well-stopped 
bottles, and when solution of ammonium acetate is to be dispensed measure equal quantities of 
each solution and mix them. 
The present British process does not differ essentially from ours: in the Br. Pharmacopoeia 
of 1864 the strong solution of ammonia was used instead of the carbonate, and the ammonia 
combined directly with the acetic acid, without other reaction. There was an advantage in 
this process in the use of ammonia instead of its carbonate, as the difficulty of ascertaining the 
precise point of saturation arising from carbonic acid was avoided; but in this solution, as in 
the neutral mixture, a great benefit remedially is gained by the presence of that acid, which 
reconciles the stomach to the medicine, and sometimes even allays vomiting in febrile diseases. 
With this view of the subject it is better to use ammonium carbonate; the change has been 
made in the present Br. Pharmacopoeia, but the advantages are practically lost because the 
* For method of making dry ammonium acetate, see A. J. P., 1875, 25. Liquor Ammonii Acetatis.—Liquor Ammonii Citratis. 
790 
PAET I. 
solution is nearly always made in advance of actual use, and official solution of ammonium 
acetate is rarely sparkling, but as generally dispensed it has a flat, mawkish taste quite in 
contrast with that made by the “ mixed solution process.” 
Properties. Solution of ammonium acetate, when made of pure materials, is “ a clear, 
colorless liquid, free from empyreuma, of a mildly saline, acidulous taste, and an acid reaction. 
It is wholly volatilized by heat. When Solution of Acetate of Ammonium is heated with 
potassium or sodium hydrate, vapor of ammonia is evolved. When heated with sulphuric acid, 
the Solution gives off vapor of acetic acid.” U. S. When it contains an excess of alkali, its 
taste is bitterish. It should be freshly prepared at short intervals, as its acid becomes decom- 
posed and a portion of ammonium carbonate is generated. When pure it is not precipitated 
by barium chloride. Silver nitrate precipitates crystals of silver acetate, soluble in water, and 
especially in nitric acid. An insoluble precipitate with this test is silver chloride, and shows 
the presence of hydrochloric acid. Potassa disengages ammonia; sulphuric acid, acetous 
vapors. When evaporated to dryness, the residue is wholly dissipated by heat, with the smell 
of ammonia. It is incompatible with acids, the fixed alkalies and their carbonates, lime water, 
magnesia, magnesium sulphate, corrosive sublimate, the iron, copper, and zinc sulphates, and 
silver nitrate. When it contains free carbonic acid, it produces with lead acetate or sub- 
acetate a precipitate of lead carbonate, which, being mistaken for the sulphate, has sometimes 
led to the erroneous conclusion that sulphuric acid was present in the distilled vinegar, when 
this has been employed. Ammonium acetate is a salt of difficult crystallization, and very deli- 
quescent. When perfect it probably has an alkaline reaction, like potassium and sodium 
acetates. It may be obtained by sublimation from a mixture of equal parts of dry potassium 
or calcium acetate and ammonium chloride, or, according to Berthelot, by dissolving glacial 
acetic acid in ammonia, keeping the retort cool, and adding enough water to prevent the crys- 
tallization of the salt during the neutralization ; the solution is then evaporated in a current 
of dry, gaseous ammonia until the liquid solidifies on cooling. It is then introduced into a 
large capsule, and this placed upon caustic lime, under a large bell-glass, in which a consider- 
able quantity of ammonia gas is injected. After a few days the crystalline mass is broken, 
and the capsule replaced as before upon lime in an ammoniacal atmosphere, under the bell- 
glass. When this operation has been repeated several times, a perfectly pure ammonium ace- 
tate is obtained, which crystallizes in large needles, like potassium nitrate, and resembling am- 
monium formate; it is extremely soluble in water, and does not possess an acid reaction. (A. 
J. P., 1875, p. 25.) It is formed by the union of one molecule of acetic acid, H.C2Hs02, 
with one group, NH4, from NH4.OH, the hydrate, or (NH4)2C03, the carbonate. When 
evaporated to dryness, however, it readily yields an acid salt, C2Ha02.NH4 -j- C2H402. The 
molecular weight of the normal salt is 77. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Solution of ammonium acetate is a valuable diapho- 
retic, much employed in febrile diseases. If, instead of promoting its determination to the 
skin by external warmth, the patient walk about in a cool air, its action will be directed to the 
kidneys. In large doses, it is said to relieve painful menstruation. It is sometimes used ex- 
ternally as a discutient. Mixed in the quantity of a fluidounce with seven fluidounces of rose- 
water and two fluidrachms of laudanum, it forms a useful collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. 
The late Dr. A. T. Thomson used it as a lotion with good effect in porrigo affecting the scalp. 
The dose is from half a fluidounce to a fluidounce and' a half (15—45 C.c.) every three or four 
hours, mixed with water and sweetened with sugar. It proves sometimes very grateful to 
febrile patients when prescribed with an equal measure of carbonic acid water. 
LIQUOR AMMONII CITRATIS. Br. Solution of Ammonium Citrate. 
Citrate d’Ammoniaque liquide, Fr.; Citronensaure Ammoniak-Fliissigkeit, G. 
“Ammonium Carbonate, 1| ounces (Imperial) or 87-5 grammes or a sufficient quantity; 
Citric Acid, 2£ ounces (Imp.) or 125 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve 
the Citric Acid in five times its weight of Distilled Water; neutralize with Ammonium Car- 
bonate; add sufficient Distilled Water to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic 
centimetres of the Solution. A little of the Solution, heated in a test-tube to expel carbonic 
anhydride, should be neutral or only slightly acid to test-papers. Solution of Ammonium 
Citrate should be preserved in a green glass bottle.” Br. 
This solution may be used for the same purposes as Solution of Ammonium Acetate, in the 
dose of from two to six fluidrachms (7'5-22-5 C.c.). 
(LI'QUOR AM-MO'NI-I CI-TRA'TIS.) PART I. 
Liquor Arseni et Hydrargyri Iodidi.—Liquor Atropinse Sulphatis. 
791 
LIQUOR ARSENI ET HYDRARGYRI IODIDI. U. S. (Br.) Solution of 
Arsenic and Mercuric Iodide. [Donovan’s Solution.] 
Liquor Arsenii et Hydrargyri Iodidi, Br., Solution of Arsenious and Mercuric Iodides; Liquor Arsenici et 
Hydrargyri Iodidi, Br. 1867, V. S. 1870; Solution of Hydriodate of Arsenic and Mercury ; Solutio Donovani; Solut6 
d’lodo-arsenite de Mercure, Liqueur de Donovan, Fr.; Jodquecksilber Arsenik-Losung, Donovan’sche Tropfen, G* 
“ Arsenic Iodide, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Red Mercuric Iodide, ten grammes [or 154 
grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 390 minims]. Powder the Arsenic Iodide, and mix it with the Red Mercuric 
Iodide by trituration. Add one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 35 minims] 
of Distilled Water, and continue the trituration until solution is effected. Filter the solution, 
and pass enough Distilled Water through the filter to make the product measure one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix thoroughly.” U. S. 
“Arsenious Iodide, 87£ grains (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Mercuric Iodide, 87$ grains 
(Imp.) or 10 grammes ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Triturate the Arsenious Iodide 
and Mercuric Iodide with three to four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred and fifty to 
two hundred cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water until nearly all is dissolved ; pass through 
a filter ; wash the latter with sufficient Distilled Water to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one 
thousand cubic centimetres of the Solution. A clear pale yellow liquid with a metallic taste. 
It affords the reactions characteristic of mercuric salts, arsenium, and iodides. 110 minims 
correspond to 1 grain of Arsenious Iodide, Asl3, and to 1 grain of Mercuric Iodide, Hgla ; 100 
cubic centimetres correspond to 1 gramme of each salt.” Br. 
This solution was introduced to the notice of the medical profession in 1839 by Mr. Dono- 
van, of Dublin, as a therapeutic agent combining the medical virtues of its three ingredients, 
and was adopted as an official preparation in the U. S. and Dublin Pharmacopoeias of 1850. 
It was dropped from the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867, but reintroduced in the 1885 revision, 
and fortunately made to correspond in strength with the U. S. preparation,—namely, 1 per 
cent, of each of the active ingredients. The formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is the sim- 
plified one of Prof. Procter, which consists essentially in dissolving equal weights of arsenic 
teriodide and mercuric iodide (red iodide) in a measured quantity of distilled water. The 
change in the quantities of the two salts from the process of the U. S. P. 1870 is very trifling. 
The proportion of equal weights corresponds nearly to single molecules of the component 
iodides. 
Properties. This solution has a pale-yellow color and a slightly styptic taste. Sometimes, 
however, the color is orange-yellow, owing to the presence of free iodine. This may be recom- 
bined by rubbing the solution with a little metallic mercury or arsenic, in fine powder, and the 
proper hue be thus restored. The solution is incompatible with laudanum and the soluble salts 
of morphine. On the supposition that it is an aqueous solution of iodides, it will contain them 
in the proportion of one mol. of arsenic teriodide 456, to one of mercuric iodide 454, which 
are nearly equal weights. The British solution has the sp. gr. 1-016. 
Medical Properties. This preparation has been found decidedly useful as an alterative 
in various diseases of the skin, such as the different forms of psoriasis, impetigo, porrigo, lepra, 
pityriasis, lupus, and venereal eruptions, both papular and scaly. In chronic rheumatism and 
in advanced specific diseases, especially “ night pains," it is often useful. The dose is from five 
to ten drops (0-3—0-6 C.c.) three times a day, given preferably in distilled water. 
(LI'QUOR AR'SE-NI ET HY-DRAR'$Y-RI I-Qd'I-M.) 
LIQUOR ATROPINE SULPHATIS. Br. Solution of Atropine Sulphate. 
(LI'QUOR AT-RO-PI'NiE SUL-PHA'TIS.) 
“Atropine Sulphate, 17? grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Salicylic Acid, 2 grains (Imp.) 
or 0-12 gramme; Distilled Water, 4 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres or a 
* Clemens’8 Solution. Arsenic bromide was introduced as a remedy in diabetes by Clemens. It is best ad- 
ministered in the form of a solution, which has been prepared by Mr. R. F. Fairthorne according to the following 
formula: “ 77 grains of metallic arsenic in powder are added in small portions to 240 grains of bromine, the latter 
being placed in a long test-tube immersed in ice-water to control the otherwise violent reaction. One hundred grains 
of the tribromide obtained are dissolved in sufficient distilled water to make ten fluidounces. One minim will then 
contain one-forty-eighth of a grain.” According to Clemens, the commencing dose of such a solution is one minim 
three times a day, increased gradually until the equivalent of one-fifth of a grain of the salt is daily exhibited. The 
clinical reports in regard to this remedy in diabetes seem to indicate that along with a restricted diet it is occa- 
sionally of distinct service, but in the majority of instances fails to accomplish good. (See, also, Liquor Potassii 
Arseniatis et Bromidi, National Formulary, Part II.) 792 
Liquor Bismuthi et Ammonii Citratis. 
PART I. 
sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Atropine Sulphate and Salicylic Acid in sufficient recently 
boiled and cooled Distilled Water to produce four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred 
cubic centimetres of the solution. 110 minims contain 1 grain of Atropine Sulphate; 100 
cubic centimetres contain 1 gramme.” Br. 
This solution contains 1 per cent, of atropine sulphate. Camphor water was substituted for 
distilled water on account of its antiseptic properties at the 1885 revision. Salicylic acid 
and distilled water are now used (1899) with the same object in view. The dose is one 
minim. 
LIQUOR BISMUTHI ET AMMONII CITRATIS. Br. Solution of 
Bismuth and Ammonium Citrate. 
(LI'QUOR BIS-MC'THI ET AM-MO'NI-I CI-TRA'TIS.) 
Liquor Bismuthi; Solutl de Citrate de Bismuth ammoniacal, Fr.; Citronensaure Wismuth-Ammoniak-Losung, 0. 
“ Bismuth Oxynitrate, 613 grains (Imperial) or 70 grammes; Potassium Citrate, 613 grains 
(Imp.) or 70 grammes; Potassium Carbonate, 175 grains (Imp.) or 20 grammes; Nitric Acid, 
1 Jl. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres; Solution of Ammonia, Distilled Water, of 
each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Bismuth Oxynitrate in the Nitric Acid diluted with 
an equal volume of Distilled Water; add Distilled Water with constant stirring until the 
liquid is very faintly opalescent; add the Potassium Citrate and Carbonate dissolved in a little 
Distilled Water; heat the liquid to the boiling point; cool; separate the precipitate; wash it 
with Distilled Water until free from nitrates. Gradually add Solution of Ammonia to the 
moist precipitate until it is just dissolved ; dilute with Distilled Water to one pint (Imp. meas.) 
or one thousand cubic centimetres ; filter.” Br. 
The British Pharmacopoeia (1898) adopted a new process for this preparation, which is a 
modification of Bartlett’s process. (See below.) An acid solution of bismuth is treated with a 
solution of potassium citrate and potassium carbonate, the precipitate washed and dissolved 
in solution of ammonia, and then diluted with water in proper proportions. (See Bismuthi et 
Ammonii Citras, p. 269.) 
Some years since, a secret preparation was made and sold by Mr. Schacht, of Clifton, Eng- 
land, under the name of Liquor Bismuthi. Mr. Ch. R. C. Tiehborne, having analyzed the 
liquid and found it to contain bismuth oxide, ammonia, and citric acid, announced the dis- 
covery at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, when Mr. Schacht, being present, acknowl- 
edged the correctness of the analysis, stating, at the same time, that he had never made a secret 
of the composition of his solution to medical practitioners, and that a fluidrachm of his liquid 
contained one grain of the teroxide. (P. J. Tr., 1864, p. 301.) A formula for the preparation 
was given by Mr. Tiehborne, which, however, on repeated trial by Mr. N. Gray Bartlett, of 
Chicago, proved to be impracticable. After numerous experiments, Mr. Bartlett succeeded in 
making a solution which had all the desired qualities. (See A. J. P., Jan. 1865.) He first 
prepares a bismuth citrate by dissolving a troy ounce of bismuth subcarbonate in 720 grains 
of nitric acid, diluting the solution after effervescence has ceased with a Jiuidounce and a half 
of distilled water gradually introduced, and then adding this solution, slowly and with constant 
stirring, to another solution made by dissolving 600 grains of potassium citrate in two pints of 
distilled water. By an interchange, potassium nitrate and bismuth citrate are formed, the 
latter of which, being insoluble, is precipitated, and is obtained by throwing the whole -upon 
a filter, thoroughly washing the salt with distilled water, and then drying it on bibulous paper 
with a gentle heat. The next step is to prepare the bismuth and ammonium citrate. This is 
done by rubbing the bismuth citrate with sufficient distilled water to make a paste, and adding 
to this gradually, and with constant trituration, stronger ammonia water until the citrate is 
dissolved, care being taken to avoid an excess of ammonia. The solution is now filtered, and 
spread on glass to dry. 
Various modifications of Mr. Bartlett’s process have been suggested, though it may be 
doubted whether any one, on the whole, is preferable to the original. Besides the processes 
offered by Mr. T. P. Blunt and Mr. Tiehborne, in England, Mr. A. E. Ebert and Prof. Markoe 
have each proposed a modification of Mr. Bartlett’s process. (See A. J. P., 1866, p. 1, and 
1869, p. 151.) In Ebert’s formula the solution of bismuth nitrate is decomposed by caustic 
potassa in the presence of citric acid, instead of the potassium citrate already formed; in 
Markoe’s, crystallized sodium carbonate is substituted for the caustic alkali, to which various 
objections exist. After precipitating the solution of bismuth nitrate to which citric acid has 
been added, with sodium carbonate, washing the precipitate to get rid of the sodium nitrate, PART I. 
Liquor Bismuthi et Ammonii Citratis.—Liquor Calcis. 
793 
and dissolving the residue of the precipitate in ammonia water, Markoe completes the process 
by determining the proportion of bismuth teroxide contained in the solution, and then diluting 
the liquid so that each fluidrachm shall contain one grain of teroxide. For other methods of 
making this solution, see 17th ed. U. S. D., 794. 
The British Pharmacopoeia describes this preparation as “ A colorless solution, with a slightly 
metallic taste. Specific gravity 1-070. Slightly alkaline to test-paper; is freely miscible with 
water; heated with alkalies evolves ammonia, and yields a white precipitate. Evaporated to 
dryness and the product ignited, a residue with a yellow edge results, which when suitably 
treated should not yield any reaction characteristic of silver, lead, copper, arsenium, iron, 
selenium, or tellurium. A mixture of 10 cubic centimetres of the Solution with 40 cubic cen- 
timetres of water, treated with hydrogen sulphide in excess, yields a black precipitate, which, 
when washed and dried, should weigh at least 0-55 gramme. 1 fluid drachm contains an 
amount of bismuth equivalent to about 3 grains, or 1 cubic centimetre the equivalent of 0-05 
gramme, of Bismuth Oxide.” 
Bismuth and ammonium citrate, obtained by Mr. Bartlett’s process, is in fine, glossy, trans- 
lucent, colorless scales, of a slightly acidulous, somewhat metallic, not disagreeable taste, very 
soluble in water, but not deliquescent, and of an acid reaction. (See page 269.) From an 
analysis by Mr. Bartlett, it appears to possess the formula Bi,CeH607,NH3-j- 3HaO. Rother, 
however (1876), considers that the formula should be written C3U507(NH4)3Bi(0H)3. 
There is no occasion for a permanent solution of this salt, as it may at any time be dissolved 
when wanted for use. But, as it is in the liquid form that it has obtained its present reputa- 
tion, we give a formula for a permanent solution prepared by Mr. Bartlett. Dissolve 260 grains 
of bismuth and ammonium citrate in fourteen fluidounces of distilled water, neutralize the solu- 
tion with ammonia water, and add two fluidounces of alcohol. The solution of the salt without 
addition is liable to spontaneous decomposition; but, in the opinion of Mr. Bartlett, it is com- 
pletely protected by the ammonia and alcohol, so that in this state it will keep indefinitely. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This preparation is much more astringent than are the 
insoluble salts of bismuth, and is at the same time irritant, and not possessed of the peculiar 
medical properties which grow out of the insolubility of the subnitrate or subcarbonate. It 
is, therefore, not a substitute for these, and is adapted to the treatment of diarrhoeas of relaxa- 
tion rather than of irritation. Dose of the solution, from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9— 
3-75 C.c.). 
LIQUOR CALCIS. U. S., Br. Solution of Lime. [Solution of Calcium Hydrate. 
Lime Water.] 
(LI'QUOB CAL'CIS.) 
“ A saturated, aqueous solution of Calcium Hydrate [Ca(0H)2 = 73-83]. The percentage 
of Calcium Hydrate varies with the temperature, being somewhat over 0-17 per cent, at 15° C. 
(59° F.), and diminishing as the temperature rises.” IT. S. 
Aqua Calcis; Aqua Calcariae, P. Q.; Eau Liqueur de Chaux, Fr.; Kalkwasser, G. 
“ Lime, twelve grammes [or 185 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Slake the 
Lime by the gradual addition of seventy cubic centimeters [or 2 fluidounces, 176 minims] of 
Distilled Water, then add three hundred and sixty cubic centimeters [or 12 fluidounces, 83 minims] 
more of Distilled Water, and agitate occasionally during half an hour. Allow the mixture to 
settle, decant the liquid and throw it away. Then add to the residue thirty-six hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 121 fluidounces, 350 minims] of Distilled Water, agitate thoroughly, wait a 
short time for the coarser particles to subside, and pour the liquid, holding the undissolved 
Lime in suspension, into a glass-stoppered bottle. From time to time shake the bottle, so as 
to keep the solution saturated. Pour off the clear liquid when it is wanted for use.” U. S. 
“ Calcium Hydroxide, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 50 grammes ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quan- 
tity. Wash the Calcium Hydroxide with Distilled Water until free from chlorides ; then shake 
it with one gallon (Imp. meas.) or four litres of Distilled Water in a stoppered green glass 
bottle for two or three minutes ; set aside for twelve hours. The clear Solution may be drawn 
off with a siphon as it is required for use, and should then be transferred to a green glass 
bottle.” Br. 
A solution of calcium hydrate, Ca(OH)2, in water is the result of these processes. By the 
slaking of the lime it is reduced to powder, and rendered more easily diffusible through the 
water. According to both Pharmacopoeias, the solution is to be kept in bottles with a portion 
of undissolved hydrate, which causes it always to be saturated whatever may be the tempera- 794 
Liquor Calcis.—Liquor Calais Chlorinatse. 
PART I. 
ture and to whatever extent it may be exposed to the air. If care be taken to have a con- 
siderable quantity of the solution in the bottle, and to avoid unnecessary agitation, the upper 
portion will always remain sufficiently clear for use. The employment of distilled water as the 
solvent may seem a useless refinement; but in many places the common water is very impure. 
Water dissolves but a minute proportion of lime, and, contrary to the general law, less when 
hot than when cold. Hence the propriety of employing cold water in the process. According 
to Mr. Phillips, a pint of water (the wine pint of the U. S. P. 1870) at 212° F. dissolves 5-6 
grains of lime, at 60° F. 9-7 grains, and at 32° F. IPO grains. For Green’s automatic device 
for dispensing lime water in excellent condition, see Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 474. 
Properties. Lime water is “ a clear, colorless liquid, without odor, and having a saline 
and feebly caustic taste. It absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, so that a pellicle of calcium 
carbonate forms on the surface of the liquid. On being heated, it becomes turbid from sepa- 
ration of calcium hydrate, which redissolves again when the liquid is cooled. It gives a strongly 
alkaline reaction with litmus paper. The alkaline reaction of the Solution should entirely dis- 
appear, after it has been saturated with carbon dioxide, and subsequently boiled (absence of 
alkalies and their carbonates'). In other respects it should conform to the reactions and tests 
given under Lime (see Calx). 50 C.c. of Solution of Lime should require, for complete neu- 
tralization, about 20 C.c. of oxalic acid decinormal volumetric solution (corresponding to about 
0-14 (0-148) per cent, of Calcium Hydrate), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. 
Exposed to the air it attracts carbonic acid, and becomes covered with a pellicle of insoluble 
calcium carbonate, which, subsiding after a time, is replaced by another, and so on successively 
till the whole of the lime is exhausted. Hence the necessity of keeping lime water either in 
closely-corked bottles which should be full, or, what is more convenient, in bottles with an ex- 
cess of lime. “24 cubic centimetres should require for neutralization 10 cubic centimetres of 
the decinormal volumetric solution of sulphuric acid. It should yield no characteristic reaction 
with the tests for lead or for chlorides. 1 fluid ounce contains the equivalent of about § grain, 
or 1000 cubic centimetres rather more than 1 gramme, of Lime, CaO.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Lime water is antacid, tonic, and astringent, and is 
very usefully employed in dyspepsia with acidity of stomach, diarrhoea, diabetes, and gravel 
attended with superabundant secretion of uric acid. Mixed with an equal measure of milk, 
which completely covers its offensive taste, it is one of the best remedies in our possession for 
nausea and vomiting dependent on irritability of stomach. We have found a diet exclusively 
of lime water and milk to be more effectual than almost any other plan of treatment in dys- 
pepsia accompanied with vomiting of food. In this case one part of the solution to two or 
three parts of milk is usually sufficient. Externally it is employed as a wash in tinea capitis 
and scabies, as an application to foul and gangrenous ulcers, as an injection in leucorrhoea and 
ulceration of the bladder or urethra, and, mixed with linseed or olive oil, as a liniment in burns 
and scalds. Having been found to possess the property of dissolving false membrane, it has 
naturally been employed as a local remedy in pseudo-membranous croup. There are two methods 
of applying the remedy: one by directing lime water spray, produced by the atomizer, so that 
it shall be inhaled by the patient; the other by causing the patient to inhale freely the vapors 
arising from lime undergoing the process of slaking with water. The dose of lime water is 
from two to four fluidounces (60—118 C.c.) several times a day. When employed to allay 
nausea, it is usually given in the dose of a tablespoonful mixed with the same quantity of milk, 
and repeated at intervals of half an hour, an hour, or two hours. If too long continued it 
debilitates the stomach. The urine of persons who take large quantities of lime water is often 
alkaline, and sometimes distinctly ammoniacal. According to the researches of John J. Abel, 
this is due to the presence in the urine of calcium carbamate, which is prone to undergo am- 
moniacal disintegration. 
LIQUOR CALCIS CHLORINATE. Br. Solution of Chlorinated Lime. 
(Li'QUOR CXL'CIS fJHLO-RI-NA'TiE.) 
Chlorure de Chaux liquide, Fr./ Chlorkalk-FIussigkeit, O. 
“ Chlorinated Lime, 1 pound (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Distilled Water, 1 gallon (Imp. 
meas.) or 5 litres. Mix ; transfer the mixture to a stoppered bottle : set aside for three hours, 
shaking occasionally; filter through calico. Preserve the filtrate in a stoppered bottle in a 
cool, dark place.” Br. 
For the properties and uses of this preparation, see Calx Chlorinata. The British Pharma- 
copoeia gives the following test of its strength : “ Specific gravity about 1-055. Each gramme PART I. 
Liquor Calumbse Concentratus.—Liquor Chiratse Concentratus. 
795 
mixed with 0 5 gramme of potassium iodide dissolved in water, when acidulated with 1 cubic 
centimetre of hydrochloric acid, gives a brownish-red solution which requires for the discharge 
ot its color not less than 5-6 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sodium thiosulphate, 
corresponding to 2 per cent, of available chlorine. The Solution should yield, when fresh, 
about 3 per cent, of available chlorine.” This determines its strength in chlorine, by deter- 
mining the quantity of iodine which the chlorine contained in it is capable of separating from 
potassium iodide. Notwithstanding, however, that a test of its character is thus given by the 
Pharmacopoeia, its strength must vary according to the quality of the chlorinated lime em- 
ployed. It is one of the best antidotes for hydrogen sulphide, ammonium sulphydrate, potas- 
sium sulphide, and hydrocyanic acid. The dose for internal use is from twenty minims to a 
fluidrachm (1-23—3 69 C.c.). For external application the solution may be diluted with twice 
its bulk of water, or may be used of the full strength in some cutaneous affections. 
LIQUOR CALUMBA CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution 
of Calumba. 
(LI'QUOK CA-LUM'BjE CftN-CEN-TRA'TUS.) 
“ Calumba Root, in No. 5 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes ; Alcohol (90 per 
cent.), 4| fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 225 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, 20 fl. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 1000 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Macerate the Calumba for twenty- 
four hours with ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled 
Water; press strongly; again macerate the residue for twenty-four hours with ten fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water; press strongly. Mix the 
expressed liquids, and heat for five minutes to 180° F. (82-2° C.). When cold add the Alcohol; 
set aside ; decant or filter, adding sufficient Distilled Water to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) 
or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Concentrated Solution.” Br. 
This is a new preparation of the British Pharmacopoeia. It should, in our opinion, be 
named “ Infusum Calumbse Concentratum,” as it is nothing more than a concentrated infusion, 
preserved with alcohol, and intended to be used by the pharmacist for the quick preparation 
of the infusion of calumba by dilution with water. It is ten times as strong as the ordinary 
infusion. The dose is from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9 to 3-75 C.c.). 
LIQUOR CAOUTCHOUC. Br. Solution of India-rubber. 
“ India-rubber, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Benzol, 10 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 
500 cubic centimetres ; Carbon Bisulphide, 10 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 500 cubic centimetres. 
Cut the India-rubber into fine shreds, and place it in a well-stoppered bottle containing the 
previously mixed Benzol and Carbon Bisulphide. Set aside in a cool place, and agitate occa- 
sionally until solution is effected.” Br. 
This solution is an improvement on the solution of gutta-percha formerly official; it was 
introduced into the Br. Pharm. (1898) mainly for use in the preparation of mustard paper. 
It may be used like collodion as an external protective application. 
(LI'QUOR CAOUT'CHOUC.) 
LIQUOR CHIRATAE CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution of 
Chiretta. 
“ Chiretta, in No. 40 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Alcohol (20 per cent.), 
25 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1250 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Moisten the 
Chiretta with five fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of the 
Alcohol; pack in a closed percolator; set aside for three days ; percolate with the remaining 
Alcohol, added in ten equal portions at intervals of twrelve hours; continue percolation with 
more Alcohol until the product measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centi- 
metres.” Br. 
This is a “ concentrated” infusion of the Br. Ph. (1898), intended to be used by the pharma- 
cist for making the ordinary infusion of chiretta by dilution with water. It is twenty times 
as strong as the infusion of chiretta (Br. Ph., 1885). The dose is from one-half to one 
fluidrachm (P9 to 3-75 C.c.). 
(Ll'QUOR eill-RA'TzE c5N-GEN-TRA'TCtS.) 796 
Liquor Cuspariae Concentratus.—Liquor Ethyl Nitritis. 
PART I. 
LIQUOR CUSPARI® CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution 
of Cusparia. 
(LI'QUOR CON-CfiN-TRA'TUS.) 
“ Cusparia Bark, in No. 40 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Alcohol (20 per 
cent.), 25 ji. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1250 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Moisten 
the Cusparia with Jive Jiuid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of 
the Alcohol; pack in a closed percolator; set aside for three days ; percolate with the remain- 
ing Alcohol, added in ten equal portions at intervals of twelve hours; continue percolation 
with more Alcohol until the product measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic 
centimetres.” Br. 
This is a concentrated infusion of the Br. Pharm. 1898, intended to be used by the 
pharmacist for making infusion of cusparia by dilution with water. It is ten times as strong 
as the infusion of cusparia (Br. Pharm. 1885). The dose is from one-half to one fluidrachm 
(1-9 to 3-75 C.c.). 
LIQUOR EPISPASTICUS. Br. Blistering Liquid. 
Linimentum Cantharidis ; Huile de Cantharides t6r6benthin6e, FrSpanischfliegen-Liniment, G. 
“ Cantharides, in No. 20 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Acetic Ether, a 
sufficient quantity. Mix the Cantharides with five fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred 
and fifty cubic centimetres of Acetic Ether; pack in a percolator ; at the expiration of twenty- 
four hours pour Acetic Ether over the contents of the percolator; allow the solution to pass 
slowly through until one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Liquid is 
obtained. This preparation is twice the strength of the Blistering Liquid of the British 
Pharmacopoeia of 1885.” Br. This liquid is used in making the British Blistering Collodion. 
(See p. 439.)* 
(LI'QUOR fip-i-srXs'Ti-cus.) 
LIQUOR ETHYL NITRITIS. Br. Solution of Ethyl Nitrite. 
(LI'QUOR E'THYL NI-TRI'TIS.) 
“ A mixture of ninety-five parts by volume of Absolute Alcohol with five parts by volume 
of Glycerin, containing when freshly made 3 per cent, by weight, and even when long kept 
not less than per cent, by weight of ethyl nitrite. The ethyl nitrite is obtained by the 
interaction of alcohol (90 per cent.), sodium nitrite, and diluted sulphuric acid, at a low tem- 
perature.” Br. 
This is a new official preparation of the Br. Ph. 1898; it might be called improved spirit 
of nitrous ether. It is difficult to explain the reason for its introduction without the dismissal 
of spirit of nitrous ether; the strength is very slightly greater than that of the spirit, and a choice 
should have been made between them. The addition of glycerin as a preservative, and the 
substitution of absolute alcohol for rectified spirit, are relied upon to make a permanent solu- 
tion. This method was proposed by Dunston and Dymond (P. J. Tr., 1888, 861), who believe 
that ethyl nitrite is the sole valuable constituent in spirit of nitrous ether; glycerin prevents 
loss of the very volatile ethyl nitrite, whilst the absence of water is secured by the use of 
absolute alcohol, water in the alcohol being shown to be the-principal cause of decomposi- 
tion and loss of ethyl nitrite. Solution of ethyl nitrite was strongly recommended by Prof. 
Leech, and the advantage claimed for it is that it is free from aldehyde. The increased cost, 
due to the use of absolute alcohol, will be apt to prevent the extensive use of the Solution. 
It is described as “ A limpid liquid, practically colorless, of characteristic apple-like odor and 
taste. It is highly inflammable. Specific gravity 0-823 to 0-826. When Solution of Ethyl 
Nitrite is poured on an acidulated strong solution of ferrous sulphate contained in a test-tube, 
a deep olive-brown coloration is produced at the surface of contact of the two liquids, widen- 
ing as the tube is gently shaken. The Solution should not effervesce when shaken carefully 
with sodium bicarbonate (absence of acid). 10 cubic centimetres, mixed with 5 cubic centi- 
* Very nearly corresponding to this preparation is the Linimentum Cantharidis, or Cantharides Liniment, of the 
TJ. S. P. 1880. Made according to the formula, it is a very active counter-irritant, when too freely applied producing 
deep vesication. “ Cantharides, in No. 60 powder, fifteen parts [or one ounce av.] ; Oil of Turpentine, a sufficient 
quantity, To make one hundred parts [or half a pint]. Digest the Cantharides with one hundred parts [or half a 
pint] of Oil of Turpentine, in a closed vessel, by means of a water-bath, for three hours; then gtrain and add enough 
Oil of Turpentine through the strainer to make the Liniment weigh one hundred parts [or measure half a pint.]” 
U, S. 1880. PART i. 
Liquor Fern Acetatis. 
797 
metres of the volumetric solution of sodium hydroxide and 5 cubic centimetres of water, should 
not assume a yellow color (absence of aldehyde). 1 volume, agitated briskly at intervals 
during five minutes in a brine-charged nitrometer with 1 volume of solution of potassium 
iodide and 1 volume of dilated sulphuric acid, should yield, at the ordinary temperature (60° 
F. or 15-5° C.) and pressure (30 inches or 760 millimetres of mercury), and when freshly 
prepared, at least 7-6 volumes of nitric oxide gas; and even after the Solution has been kept 
for some time, and the vessel containing it has occasionally been opened, it should possess at 
least five-sixths of the strength just indicated. Solution of Ethyl Nitrite should be stored in 
small bottles.” Br. This preparation affords a means of giving ethyl nitrite internally. The 
dose is from twenty to sixty minims (1-25 to 3-75 C.c.). (See Spiritus jFtheris Nitrosi.) 
LIQUOR FERRI ACETATIS. U. S., Br. Solution of Ferric Acetate. 
(LI'QUOR FkR'RI XQ-E-TA'TIS.) 
“ An aqueous solution of Ferric Acetate [Fe2(C2H302)6 = 464-92], containing about 31 per 
cent, of the anhydrous salt, and corresponding to about 7-5 per cent, of metallic iron.” U. S. 
Solution of Acetate of Iron; Solution of Peracetate of Iron; Liquor Ferri Acetici, P. 0.; Liqueur d’Acetate de 
Fer, Fr.; Easigsaure Eisen-Fliissigkeit, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains] ; Glacial 
Acetic Acid, two hundred and sixty grammes [or 9 ounces av., 75 grains] ; Ammonia Water, 
eight hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 28 fluidounces, 356 minims] ; Water, Distilled 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. 
Mix the Ammonia Water with three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 213 minims] 
of cold Water, and the solution of Ferric Sulphate with ten thousand cubic centimeters [or 338 
fluidounces, 70 minims] of cold Water. Add the latter solution slowly to the diluted Ammonia 
Water, stirring constantly. Let the mixture stand until the precipitate has subsided as far as 
practicable, and then decant the supernatant liquid. Add to the precipitate six thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 202 fluidounces, 426 minims] of boiling Water, mix well, and again set the 
mixture aside, as before. Repeat the washing with successive portions of boiling Water, in the 
same manner, until the washings are no longer affected by sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution 
(showing the removal of ammonia and its salts). Transfer the mixture to a wet muslin 
strainer, allow the precipitate to drain completely, and press it, folded in the strainer, until its 
weight is reduced to seven hundred grammes [or 24 ounces av., 303 grains] or less. Now add 
the precipitate gradually to the Glacial Acetic Acid contained in a tared jar provided with a 
glass stopper, stirring the mixture after each addition until each portion added is nearly dis- 
solved before adding another portion. Finally, add enough Distilled Water to make the 
product weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains], mix thoroughly, allow it 
to become clear by subsidence, and decant the clear solution. Keep the product in well- 
stoppered bottles, in a cool place, protected from light.” U. S. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, 2 \ fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 125 cubic centimetres; 
Solution of Ammonia, 4 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 200 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quan- 
tity ; Glacial Acetic Acid, liquefied, 1£fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 75 cubic centimetres; Dis- 
tilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Solution of Ammonia with one pint (Imp. meas.) 
or one litre of Distilled Water; gradually add to this the Solution of Ferric Suljffiate 
diluted with one pint (Imp. meas.) or one litre of Distilled Water; stir well together, taking 
care that ammonia is, even finally, in slight excess, as indicated by the odor of the mixture ; let 
the whole stand for two hours, stirring occasionally ; transfer it to a calico filter; wash the pre- 
cipitated ferric hydroxide with Distilled Water until free from sulphates ; let it drain ; squeeze 
it to remove superfluous moisture; dissolve it in the Glacial Acetic Acid; make the volume 
up to one pint (Imp. meas.) or one litre with Distilled Water; allow any insoluble matter to 
subside ; pour off the clear Solution.” Br. 
The formula of this preparation is practically identical with that of the solution of iron 
acetate of the German Pharmacopoeia. The U. S. and British processes consist in first form- 
ing ferric hydrate, by precipitating a solution of ferric sulphate with ammonia water, washing 
and draining the precipitate, and finally dissolving it in glacial acetic acid. The solution is 
readily effected in the cold, and no heat whatever should be used, to avoid decomposition. 
It is impossible to prevent change, however, by time, an insoluble precipitate invariably 
making its appearance. The German Pharmacopoeia directs diluted acetic acid; and its 
Liquor Ferri Subacetici is not so strong as our official solution, having only the sp. gr. 1-087 
to 1091, corresponding to 5 per cent, of iron. The British preparation (sp. gr. 1-031) is still 798 
Liquor Ferri AcetcUis.—Liquor Fern Chloridi. 
PART I. 
weaker. The strong solution of acetate of iron (Br. Ph. 1885) is no longer official. (See 
U. S. jD., 17th ed., 798.) 
Properties. The official solution is described as “ a dark reddish-brown, clear liquid, of 
an acetous odor, a sweetish, acidulous, somewhat styptic taste, and a slightly acid reaction. 
Specific gravity, about 1-160 at 15° C. (59° F.). The diluted Solution yields a brownish-red 
precipitate with ammonia water, and a blue one with potassium ferrocyanide test-solution. 
When heated to boiling, the Solution yields a brownish-red precipitate, and when heated with 
sulphuric acid, it emits acetous vapors. If the iron be completely precipitated from a portion 
of the Solution by an excess of ammonia water, the filtrate should be colorless, and should not 
yield a white or dark-colored precipitate with hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of zinc 
or copper), nor should it leave a residue on evaporation and gentle ignition (absence of salts 
of the fixed alkalies'). If to a small portion of the Solution, diluted with about 10 volumes 
of water, a few drops of freshly prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution he added, a pure 
brown color should be produced, without a tinge of green or greenish-blue (absence of ferrous 
salt). If 1-12 (1-1176) Gm. of the Solution be introduced into a glass-stoppered bottle (having 
a capacity of about 100 C.c.), together with 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, 
and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at 
a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test- 
solution, it should require about 15 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution 
to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution in- 
dicating 0-5 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. “ A red liquid with a sour styptic taste and 
acetous odor, miscible with water and alcohol (90 per cent.) in all proportions. It affords the 
reactions characteristic of ferric salts and of acetates. It should not yield any characteristic 
reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, zinc, calcium, sodium, potassium, ammonium, 
nitrates, or ferrous salts, and only very slight reactions with the tests for sulphates. Specific 
gravity 1031.” Br. 
Medical Properties. Ferric Acetate is an excellent chalybeate: this strong solution is 
not, however, quite so well adapted for internal administration as is the Tincture of Ferric 
Acetate or the Solution of Iron and Ammonium Acetate. Although it was introduced for the 
purpose of making the former preparation, it may be serviceable when mixed with water, with 
the addition of an aromatic syrup. The dose is from two to ten minims (0-12-0-6 C.c.). 
LIQUOR FERRI CHLORIDI. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Ferric Chloride. 
“ An aqueous solution of Ferric Chloride [Fe2Cl6 = 323-98], containing about 37-8 percent, 
of the anhydrous salt, corresponding to 62-9 per cent, of the crystallized salt [Fe2Cle -j- 12H20 = 
539-5], or to about 13 per cent, of metallic iron.” XJ. S. 
Liquor Ferri Perchloridi Fortis, Br., Strong Solution of Ferric Chloride, Solution of Chloride of Iron; Liquor 
Ferri Sesquichlorati, P. G.; Solute de Perchlorure de Fer, Chlorure ferrique liquide, Fr.; Fliissiges Eisenchlorid, G. 
“ Iron, in the form of fine, bright wire, and cut into small pieces, one hundred and fifty 
grammes [or 5 ounces av., 127 grains] ; Hydrochloric Acid, eight hundred and seventy grammes 
[or 30 ounces av., 301 grains] ; Nitric Acid, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To 
make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Introduce the Iron Wire into a 
flask having a capacity of about two thousand cubic centimeters [or 67 fluidounces, 302 min- 
ims], pour upon it a mixture of five hundred and forty grammes [or 19 ounces av., 21 grains] 
of Hydrochloric Acid and two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 8 fluidounces, 218 min- 
ims] of Distilled Water, and let the mixture stand in a moderately warm place until effer- 
vescence ceases; then heat it to the boiling point, filter it through paper, and, having rinsed 
the flask and Iron Wire with a little hot Distilled Water, pass the rinsings through the filter. 
To the filtered liquid add two hundred and eighty grammes [or 9 ounces av., 384 grains] of 
Hydrochloric Acid, add the mixture slowly and gradually, in a stream, to eighty grammes [or 
2 ounces av., 360 grains] of Nitric Acid contained in a capacious porcelain vessel, and warm 
gently. After effervescence ceases, apply heat, by means of a sand-bath, until the liquid is 
free from nitrous odor. Then test a few drops of the liquid, diluted with water, with freshly 
prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution. Should this reagent produce a blue color, add 
a little more Nitric Acid, drop by drop, as long as effervescence is observed, and evaporate off 
the excess. Finally, add the remaining fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] of Hydro- 
chloric Acid and enough Distilled Water to make the solution weigh one thousand grammes 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains].” U. S. 
(Lf'QUOR FER'RI (SHLO'RI-DI.) PART i. 
Liquor Ferri Chloridi. 
799 
“ Iron, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 80 grammes ; Hydrochloric Acid, 20\ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 410 cubic centimetres; Nitric Acid, 1 \ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 30 cubic centimetres; 
Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Place the Iron in a flask; add a mixture of twelve and a 
half fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of Hydrochloric Acid 
and seven ifl uid~\ ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred and forty cubic centimetres of Distilled 
Water ; expose to a moderate temperature until effervescence ceases ; then boil; filter from 
undissolved Iron; rinse the flask and contents with a little Distilled Water; pour the rinsings 
over the filter; add to the filtrate seven fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred and forty 
cubic centimetres of Hydrochloric Acid; mix; pour the solution in a slow continuous stream into 
the Nitric Acid, chemical action being promoted if necessary by the application of slight heat; 
evaporate the product until no more nitrous fumes escape and a precipitate begins to form ; add 
one fluid ounce (Imp. meas.) or twenty cubic centimetres of Hydrochloric Acid, and sufficient 
Distilled Water to produce seventeen and a half fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or three hundred 
and fifty cubic centimetres of the Solution.” Br. (See Liquor Ferri Perchloridi, p. 804.) 
By the reaction between the hydrochloric acid and the iron, ferrous chloride is produced, which 
by the subsequent agency of the hydrochloric and nitric acids is converted into ferric chloride, 
or, as it is denominated in the British Pharmacopoeia, perchloride of iron, this being retained 
in solution by the water with the excess of acid. This preparation was included in the origi- 
nal British Pharmacopoeia, but was not official with us until 1870. The original British 
formula (1864) was defective in several respects. For an account of these see the 13th edition 
of this book. The formula for the present British solution has been modelled after that of the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
When iron is treated with hydrochloric acid there is a copious evolution of hydrogen, and 
an emerald-green solution of ferrous chloride (FeCl2) results. Green crystals having the com- 
position FeCl2,4HaO separate if the solution is permitted to rest. In the official process, water 
is added to the hydrochloric acid in order to retain the crystals in solution, and the mixture is 
heated whilst still in contact with the excess of iron, in order to hasten the complete conver- 
sion of all the hydrochloric acid into ferrous chloride. The action slackens very materially 
as the quantity of hydrochloric acid is gradually lessened in the mixture, but when it is 
brought, as officially directed, to the boiling point, a saturated solution is produced. After fil- 
tering from the excess of iron, half the original quantity of hydrochloric acid is added,—this 
for the purpose of supplying the amount which is requisite to form the solution of ferric 
chloride,—and the mixture is then gradually poured into nitric acid, which at once converts the 
solution of green ferrous chloride into the solution of red ferric chloride. Formerly the nitric 
acid was added to the solution; now the order is reversed, in accordance with the recommen- 
dation of Prof. C. L. Diehl, to prevent frothing. (See A. J. P., 1867, p. 140.) The reaction 
may be thus expressed : 
6FeCl2 -f- 2HN0g + 6HC1 = 3Fe2Cl6 + N202 + 4H20. 
Ferrous 
chloride. 
Nitric 
acid. 
Hydrochloric 
acid. 
Ferric 
chloride. 
Nitrogen 
dioxide. 
Water. 
If the solution should have a blackish color, and not a clear ruby-red, it is due to the pres- 
ence of a nitro-compound composed of a portion of ferrous chloride and nitrogen dioxide, 
FeCl2 -j- N202. As this compound is easily decomposed, all that is necessary is to heat the 
liquid and add a few drops of nitric acid, when the blackish color soon disappears, nitrogen 
dioxide is liberated, and a ruby-red solution remains. Any excess of nitric acid is to be evap- 
orated away* The final addition of hydrochloric acid is to compensate for any loss which may 
* The use of chlorine instead of nitric acid for converting the ferrous chloride to the ferric condition is advo- 
cated by C. W. Weisse (Pharm. Zeitung; N. B., 1883, p. 247), and Mr. J. W. England has devised the following 
process, based upon such substitution, which is alleged to furnish a purer product: 
“Take of Iron, in the form of fine wire, and cut in small pieces, 15 parts (3| oz. av.); Hydrochloric Acid, 59 
parts (14f oz. av.); Chlorine Gas, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity to make 100 parts (25 oz. av.). Place 
the Iron Wire in a capacious flask, and pour upon it 54 parts oz. av.) of Hydrochloric Acid, previously diluted 
with 25 parts (6J oz. av., or 6 fluidounces) of Distilled Water. Heat the liquid slowly, until the reaction is ended, 
and effervescence ceases; then rapidly heat to the boiling point, filter through paper, and, having rinsed the flask 
and residue with a little boiling distilled water, pass the washings through the filter. To the filtrate add immedi- 
ately 5 parts (1£ oz. av.) of Hydrochloric Acid, followed by the addition of 20 parts (5 oz. av.) of boiling Distilled 
Water. Keep the liquid nearly boiling, and pass through it a stream of gaseous chlorine (generated in the usual 
way), agitating occasionally, until a small portion, tested with freshly-prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution, 
gives no indication of the existence of a ferrous compound by producing a blue precipitate. Lastly, add, after any 
free chlorine present has been removed by heat, sufficient distilled water to make the whole product weigh 100 parts 
(25 oz. av.).” (A. J. P., 1885, p. 113.) Mr. August Drescher (Drug. Circ., 1887, p. 4) proposes the use of hydrogen 
dioxide (H2O2), now an article of commerce, as a substitute for either nitric acid or chlorine. 800 
Liquor Ferri Chloridi. 
part I. 
have been suffered by heating the solution, and to secure an excess of the acid in the finished 
preparation; otherwise a reddish-brown deposit of oxychloride would gradually form, and pre- 
cipitation would result upon dilution with alcohol in making the official tincture. 
The solution of ferric chloride, properly made, is “ a reddish-brown liquid, having a faint 
odor of hydrochloric acid, an acid, strongly styptic taste, and an acid reaction. Specific gravity, 
about 1-387 at 15° C. (59° F.). The diluted Solution yields a brownish-red precipitate with 
ammonia water, a blue one with potassium ferrocyanide test-solution, and a white one, insolu- 
ble in nitric acid, with silver nitrate test-solution. If the iron be completely precipitated from 
a portion of the Solution by an excess of ammonia water, the filtrate should be colorless, and 
should not yield a white or a dark-colored precipitate with hydrogen sulphide test-solution 
(absence of zinc or copper) ; nor should it leave a fixed residue on evaporation and gentle igni- 
tion (absence of salts of the fixed alkalies'). On adding a clear crystal of ferrous sulphate to 
a cooled mixture of equal volumes of concentrated sulphuric acid and a moderately dilute 
portion of the Solution, the crystal should not become colored brown, nor should there be a 
brownish-black color developed around it (absence of nitric acid). If to a diluted portion of 
the Solution a few drops of freshly prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution be added, a 
pure brown color should be produced, without a tinge of green or greenish-blue (absence of 
ferrous salt). On diluting 1 C.c. of the Solution, with water, to 40 C.c., and boiling, the liquid 
should remain clear (absence of oxychloride). If 1-12 (T1176) Gm. of the Solution be intro- 
duced into a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.), together with 15 
C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium 
iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then 
cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require about 26 C.c. of 
sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of 
the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 0-5 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. 
Water and alcohol unite with it in all proportions. The British preparation is stronger than 
the U. S. official, the sp. gr. of the former being 1-420, of the latter 1-387. “An orange- 
brown solution with a strong styptic taste, miscible with water and alcohol in all proportions. 
It affords the reactions characteristic of ferric salts and chlorides, and should not yield any 
characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, zinc, calcium, sodium, potas- 
sium, ammonium, nitrates, or ferrous salts. Specific gravity about 1-42. 5 cubic centimetres 
of it diluted with 80 cubic centimetres of water should give, upon the addition of an excess 
of solution of ammonia, a reddish-brown precipitate, which, when well washed and incinerated, 
weighs T6 grammes. 110 minims contain 22| grains of Iron ; 100 cubic centimetres contain 
22-5 grammes.” Br. 
From the experiments of M. Adrian it appears that sugar has the property when mixed in 
certain proportions with solution of ferric chloride of converting it partly into ferrous chlo- 
ride. The alteration commences immediately on the addition of sugar, a« shown by the deeper 
color of the liquid; after some hours potassium ferricyanide will indicate the presence of a 
ferrous salt; and after twenty-four hours the greater proportion of the ferric salt has under- 
gone the change.* (Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ., March, 1868.) (See Liquor Ferri Protochloridi, 
Part II., National Formulary.) 
Medical Uses. This preparation was brought prominently into notice by M. Pravaz, a 
surgeon of Lyons, who found that a few drops of a strong solution, injected into a blood-ves- 
sel, produced coagulation of all the blood in the vessel for the extent of an inch or more. Its 
use as a styptic was the natural result of this observation. In this capacity it has been used 
in the cure of varices, and has even been recommended as an injection in ordinary aneurisms. 
In arresting hemorrhages from cut surfaces or wounded vessels it has proved remarkably sue- 
* The solution of ferric chloride, when kept, has a disposition to deposit the insoluble oxychloride of iron, and the 
resulting excess of hydrochloric acid is injuriously irritating. To obviate this disadvantage, M. Burin du Buisson 
recommends the following mode of preparation. “ Saturate as quickly as possible pure and colorless hydrochloric 
acid with [gelatinous] hydrated ferric oxide; evaporate the solution to somewhat less than one-half over a gentle 
fire; and then continue the evaporation by means of the salt-bath, taking care to remove the aqueous vapors, which 
would cause the formation of hydrochloric acid, and a deposition of insoluble oxychloride. When the solution has 
attained the consistence of thick syrup (in which state it curdles on cooling, without, however, becoming a solid 
mass), cease evaporating, add an excess of the gelatinous hydrate diluted with a little water, agitate for a quarter 
of an hour, and afterwards allow the liquor to rest for several hours. Next add distilled water sufficient to bring 
the solution to the density of 30° Baume, and allow it to stand for eight days in contact with an excess of the hy- 
drate ; after which filter, and again allow it to stand for two weeks.” This strength of the solution is required for 
the cure of varices. For injection into aneurismal tumors it is sufficient to employ a solution of 20° or even 15°. 
These degrees of Baume are equivalent—30° to 29-70 per cent, of the dry salt. 20° to 17-05 per cent., and 15° to 12T0 
per cent. (See Ferri Chloridum, U. S., page 607.) PART I. 
Liquor Ferri Chlondi.—Liquor Ferri Citratis. 
801 
cessful. It has also been found advantageous as an application to nasal polypi, erectile tumors, 
or nsevi materni in infants, in idcers about the nails, and in various cutaneous affections. (See 
Ferric Chloride.') Attempts have been made to cure nsevi materni by the injection of the so- 
lution into the erectile tumor; but this proceeding is hazardous: a fatal result is recorded as 
having occurred in an infant a month old. Five drops of the solution, introduced into the 
centre of the tumor, were followed instantly by a sharp cry, a brief convulsion, and death. 
(Ann. de Therap., 1867, p. 117.) Several other similar cases have occurred. Injection of it 
in cystic goitre has been strongly recommended by Dr. Morell Mackenzie (London Lancet, May 
11, 1872), and has also been practised with advantage by some other surgeons. It has been 
used externally with asserted success in varicose veins. It may be used internally, properly 
diluted, for the general purposes of chalybeates, and especially as a substitute for the tincture 
of ferric chloride, when the alcohol of that preparation is objectionable. For ordinary pur- 
poses the dose is from two to ten minims (0-12—0-6 C.c.). In post-partum hemorrhage it has 
been largely employed, a solution of it, varying in strength from a drachm to a half-ounce 
to the pint, being thrown directly into the relaxed uterus. It is used in the preparation of 
the tincture of ferric chloride. 
LIQUOR FERRI CITRATIS. U. S. Solution of Ferric Citrate. 
(LI'QUOR FER'Rl Cl-TRA'TIS.) 
“ An aqueous solution of Ferric Citrate, corresponding to about 75 per cent, of metallic 
iron.” U. S. 
Solution of Citrate of Iron; Liquor Ferri Citrici; Citrate de Fer liquide, Fr.; Fliissiges Eisencitrat, G. 
“ Solution of Ferric Sulphate, one thousand and fifty grammes [or 37 ounces av., 16 grains] ; 
Citric Acid, three hundred grammes [or 10 ounces av., 255 grains] ; Ammonia Water, eight 
hundred and eighty cubic centimeters [or 29 fluidounces, 363 minims] ; Water, a sufficient quan- 
tity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Mix the Ammonia 
Water with three thousand cubic centimeters [or 101 fluidounces, 213 minims] of cold Water, 
and the Solution of Ferric Sulphate with ten thousand cubic centimeters [or 338 fluidounces, 
70 minims] of cold Water. Add the latter solution slowly to the diluted Ammonia Water, 
with constant stirring. Pour the mixture on a wet muslin strainer, and allow the liquid to 
run off and the precipitate to drain. Then remove the moist mass from the strainer, mix it 
well with six thousand cubic centimeters [or 202 fluidounces, 426 minims] of cold Water, again 
pour it on the strainer, and let it drain. Repeat this washing with several successive portions 
of cold Water in the same manner, until the washings cease to produce more than a slight 
cloudiness with barium chloride test-solution. Then allow the precipitate to drain completely, 
transfer it to a porcelain capsule, add the Citric Acid, and heat the mixture, on a water-bath, 
to 60° C. (140° F.), stirring constantly, until the precipitate is dissolved. Lastly, filter the 
liquid, and evaporate it, at the above-mentioned temperature, until it weighs one thousand 
grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains].” U S. 
In this process, the ferric hydrate is first obtained by treating solution of ferric sulphate 
with ammonia, and is then combined, by the aid of heat, with the citric acid, thus forming 
a solution of ferric citrate. It might appear, from the phraseology of the process, that in the 
direction to add the citric acid to the precipitated hydrate, the addition of water to hold the 
resulting citrate in solution had been omitted; but the precipitate, even after draining, retains 
mechanically quite sufficient water for the purpose, so much, indeed, that evaporation is 
necessary at the end of the process to reduce the bulk to the required standard. The tempera- 
ture is limited to 60° C. (140° F.), because, though a moderate heat promotes the solution, a 
high degree of it diminishes the solubility of the oxide, and thus interferes with the process. 
The solution is “ a dark brown liquid, odorless, and possessing a slightly ferruginous taste. 
Specific gravity, about 1-250 at 15° C. (59° F.). Upon evaporating 100 6m. of the Solution, 
in a thin layer, on plates of glass, about 42-5 to 43 6m. of garnet-red scales will be obtained. 
The Solution has an acid reaction upon litmus paper, and is not precipitated, but rendered 
darker m color, by ammonia water. With potassium ferrocyanide test-solution it affords a 
bluish-green color or precipitate, which is increased and rendered dark blue by the subsequent 
addition of hydrochloric acid. On heating the Solution with potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution, it will yield a brown precipitate, without evolving vapor of ammonia. If a por- 
tion of the Solution, diluted with 4 volumes of water, be deprived of its iron by boiling it with 
an excess of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution, and the filtrate slightly acidulated with 
acetic acid, a portion of this liquid, when allowed to stand for some time, should not give a 802 
Liquor Fern et Ammonii Acetatis.—Liquor Ferri Nitratis. 
PART I. 
white, crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate). If to another portion of the acidulated 
and cooled filtrate a little calcium chloride test-solution be added, and the liquid heated to boil- 
ing, it should gradually deposit a white, crystalline precipitate. If 1-12 (1-1176) Gm. of the 
Solution be introduced into a glassrstoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.), 
together with 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 
Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. 
(104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require 
about 15 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or 
greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 0 5 per cent, of 
metallic iron).” U. S. It keeps for a long time without change, and answers admirably well 
for preparing solid ferric citrate and the chalybeate salts containing it, and for introducing 
it into extemporaneous mixtures. Each fluidounce of it contains about half a troyounce of 
ferric citrate. It may be given as a ferruginous tonic, in the dose of ten minims (0-6 C.c.), 
equivalent to five grains (0-33 Gm.) of the salt, several times a day. 
LIQUOR FERRI ET AMMONII ACETATIS. U. S. Solution of Iron and 
Ammonium Acetate. 
[Mistura Ferri et Ammonii Acetatis, Pharm. 1880. Basham’s Mixture.] 
(LI'QUOR FfiR'RI £t AM-MO'NI-i XQ-E-TA'TIS.) 
“ Tincture of Ferric Chloride, twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] ; Diluted Acetic 
Acid, thirty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 minims] ; Solution of Ammonium Acetate, 
two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] ; Aromatic Elixir, one hundred 
cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Glycerin, one hundred and twenty cubic centi- 
meters [or 4 fluidounces, 28 minims] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic 
centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. To the Solution of Ammonium Acetate (which 
should not be alkaline) add, successively, the Diluted Acetic Acid, the Tincture of Ferric Chlo- 
ride, the Aromatic Elixir, and the Glycerin, and, lastly, enough Water to make the product 
measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. This preparation 
should be freshly made, when wanted.” U. S. 
The first name of this preparation has been changed to “ Liquor” in accordance with the 
views expressed in the 16th edition of this work, as it belongs to the class of solutions, and is 
not a mixture in the modern acceptation of the term. The formula has been improved by the 
addition of glycerin, which enables the solution to remain undecomposed somewhat longer: 
it should be borne in mind, however, that this was never intended to be a permanent solu- 
tion, and in time precipitation and decomposition surely set in. Some pharmacists adopt the 
plan of keeping all the ingredients, except the tincture of ferric chloride and water, mixed 
together in advance, and when called upon to dispense the solution, to add the proper quantity 
of tincture and water; this saves time and enables them to dispense a clear solution. When 
freshly made, it is a transparent, bright red liquid. When cloudy, the absence of sufficient 
free acid is indicated. The iron is in the form of an acetate, whilst there is formed, as one of 
the products of decomposition, a small quantity of ammonium chloride, the larger proportion 
of ammonium acetate remaining undecomposed. Basham’s mixture is actively chalybeate, 
and also astringent, and is very largely used in chronic Bright's disease. The dose is from 
one-half to one fluidounce (15-30 C.c.). 
LIQUOR FERRI NITRATIS. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Ferric Nitrate 
(Li'QUOR FER'RI NI-TRA'TlS.) 
“ An aqueous solution of Ferric Nitrate [Fe„(NOs)e = 483-1], containing about 6-2 per cent, 
of the anhydrous salt, and corresponding to about 1-4 per cent, of metallic iron.” U. S. 
Liquor Ferri Pernitratis, Br.; Solution of Pernitrate of Iron; Solution of Nitrate of Iron; Azotate (Per- 
nitrate) de Fer liquide, Fr.; Salpetersaure Eisenoxyd-Losung, G. 
11 Solution of Ferric Sulphate, one hundred and eighty grammes [or 6 ounces av., 153 grains] ; 
Ammonia Water, one hundred and sixty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 197 minims] ; Nitric 
Acid, seventy-one grammes [or 2 ounces av., 220 grains] ; Distilled Water, Water, each, a 
sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Mix the 
Ammonia Water with Jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 435 minims] of cold 
Water, and the Solution of Ferric Sulphate with Ji/teen hundred cubic centimeters [or 50 fluid- 
ounces, 345 minims] of cold Water. Add the latter solution slowly to the diluted Ammonia 
Water, with constant stirring. Let the mixture stand until the precipitate has subsided as far PAET I. 
Liquor Fern Nitratis. 
803 
as practicable, and then decant the supernatant liquid. Add to the precipitate one thousand 
cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims] of cold Water, mix well, and again set the 
mixture aside, as before. Repeat the washing with successive portions of cold Water, in the 
same manner, until the washings produce hut a slight cloudiness with barium chloride test- 
solution. Pour the washed ferric hydrate on a wet muslin strainer, and let it drain thoroughly. 
Then transfer it to a porcelain capsule, add the Nitric Acid, and stir with a glass rod, until a 
clear solution is obtained. Finally, add enough Distilled Water to make the finished product 
weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Filter, if necessary.” U. S. 
“Iron, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 20 grammes; Nitric Acid, 4J fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 90 
cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dilute the Nitric Acid with sixteen 
[ifluid~\ ounces (Imp. meas.) or three hundred and twenty cubic centimetres of the Distilled 
Water; introduce the Iron; set aside until the metal is dissolved, taking care to moderate the 
action, should it become too violent, by the addition of a little more Distilled Water ; filter the 
liquid ; add enough Distilled Water to produce thirty fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or six hundred 
cubic centimetres of the Solution.” Br. 
Solution of ferric nitrate was made in the U. S. P. 1870 by first forming ferrous nitrate by 
dissolving iron wire in diluted nitric acid, and then converting this into ferric nitrate by heat- 
ing with an additional quantity of nitric acid; there was a slight excess of nitric acid left in 
the solution (about 1-4 per cent.). It was believed by the Committee of Revision that a solu- 
tion of more definite composition would be made by adopting Mr. Louis Dohme’s process. In 
this, ferric hydrate is dissolved in nitric acid in such proportion that the solution of ferric 
nitrate shall contain 6-2 per cent, of the anhydrous salt when assayed by the official process, 
and about 1 per cent, of free nitric acid.* 
The U. S. solution is “a clear amber-colored or reddish liquid, odorless, having an acid, 
styptic taste, and an acid reaction. Specific gravity, about 1-050 at 15° C. (59° F.). The 
Solution gives a brownish-red precipitate with ammonia water, and a blue one with potassium 
ferrocyanide test-solution. If a clear crystal of ferrous sulphate be added to a cooled mixture 
of equal parts of the Solution and of concentrated sulphuric acid, the crystal will become 
brown and be surrounded by a brownish-black zone. If 1-12 (1-1176) Gm. of the Solution be 
introduced into a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.), together with 
15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potas- 
sium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then 
cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require about 2-8 C.c. of 
sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or greenish color of 
the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 0-5 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. 
It contains no ferrous nitrate, and does not give a blue precipitate with potassium ferricyanide. 
The British preparation is described as “A clear solution of a reddish-brown color, dis- 
tinctly acid and astringent to the taste. It affords the reactions characteristic of ferric salts 
and of nitrates. It should not yield any characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, 
arsenium, zinc, calcium, sodium, potassium, ammonium, chlorides, sulphates, or ferrous salts. 
Specific gravity 1-107. 5 cubic centimetres treated with an excess of solution of ammonia 
should give a precipitate which, when washed, dried, and incinerated, weighs 0-23 gramme. 
110 minims contain 3J grains of Iron ; 100 cubic centimetres contain 3-3 grammes.” It is, 
therefore, about twice as strong as the U. S. solution. 
Ferric nitrate is somewhat deliquescent, very soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in nitric 
acid. It consists of the double atom of iron, Fe2, which is hexatomic, combined with 6 
groups, N03, and crystallizes either with 12 molecules of water in colorless cubes, or with 18 
molecules of water in colorless monoclinic crystals, yielding, therefore, either Fe2(N03)6 -f- 
12H20 or Fe2(N03)e + 18H20. 
Medical Properties. This solution was introduced to the notice of the profession by 
Mr. William Kerr, in 1832. Its virtues are those of a tonic and astringent. Dr. R. J. Graves, 
of Dublin, praises it as a remedy in chronic diarrhoea, especially when occurring in delicate and 
nervous women, in which there is no thirst, redness of tongue, tenderness of the abdomen on 
pressure, or other indication of inflammation. It is considered particularly applicable to the 
treatment of mucous diarrhoea attended with pain, but not to cases in which ulcerations of the 
intestines exist; but in our experience it has seemed to be irritating, and has generally failed 
to accomplish good. It has also been used with alleged good effect in menorrhagia, and both 
* Syrup of Ferrous Nitrate may be prepared by Prof. Procter’s formula. (See U. S. D., 16th ed., p. 903.) 804 
Liquor Ferri Perchloridi.—Liquor Ferri Subsulphatis. 
PART I. 
internally and by injection in leucorrhcea, when occurring in pale, exsanguine, and feeble sub- 
jects ; it should be sufficiently diluted to cause only a slight heat and smarting in the vagina. 
The dose, according to Dr. Graves, is seven or eight drops (0-36 or 0 42 C.c.), gradually in- 
creased to fifteen (0-85 C.c), sufficiently diluted, given in the course of the day. Dr. Garrod 
and Mr. Squire state the dose of the British preparation, though twice as strong in iron as 
our own, at from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.). Considering that a fluidrachm 
of the British solution contains 7-865 grains of the salt, this appears to us a very large dose. 
LIQUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI. Br. Solution of Perchloride of Iron. 
Solution of Ferric Chloride. 
(LI'QUOR FER'RI PER-<3HL0'RI-DI.) 
“ Strong Solution of Ferric Chloride, 5 ff. ounces (Imperial measure) or 250 cubic centi- 
metres ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Strong Solution of Ferric Chloride 
with sufficient Distilled Water to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centi- 
metres of this Solution of Ferric Chloride.” Br. (See p. 799.) 
This is one-fourth the strength of the Liquor Ferri Perchloridi of the Br. Pharmacopoeia 
of 1864, which is the Liquor Ferri Perchloridi Fortis of the present edition. (See p. 799.) 
It is of the same ferruginous strength as the British tincture of Ferric Chloride. The specific 
gravity of this solution is 1-110, and it may be substituted for the tincture of ferric chloride 
when alcohol is objectionable; it is very astringent, and is perhaps less active as a diuretic 
than the tincture. Dose, from ten to thirty minims (0-65-1-9 C.c.) well diluted. 
LIQUOR FERRI SUBSULPHATIS. U. S. Solution of Ferric Subsulphate. 
[Solution of Basic Ferric Sulphate. Monsel’s Solution.] 
(LI'QUOR FER'RI SUB-SUL-PHA'TIS.) 
“ An aqueous solution of Basic Ferric Sulphate (of variable chemical composition), corre- 
sponding to about 13-6 per cent, of metallic iron.” U. S. 
Solution of Subsulphate of Iron; Solution of Persulphate of Iron; Liqueur hSmostatique de Monsel, Fr 
Basisch-schwefelsaure Eisenoxydlosung, Monsel’s Eisenlosung, G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, in clear crystals, six hundred and seventy-jive grammes [or 23 ounces av., 
354 grains] ; Sulphuric Acid, sixty-jive grammes [or 2 ounces av., 128 grains] ; Nitric Acid, 
Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 
120 grains]. Add the Sulphuric Acid to jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 fluidounces, 
435 minims] of Distilled Water in a capacious porcelain capsule, heat the mixture to nearly 
100° C. (212° F.), then add sixty-jive grammes [or 2 ounces av., 128 grains] of Nitric Acid, 
and mix well. Divide the Ferrous Sulphate, coarsely powdered, into four equal portions, and 
add these portions, one at a time, to the hot liquid, stirring after each addition until efferves- 
cence ceases. When all of the Ferrous Sulphate is dissolved, add a few drops of Nitric Acid, 
and, if this causes a further evolution of red fumes, continue to add Nitric Acid, a few drops 
at a time, until it no longer causes red fumes to be evolved ; then boil the Solution until it 
assumes a ruby-red color and is free from nitrous odor. Lastly, add enough Distilled Water 
to make the product weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Keep the 
product in well-stoppered bottles, in a moderately warm place (not under 22° C. or 71-6° F.), 
protected from light. This solution will sometimes crystallize, forming a semi-solid, whitish 
mass. When this occurs, the application of a gentle heat to the bottle will restore the liquid 
condition. Solution of Ferric Subsulphate is to be dispensed when Solution of Persulphate 
of Iron has been prescribed by the physician.” U. S. 
This process is essentially that of Dr. Squibb. The object is to obtain in solution MonseFs 
Persulphate of Iron, improperly so called, as it differs both in composition and in properties 
from the salt of iron properly named persulphate. The composition of the true persulphate is 
Fe2(S04)3, and it is a neutral salt, while Monsel’s persulphate has the composition Fe40(S04)6* 
and is properly a subsalt, as it is very appropriately designated in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
With this preliminary explanation, the process will be easily understood. 
In its preparation the ferrous sulphate is converted into ferric sulphate at the expense of 
the nitric acid ; but the sulphuric acid, mixed with the nitric, is in quantity insufficient to form 
* Mr. Spencer IT. Pickering believes that the true composition of basic ferric sulphate is represented by the 
formula Fej(S04)3,5Fe203.H20. (See Journ. Chem. Soc., xliii. 182.) PAET I. 
Liquor Ferri Subsulphatis.—Liquor Fern Termlphatis. 
805 
the normal salt. The sesquioxide is therefore but partially saturated, and a subsalt results, 
having the constitution above mentioned.* 
The solution of ferric subsulphate is “ a dark reddish-brown liquid, odorless or nearly so, 
of an acid, strongly styptic taste, and an acid reaction. Specific gravity, about 1-550 at 15° 
C. (59° F.). Miscible with water and alcohol, in all proportions, without decomposition. The 
diluted Solution yields a brownish-red precipitate with ammonia water, a blue one with potas- 
sium ferrocyanide test-solution, and a white one, insoluble in hydrochloric acid, with barium 
chloride test-solution. On slowly mixing 2 volumes of the Solution with 1 volume of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid, in a beaker, a semi-solid, white mass will separate on standing (differ- 
ence from tersulphate). On adding a clear crystal of ferrous sulphate to a cooled mixture of 
equal volumes of concentrated sulphuric acid and a diluted portion of the Solution, the crystal 
should not become brown, nor should there be a brownish-black color developed around it (ab- 
sence of nitric acid). If to a small portion of the Solution, diluted with about 10 volumes 
of water, a few drops of freshly prepared potassium ferricyanide test-solution be added, a pure 
brown color should be produced, without a tinge of green or greenish-blue (absence of ferrous 
salt). If 112 (1-1176) G-m. of the Solution be introduced into a glass-stoppered bottle (having 
a capacity of about 100 C.c.), together with 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, 
and, after the addition of 1 Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at 
a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test- 
solution, it should require about 27-2 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solu- 
tion to discharge the blue or greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution 
indicating 0-5 per cent, of metallic iron).” U. S. A little sulphuric acid decolorizes the liquid 
in a considerable degree, and an excess of the same acid converts it into a white, soft, pasty 
solid, resembling plaster of Paris which has begun to solidify after mixture with water. This 
test, according to Dr. Squibb, is quite characteristic. (iV. Y. Journ. of Med., 1860, p. 173.) 
By evaporation, upon a glass surface, with a moderate heat, the solution yields ferric 
subsulphate, or Monsel's salt, in the form of thin transparent scales, of a light reddish-brown 
color, deliquescent, and readily soluble in water. Attention was first called to the special 
styptic virtues of ferric sulphate by M. Monsel in 1852 ; but it was not until 1857 that he pub- 
lished the formula for the peculiar salt which now goes by his name, and the solution of which 
is the subject of the present article. (See Journ. de Pharm., Sept. 1857, and Juillet, 1859.) 
In consequence of its deficiency of sulphuric acid, this salt is less irritant than the ferric sul- 
phate, while it has at least equal, if not greater, astringency. It is therefore very efficacious as 
a styptic, and peculiarly adapted, through its power of coagulating the blood, to cases of hem- 
orrhage from incised wounds, or from surfaces in which it is specially desirable to avoid irri- 
tation. It is said also to have been found peculiarly efficacious in chancre. The solution may 
be applied by means of a small sponge or pencil of spun glass to the bleeding surface or 
vessel. In cases of haemoptysis, a dilution of it (from five to ten minims to the fluidounce) has 
been used with advantage, by means of the atomizer. It is an excellent styptic in hemorrhage 
from the stomach and bowels, in doses of from three to six minims (0-18-0-36 C.c.), properly 
diluted, and repeated as often as necessary. 
LIQUOR FERRI TERSULPHATIS. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Ferric Sul- 
phate. 
(Ll'QUOR FER'RI ter-sul-pha'tis.) 
“An aqueous solution of normal Ferric Sulphate [Fe2(S04)3 = 399-22], containing about 
28-7 per cent, of the salt, and corresponding to about 8 per cent, of metallic iron.” U. S. 
Liquor Ferri Persulphatis, Br.; Liquor Ferri Sulfurici Oxydati, P. G.; Solution of Tersulphate of Iron; Solu- 
tion of Persulphate of Iron; Persulfate de Fer liquide, Fr.; FlUssiges Schwefelsaures Eisenoxyd, G. 
* Mr. J. Creuse offers the following formulae for the preparation of the solutions of ferric sulphate and ferric sub- 
sulphate, holding them to be superior to the official because they require no especial apparatus and generate no 
noxious vapors: 
For the ferric sulphate, Take of Ferrous Sulphate, in coarse powder, twelve troyounces; Sulphuric Acid two troy- 
ounces and sixty grains; Potassium Chlorate three hundred and forty-eight grains; Boiling Water twelve fluid- 
ounces. Dissolve the ferrous sulphate in the boiling water in a glass matrass, or in any convenient bottle; add the 
sulphuric acid gradually, and, while the liquid is hot, add the potassium chlorate by small portions. When all is 
dissolved, filter, and complete twenty-four fluidounces. The following formula explains the reaction : 6(FeS04) + 
3H2S04 + KClOs = 3(Fe2(S04)s + 3H20 + KC1. 
For the subsulphate, Take of the ingredients above enumerated, respectively, twelve troyounces, one troyounce 
and thirty grains, three hundred and forty grains, ten fluidounces; proceed as before; evaporate to twelve fluid- 
ounces, and filter. (A. J. P., xliii. 169.) The solutions thus obtained are contaminated with potassium chloride. 806 
Liquor Ferri Tersulphatis. 
PART I. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, in clear crystals, four hundred grammes [or 14 ounce's av., 48 grains] ; 
Sulphuric Acid, seventy-eight grammes [or 2 ounces av., 328 grains] ; Nitric Acid, Distilled 
Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. 
Add the Sulphuric Acid to two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Dis- 
tilled Water in a capacious porcelain capsule, heat the mixture to nearly 100° C. (212° F.), 
then add fifty-five grammes [or 1 ounce av., 411 grains] of Nitric Acid, and mix well. 
Divide the Ferrous Sulphate, coarsely powdered, into four equal portions, and add these por- 
tions, one at a time, to the hot liquid, stirring after each addition until the effervescence 
ceases. When all of the Ferrous Sulphate is dissolved, add a few drops of Nitric Acid, and, 
if this causes a further evolution of red fumes, continue to add Nitric Acid, a few drops at a 
time, until it no longer causes red fumes to be evolved; then boil the Solution until it assumes 
a reddish-brown color and is free from nitrous odor. Lastly, add enough Distilled Water to 
make the product weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Filter, if 
necessary.” U. S. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, 8 ounces (Imperial) or 400 grammes; Sulphuric Acid, 6 fl. drachms 
(Imp. rneas.) or 37*5 cubic centimetres; Nitric Acid, 6 fl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 37-5 cubic 
centimetres ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Add the Sulphuric Acid to ten [fluid] ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; dissolve the Ferrous 
Sulphate in the mixture with the aid of heat; mix the Nitric Acid with two \_flui d] ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubi# centimetres of the Distilled Water; add to this diluted 
acid, warmed, the solution of Ferrous Sulphate; concentrate by boiling, until, by the sudden 
disengagement of ruddy vapors, the liquid ceases to be black and acquires a red color. If 
any ferrous salt remain in the solution, add a few drops of Nitric Acid, and boil again. When 
the solution is cold, make up the quantity to eleven fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred 
and fifty cubic centimetres by the addition, if necessary, of Distilled Water.” Br. 
The ferrous sulphate is directed to be in clear crystals, meaning by this “ not effloresced,” 
because when the crystals are coated with a whitish powder they have lost water of crystalli- 
zation, and the proportion of iron present is variable. The nitric acid in the process gives up 
enough of its oxygen to convert it entirely into ferric sulphate, and the effervescence is owing 
to the escape of nitrogen dioxide ; this becomes red nitrogen tetroxide by contact with the air. 
The conversion of the ferrous salt into ferric salt is incomplete until the effervescence ceases, 
and the color, from black, as it was at first, has become reddish brown. Indeed, in order to 
convert the whole into ferric sulphate it is necessary to continue the heat until nitrous odor 
ceases to be evolved, and thus the entire absence of nitric or nitrous acid from the solution is 
insured. But in consequence of the higher oxidation of the iron the sulphuric acid of the 
sulphate is insufficient to saturate it. Enough sulphuric acid, therefore, is added to meet this 
demand. The process is completed by adding enough water to make a definite weight. The 
U. S. and British formulas are the same in principle; but in the latter the additional precau- 
tion is taken, in order to insure the complete change of ferrous into ferric salt, of testing the 
liquid with potassium ferricyanide, which will produce a blue precipitate so long as any of the 
ferrous sulphate remains. The solution, prepared according to the U. S. formula, is “ a dark 
reddish-brown liquid, almost odorless, having an acid, strongly styptic taste, and an acid reac- 
tion. Specific gravity, about 1-320 at 15° C. (59° F.). Miscible with water and alcohol, in 
all proportions, without decomposition. The diluted Solution yields a brownish-red precipitate 
with ammonia water, a blue one with potassium ferrocyanide test-solution, and a white one, 
insoluble in hydrochloric acid, with barium chloride test-solution. On slowly mixing 2 vol- 
umes of the Solution with 1 volume of concentrated sulphuric acid, in a beaker, no solid, 
white mass will separate on standing (difference from subsulphate). On adding a clear crystal 
of ferrous sulphate to a cooled mixture of equal volumes of concentrated sulphuric acid and 
a moderately diluted portion of the Solution, the crystal should not become brown, nor should 
there be a brownish-black color developed around it (absence of nitric acid). If to a small 
portion of the Solution, diluted with about 10 volumes of water, a few drops of freshly pre- 
pared potassium ferricyanide test-solution be added, a pure brown color should be produced, 
without a tinge of green or greenish-blue (absence of ferrous salt). If 1-12 (1-1176) Gin. of 
the Solution be introduced into a glass-stoppered bottle (having a capacity of about 100 C.c.), 
together with 15 C.c. of water and 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and, after the addition of 1 
Gm. of potassium iodide, the mixture be kept for half an hour at a temperature of 40° C. 
(104° F.), then cooled, and mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require 
about 16 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to discharge the blue or PART I. 
Liquor Hamamelidis.—Liquor Hydrargyri Nitratis. 
807 
greenish color of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 0-5 per cent, of 
metallic iron).” The solution, diluted with water, gives a white precipitate with barium 
chloride, showing that it contains a sulphate. It keeps well; and we have seen a specimen 
made by the U. S. 1870 process, ten years old, which retained all its properties unchanged and 
had deposited nothing. It is described in the Br. Pharmacopoeia as “ A dense solution of 
a dark red color, inodorous and very astringent, miscible in all proportions with alcohol and 
water. It affords the reactions characteristic of ferric salts and of sulphates. It should 
yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for ferrous salts. Specific gravity 1-441. 5 
cubic centimetres diluted with 80 cubic centimetres of water should give, upon the addition 
of an excess of solution of ammonia, a precipitate which, when well washed and incinerated, 
weighs 1-04 grammes.” Prof. Procter found that a preparation containing 120 grains of ses- 
quioxide to the fluidounce is apt to deposit the anhydrous sulphate on standing. This solution, 
though powerfully astringent, is too irritant for general use. The chief employment of it is 
in making other ferruginous preparations in which the ferric hydrate is wanted; and it should 
always be kept on hand for the quick preparation of the antidote to arsenic. 
LIQUOR HAMAMELIDIS. Br. Solution of Hamamelis. 
“Fresh Hamamelis Leaves, 50 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Water, 100fl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 2000 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 10 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or 200 cubic centimetres. Macerate in a still for twenty-four hours ; then distil one-half.” Br. 
This distilled extract of witchhazel has been introduced into the Br. Ph. 1898 to satisfy the 
popular demand for an external application which can be used ad libitum without injury. (See 
Aqua Hamamelidis, National Formulary, Part II.) It represents whatever of medical virtue 
Hamamelis can communicate to a distillate, and may be used freely as an embrocation or 
internally in the dose of a teaspoonful. 
(Iil'QTJOR HAM-A-MEL'I-DIS.) 
LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Mercuric 
Nitrate. 
(Ll'QUOR nI-TRA'TIS.) 
“ A liquid containing about 60 per cent, of Mercuric Nitrate [Hg(NOs)a = 323-58], together 
with about 11 per cent, of free Nitric Acid.” U. S. 
Liquor Hydrargyri Nitratis Acidus, BrAcid Solution of Mercuric Nitrate; Solution of Nitrate of Mer- 
cury; Liquor Hydrargyri Nitrici Oxydati; Deutazotate (Pernitrate) de Mercure liquide, Fr.; Fliissiges Salpeter- 
saures Quecksilberoxyd, G. 
“ Red Mercuric Oxide, forty grammes [or 1 ounce ay., 180 grains] ; Nitric Acid, forty-five 
grammes [or 1 ounce av., 257 grains] ; Distilled Water, fifteen grammes [or 231 grains], To 
make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Mix the Nitric Acid with the Dis- 
tilled Water, and dissolve the Red Mercuric Oxide in the mixture. Keep the product in glass- 
stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“Mercury, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 120 grammes; Nitric Acid, 5fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 
150 cubic centimetres ; Distilled Water, 1 £ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 45 cubic centimetres. 
Mix the Nitric Acid with the Distilled Water in a flask ; dissolve the Mercury in the mixture 
without the application of heat; then boil gently for fifteen minutes ; cool, and preserve the 
Solution, which should weigh about three times the quantity of the Mercury employed, in a 
stoppered bottle not exposed to the light.” Br. 
In the British process, mercury is dissolved, with the assistance of heat, in an excess of 
nitric acid, and there is formed an acid mercuric nitrate, which is brought to a determinate 
bulk by evaporation. The proportion of nitric acid is sufficient not only to form mercuric 
nitrate, but also to furnish a large excess of acid. 
Properties. Solution of mercuric nitrate is “ a clear, nearly colorless, heavy liquid, having 
a faint odor of nitric acid, and a strongly acid reaction. Specific gravity, about 2-100 at 15° 
C. (59° F.). On evaporating a few drops of the Solution in a porcelain capsule, a white resi- 
due is left, which, on being heated, becomes successively yellow, red, and brown, and is finally 
completely volatilized. On a bright surface of copper, the Solution deposits a coating of me- 
tallic mercury. The Solution, diluted with water, yields with potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution a yellow precipitate; and with potassium iodide test-solution a bright red one, 
soluble in an excess of the reagent. A clear crystal of ferrous sulphate dropped into the so- 
lution rapidly acquires a brown color, and becomes surrounded by a brownish-black zone. No 808 
Liquor Hydrargyri Perchloridi.—Liquor Lodi Compositus. 
PAET I. 
precipitation or cloudiness should occur in the Solution on the addition of water, or of diluted 
hydrochloric acid (absence of mercurous salt)." U. S. “ A colorless and strongly acid liquid, 
which affords the reactions characteristic of mercuric salts and nitrates. It should not yield 
any characteristic reaction with the tests for mercurous salts. Specific gravity about 2-0.” Br. 
In the U. S. P. 1880 the definition stated that this solution contained about 50 per cent, of 
mercuric nitrate; in the A. J. P., 1886, p. 577, F. X. Moerk affirms that it does not afford a 
50-per-cent, solution, but a stronger one,—i.e., a 60-per-cent. To make a 50-per-cent, solution 
the following quantities should be used: Bed Mercuric Oxide 33-32 parts; Nitric Acid 37-38 
parts; Distilled Water sufficient to make 100 parts. 
Mercuric nitrate, the salt present in this preparation, can he obtained in large crystals of 
the composition 2(Hg(N03)2) -f- H20, when its solution is allowed to evaporate slowly over 
sulphuric acid. The same salt, which is very deliquescent, is obtained as a crystalline magma 
by adding strong nitric acid to the concentrated solution. 
Medical Properties. This preparation is much used as a caustic application to cancers, 
lupus, ulcerations of the cervix, chancres, etc. When a very free use is desired, it may be ap- 
plied to the diseased surface by a camel’s-liair brush, or preferably by a brush made of spun 
glass; usually, however, the application is made with a glass rod, or a match or similar frag- 
ment of wood. In acne and boils, a drop proportioned in size to the pustule applied to the 
apex is sometimes of service. The parts touched immediately become white, the surrounding 
parts inflame, and in a few days a yellow scab is formed, which gradually falls off. Sometimes 
the application produces salivation. When it is desirable to avoid this result, the cauterized 
part should be washed with water immediately after the application of the caustic. 
LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI PERCHLORIDI. Br. Solution of Mercuric 
Chloride. 
(LI'QUOR PER-£!HL6'BI-D!.) 
Liquor Hydrargyri Bichloridi, London ; Solution of Bichloride of Mercury. 
“ Mercuric Chloride, 10 grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme ; Distilled Water 1 pint (Imp. meas.) 
or 875 cubic centimetres. Dissolve. This Solution contains grain of Mercuric Chloride in 
1 fluid drachm, or 0-114 gramme in 100 cubic centimetres.” Br. 
This solution may he used as affording a convenient method of exhibiting corrosive subli- 
mate. The ammonium chloride formerly used (Br. Ph. 1885) to aid in dissolving the mer- 
curic chloride has been omitted in the process of the Br. Ph. 1898. The dose is from half a 
fluidrachm to two fluidrachms (1-9-7-5 C.c.). 
LIQUOR IODI COMPOSITUS. U. S. (Br.) Compound Solution of Iodine. 
[Lugol’s Solution.] 
Liquor Iodi Fortis, Br., Strong Solution of Iodine; Liniment of Iodine, Br. 1885; Liquor Iodinii Compositus, 
U. S. 1870; Solution of Iodine: Solute iodurg de Lugol, Fr.; Lugol’sche Jodlosung, G. 
“ Iodine, five grammes [or 77 grains] ; Potassium Iodide, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Dis- 
tilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. 
Dissolve the Iodine and Potassium Iodide in a sufficient quantity of Distilled Water to make 
the product weigh one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Keep the Solution in 
glass-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“Iodine, 11 ounces (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Potassium Iodide, f ounce (Imp.) or 30 
grammes; Distilled Water, 11 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 
per cent.), 9 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 360 cubic centimetres. Dissolve the Potassium Iodide 
and the Iodine in the Distilled Water in a bottle; add the Alcohol and shake.” Br. 
In this solution iodine is dissolved in water with the assistance of potassium iodide. Iodine 
dissolves sparingly in water, but freely in a solution of this salt. In using potassium iodide 
to render iodine more soluble in water, the iodide is generally taken in a quantity twice the 
weight of the iodine; and this is the proportion adopted in the U. S. formula. The prepara- 
tion is a concentrated solution of iodine with potassium iodide, and is intended to facilitate the 
administration of the combination in drops. The present formula does not differ in strength 
from that of 1880. The specific gravity of the U. S. compound solution of iodine is 1-124. 
In the Br. Pharmacopoeia a solution is directed having much more iodine than the U. S. solu- 
tion, and weaker in potassium iodide ; the former having about fifty grains of iodine and thirty 
grains of potassium iodide in the fluidounce, whilst the latter has nearly twenty-six grains of 
(Ll'QUOR i-o'di com-p5§'i-tus.) PART I. 
Liquor Kramerise Concentratus.—Liquor Magnesii Carboncitis. 
809 
iodine and fifty-two grains of potassium iodide in the fluidounce, the difference in the fluidounce 
of the two Pharmacopoeias being too small to enter into the calculation. The British solution 
is made with alcohol, and closely resembles the Liniment of Iodine of the Br. Ph. 1885. “ If 
12-66 Gm. of the Solution be mixed with a few drops of starch test-solution, it should require, 
for complete decoloration, from 49-3 to 50 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric 
solution (each C.c. of the volumetric solution corresponding to 0-1 per cent, of iodine).” XJ. S. 
The medicinal properties of the solution depend mainly on the free iodine contained in it. 
The dose of the U. S. P. solution is five minims (0-3 C.c.), containing about a quarter of a 
grain of iodine, three times a day, given in at least four tablespoonfuls of water or of milk, 
so as to avoid irritation of the stomach. The British solution, although not intended for 
internal administration, might be given in doses of two minims (0-12 C.c.). 
LIQUOR KRAMERLE CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution 
of Krameria. 
(LI'QUOR KRA-ME'RI-2E CON-CfiN-TRA'TUS.) 
“ Krameria Root, in No. 40 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Alcohol (20 
per cent.), 25 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1250 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Moisten 
the Krameria with five fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres 
of the Alcohol; pack in a closed percolator; set aside for three days; percolate with the re- 
maining Alcohol, added in ten equal portions at intervals of twelve hours ; continue percolation 
with more Alcohol until the product measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic 
centimetres.” Br. 
This concentrated solution of the Br. Ph. 1898 is really a 50 per cent, fluid extract, or a 
half strength official fluid extract. It belongs to the class of “ liquors” introduced for the 
purpose of diluting with water to make infusions. (See Infusum Kramerise, p. 734.) This 
preparation fully represents the crude drug, and may be used internally in dose of from one- 
half to one fluidrachm (P9—3-7 C.c.). 
LIQUOR MAGNESII CARBONATIS. Br. Solution of Magnesium 
Carbonate. [Fluid Magnesia.] 
Eau magnesienne, Magnesie liquide, Fr.; Kohlensaure Magnesialosung, G. 
“ Magnesium Sulphate, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 40 grammes; Sodium Carbonate, 2£ ounces 
(Imp.) or 50 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the two salts sepa- 
rately, each in half a pint (Imp. meas.) or two hundred cubic centimetres of the Distilled 
Water; heat the solution of Magnesium Sulphate to the boiling point; add to it the solution 
of Sodium Carbonate; boil them together until carbonic anhydride ceases to be evolved; col- 
lect the precipitated magnesium carbonate on a calico filter; wash it with Distilled Water until 
the filtrate is free from sulphate. Mix the washed precipitate with a pint (Imp. meas.) or 
four hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water; place the mixture in a suitable apparatus; 
force into it pure washed carbonic anhydride; let the mixture remain in contact with excess 
of carbonic anhydride, retained under a pressure of about three atmospheres, for twenty-four 
hours or longer; decant the Solution, into which again pass carbonic anhydride. Keep the 
Solution in bottles of convenient sizes, securely closed to prevent the escape of carbonic anhy- 
dride.” Br. 
The object of this process is to obtain a solution of magnesium carbonate by means of car- 
bonic acid, the carbonate being insoluble in pure water. The first step is to prepare a freshly 
precipitated hydrated magnesium carbonate, which is more readily dissolved than is a carbonate 
which has been kept for some time. As the magnesium carbonate of the Br. Pharmacopoeia 
consists of three mols. of the neutral carbonate and one of magnesium hydrate with four mols. 
of water, it follows that, in its preparation from the two salts used in the process, a portion of 
carbonic acid escapes; and the boiling is directed to be continued until the escape of the gas 
ceases, so that the normal composition may be insured, and a longer heat, which might affect 
the constitution of the carbonate so as to diminish its solubility, avoided. The precipitate is 
thoroughly washed, in order to remove every trace of sodium sulphate, which may be indicated 
by the non-action of the test of barium chloride. The next step is to dissolve the precipitated 
carbonate in water impregnated with carbonic acid gas ; and, as the solution even thus favored 
is slowly effected, the carbonate is directed to remain exposed to the action of carbonic acid 
gas, under pressure, for twenty-four hours; and still the whole of the carbonate is not dissolved, 
(Ll'QUOE mXg-ne'§i-i CAR-BO-NA'TIS.) 810 
Liquor Magnesii Carbonatis.—Liquor Magnesii Citratis. 
PART I. 
and filtration is necessary. According to the Br. Pharm. the solution “ Effervesces slightly, or 
not at all, when the containing vessel is first opened. It should yield no characteristic reaction 
with the test for sulphates. 20 cubic centimetres evaporated to dryness afford a white residue 
of pure hydrous magnesium carbonate, which after being calcined weighs between 0-16 and 
0-19 gramme. This residue is insoluble in water, and when dissolved in dilute acid responds 
to the tests for magnesium. This Solution contains nearly 10 grains of the official Magnesium 
Carbonate in 1 fluid ounce, or about 2 grammes in 100 cubic centimetres.” On exposure 
to the air, some of the carbonic acid escapes, and a portion of the salt is deposited. Prof. 
Redwood proposes to remedy this by reducing the strength of the solution. (P. J. Tr., 2d ser., 
xi. 397.) Indeed, it has been shown by Mr. C. Muncy that the preparation as it occurs in 
commerce is usually much below the standard strength. 
This solution is but slightly effervescent, is clear, and should be free from bitterness. Never- 
theless its taste is more disagreeable than is that of the undissolved carbonate, over which it 
has no advantage. The dose as an antacid laxative is from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
LIQUOR MAGNESII CITRATIS. U. S. Solution of Magnesium Citrate. 
(LI'QUOK MAG-NE'ijI-I CI-TRA'TIS.) 
Solution of Citrate of Magnesium; Limonade au Citrate de Magnesie, Fr.; Fliissige Citronensaure Magnesia, G. 
“ Magnesium Carbonate, fifteen grammes [or 231 grains] ; Citric Acid, thirty grammes [or 
4G2 grains]; Syrup of Citric Acid, sixty cubic centimeters* [or 2 fluidounces, 14 minims]; 
Potassium Bicarbonate, two and one-half grammes [or 39 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. 
Dissolve the Citric Acid in one hundred and twenty cubic centimeters [or 4 fluidounces, 28 
minims] of Water, and, having added the Magnesium Carbonate, stir, until it is dissolved. 
Filter the solution into a strong bottle of the capacity of about three hundred and sixty cubic 
centimeters [or 12 fluidounces, 84 minims], containing the Syrup of Citric Acid. Then add 
enough Water to nearly fill the bottle, drop in the Potassium Bicarbonate, immediately close 
the bottle with a cork, and secure it with twine. Lastly, shake the mixture occasionally, until 
the Potassium Bicarbonate is dissolved.” U S. 
This formula first appeared in the second edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1850. The 
original formula was soon found to have defects. Four-fifths of the carbonate were dissolved 
in the citric acid, and the solution filtered into a bottle containing the syrup of citric acid ; and 
then the reserved fifth, mixed with water, was added to the acid citrate, and the bottle tightly 
corked. The addition of the reserved carbonate was intended to impregnate the preparation 
with carbonic acid by its solution in the excess of citric acid. To effect the solution of this 
reserved carbonate required at least half an hour. But the chief objection to the formula as 
originally framed was that the magnesium citrate, when the solution was kept for some days, 
crystallized out in the form of a white granular precipitate, which rendered the solution unfit 
for medical use. This precipitate* was found by Prof. Procter to be Mg3(C6H507)2 -f- 14H20. 
This still occurs to some extent, although more slowly, and probably cannot be avoided except 
by a very great reduction in the amount of magnesia.]* The use of potassium bicarbonate in- 
troduces potassium citrate, but in too small a proportion to be of any consequence. It is some- 
what more convenient to use calcined magnesia in place of the carbonate, and in one of the 
best processes that we have seen the fifteen grammes of carbonate in the official formula 
are replaced by five grammes of Jennings’s light calcined magnesia. We prefer a modifica- 
tion in the manipulation of the official process: if instead of the solution being filtered into 
the bottles containing the syrup it is filtered into a separate vessel, and then the proper quantity 
poured very carefully down the inside of the bottle, so as not to disturb the heavy layer of 
• In the earlier issues of the U. S. P. 1890 this quantity is given as 120 C.c. This is an error, 60 C.c. being 
intended, which makes the solution sweet enough. 
j" Extemporaneous Liquor Magnesii Citratis. The following formula has been proposed by Mr. J. C. Wharton as 
a means of always giving a customer a fresh solution of the citrate, which is substantially the same as that of the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia. “ Syrup No. 1. Take of simple Syrup two pints; Spirit of Lemon sixty-four minims; Potas- 
sium Bicarbonate six hundred and forty grains. Mix, and make solution, and keep ready for use. Syrup No. 2. 
Take of Calcined Magnesia eighty-eight grains ; Citric Acid four hundred and eight grains : Distilled Water a suffi- 
cient quantity. Mix the Magnesia and Citric Acid in a mortar and add one and a half fluidounces of Water. Stir 
with a pestle, and break up the lumps of acid if there be any. After solution is effected, add sufficient Water to 
make up the amount of one bottle nearly full, when mixed with two fluidounces of Syrup No. 1. These two so- 
lutions are to be kept separately. When Solution of Magnesium Citrate is called for, pour into the bottle Syrup 
No. 1 first, without touching the mouth or sides of the bottle; then pour in along the sides of the bottle Syrup No. 
2, so as to avoid as far as possible mixing them, cork and agitate.” For Edel’s process, see Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 
582; Widlum’s process, Proc. A. P. A., 1896, 428. PART I. 
Liquor Magnesii Citmtis. 
811 
syrup, and then the crystals of bicarbonate dropped in, very little loss of carbonic acid will 
ensue if the bottle is at once securely corked. When the bottle is dispensed, a vigorous shake 
at once liberates the carbonic acid, and the patient is sure to have a highly effervescent liquid. 
Properties. This official solution is founded on a preparation proposed by M. Roge Dela- 
barre, and improved by M. Rabourdin, of Paris. It is an aqueous solution of magnesium 
citrate, containing an excess of citric acid, impregnated with carbonic acid and sweetened with 
syrup. When properly prepared, it is a clear liquid, having an agreeable taste like that of 
lemonade. Overlooking the excess of acid which it contains, the salt present is the tribasic 
citrate, in which the six atoms of hydrogen of two mols. of citric acid are replaced by three 
atoms of magnesium. Accordingly, it consists of two mols. of citric acid and three atoms of 
magnesium. It is advisable in preparing the solution to introduce the magnesia by small por- 
tions, as if too hastily added it is liable to the formation of the neutral citrate, which cannot 
afterwards be readily dissolved. (A. J. P., 1867.) Dorvault makes a solid magnesium citrate 
which is perfectly and readily soluble, by melting on a sand-bath 100 parts of crystallized 
citric acid in its water of crystallization, and thoroughly incorporating with it 29 parts of cal- 
cined magnesia. A pasty mixture is formed, which soon hardens, and may be pulverized for 
use. Magnesium citrate, thus prepared, is soluble in twice its weight of water. When in 
saturated solution it soon precipitates as a nearly insoluble hydrate; but with eight or ten 
times its weight of water it forms a permanent solution. See the report on the solid citrate, 
made by E. Parrish and A. Smith, to the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. (A. J. P, 1852.) 
See, also, M. E. Robiquet’s paper on lemonades of magnesium citrate (Joum. de Pharm., Avril, 
1852), and his formula for preparing a soluble magnesium citrate. (A. J. P., July, 1855.) 
M. Simonin finds that an insoluble magnesium citrate may be restored to solubility in boiling 
water by being thoroughly rubbed up with water so as to form a paste. The necessary trit- 
uration will be abridged if a little citric acid be added. (Ann. de Therap., 1857.)* For other 
modifications, suggestions, etc., see Kondratowisch, N. P., 1883, p. 246; Neynaber, A. J. P., 
1884, p. 472 (the proposed substitution of acetic acid by the latter is not desirable, because of 
the impossibility of avoiding an empyreumatic taste) ; also C. B. Stevens, Proc. Mich. State 
Pharm. Assoc., 1885, and F. W. Sennewald, Nat. Drug., 1887. 
Magnesium metatartrate has heen proposed, in the place of the citrate, by M. Leger, who, 
however, states that as a purgative it is more powerful than the citrate, resembling the sulphate. 
On account of its pleasant taste it might, perhaps, be substituted for Epsom salt. M. Leger 
prepares metatartaric acid in the following manner. Into a porcelain capsule put a small amount 
of tartaric acid, and heat it, with occasional agitation, on a slow fire until it fuses; then add 
successively small portions of the acid, so as not to cool the mass, lest it solidify and burn. 
When the capsule is two-thirds full, cease putting more in, but continue the heat until the 
mass, at first puffed up and doughy, is completely melted into an amber-colored liquid. With- 
draw from the fire, and when sufficiently cooled form into pebbles, which must be kept in 
closely-stopped bottles on account of their being hygroscopic. This acid is very soluble in 
water, and in this state greedily attacks the magnesium carbonate, forming with it a salt which 
is permanent even when in solution. (Joum. de Pharm., xix. 226.) 
Medical Properties. This solution is a cooling cathartic, and operates mildly. It has 
come into extensive use in the United States, on account of the facility with which it may be 
* Solid Magnesium Citrate. This salt as heretofore prepared, though soluble at first, is apt to become more or 
less insoluble when kept, in consequence of molecular change. The following process, by M. de Letter, of Brussels, 
yields a salt which is said to retain its solubility indefinitely. “ Take of Citric Acid 20 parts, and of Magnesium 
Carbonate 12 parts. Powder the acid finely, and mix it intimately with the carbonate, also in fine powder. Allow 
the mixture to stand, at the ordinary temperature, for four or five days, or until it ceases to manifest reaction, when 
a little is thrown into water. During this time the powder slowly swells up, and gradually assumes the appearance 
of a spongy mass. Dry this at 30° C. (86° F.), pulverize it, and keep the powder in closely-stopped vials.” Accord- 
ing to M. de Letter, water, in a certain quantity, favors the formation of an insoluble hydrate; and hence the suc- 
cess of his process, in which no other water is present than that which is solidified in the dry materials. (A. J. P., 
1863, p. 312.) M. Hager has been unable to prepare a soluble salt by the process of M. de Letter. He considers 
magnesium citrate as presenting itself in three forms: 1, crystallizable, soluble in from 80 to 90 parts of water, with the 
formula + 7H20; 2, amorphous, soluble in 2 parts of water; and, 3, metamorphous, soluble in 8 or 10 
parts of water, with a strong tendency to crystallize. It is the crystalline variety, presenting the form of micro- 
scopic needles, that occasions the difficulty ; and its production should be avoided. M. Hager proceeds in the fol- 
lowing manner. Rub 40 parts of citric acid and 25 of magnesium carbonate, both in powder, with sufficient alcohol 
of *833 to make a thick mixture; and, having allowed this to stand for several days, at a medium temperature, dry 
it at a heat of 45° C. (113° F.). The product is the amorphous salt, soluble in 2-5 parts of water, in half an hour at 
155° C. (60° F.), immediately at 30° C. (86° F.). Its solution, whether made with hot or with cold water, retains its 
clearness after long standing. The salt is neutral, and contains about 13 mols. of water. To succeed certainly it is 
necessary that the magnesium carbonate be free from dust and impurities. (Ibid., 1864, p. 19.) 812 
Liquor Morphinse Acetatis.—Liquor Morphinse Tartratis. 
PART I. 
taken, and its acceptability to the stomach. The dose as a full purge is the whole quantity 
directed in the formula, or twelve fluidounces (360 C.c.); as a laxative, half that quantity. 
LIQUOR MORPHINE ACETATIS. Br. Solution of Morphine Acetate. 
(LI'QUOR MOR-PHI'NJE XQ-E-TA'TIS.) 
Solutij d’Ac6tate de Morphine, Fr.; Essigsaure Morphinlosung, G. 
“ Morphine Acetate, 17$ grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Diluted Acetic Acid, 38 minims 
(Imp. meas.) or 2 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 1 fl. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 25 
cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Alcohol with an equal vol- 
ume of Distilled Water, adding the Diluted Acetic Acid; dissolve the Morphine Acetate in 
the mixture; dilute with sufficient Distilled Water to produce four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or one hundred cubic centimetres of the Solution of Morphine Acetate. 110 minims contain 
1 grain of Morphine Acetate; 100 cubic centimetres contain 1 gramme.” Br. 
Morphine Acetate often contains a little uncombined morphine, in consequence of the escape 
of a portion of the acid during its evaporation, and especially when this is pushed to dryness. 
It is on this account apt to be unreliable. Hence the addition of the diluted acetic acid, which 
at the same time neutralizes the alkaloid in excess and enables the solution to be completely 
effected. The spirit is added as a preservative. The present solution contains now 1 per cent, 
of morphine acetate. The dose is from fifteen to thirty minims (0-9-1 9 C.c.), equivalent to 
from one-eighth to one-quarter of a grain of the acetate, and to about as many drops of lauda- 
num as minims of the solution. 
LIQUOR MORPHINE HYDROCHLORIDI. Br. Solution of Morphine 
Hydrochloride. 
(Ll'QUOR MOR-PIlI'N/E HY-DRO-jBHLO'RI-DI.) 
Solution of Hydrochlorate of Morphine, Br. 1885; Liquor Morphiae Muriatis, Dub.; Solution of Muriate of 
Morphia; Solute de Hydrochlorate de Morphine, Fr.; Salzsaure Morphinlosung, G. 
“ Morphine Hydrochloride, 17a grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Diluted Hydrochloric Acid, 
38 minims (Imp. meas.) or 2 cubic centimetres ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 1 fl. ounce (Imp. meas.) 
or 25 cubic centimetres ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Alcohol with an equal 
volume of Distilled Water, adding the Diluted Hydrochloric Acid; dissolve the Morphine 
Hydrochloride in the mixture; dilute with sufficient Distilled Water to produce four fluid 
ounces (Imp. meas.) dr one hundred cubic centimetres of the Solution of Morphine Hydrochlo- 
ride. 110 minims contain 1 grain of Morphine Hydrochloride; 100 cubic centimetres contain 
1 gramme.” Br. 
The use of the alcohol is to prevent spontaneous decomposition, that of the acid probably to 
assist in the solution of the salt. The dose of the British solution for an adult is from fifteen 
to thirty minims (0-9-1-9 C.c.) or drops, containing from an eighth to a quarter of a grain of 
the hydrochlorate, and about equivalent to as many drops of laudanum. The solution contains 
now 1 per cent, of morphine hydrochloride. 
LIQUOR MORPHINE TARTRATIS. Br. Solution of Morphine 
Tartrate. 
(LI'QUOR MOR-PHI'N-iE TXR-TRA'TIS.) 
“ Morpliine Tartrate, 17$ grains (Imperial") or 1 gramme ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 1 fl. ounce 
(Imp. meas.) or 25 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Alcohol 
with an equal volume of Distilled Water; dissolve the Morphine Tartrate in the mixture ; add 
sufficient Distilled Water to produce four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubic cen- 
timetres of the Solution. 
This solution was introduced into the Br. Ph. 1898 because of the superior solubility and 
stability of the morphine tartrate, and its adaptability for hypodermic administration, alcohol 
being used to preserve the liquid. It is of the same strength as the other solutions of mor- 
phine,—i.e., 1 per cent. “110 minims contain 1 grain of Morphine Tartrate; 100 cubic centi- 
metres contain 1 gramme.” Br. The dose is from fifteen to thirty minims (0-9-1 9 C.c.).* 
* Various solutions of morphine sulphate have been in vogue, but have been abandoned by the Pharmacopoeias 
on account of their tendency to undergo decomposition. The U. S. 1870 solution contained 1 grain of morphine 
sulphate to the fluidounce; the Br. 1885 solution 4-375 grains in the same quantity. Magendie’s solution was of the 
strength of 16 grains to the fluidounce. PART I. 
Liquor Pancreatis.—Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis. 
813 
LIQUOR PANCREATIS. Br. Pancreatic Solution. 
(lI'quqr pXn-cre'a-tis.) 
“ A liquid preparation containing the digestive principles of the fresh pancreas of the pig. 
The preparation is most active when the animal from which it is obtained has been fed shortly 
before being killed. Five ounces (Imperial) or two hundred and fifty grammes of the pan- 
creas, freed from fat and external membrane and finely divided by trituration with washed sand 
or powdered pumice stone, should be digested, in a closed vessel, in twenty fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of Alcohol (20 per cent.) for seven days, and then 
filtered.” Br. 
This new official of the Br. Ph. 1898 has been introduced to supply the demand for a 
liquid digestive solution made from the pancreas; it closely resembles the preparation recom- 
mended by Benger. (Proc. Roy. Soc., xxxii. 145 ; see also Pancreati.num.') The test, modelled 
on the U. S. P. test for pancreatin, is as follows: “ If 2 cubic centimetres of the Solution, to- 
gether with 0-2 gramme of sodium bicarbonate and 20 cubic centimetres of water, be added to 
80 cubic centimetres of milk, and the mixture be kept at a temperature of 113° F. (45° C.) 
for one hour, coagulation should no longer occur on the addition of nitric acid." Br. The 
solution digests albuminoids, converts starch into sugar in an alkaline solution, albumen and 
fibrin into peptones, and peptonizes milk. As it acts normally in alkaline solutions, whilst the 
gastric juices are strongly acid, its practical value as an internal medicament is doubtful. The 
dose is from one to two fluidrachms (37—7'3 C.c.). 
LIQUOR PICIS CARBONIS. Br. Solution of Coal Tar. 
“ Prepared Coal Tar, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 200 grammes; Quillaia Bark, in No. 20 powder, 
2 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; Alcohol (90 per cent.), a sufficient quantity. Moisten the 
powdered Quillaia Bark with one fluid ounce (Imp. meas.) or fifty cubic centimetres of the 
Alcohol, and complete the percolation process with the remainder of the Alcohol as for Tinc- 
tures, one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres being produced. To the result- 
ing percolate add the Prepared Coal Tar, and digest the mixture at 120° F. (48-9° C.) for two 
days, occasionally stirring. Cool and decant, or filter.” Br. 
This solution of the Br. Ph. 1898 is practically identical with Liquor Carbonis Detergens, 
Coal Tar Saponine, and similar well-known preparations which have been largely used by 
dermatologists. The process for solution of coal tar is modelled after that for compound tinc- 
ture of coal tar, proposed by Dr. L. A. Duhring (Amer. Journ. Med. Sciences), who recom- 
mended digesting 1 part of coal tar with 6 parts of tincture of quillaja for eight days, and 
then filtering. It owes its virtues largely to phenol and other derivatives of coal tar. (See Coal 
Tar, Part II.) 
Solution of coal tar is stimulating, and is prescribed, diluted with from ten to fifty parts of 
water, as a wash in eczema, psoriasis, pruritus, and other skin diseases. 
(lI'quor pi'cJs cXr-bo'nis.) 
LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Lead Sub- 
acetate. 
“ An aqueous liquid, containing in solution about 25 per cent, of Lead Subacetate [approxi- 
mately Pb20(C2H302)2 = 546-48].” U. S. 
Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Fortis, Br., Strong Solution of Lead Subacetate, Goulard’s Extract; Liquor Plumbi 
Subacetici, P. G.; Acetum Plumbicum, Acetum Saturni, Plumbum Hydrico-Aceticum Solutum; Sous-acetate de 
Plomb liquide, Extrait de Goulard, Vinaigre de Plomb (de Saturne), Fr.; Bleiessig, G. 
“ Lead Acetate, one hundred and seventy grammes [or 6 ounces av.] ; Lead Oxide, one hun- 
dred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make 
one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Dissolve the Lead Acetate in eight 
hundred grammes [or 28 ounces av., 96 grains] of boiling Distilled Water, in a glass or porce- 
lain vessel. Then add the Lead Oxide, previously passed through a fine sieve, and boil for 
half an hour, occasionally adding hot Distilled Water to make up the loss by evaporation. 
Remove the heat, allow the liquid to cool, and add enough Distilled Water, previously boiled 
and cooled, to make the product weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. 
Finally, filter the liquid in a closely covered funnel. Keep the product in well-stoppered 
bottles.” U.S. 
(Li'QUOR PLUM'BI SUB-Xg-E-TA'TIS.) Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis. 
814 
PART I. 
“ Lead Acetate, 5 ounces (Imperial) or 250 grammes; Lead Oxide, in powder, 31 ounces 
(Imp.) or 175 grammes; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Boil tlie Lead Acetate and 
the Lead Oxide in one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of Distilled Water 
for half an hour, constantly stirring, and maintaining the volume of the liquid by occasional 
additions of Distilled Water; filter; when the liquid is cold add sufficient Distilled Water to 
produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Strong Solution.” Br. 
The sp. gr. of the solution is 1-275. 
The U. S. 1890 process does not differ essentially from that formerly official. Crystallized 
lead acetate consists of one atom of lead 206-5, two acetic acid groups 118, and three molecules 
of water 54 = 378-5. The formula is Pb(C2H302)2 -f- 3H20. Litharge, as usually found in 
commerce, is an impure lead oxide. When the solution of the former is boiled with the latter, 
a large quantity of the oxide is dissolved, and a lead subacetate is formed which remains in solu- 
tion. The precise composition of the subacetate varies with the proportion of lead acetate and 
of litharge employed. Thus, starting with three molecules of normal acetate, Pb3(C2H302)e, 
we may have Pb30(C2H302)4 and Pb302(C2H302)2 formed successively. The latter of these 
oxyacetates is known as Goulard’s, and a mixture of the two constitutes the basis of the official 
solution. In executing the process, the litharge should be employed in very fine powder, and, 
according to Thenard, should be previously calcined in order to decompose the lead carbonate 
which it always contains in greater or less proportion, and which is not dissolved by the solution 
of the acetate. M. Nevning states that a solution of lead subacetate more permanent than the 
official one may be prepared by simply allowing litharge to remain for twenty-four hours in a 
solution of lead acetate, with occasional agitation. This preparation probably contains much 
less of the lead oxide than does the official solution. Courtonne recommends dissolving 
seventy-five parts by weight of crystallized lead acetate in one hundred and sixty-five parts 
of water, and adding eleven parts of ammonia water, sp. gr. 0 923. This quick method has 
the disadvantage of containing ammonium acetate in small quantity. (Client. Zeit., 1894.) 
For Haussmann’s method by agitation with hot water, see A. J. P., 1897, 559 ; see also A. 
J. P., 1896, 427; Merck's Report, 1896, 329. 
Properties. The solution of lead subacetate of the Pharmacopoeias is “ a clear, colorless 
liquid, odorless, having a sweetish, astringent taste, and an alkaline reaction. On exposure to 
the air it absorbs carbon dioxide, which causes the formation of a white precipitate. Specific 
gravity, about 1-195 at 15° C. (59° F.). When Solution of Lead Subacetate is added to a 
solution of acacia, it produces a dense, white precipitate (distinction from an aqueous solution 
of normal lead acetate). In other respects the Solution conforms to the reactions and tests 
given under Lead Acetate (see Plumbi Acetas). If 13-67 Gm. of the Solution be diluted with 
50 C.c. of water, there will be required, for complete precipitation of the lead, about 25 C.c. 
of normal sulphuric acid (each C.c. corresponding to 1 per cent, of Lead Subacetate), methyl- 
orange being used as indicator.” XJ. S. “ A clear colorless liquid, with alkaline reaction and 
sweet astringent taste. It becomes turbid by exposure to the air. It forms with mucilage of 
gum acacia an opaque white jelly. It affords the reactions characteristic of lead and of ace- 
tates. Specific gravity 1-275. Each gramme should require for complete precipitation 17 
cubic centimetres of the dednormal volumetric solution of sulphuric acid." Br. When concen- 
trated by evaporation, it deposits on cooling crystalline plates, which, according to Dr. Barker, 
are flat, rhomboidal prisms, with dihedral summits * It has an alkaline reaction, tingeing 
the syrup of violets green, and reddening turmeric paper. One of its most striking properties 
is the extreme facility with which it is decomposed. Carbonic acid throws down a white pre- 
cipitate of lead carbonate; and this happens by mere exposure to the air, or by mixture even 
with distilled water, if this has had an opportunity of absorbing carbonic acid from the 
atmosphere. It affords precipitates also with the alkalies, alkaline earths, and their carbonates, 
with sulphuric and hydrochloric acids free or combined, with hydrogen sulphide and the sulphy- 
drates, with the soluble iodides and chlorides, and, according to Thenard, with solutions of 
all the neutral salts. Solutions of gum, tannin, most vegetable coloring principles, and many 
animal substances, particularly albumen, produce with it precipitates consisting of the sub- 
stance added and lead oxide. It should be kept in well-stopped bottles. It is known to con- 
* Crystallized Lead Subacetate. M. Jeannel prepares crystallized lead subacetate in accordance with the follow- 
ing formula. Triturate six parts of neutral lead acetate with two parts of pure litharge, and add one part of water. 
Heat in a porcelain capsule, stirring with a glass rod, until fusion and finally ebullition occur. After two or three 
minutes of boiling, filter through paper in a funnel heated by a sand-bath. Allow to cool and crystallize. (Journ. de 
Pharm., 4e s6r., xi. 54.) PART I. 
Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus.—Liquor Potassse. 
815 
tain a salt of acetic acid by emitting an acetous smell when treated with sulphuric acid, and 
a salt of lead by yielding a white precipitate with an alkaline carbonate, a yellow one with 
potassium iodide, and a black one with hydrogen sulphide. It is distinguished from the solu- 
tion of lead acetate by being precipitated by gum arabie. For a method of assaying this 
solution volumetrically, see P. J. Tr., 1886, 656. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This solution is astringent and sedative, but is employed 
only as an external application. It is highly useful in inflammation arising from sprains, bruises, 
burns, blisters, etc., to which it is applied by means of linen cloths, which should be removed 
as fast as they become dry. It always, however, requires to be diluted. From four fluidrachms 
to a fluidounce (15-30 C.c.), added to a pint (473 C.c.) of distilled water, forms a solution 
sufficiently strong in ordinary cases of external inflammation. When applied to the skin de- 
nuded of the cuticle, the solution should be still weaker, as constitutional effects might result 
from the absorption of the lead. Paralysis is said to have been produced by its local action; 
and poisoning by its injection for gonorrhoea has been reported (Dublin Journ. Med. Sci., 1874). 
The solution has the common name of Goulard's extract, derived from a surgeon of Mont- 
pellier by whom it was introduced into general notice, though previously employed* 
LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS DILUTUS. U. S., Br. Diluted 
Solution of Lead Subacetate. [Lead Water.] 
Goulard’s Lotion, Goulard Water, Br.; Diluted Solution of Subacetate of Lead; Aqua Plumbi, P.G.; Eau de 
Saturne, Eau blanche, Fr.; Bleiwasser, Kiihlwasser, G. 
“ Solution of Lead Subacetate, thirty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 minims] ; Distilled 
Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 
minims]. Mix the Solution of Lead Sub acetate with enough Distilled Water, previously boiled 
and cooled, to make the product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 
minims]. Keep the Solution in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“ Strong Solution of Lead Subacetate, 2 fl. drachms (Imperial measure) or 5 cubic centi- 
metres ; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 2 fl. drachms (Imp. mcas.) or 5 cubic centimetres ; Distilled 
Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Alcohol with nineteen and a half fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or three hundred and ninety cubic centimetres of recently boiled and cooled Distilled Water; 
add the Strong Solution of Lead Subacetate and shake.” Br. 
In our comments on the U. S. process of 1850 it was stated that the strength of our official 
preparation, though double what it formerly was, might be still further increased with pro- 
priety. In the edition of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870 the proportion was increased from 
two to three fluidrachms to the pint; and this proportion has been practically retained in the 
preparation now official. The direction to dilute the strong solution with distilled water previ- 
ously boiled and cooled is an improvement, as even the small amount of carbonic acid dissolved 
in distilled water usually made the lead water cloudy. Owing to the liability to serious results 
due to the frequent confounding of the names lime water and lead water, it is safer to dispense 
lead water in a slightly opalescent condition, whilst lime water should be perfectly transparent. 
The Br. preparation, though stronger than the old one of the London College, is still feeble. 
The old French Codex directed two drachms of the strong solution to a pound of distilled 
water and an ounce of alcohol of 22° Baume, and thus formed the vegeto-mineral water of 
Gioulard. The minute proportion of alcohol in the British solution can have little effect. The 
preparation should be as much as possible excluded from the air. 
(LI'QUOR PLUM'BI SUB-Xg-E-TA'TIS DI-LU'TUS.) 
LIQUOR POTASSAE. U. S., Br. Solution Of Potassa. [Solution of Potassium 
Hydrate.] 
“An aqueous solution of Potassium Hydrate [KOH = 55-99], containing about 5 per cent, 
of the hydrate.” U. S. “An aqueous solution containing in 110 minims 6*2 grains, or in 1 
fluid ounce 27 grains, of potassium hydroxide, KOH.” Br. 
Liquor Kali Caustici, P. G.; Kali Hydricum Solutum, Lixivium Causticum; Solution of Potash; Potasse caus- 
tique liquide, Lessive caustique, Fr.; Aetzkalilauge, Kalilauge, G. 
(LI'QUOR PO-TAS'S7E.) 
* Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S. 1880. Liniment of Subacetate of Lead. (Liniment saturne, Beurre de 
Saturne, Baume universelle, Fr.; Bleiliniment, G.) “ Solution of Subacetate of Lead, forty parts [or two ounces av.]; 
Cotton Seed Oil, sixty parts [or three ounces av.], To make one hundred parts [or five ounces av.]. Mix them.” U. S. 
This preparation, which was introduced in the U. S. P. 1870, was retained in the revision of 1880, with the substi- 
tution of cotton seed oil for the olive oil, but was dropped from the revision of 1890. This liniment may be used as 
a sedative application in superficial inflammations. 816 
Liquor Potcissoe. 
PART I. 
“ Potassium Bicarbonate, eighty-jive grammes [or 3 ounces av.] ; Lime, forty grammes [or 
1 ounce av., 180 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Potassium Bi- 
carbonate in four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of Distilled 
Water, heat the splution until effervescence ceases, and then increase the heat to the boiling 
point of the liquid. Slake the Lime with about twenty cubic centimeters [or 325 minims] of 
Distilled Water, then mix it well with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Distilled Water, pour the mixture into a tared flask, and, having heated it to boil- 
ing, gradually add to it the solution of Potassium Bicarbonate, and boil during ten minutes. 
Then add enough Distilled Water to the flask to make the contents weigh one thousand grammes 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains], and set the flask aside, well stoppered, until the contents are 
cold. Lastly, strain the liquid through linen, set it aside in a well-stoppered bottle until it has 
become clear by subsidence, and separate the clear solution by decantation, or by means of a 
siphon. 
“ Solution of Potassa may also be prepared in the following manner. Potassa, fifty-six 
grammes [or 1 ounce av., 427 grains] ; Distilled Water, nine hundred and forty-four grammes 
[or 33 ounces av., 130 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. 
Dissolve the Potassa in the Distilled Water. The Potassa used in this process should be 
of the full strength directed by the Pharmacopoeia (90 per cent.). Potassa of any other 
strength, however, may be used, if a proportionately larger or smaller quantity be taken; the 
proper amount for the above formula being ascertained by dividing 5000 by the percentage of 
absolute Potassa (potassium hydrate) contained therein. Solution of Potassa should be kept 
in bottles made of green glass, and provided with glass stoppers coated with paraffin or petro- 
latum.” U. S. 
The British Pharmacopoeia 1898 does not give a detailed process, merely specifying that 
one fluidounce shall contain twenty-seven grains of potassium hydroxide. 
The object of the first U. S. Pharmacopoeia process is to separate carbonic acid from the 
potassium carbonate or bicarbonate, so as to obtain the alkali in a caustic state. This separa- 
tion of the carbonic acid is effected by calcium hydrate; and the chemical changes which take 
place are most intelligibly explained by supposing the occurrence of a double decomposition. 
The lime of the calcium hydrate, by its superior affinity, combines with the carbonic acid and 
precipitates as calcium carbonate, while the water of the calcium hydrate unites with the po- 
tassa and remains in solution as potassium hydrate : K2C03 -f- Ca(IIO)2 = 2KIIO -f- CaC03. 
The proportion indicated by theory for this decomposition would be 69-2 of the dry carbonate to 
28 of lime, or one molecule of each; but in practice it is found necessary to use an excess of 
lime. The bicarbonate is preferred in the U. S. process, as affording a purer product, being 
itself free from the contaminations usually found in the carbonate; and the application of 
heat to the solution of the bicarbonate is to drive off a portion of the carbonic acid and thus 
bring the salt to the state of a carbonate. The proportion of water employed has a decided 
influence on the result. If the water be deficient in quantity, the decomposing power of the 
lime, on account of its sparing solubility, will be lessened, and more of it will be required to 
complete the decomposition of the carbonate than if the solutions were more dilute. Strain- 
ing should not be used, as it causes a prolonged contact with the air, and risk of the absorp- 
tion of carbonic acid, and is apt, moreover, to introduce organic matter from the strainer into 
the solution ; it is best to allow the precipitate to subside in a closed vessel and then siphon off 
the clear solution. The direction to keep the solution in green glass bottles is judicious, as 
white flint glass is slightly acted on, and sometimes contaminates the solution with lead. 
According to Prof. Wohler, solution of pure potassium hydrate for analytical purposes may 
be conveniently obtained by exposing for half an hour to a moderate red heat, in a copper 
crucible, one part of pure nitre, and two or three parts of copper cut into small pieces. The 
resulting mass, consisting of potassium hydrate and black oxide of copper, is treated with 
water, and the solution poured into a narrow cylindrical vessel, where it is left until it gets per- 
fectly clear by the deposition of the oxide of copper. It is then drawn off, and kept in well- 
stopped bottles. (Chem. Gaz., Nov. 15, 1853, p. 429.) Graf and Riegel assert that potassium 
hydrate, thus obtained, contains potassium nitrate and nitrite, but Dr. A. Geuther found it 
perfectly pure, when the process was properly conducted. (Chem. Gaz., June 1, 1856.) A 
pure hydrate may also be obtained by the process of Dr. Mohr, which consists in precipitating 
solution of potassium sulphate with caustic baryta, obtained from the nitrate. Thus procured, 
the alkali is entirely free from chlorine, silica, and sulphuric acid. (P. J. Tr., xvi. 310.) 
Properties. Solution of potassa is “ a clear, colorless liquid, odorless, having a very acrid PART I. 
Liquor Potassse.—Liquor Potassii Arsenitis. 
817 
and caustic taste, and a strongly alkaline reaction. Specific gravity, about 1-036 at 15° C. (59° 
F.). It should conform to the same reactions and tests as an aqueous solution of Potassa (see 
Potassa). To neutralize 28 Gm. of Solution of Potassa should require about 25 C.c. of nor- 
mal sulphuric acid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution indicating 0-2 per cent, of absolute 
potassium hydrate), phenolphtalein being used as indicator.” U. S. “A colorless, odorless, 
and transparent liquid having a nauseous taste. It is strongly alkaline. It should not yield 
any characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, arsenium, iron, aluminium, calcium, 
magnesium, sodium, or ammonium, and should be free from more than traces of carbonates, 
chlorides, or sulphates. Specific gravity 1-058. 9 cubic centimetres should require for neu- 
tralization 10 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution of sulphuric acid, corresponding to 
0-557 gramme of potassium hydroxide, KOH, or to 6-19 grammes in 100 cubic centimetres, or 
to 5 85 grammes in 100 grammes. Solution of Potash should be preserved in a green glass 
bottle furnished with an air-tight stopper.” Br. It acts rapidly on animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, and when rubbed between the fingers produces a soapy feeling, in consequence of a 
partial solution of the cuticle. It dissolves gum, resins, and extractive matter, and forms soap 
with oily and fatty bodies. The U. S. solution, being obtained from potassium bicarbonate, is 
pure. Lead may be detected by a black precipitate produced by ammonium sulphydrate. When 
solution of potassa is used as a test for diabetic urine, it should be free from lead, the presence 
of which renders the test ambiguous. With platinic chloride it produces a yellow precipitate, 
showing that the alkali present is potassa. It is incompatible with acids, acidulous salts, and 
all metallic and earthy preparations held in solution by an acid; also with all ammoniacal 
salts, and with calomel and corrosive sublimate. The two official solutions of potassa vary in 
strength, the U. S. solution having the sp. gr. 1-036 and the Br. 1-058. These solutions are very 
dilute, that of the U. S. Pharm., which is the weakest, containing only 5 per cent, of potassium 
hydrate: the percentage of potassium hydrate in the solution of the Br. Pharm. is 5-85, or some- 
what greater than in the American preparation. On account of its strong attraction for carbonic 
acid, solution of potassa should be carefully preserved from contact with the air. In considera- 
tion of the change to which it is liable by keeping, it may usually be advantageously prepared 
extemporaneously, according to the second U. S. process, by dissolving the hydrate in water. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Solution of potassa is antacid, diuretic, and antilithic. 
It has been much employed in calculous complaints, under the impression that it has the prop- 
erty of dissolving urinary concretions in the kidneys and bladder; but experience has proved 
that the stone once formed cannot be removed by remedies internally administered ; and the 
most that the alkaline medicines can effect is to correct that disposition to the superabundant 
secretion of uric acid, or the insoluble urates, upon which gravel and stone often depend. For 
this purpose, however, the carbonated alkalies are preferable to caustic potassa, as they are less 
apt to irritate the stomach and to produce injurious effects when long continued. It has been 
proposed to dissolve calculi by injecting immediately into the bladder the solution of potassa 
in a tepid state and so much diluted that it can be held in the mouth; but this mode of em- 
ploying it has not been found to answer in practice. This solution has also been highly recom- 
mended in lepra, psoriasis, and other cutaneous affections, and is said to have proved peculiarly 
useful in scrofula; but in all these cases it probably acts simply by its antacid property, and 
is not superior to the potassium or sodium carbonate. Externally it has been used, in a diluted 
state, as a stimulant lotion in rachitis and arthritic swellings, and, concentrated, as an escha- 
rotic in the bite of rabid or venomous animals. The dose is from ten to thirty minims (0-6- 
1-9 C.c.), repeated two or three times a day, and gradually increased in cutaneous affections to 
from one to two fluidrachms (3-75-7-5 C.c.) ; but the remedy should not be too long continued, 
as it is apt to debilitate the stomach. It may be given in sweetened water or some mucilaginous 
fluid. In dyspeptic cases it may be associated with the simple bitters. In excessive doses it 
irritates, inflames, or corrodes the stomach. The antidotes are oils and milder acids, such as 
vinegar and lemon juice, which operate by neutralizing the alkali. 
LIQUOR POTASSII ARSENITIS. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Potassium 
Arsenite. [Fowler’s Solution.] 
Liquor Arsenicalis, Br.; Arsenical Solution; Liquor Kali Arsenicosi, P. 0.; Solutio Arsenicalis Fowleri, Kali 
Arscnicosum Solutum; Liqueur de Fowler, Fr.; Fowler’sche Tropfen, G. 
“ Arsenous Acid, in fine powder, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Potassium Bicarbonate, twenty 
grammes [or 309 grains] ; Compound Tincture of Lavender, thirty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluid- 
(LI'QUOR PO-TAS'SI-I AR-SE-Nl'TlS.) 818 
Liquor Potassii Arsenitis. 
PART I. 
ounce, 7 minims] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters 
[or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Boil the Arsenous Acid and Potassium Bicarbonate with one 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] of Distilled Water, until solution has 
been effected. Then add enough Distilled Water to make the solution, when cold, measure 
nine hundred and seventy cubic centimeters [or 32 fluidounces, 384 minims], and, lastly, add the 
Compound Tincture of Lavender. Filter through paper.” U. S. 
“ Arsenious Anhydride, in powder, 87 J grains (Imperial) or 10 grammes ; Potassium Car- 
bonate, 87i grains (Imp.) or 10 grammes; Compound Tincture of Lavender, 5 ji. drachms 
(Imp. meas.) or 31-25 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Heat the 
Arsenious Anhydride and the Potassium Carbonate with ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five 
hundred cubic centimetres of Distilled Water in a one-pint (or one-litre) flask until a clear 
solution is obtained; cool; add the Compound Tincture of Lavender and sufficient Distilled 
Water to produce one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Solution.” 
Br. The sp. gr. of this solution is l'OlO. 
This preparation originated with the late Dr. Fowler, of Stafford, England, and was intended 
as a substitute for the celebrated remedy known under the name of “the tasteless ague drop” 
The strength of the present official solution is somewhat greater than that of the Fowler’s so- 
lution of U. S. P. 1870; it now contains 1 per cent, of arsenous acid, and the British solution 
has been made to correspond with this. It is a potassium arsenite dissolved in water, and is 
formed by the combination of the arsenous acid with the potassium of the bicarbonate or car- 
bonate, the carbonic acid being evolved. In the present U. S. process the bicarbonate has 
been preferred to the carbonate, and in order to expedite the process the quantity has been 
doubled. As the bicarbonate is decomposed to carbonate by boiling water, there is present in 
the finished solution some potassium carbonate. According to M. II. Buignet, ebullition disen- 
gages the carbonic acid slowly, so that after four hours’ boiling the solution still retains about one- 
sixth of this acid. (Journ. de Pharm., 1856, p. 440.) The name by which the preparation is 
designated in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is the more correct. The contact of arsenous acid with 
potassium bicarbonate in the presence of a small quantity of boiling water gives rise to effer- 
vescence with decomposition of bicarbonate. It has, however, been denied that potassium 
carbonate is decomposed by arsenous acid, which is supposed to be merely held by it in solu- 
tion ; and, in this view of the nature of the preparation, the British name of Arsenical Solu- 
tion would be appropriate. The compound spirit of lavender is added to give it taste and 
prevent its being mistaken for water. For Oldberg’s process, see Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 430 ; 
see also A. J. P., 1895, 403. 
In making this preparation care should be taken that the arsenous acid is pure. This object 
is best secured by selecting the acid in small pieces instead of the commercial powder, and 
powdering the lumps in a mortar. Calcium sulphate is a common impurity in the powdered 
acid, and if present will remain undissolved, and cause the solution to be weaker than it should 
be. Another insoluble impurity in the powdered acid is calcium arsenite, which is sometimes 
present to the amount of 25 per cent. (.Buignet.) Hence, if the arsenous acid does not entirely 
dissolve, the solution must be rejected. 
Properties. Solution of potassium arsenite is a transparent liquid, having slightly the color, 
taste, and smell of the compound spirit of lavender. It lias an alkaline reaction. It is decom- 
posed by the usual reagents for arsenic, by silver nitrate, the salts of copper, lime water, and 
hydrogen sulphide, and is incompatible with the infusions and decoctions of cinchona. Before 
hydrogen sulphide will act, the solution must be acidulated with some acid, as hydrochloric or 
acetic. “ If 24-7 C.c. of the Solution be boiled for a few minutes with 2 Gm. of sodium bi- 
carbonate, and the liquor, when cold, diluted with water to 100 C.c., and mixed with a little 
starch test-solution, it should require from 49-4 to 50 C.c. of iodine decinormal volumetric 
solution to produce the blue tint of starch iodide (corresponding to 1 Gm. of arsenous acid 
in 100 C.c. of the Solution).” U. S. “A reddish liquid, alkaline to test-papers, and having 
the odor of lavender. 25 cubic centimetres, neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and diluted 
with water, should discharge the color of 50-8 to 50-9 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solu- 
tion of iodine, the presence of a slight excess of sodium bicarbonate being maintained through- 
out the operation. 110 minims contain 1 grain of Arsenious Anhydride; 100 cubic centi- 
metres contain 1 gramme.” Br. According to Dr. It. Fresenius, solutions of alkaline arsenites 
slowly absorb oxygen from the air, and are in part converted into arsenates. Hence the 
propriety of keeping this solution in small bottles well filled. Mohr states that the alkaline 
reaction of the official solution delays the change, and experience has confirmed this state- PART I. 
Liquor Potassii Arsenitis.—Liquor Potassii Citratis. 
819 
ment. The slight precipitate found in this solution after keeping proved to be silicic acid, 
caused by the action of the alkaline solution on the glass container. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This solution has the general action of the arsenical 
preparations on the animal economy, already described under the head of Arsenous Acid. Its 
liquid form makes it convenient for exhibition and gradual increase; and it is the preparation 
generally resorted to when arsenic is given internally. It has been much employed in inter- 
mittent fever. In chorea it is almost a specific, and in nervous diseases of debility it is often 
very useful. In malarial affections and chorea it should be administered in ascending doses 
until the puffiness about the eyes or disturbance of the bowels betrays the arsenical impression. 
Fowler’s solution is a very valuable remedy in various shin diseases, and has the great advan- 
tage over the solid preparations that the dose may be readily increased from day to day. One 
hundred minims of the solution contain very nearly one grain of arsenous acid. The average 
dose for an adult is five drops (0-3 C.c.) two or three times a day. For the peculiar effects 
upon the human organism, see Acidum Arsenosum. 
Duff,os's antidote to the poisonous effects of Fowler’s solution, and of the salts of the acids 
of arsenic generally, is ferric acetate with excess of base, made by dissolving freshly precipi- 
tated ferric hydrate in acetic acid to saturation, adding an equal quantity of the hydrate to 
the solution, and diluting the whole with water to the consistence of cream. If the official 
solution of ferric acetate be used in an emergency, the free acid should first be neutralized 
with a little ammonia. 
LIQUOR POTASSII CITRATIS. U. S. Solution of Potassium Citrate. 
[Mistura Potassii Citratis.] 
“ An aqueous liquid, containing in solution about 9 per cent, of anhydrous Potassium Ci- 
trate [K3CeH507 = 305-63], together with small amounts of citric and carbonic acids.” U. S. 
Liquor Kali Citrici; Citrate de Potasse liquide, Fr.; Fliissiges Citronensaures Kali, G. 
“ Potassium Bicarbonate, eight grammes [or 123 grains] ; Citric Acid six grammes [or 92 
grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Potassium Bicarbonate and the Citric Acid, 
each, in forty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 169 minims] of Water. Filter the solutions 
separately, and wash the filters with enough Water to obtain, in each case, fifty cubic centime- 
ters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims]. Finally, mix the two solutions, and, when effervescence 
has nearly ceased, transfer the liquid to a bottle. This preparation should be freshly made, 
when wanted.” U. S. 
Solution of Potassium Citrate has been made identical with the mixture formerly official as 
Mistura Potassii,Citratis; nevertheless, the mixture made with lemon juice will continue to be pre- 
ferred by some practitioners : its formula is therefore retained here as a foot-note.* The official 
(LI'QUOR PO-TAS'SI-I CI-TRA'TIS.) 
* Misturn Potassii Citratis. U. S. 1880. Mixture of Citrate of Potassium. [Neutral Mixture.] (Mistura Neu- 
tralis ; Potion gazeuse (effervescente), Fr.) “Fresh Lemon Juice, strained, one hundred parts [or four fluidounces] ; 
Bicarbonate of Potassium, about ten parts, or, a sufficient quantity. Add the Bicarbonate of Potassium gradually 
to the Lemon Juice until it is neutralized. This preparation should be freshly made, when wanted for use.” U. S. 
In this preparation the potassium of the bicarbonate unites with the citric acid of the lemon juice, and carbonic 
acid is liberated. The result, therefore, is a solution of potassium citrate in water impregnated with carbonic acid, 
with the flavor from the lemon juice. The solution has a greenish-yellow color, and it is not usually dispensed in a 
perfectly transparent condition, owing to the difficulty of filtering out the very fine albuminous precipitate found in 
lemon juice. About 48 grains of the crystals of the bicarbonate, 33 grains of the pure and perfectly dry carbonate, 
or 45 grains of the hydrated carbonate found in commerce, are sufficient to saturate a fluidounce of good lemon 
juice; but the strength of the juice is variable, and the carbonate is apt to absorb moisture from the air, so 
that precision as to quantities cannot be readily attained. Hence the propriety of the direction, in the process for 
the neutral mixture, to add the alkaline carbonate to saturation. The point of saturation may be determined by the 
cessation of effervescence, by the absence of either an acid or an alkaline taste, and still more accurately by litmus 
paper, which should not be rendered bright red by the solution, or blue if previously reddened by an acid. The in- 
equality of strength in the lemon juice renders the neutral mixture prepared with it more or less uncertain; though, 
if the apothecary select ripe and sound fruit, and express the juice himself, the preparation will be found to ap- 
proach sufficiently near a uniform standard for all practical purposes. Nevertheless, if the physician wish absolute 
precision, he may order the neutral mixture to be made with crystallized citric acid, as directed in Liquor Potassii 
Citratis; or he may pursue the following plan, suggested in former editions of this work. Dissolve two drachms of 
potassium bicarbonate in two fluidounces of water; saturate the solution with good fresh lemon juice, and strain; 
and, lastly, add enough water to make the mixture measure six fluidounces. A fluidounce is the dose of this solution. 
Effervescing Draught. Under this name, potassium citrate is often prepared extemporaneously, and given 
in the state of effervescence. The most convenient mode of exhibition is to add to a fluidounce of a mixture 
consisting of equal parts of lemon juice and water, half a fluidounce of a solution containing fifteen grains of po- 
tassium carbonate, or twenty grains of the bicarbonate. Should effervescence not occur, as sometimes happens, 
when the carbonate is used, in consequence of the weakness of the lemon juice, more of the juice should be added; 
as, unless sufficient acid be present to neutralize the potassa, part of the carbonate will pass into the state of bicar- 820 
Liquor Potassii Permanganatis.—Liquor Quassise Concentratus. 
PART I. 
solution is stronger than the mixture, and is more definite in composition; lemon juice varies 
in strength, and consequently the amount of potassium citrate in the resulting mixture cannot 
be uniform. On the other hand, the mixture is much to be preferred on account of its more 
agreeable taste. An improvement has been made in the present official solution in directing the 
acid and the alkaline salt to be dissolved separately, and the direction to dispense the prepara- 
tion in a fresh condition will undoubtedly lead to the keeping of the filtered solutions, by the 
pharmacist, in separate bottles, and mixing in equal measures or weights when prescribed. 
The solutions keep well for a considerable length of time, and the greater convenience and 
saving of time and labor, besides the satisfaction of dispensing an effervescing solution, will be 
strong inducements to adopt this course. 
Properties. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes the solution as “ a clear, colorless liquid, 
odorless, having a mildly saline taste, and a slightly acid reaction. It should conform to the 
reactions and tests of Potassium Citrate. (See Potassii Citras.)” U. S. The solution is officially 
described as containing an indefinite amount of carbonic acid gas: hence the specific gravity 
cannot be regarded as an accurate test of strength, and is not given in the U. S. P. 1890. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The solution of potassium citrate has long been used 
under the name of neutral mixture, saline mixture, or effervescing draught. It is an excellent 
refrigerant diaphoretic, adapted to almost all cases of fever with a hot dry skin, and especially 
to the paroxysms of our remittent and intermittent fevers. The effervescing draught (see foot- 
note, p. 819) is peculiarly useful. The carbonic acid serves to cover the taste of the potassium 
citrate. It is very useful and grateful in allaying irritability of stomach and producing diapho- 
resis in our remittent fevers. In order to increase the sedative and diaphoretic properties of the 
neutral mixture, one-twenty-fourth to one-sixteenth of a grain of tartar emetic, or one-fourth 
to one drop of tincture of aconite, may be added to each dose in sthenic cases ; and a little 
sweet spirit of nitre will be found an excellent adjuvant in fevers with nervous disturbance. 
Should the solution irritate the bowels, it may be combined with an opium preparation. Sugar 
may be added if desired. The dose of the official solution is half a fluidounce (15 C.c.), 
which should be somewhat diluted when taken. The whole of each effervescing draught, pre- 
pared as above stated, is to be taken at once. Each dose should be repeated every one, two, 
or three hours, according to the urgency of the symptoms. 
LIQUOR POTASSII PERMANGANATIS. Br. Solution of Potassium 
Permanganate. 
(LI'QUOB PO-TAS'SI-I PKR-MXN-GA-NA'TIS.) 
“ Potassium Permanganate, 87£ grains (Imperial) or 10 grammes ; Distilled Water, a suffi- 
cient quantity. Dissolve the Potassium Permanganate in sufficient Distilled Water to produce 
one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Solution.” Br. 
This is an unstable 1 per cent, solution of potassium permanganate which decomposes upon 
exposure and deposits manganese oxides. The Br. Ph. dose is from two to four fluidrachms 
(S-O-T'S C.c.), equivalent to from 1-2 to 2-4 grains of the salt. Very few stomachs will bear 
more than one grain of the permanganate. 
LIQUOR QUASSIA CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution of 
Quassia. 
(Li'QUOB QUiS'SI-iE CON-CEN-TRA'TUS.) 
“ Quassia "Wood, in No 40 powder, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Alcohol (20 per 
cent.), 22 ft. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1100 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Mix the 
Quassia with two fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubic centimetres of the Alcohol; 
pack in a closed percolator ; set aside for three days; percolate with the remaining Alcohol, 
added in ten equal portions at intervals of twelve hours; continue percolation with more Alco- 
hol until the product measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
bonate, and the gas be prevented from escaping. The fifteen grains of potassium carbonate above mentioned are 
scarcely sufficient to saturate the lemon juice, if of ordinary strength: but a little excess of the acid renders the 
preparation more agreeable to the taste. Some prefer the bicarbonate in the preparation of the effervescing draught, 
because it will always effervesce with lemon juice, no matter what may be the strength of the latter. But this is an 
objection. The carbonate serves, by the absence of effervescence, to indicate when the lemon juice is very weak in 
acid; and the defect may then be easily remedied by the addition of more juice. When the bicarbonate is used, 
if there should be a deficiency of acid, it is not discovered; and the patient takes a considerable portion of unde- 
composed bicarbonate, instead of the full quantity of citrate intended. Liquor Rhei Concentratus.—Liquor Sennse Concentratus. 
821 
PAET I. 
This solution has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia 1898 mainly to facilitate 
the preparation of infusion of quassia by diluting the solution with water. (See p. 735.) It 
may be given in doses of from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-85 to 3-7 C.c.). 
LIQUOR RHEI CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution of 
Rhubarb. 
“ Rhubarb Root, in No. 5 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Alcohol (20 per 
cent.), 25 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1250 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Moisten 
the Rhubarb with Jive fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of 
the Alcohol; pack in a closed percolator ; set aside for three days; percolate with the remain- 
ing Alcohol, added in ten equal portions at intervals of twelve hours; continue percolation 
with more Alcohol until the product measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic cen- 
timetres.” Br. 
This solution has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia to facilitate the prepara- 
tion of the infusion of rhubarb. (See p. 735.) It fully represents rhubarb, and may be used 
in doses of from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-85 to 3-7 C.c.). 
(LI'QUOR RHE'I CON-CEN-TRA'TUS.) 
LIQUOR COMPOSITUS CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concen- 
trated Compound Solution of Sarsaparilla. 
“ Sarsaparilla, cut transversely and bruised, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes ; Sassa- 
fras Root, in shavings, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes; Guaiacum Wood, in shavings, 2 
ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes ; Dried Liquorice Root, bruised, 2 ounces (Imp.) or 100 grammes ; 
Mezereon Bark, cut small, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 50 grammes; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 4? fl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 225 cubic centimetres ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Infuse the Sar- 
saparilla in three successive portions of five pints (Imp. meas.) or five litres of the Distilled 
Water, for one hour each, at 160° F. (71*1° C.). Boil the other solid ingredients with Distilled 
Water until exhausted. Rapidly concentrate the mixed infusion and decoction until, when 
cold, the liquid measures sixteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred cubic centimetres ; 
add the Alcohol; set aside for at least fourteen days; filter. The product should measure 
one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
This preparation has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia 1898 to provide a 
reasonably stable solution from which the decoction can be made by dilution. (See p. 479.) 
Precipitation is apt to occur on standing. The precipitate is, however, inert and may be filtered 
out. The dose of the solution is from two to eight fluidrachms (7-3 to 29‘5 C.c.). 
(LI'QUOR SAR'S/E COM-PO§'l-TUS CON-CEN-TRA'TUS. ) 
LIQUOR SENEGA CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution of 
Senega. 
“ Senega Root, in No. 20 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes ; a mixture of two 
parts of Alcohol (20 per cent.) and one part of Alcohol (45 per cent.), 25 jl. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 1250 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. Moisten the Senega with four fluid 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred cubic centimetres of the menstruum ; pack in a closed 
percolator; set aside for three days; percolate with the remaining menstruum, added in ten 
equal portions at intervals of twelve hours; continue percolation with more menstruum until 
the product measures one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
This solution has been introduced into the Br. Ph. 1898 for the purpose of providing a 
method of making the infusion by simple dilution. It represents the medical properties of 
senega, and may be given in doses of from one-half to one fluidrachm (P85 to 3-7 C.c.). 
(Li'QUOR CON-CfiN-TRA'TUS.) 
LIQUOR SENN./E CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solution of 
Senna. 
“Senna, in No 5 powder, 20 ounces (Imperial) or 1000 grammes; Tincture of Ginger, 
fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 125 cubic centimetres; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 2 fl. ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Divide the Senna into 
three equal portions; slightly moisten one portion with Distilled Water; pack in a percolator; 
(Li'QUOR SEN'NJE CON-CEN-TRA'TUS.) 822 
Liquor Serpentarix Concentratus.—Liquor Sodse. 
PART I. 
set aside for twenty-four hours; pass Distilled Water through it until five fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres are obtained. Slightly moisten the second 
portion of Senna with this liquid; pack in a percolator; set aside for twenty-four hours; 
percolate with the remainder of the liquid obtained from the first portion, and also with an 
additional five fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centimetres obtained 
by passing more Distilled Water through the first portion. Repeat the process with the third 
portion of the Senna, and continue successive percolation through the three portions, until a 
quantity of sixteen fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or eight hundred cubic centimetres has been col- 
lected from the third percolator. Heat the liquid to 180° F. (82-2° C.) for five minutes; 
cool; add the Alcohol and Tincture of Ginger, previously mixed; set aside for seven days ; 
filter. The product should measure one pint (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centime- 
tres.” Br. 
This solution has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia mainly to provide a strong 
stable solution from which the infusion may be made by dilution. (See p. 736.) This prep- 
aration is an excellent laxative and purgative in doses of from one-half to one fluidrachm 
(1-85 to 3-7 C.c.). 
LIQUOR SERPENTARIA CONCENTRATUS. Br. Concentrated Solu- 
tion of Serpentary. 
(Ll'QUOR SER-PEN-TA'RI-2E CON-CEN-TRA'TUS.) 
“Serpentary Rhizome, in No. 40 powder, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Alcohol 
(20 per cent.), 25 fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 1250 cubic centimetres or a sufficient quantity. 
Moisten the Serpentary with jive fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic cen- 
timetres of the Alcohol; pack in a closed percolator; set aside for three days ; percolate with 
the remaining Alcohol, added in ten equal portions at intervals of twelve hours; continue 
percolation with more Alcohol until the product measures one pint (Imp. meas,.) or one thou- 
sand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
This solution has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia mainly to facilitate the 
preparation of the infusion. (See p. 737.) It represents the virtues of serpentaria, and 
may be given in doses of from one-half to two fluidrachms (1*85 to 7-5 C.e.). 
LIQUOR SODA. U. S. Solution Of Soda. [Solution of Sodium Hydrate.] 
“ An aqueous solution of Sodium Hydrate [NaOH = 39-96], containing about 5 per cent, 
of the hydrate.” U. S. 
Liquor Natri Caustici, P. 0.; Natrum Hydrieum Solutum; Soude caustique liquide, Fr.; Aetznatronlauge, G. 
“ Sodium Carbonate, one hundred and seventy grammes [or 6 ounces av., 153 grains] ; Lime, 
fifty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 334 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the 
Sodium Carbonate in four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] of boiling 
Distilled Water. Slake the Lime with about thirty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 minims] 
of Distilled Water, then mix it well with four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 
minims] of Distilled Water, pour the mixture into a tared flask, and, having heated it to boil- 
ing, gradually add to it the solution of Sodium Carbonate, and boil during ten minutes. Then 
add enough Distilled Water to the flask to make the contents weigh one thousand grammes [or 
35 ounces av., 120 grains], and set the flask aside, well stoppered, until the contents are cold. 
Lastly, strain the liquid through linen, set it aside in a well-stoppered bottle until it has become 
clear by subsidence, and separate the clear solution by decantation, or by means of a siphon. 
Solution of Soda may also be prepared in the following manner: Soda fifty-six grammes [or 1 
ounce av., 427 grains] ; Distilled Water, nine hundred and forty-four grammes [or 33 ounces 
av., 130 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Dissolve the 
Soda in the Distilled Water. The Soda used in this process should be of the full strength 
directed by the Pharmacopoeia (90 per cent.). Soda of any other strength, however, may be 
used, if a proportionately larger or smaller quantity be taken ; the proper amount for the above 
formula being ascertained by dividing 5000 by the percentage of absolute Soda (sodium hydrate) 
contained therein. Solution of Soda should be kept in bottles made of green glass, and pro- 
vided with glass stoppers coated with paraffin or petrolatum.” U. S. 
Solution of soda is prepared in the same way as solution of potassa. By a double decompo-' 
sition between sodium carbonate and calcium hydrate, there are formed sodium hydrate in 
(Li'QUOR SO'DiE.) PART I. 
Liquor Sodae.—Liquor Sodae Chloi'atae. 
823 
solution, and calcium carbonate which precipitates: Na2C03 -f- Ca2(HO) = 2NaHO -f- CaCO?. 
In both the processes an excess of lime is used, which is necessary to insure a full decomposi- 
tion of the carbonate. 
Properties. Solution of soda, sometimes called' solution of caustic soda, is “ a clear, color- 
less liquid, odorless, having a very acrid and caustic taste, and a strongly alkaline reaction. 
Specific gravity, about 1-059 at 15° C. (59° F.). It should conform to the same reactions 
and tests as an aqueous solution of Soda (see Soda). To neutralize 20 Gm. of Solution of 
Soda should require about 25 C.c. of normal sulphuric acid (each C.c. of the volumetric solu- 
tion indicating 0-2 per cent, of absolute sodium hydrate), phenolphtalein being used as indi- 
cator.” U. S. Its properties and tests are the same as those of solution of potassa, with the 
exception that no precipitate is produced by platinic chloride or tartaric acid. The alkali dis- 
solved must be viewed as sodium hydrate (Na.OH), of which two molecules are formed by the 
union of the oxide with water, according to the reaction NaaO + HaO = (Na.OH)a. 
LIQUOR SOD.® CHLORAT®. U. S. (Br.) Solution of Chlorinated Soda. 
[Labarraque’s Solution.] 
(Li'QUOR SO'M: (SHLO-RA'TiE.) 
“ An aqueous solution of several chlorine-compounds of sodium, containing at least 2-6 per 
cent., by weight, of available chlorine.” XJ. S. 
Liquor Sodae Chlorinatae, Br., XJ. S. 1870; Liquor Natri Chlorati, P. G.; Liquor Natri Hypochlorosi; Chlorure 
de Soude liquide, Liqueur de Labarraque, Fr.; Bleichfliissigkeit, G. 
“ Sodium Carbonate, one hundred and fifty grammes [or 5 ounces av., 127 grains] ; Chlori- 
nated Lime, seventy-five grammes [or 2 ounces av., 282 grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To 
make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Triturate the Chlorinated Lime 
with two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, gradually added, 
until a uniform mixture results. Allow the heavier particles to subside, and transfer the thin- 
ner, supernatant portion to a filter. Then triturate the residue again with two hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water, transfer the whole to the filter, and when 
the liquid has drained off, wash the filter and contents with one hundred cubic centimeters [or 
3 fluidounces, 183 minims] of Water. Dissolve the Sodium Carbonate in three hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 10 fluidounces, 69 minims] of hot Water, and add this solution to the previously 
obtained filtrate contained in a suitable vessel. Stir or shake the mixture thoroughly, and, if 
it should become gelatinous, warm the vessel until the contents liquefy. Then transfer the 
mixture to a new filter, and, when no more liquid drains from it, wash the filter and contents 
with enough Water to make the product weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains]. Keep the solution in well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” XJ. S. 
“ Chlorinated Lime, 16 ounces (Imperial) or 400 grammes; Sodium Carbonate, 24 ounces 
(Imp.) or 600 grammes ; Distilled Water, 1 gallon (Imp. meas.) or 4 litres. Dissolve the 
Sodium Carbonate in one-quarter of the Distilled Water ; thoroughly triturate the Chlorinated 
Lime with the remainder of the Distilled Water; mix the two liquids; filter.” Br. The sp. 
gr. of this solution is 1-054. 
This solution was first brought into notice as a disinfecting agent by Labarraque, an apothe- 
cary of Paris. It was afterwards found to possess valuable therapeutic properties. The U. S. 
process is that of Payen, adopted in the French Codex of 1837. It consists in decomposing a 
solution of sodium carbonate by one of chlorinated lime. Calcium carbonate is precipitated 
and the chlorinated soda remains in solution. The proportion employed gives an excess of 
sodium carbonate, the presence of which renders the solution more permanent. The British 
process is that of Labarraque. All the chlorine generated from the prescribed quantity of 
materials for forming that gas is passed into the solution of sodium carbonate; and when the 
chlorine is limited to this quantity, no carbonic acid is disengaged. The chlorine is first passed 
through water, to free it from hydrochloric acid, which, if suffered to come over, would convert 
the alkali into common salt. Sodium bicarbonate has been recommended instead of sodium 
carbonate, on account of the state of crystalline powder in which the calcium carbonate is pre- 
cipitated, rendering its separation from the supernatant solution very easy, while the precipi- 
tate produced by sodium carbonate is a kind of magma from which the liquor is not readily 
decanted. It is stated also that a little excess of the bicarbonate is useful in various ways. 
(Ann. de Therap., 1866, 107.) Lawall (A. J. P., 1895, 203) prefers the U. S. P. 1880 pro- 
cess to the present official one, as it affords a better preparation in a shorter time. 
Properties. The U. S. solution is “ a clear, pale greenish liquid, having a faint odor of 824 
Liquor Sodas Chloratae. 
PART I. 
chlorine, and a disagreeable, alkaline taste. Specific gravity, about 1-052 at 15° C. (59° F.). 
The Solution at first colors red litmus paper blue, and then bleaches it. The addition of hy- 
drochloric acid to the Solution causes an effervescence of chlorine and carbonic acid gas. If 
6-7 (6-74) Gin. of the Solution be mixed with 50 C.c. of water, then 2 Gm. of potassium iodide 
and 10 C.c. of hydrochloric acid added, together with a few drops of starch test-solution, it 
should require not less than 50 C.c. of sodium hyposulphite decinormal volumetric solution to 
discharge the blue or greenish tint of the liquid (each C.c. of the volumetric solution corre- 
sponding to 0-052 per cent, of available chlorine).” U. S. “A colorless alkaline liquid, with 
astringent taste and faint odor of chlorine. It decolorizes solution of indigo sulphate. It is 
decomposed by hydrochloric acid, evolving chlorine. It should yield not more than the slight- 
est reaction with the tests for calcium or for carbonates. Specific gravity 1-054. If 3-5 
grammes be added to a solution of 1 gramme of potassium iodide in 100 cubic centimetres of 
water acidulated with 3 cubic centimetres of hydrochloric acid, a brownish-red color should be 
produced, for the discharge of which at least 25 cubic centimetres of the volumetric solution 
of sodium thiosulphate should be required, corresponding to about 2\ per cent, of available chlo- 
rine.” Br. This test, like that of our own Pharmacopoeia, is intended to determine the chlorine 
strength of the solution. The hydrochloric acid liberates the chlorine, which then liberates 
from the potassium iodide an equivalent quantity of iodine, by which the solution is rendered 
brown; and, the iodine being converted into hydriodic acid by the sodium thiosulphate, the 
solution again becomes colorless. The quantity of the solution of the latter salt required to 
bleach the liquid measures the amount of iodine, and this that of the chlorine which has 
separated it. The color of turmeric is first rendered brown, and afterwards destroyed. When 
carefully evaporated, a mass of damp crystals is obtained, which, when redissolved in water, 
possesses the properties of the original liquid. Both solutions, when exposed to the air, absorb 
carbonic acid and slowly evolve chlorine, which acts as a disinfectant. 
Nature and Composition. In their chemical nature these solutions are identical. As- 
suming the chlorinated lime to be essentially calcium hypochlorite with calcium chloride (see 
page 300), the solutions, after decantation from the precipitated calcium carbonate, will contain 
sodium hypochlorite with sodium chloride: Ca(0Cl)2 -j- CaCl2 -j- (Na2C03)2 = (CaC03)2 -j- 
2NaOCl -f- 2NaCl. Besides these there will be present more or less sodium carbonate, according 
as there happens to be in the chlorinated lime less or more chlorine to decompose it. In all 
cases, however, there will be an excess of sodium carbonate; as the best chlorinated lime does 
not contain sufficient chlorine to effect its entire decomposition, in the proportion in which it is 
taken in the formula. As it is a peculiarity in its formation that no carbonic acid is evolved, 
it is necessary to assume the presence of all the carbonic acid of the sodium carbonate; and 
hence it is considered to be a combination of sodium hypochlorite, sodium chloride, and sodium 
bicarbonate. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Solution of chlorinated soda is stimulant, antiseptic, 
and resolvent. Internally it has been employed in diseases termed putrid or malignant, as 
typhus fever, scarlatina maligna, etc. The conditions which have been considered to indicate 
the propriety of its use are great prostration of strength, fetid evacuations, and dry and furred 
tongue. It has also been given in dysentery accompanied with peculiarly fetid stools, in dys- 
pepsia attended with putrid eructations, and in glandular enlargements and chronic mucous dis- 
charges. Other complaints in which it has been recommended are secondary syphilis, scrofula, 
bilious disorders, and chronic diseases of the skin. In hydrogen sulphide poisoning it is, like 
chlorinated lime, an efficacious antidote. The dose is from thirty drops to a teaspoonful, given 
in a cupful of water or mild aqueous liquid. 
As a local remedy it is found useful in all affections attended with fetor, such as gangrenous, 
cancerous, scrofulous, and syphilitic ulcers, ulceration of the gums, carbuncle, ozsena, mortifica- 
tion, putrid sore throat, ptyalism, etc. In these cases it is applied as a gargle, wash, ingredient 
of poultices, or imbibed by lint. In fetid discharges from the vagina, uterus, and bladder, it 
has been employed with advantage as an injection, diluted with from fifteen to thirty parts of 
water for the vagina and uterus, and with sixty parts when the object is to wash out the bladder 
by means of a double canula. The solution of chlorinated soda has also been applied success- 
fully to burns, and to cutaneous eruptions, particularly psoriasis, tinea capitis, scabies, and ob- 
stinate herpetic affections, and to allay itching and fetor in small-pox. In these cases it is diluted 
with from ten to thirty parts of water, the strength varying according to circumstances. For 
the cure of sore nipples, Dr. Chopin found nothing so successful as frequently repeated lotions 
with this solution. Glycerin is in many instances preferable as a diluent to water, as it tends Liquor Sodii Arsenatis.—Liquor Sodii Silicatis. 
825 
PART I. 
to prevent irritation of the sound skin, and does not evaporate like water. Solution of chlo- 
rinated soda is a powerful disinfectant. In the chambers of the sick it is highly useful, if put 
in the vessels intended to receive the excretions. 
LIQUOR SODII ARSENATIS. U. S., Br. Solution of Sodium Arsenate. 
(LI'QUOR SO'DI-I AR-SE-NA'TIS.) 
Liquor Sodii Arseniatis, Br. 1885; Solution of Arseniate of Sodium; Liqueur (SolutS) d’Arsdniate de Soude, Fr.; 
Arsensaure Natronlosung, G. 
“ Sodium Arsenate, deprived of its water of crystallization by a heat not exceeding 149° C. 
(300-2° F.), one gramme [or 15-4 grains] ; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one 
hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims]. Dissolve the Sodium Arsenate in a 
sufficient quantity of Distilled Water to make one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluidounces, 
183 minims].” U. S. 
“Sodium Arsenate, recently rendered anhydrous, 171 grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Dis- 
tilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the anhydrous Sodium Arsenate in sufficient Dis- 
tilled Water to produce four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubic centimetres of the 
Solution of Sodium Arsenate. 110 minims contain 1-77 grains of crystallized sodium arsenate, 
(Na2HAs04,7H20,) or the equivalent of 1 grain of the anhydrous salt. 100 cubic centi- 
metres contain 1-77 grammes of the crystallized salt, equivalent to 1 gramme of the anhydrous 
salt.” Br. 
This is simply an official form for the administration of sodium arsenate. (See Sodii Arsenas.) 
The present official solution is somewhat stronger than that of the U. S. P. 1870. It now 
contains 1 per cent, of sodium arsenate, where formerly there was present but 0-87 per cent., 
and the British solution has been made to correspond in strength. The salt is directed to be 
dried, in order that the solution may be of a uniform strength; as, from the mode in which 
the sodium arsenate is ordered to be prepared, it is scarcely possible that it should always con- 
tain precisely the same quantity of water of crystallization. It is important in drying it to 
limit the heat to.300° F., lest a portion of the arsenic should be volatilized. Dose, from three 
to five minims (0-18-0-3 C.c.), to be cautiously increased, if necessary. 
LIQUOR SODII ETHYLATIS. Br. Solution of Sodium Ethylate. 
(LI'QUOR SO'DI-I ETH-Y-LA'TIS.) 
“ Sodium, clean and bright, 22 grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Absolute Alcohol, 1 fl. ounce 
(Imp. meas.) or 20 cubic centimetres. Cautiously dissolve the Sodium in the Absolute Alco- 
hol contained in a flask, the latter being kept cool by a stream of cold water.” Br. 
This solution was a new official of the British Pharmacopoeia 1885. It is described as 
“ A colorless liquid of syrupy consistence, becoming brown by keeping. Specific gravity 0-867. 
When slightly heated it boils and gives off alcoholic vapors, leaving a white residue which, on 
being strongly heated, becomes charred. If the white residue be mixed with water and heated, 
it yields ethylic alcohol, and the solution, on evaporation, leaves a white residue consisting 
almost wholly of caustic soda. This solution should be recently prepared. It contains 18 per 
cent, of the solid substance, C2H60Na.” It may be made more conveniently by dissolving twenty 
grains of sodium ethylate in eighty grains of absolute alcohol. It is used solely as a caustic, 
and is said to produce very little pain. No water should be allowed to come in contact with it. 
LIQUOR SODII SILICATIS. U. S. Solution of Sodium Silicate. 
(LI'QUOR SO'DI-I SIL-I-CA'TIS.) 
Solution of Silicate of Sodium; Silicate de Soude liquide, Fr.; Fliissiges Wasserglas, G. 
This solution is not a preparation which can be conveniently made by the pharmacist, there- 
fore no process is given. Under the head of Sodium Silicate (Part II.) will be found the 
method of preparing and purifying it. 
Properties. The Pharmacopoeia describes the solution as “ a semi-transparent, almost 
colorless, or yellowish, or pale greenish-yellow, viscid liquid, odorless, having a sharp, saline, 
and alkaline taste, and an alkaline reaction. Specific gravity, 1-300 to 1-400 at 15° C. (59° 
F.). A drop of the Solution, when held in a non-iuminous flame, imparts to it an intensely 
yellow color. If a portion of the Solution, largely diluted with water, he supersaturated 
with nitric acid, a gelatinous or pulverulent, white precipitate of silicic hydrate will be pro- 
duced.” U.S. 
This solution is used solely in the preparation of mechanical dressings by the surgeon. 826 
Liquor Strychnine Hydrochlondi.—Liquor Zinci Chloridi. 
PART I. 
LIQUOR STRYCHNINZE HYDROCHLORIDI. Br. Solution of Strych- 
nine Hydrochloride. [Solution of Hydrochlorate of Strychnine, Brit. Pharm. 1885.] 
(LI'QUOR STRYUH-NI'NjE HY-DRO-jDHLO'RI-DI.) 
“Strychnine Hydrochloride, 17J grains (Imperial) or 1 gramme; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 
1 fl. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 25 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dis- 
solve the Strychnine Hydrochloride in the Alcohol mixed with sufficient Distilled Water to 
produce four fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubic centimetres of the Solution of 
Strychnine Hydrochloride. 110 minims contain 1 grain of Strychnine Hydrochloride; 100 
cubic centimetres contain 1 gramme.” Br. 
This is the solution of hydrochlorate of strychnine of the British Pharmacopoeia which was 
formerly official as Liquor Strychnise: the name has been made definite, and the strength 
slightly increased, so as to make it conform with the other active solutions: it contains 1 per 
cent, of strychnine. The spirit is added for its preservation. A change was made in the last 
revision of the Br. Pharm. 1898 whereby strychnine hydrochloride is dissolved directly 
in water containing a little alcohol. This is said to prevent the tendency of the solution to 
crystallize in cold weather, a fault of the Br. Ph. 1885 process. The commencing dose is 
from five to ten minims (0-3-0-6 C.c.), equal respectively to about the twenty-fourth and the 
twelfth of a grain (0-0025-0-005 Gm.) of the alkaloid. 
LIQUOR THYROIDEI. Br. Thyroid Solution. 
(LI'QUOR THY-ROI'DE-L) 
“A liquid prepared from the fresh and healthy thyroid gland of the sheep.” Br. 
“ Remove the external fat and connective tissue from thyroid glands taken from sheep im- 
mediately after killing; cut the glands across, and reject any that contain cysts, are hypertro- 
phied, or are otherwise abnormal. Count the healthy glands that remain; slice them and 
bruise them thoroughly in a mortar; for each entire gland (consisting of two lobes) add thirty- 
four minims or two cubic centimetres of Glycerin, and thirty-four minims or two cubic cen- 
timetres of a 0-5 per cent, solution of Phenol in Distilled Water; transfer the mixture, well 
stirred, to a flask, and close the neck with a plug of Cotton Wool; allow it to stand for twenty- 
four hours; then strain through linen, with strong pressure; add to the strained liquid suffi- 
cient of the 0-5 per cent, solution of Phenol to make one hundred minims or six cubic 
centimetres of the Solution for each gland used.” Br. 
This solution, introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia 1898, is intended to represent the 
activity of the thyroid gland. It is described as a “ pinkish turbid liquid, entirely free from 
any odor of putrescence. It must be freshly prepared, and kept in well-stoppered, sterilized 
bottles. 100 minims or 6 cubic centimetres represent one entire thyroid gland.” Br. 
For its medical properties, see Tliyroideum Siccum. 
LIQUOR ZINCI CHLORIDI. U. S., Br. Solution of Zinc Chloride. 
“ An aqueous solution of Zinc Chloride [ZnCl2 = 135-84], containing about 50 per cent., by 
weight, of the salt.” U. S. 
Chlorure de Zinc liquide, Solute de Burnett, Fr.; Fliissiges Chlorzink, G. 
“ Zinc, granulated, two hundred and forty grammes [or 8 ounces av., 204 grains] ; Hydro- 
chloric Acid, eight hundred and forty grammes [or 29 ounces av., 275 grains] ; Nitric Acid, 
twelve grammes [or 185 grains] ; Precipitated Zinc Carbonate, twelve grammes [or 185 grains] ; 
Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. To the Zinc, contained in a glass or porcelain vessel, add 
one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 5 fluidounces, 35 minims] of Distilled Water; then 
gradually add the Hydrochloric Acid, and digest, until the Acid is saturated ; pour off the 
solution, add the Nitric Acid, evaporate the solution to dryness, and heat the dry mass to 
fusion at a temperature not exceeding 115° C. (239° F.). Let it cool, and dissolve it in a 
sufficient amount of Distilled Water to make the product weigh one thousand grammes [or 
35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Then add the Precipitated Zinc Carbonate, agitate the mixture 
occasionally during twenty-four hours, and then set it aside until it has become clear by sub- 
sidence. Finally, separate the clear solution by decantation, or by means of a siphon.” TJ. S. 
“ Granulated Zinc, 1 pound (Imperial) or 400 grammes; Hydrochloric Acid, 44 fl. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 1100 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Hy- 
(LI'QUOR ZIN'QI CHLO'RI-Dl.) Liquor Zinci Chlondi.—Litkii Benzoas. 
827 
PART I. 
drochloric Acid with one pint (Imp. meas.) or 500 cubic centimetres of Distilled Water in a 
porcelain dish ; add the Zinc ; apply gentle heat until gas is no longer evolved ; boil for half 
an hour, supplying the water lost by evaporation ; allow the product to cool. Test a few drops 
of the resulting liquid for iron and lead. 
“ If either be present, filter the remainder of the product into a bottle, and add solution of 
chlorine by degrees, with frequent agitation, until the liquid acquires a permanent odor of 
chlorine; add Zinc Carbonate in small quantities at a time, with renewed agitation, until a 
brown sediment appears and the whole of the iron or lead is thus precipitated ; filter the liquid 
into a basin, and evaporate to the bulk of two pints (Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centi- 
metres. If no iron or lead be present, filter the cooled product and evaporate it to two pints 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres.” Br. 
The zinc chloride is made in the usual way, by dissolving zinc in hydrochloric acid. The 
nitric acid in the U. S. process is added in order that any iron present shall be converted into 
ferric chloride, from which it is afterwards precipitated by the zinc carbonate. In the older 
processes the former object was accomplished by the use of solution of chlorinated lime, the latter 
by chalk. This is a decided improvement, as the use of the chalk as a precipitant introduced 
into the preparation some calcium chloride, while the zinc carbonate adds only a little zinc 
chloride in solution. Hydrogen dioxide has been used instead of nitric acid as an oxidizing 
agent by Besthorn and others. The preparation is completed by bringing it to a certain bulk 
by the addition of distilled water, and by filtration to separate the precipitated iron and any 
excess of the carbonate. As procured by the U. S. P. process, solution of zinc chloride is “ a 
clear, colorless liquid, odorless, having a very astringent, sweetish taste, and an acid reaction. 
Specific gravity about 1-535 at 15° C. (59° F.). It conforms to the reactions and tests of 
an aqueous solution of Zinc Chloride (see Zhnci Chloridum)." “ A colorless liquid of 
astringent and sweetish taste. Specific gravity 1-530. It should respond to the tests for zinc 
and for chlorides. It should not yield any characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, cop- 
per, cadmium, arsenium, iron, aluminium, calcium, magnesium, or sulphates.” Br. The Brit- 
ish solution contains about 175 grains of zinc in the Imperial fluidounce. The American 
solution does not differ much, containing about 170 grains to the fluidounce (wine measure). 
This solution is equivalent to Burnett’s disinfecting fluid noticed below. It is a powerful dis- 
infectant, and, when applied, duly diluted with water, to cancerous and other offensive ulcers, 
destroys their fetor so long as the dressings are kept moist with it. The solution is recom- 
mended by M. Graudriot in gonorrhoea in both sexes, as having remarkable remedial powers. 
For men he uses an injection, composed of from twenty-four to thirty-six drops in four fluid- 
ounces of water. A small quantity only is injected about an inch up the urethra, two or three 
times a day. For women he employs a vaginal suppository, formed of five drops of the solu- 
tion, half a grain of morphine sulphate, and three drachms of a paste consisting of a drachm 
and a half of starch, a drachm of mucilage of tragacanth, and half a drachm of sugar. The 
suppository is introduced every day, or every second day. 
Burnett's disinfecting fluid, like the official solution, is an aqueous solution of zinc chloride. 
It contains 200 grains of zinc in each Imperial fluidounce, and has the sp. gr. 2. It is, therefore, 
considerably stronger than the Dublin solution. It is so called after Sir William Burnett, who 
introduced it into use, in 1840, as a powerful deodorizing and disinfecting agent in neutralizing 
noxious effluvia and in arresting animal and vegetable decomposition. Diluted with water it 
forms Sir William’s patent preservative against the dry-rot. The concurrent testimony of a 
number of observers shows that it acts as an excellent disinfectant for ships, hospitals, dissect- 
ing-rooms, water-closets, privies, etc. Injected into the blood-vessels, it preserves bodies for 
dissection, without impairing their texture, and is said not to injure the knives employed; but 
the accuracy of the latter statement is doubtful. The advantage is claimed for it that, while 
it destroys putrid odors, it has no smell of its own. For preserving anatomical subjects, one 
part of the disinfecting fluid to eighteen of water will form a solution of the proper strength. 
For disinfecting operations on a large scale, a pint may be mixed with four gallons of water. 
LITHII BENZOAS. U. S. Lithium Benzoate. 
LiC7H502; 127*72. (LITH'I-i BEN'ZO-Xs.) LiC7H502; 128. 
Benzoate de Lithium, Fr.; Benzoesaures Lithon, G. 
This salt of lithium is made by decomposing lithium carbonate with benzoic acid. E. B. 
Shuttleworth (J.. J. P., 1875) deviates from the usual method of first making a hot solution 
of benzoic acid and then adding carbonate until effervescence ceases, by reversing the order. 828 
Lithii Benzoas.—Lithii Bromidum. 
PART I. 
One ounce (av.) of lithium carbonate is put into a capsule with nine fluidounces of water, the 
mixture is heated, and three and a quarter ounces (av.) of benzoic acid in small portions added, 
until the carbonate is all decomposed and effervescence ceases : the solution is filtered and evap- 
orated to dryness, or crystallized if desired. The yield is three and a half ounces. The ad- 
vantage of this process is a saving in time and labor in evaporating: Li2C03 -f- 2HC7H602 = 
2LiC7H602 -f- HaO -f- C02. No process is given in the Pharmacopoeia. The official descrip- 
tion is as follows. 
Properties. “ A light, white powder, or small, shining, crystalline scales ; odorless, or of 
faint benzoin-like odor, and of a cooling, sweetish taste; permanent in the air. Soluble, at 
15° C. (59° F.), in 4 parts of water, and in 12 parts of alcohol; in 2-5 parts of boiling water, 
and in 10 parts of boiling alcohol. The presence of sodium benzoate increases the solubility 
in water and lessens that in alcohol. When heated, the salt fuses; at a higher temperature 
it chars, emits inflammable vapors having a benzoin-like odor, and finally leaves a residue of 
lithium carbonate mixed with carbon. This residue imparts a crimson color to a non-luminous 
flame, and its aqueous solution has an alkaline reaction upon litmus paper. The aqueous so- 
lution (1 in 20) of Lithium Benzoate has a faintly acid reaction upon litmus. If 2 C.c. of 
ferric chloride test-solution be mixed with a small drop of ammonia water, and added to 2 
C.c. of an aqueous solution of the salt, a voluminous brownish-pink precipitate of basic ferric 
benzoate will result. If 1 C.c. of diluted nitric acid be added to 0-2 Gm. of Lithium Benzoate 
dissolved in 2 C.c. of water, and the precipitated benzoic acid be removed by filtration, the 
clear filtrate should not be rendered turbid on the addition of silver nitrate test-solution (ab- 
sence of chloride), or of barium nitrate test-solution (absence of sulphate'). If a concentrated 
solution of the salt be mixed with hydrochloric acid, a white precipitate of benzoic acid will 
be formed, which, after being separated from the liquid, and thoroughly washed and dried, 
should respond to the tests of purity given under Acidum Benzoicum. If the filtrate from 
this precipitate be evaporated to dryness and ignited, 1 part of the residue should be soluble 
in 5 parts of absolute alcohol. If to this alcoholic solution an equal volume of ether be added, 
no precipitate or turbidity should appear (limit of other alkalies'). The aqueous solution (1 in 20) 
of the salt should remain unaffected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, or ammonium sulphide 
test-solution (absence of arsenic, lead, iron, aluminum, etc.), or by ammonium oxalate test-solution 
(absence of calcium), or by sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution (limit of potassium) ; nor should 
silver nitrate test-solution, or barium nitrate test-solution, produce in it more than a very slight 
turbidity (limit of chloride and sulphate). If 1 Gm. of dry Lithium Benzoate be thoroughly 
ignited in a porcelain crucible, so as to burn off most of the carbonaceous matter, and the res- 
idue be mixed with 20 C.c. of water, it should require, for complete neutralization, not less 
than 7-8 C.c. of normal sulphuric acid (corresponding to not less than 99 6 per cent, of the 
pure salt), methyl-orange being used as indicator.” U. S. Curtman states that much of the 
lithium benzoate in the market contains not only sodium benzoate, but also hippurate, derived 
from urine-benzoic acid. This renders it much more soluble in wrater than the pure salt, and 
also more soluble in alcohol. The precipitated benzoic acid should melt at 121-4° C.; hip- 
puric acid, if pure, melts at 187-5° C. Hence a high melting point for the separated benzoic 
acid points to this source of contamination. 
Medical Properties. Lithium benzoate has been highly commended as a remedy against 
gout (Edin. Med. Journ., Jan. 1875), and has been used to some extent: there is, however, no 
sufficient reason for supposing that it is superior to the citrate or carbonate of the base. 
Bose, from fifteen to thirty grains (1-1-95 Gm.). 
LITHII BROMIDUM. U. S. Lithium Bromide 
LiBr; 86*77. (LITH'I-I BRO'MI-DUM.) LiBr; 86-8. 
Bromure de Lithium, Fr.; Bromlithium, G. 
This salt was made official in the U. S. P. 1880. Yvon prepares lithium bromide by mixing 
37 parts of lithium carbonate, 200 parts of distilled water, and 80 parts of bromine, and passing 
a current of hydrogen sulphide through the mixture until the color of bromine has disappeared. 
A slight heat is then applied, to drive off excess of hydrogen sulphide and to agglutinate the 
sulphur. After filtration the liquor is concentrated and finally crystallized by desiccating it 
under a bell-glass, over sulphuric acid. It may also be obtained by double decomposition. 
Lithium sulphate is first formed by treating 37 parts of lithium carbonate with 49 parts of 
monohydrated sulphuric acid diluted with its own volume of water. Then 119 parts of po- 
tassium bromide are dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of water. When the two solu- PART I. 
Lithii Bromidum.—Lithii Carbonas. 
829 
tions are mixed, an abundant precipitate of potassium sulphate is produced on the addition of 
a little alcohol. The whole is evaporated to dryness, the operation finished on a water-bath, 
and the residue is treated with alcohol, which removes only lithium bromide and deposits it 
again on evaporation. The bromide may then be crystallized from water or kept in solution 
of known strength.* (P. J. Tr., Sept 18, 1876.) No process is given in the Pharmacopoeia. 
“ Lithium Bromide should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Properties. “ A white, granular salt, odorless, and having a sharp, slightly bitter taste; 
very deliquescent. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 0-6 part of water, and in 0-3 part of boiling 
water ; very soluble in alcohol; also soluble in ether. At a low red heat the salt fuses, and at 
a higher heat it is slowly volatilized. It imparts a crimson color to a non-luminous flame. 
The aqueous solution is neutral to litmus paper. If a few drops of chloroform be added to 5 
C.c. of the solution (1 in 20), then 1 C.c. of chlorine water, and the mixture shaken, the lib- 
erated bromine will dissolve in the chloroform, communicating to it a yellow or yellowish-brown 
color. If 0-5 C.c. of sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution be added to 5 C.c. of the aqueous so- 
lution, no precipitate or turbidity should occur within 10 minutes (limit of potassium). One part 
of the salt should dissolve, without residue, in 5 parts of absolute alcohol, and the addition of an 
equal volume of ether should produce no precipitate in this solution (limit of other alkalies'). 
The aqueous solution (1 in 20) should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution either 
before or after acidulation with a drop of hydrochloric acid (absence of arsenic, lead, copper, 
etc.), nor by ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of iron, aluminum, etc.). In the aque- 
ous solution no turbidity should be produced by the addition of barium chloride test-solution 
(absence of sidphate). If a few drops of starch test-solution be added to 5 C.c. of the aque- 
ous solution, and then a drop or two of chlorine water, no blue color should appear (absence 
of iodide). If 0-3 Gm. of dry Lithium Bromide be dissolved in 10 C.c. of water and 2 drops 
of potassium chromate test-solution be added, it should require 35-3 C.c. of silver nitrate 
decinormal volumetric solution to produce a permanent red color of silver chromate (correspond- 
ing to at least 98 per cent, of the pure salt).” U. S. 
Medical Properties. Lithium bromide was first brought into notice as a remedy by 
Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, who asserts that its action differs from that of the other bromides only 
in being more hypnotic. Although careful physiological studies of it are wanting, there is 
little reason for believing that it differs essentially from other bromides in its influence upon 
the human organism. It should be administered in dilute aqueous solution, in doses of from 
fifteen to thirty grains (1—1-95 Gm.). Each drachm of it contains fifty-five grains of bromine, 
and it therefore exceeds potassium bromide in bromine strength. 
Li2 CO 3; 73*87. (LITH'I-I CAK'BO-NXs.) Li2C03;74. 
LITHII CARBONAS. U.S., Br. Lithium Carbonate. 
“ Lithium Carbonate, Li2C03, is obtained from native silicates of lithium.” Br. 
Lithium Carbonicum, P. G.; Carbonas Lithicus; Carbonate of Lithia, E.; Carbonate de Lithine, Carbonate 
lithique, Fr.; Kohiensaures Lithon, G. 
The alkali lithia, so far as has yet been ascertained, is rare in nature; for, though extensively 
diffused, it exists in very small proportion, except in a few scarce minerals. It was discovered 
by Arfvedson in 1817, in certain minerals from the iron-mines of Utb, as petalite, triphane, and 
a variety of tourmaline. (Berzelius.) It has since been found in other minerals, as lepidolite, 
spodumene, amblygonite, etc., and in numerous mineral waters, as those of Carlsbad, Pyrmont, 
Kissingen, Kreuznach, Aix-la-Chapelle, Vichy, etc., in Europe, and the Gettysburg spring in 
the United States, in which it exists generally as a carbonate or a bicarbonate. By spectrum 
analysis it has been detected in the waters of the Atlantic and of the Thames, in the ashes of 
plants grown on a granite soil, and even in milk and human blood. In the mother-waters of 
tartaric acid, in the factories, it has been found in a proportion to justify extraction. It was 
at one time largely obtained from a phosphatic triphyline found in Bavaria, in which it existed 
as a phosphate; but this source is said to have been exhausted. There are several methods 
* Lithium Iodide (Lil: 133-6) may be prepared by taking of iodine 127 parts, iron, in filings, 35 parts, lithium 
carbonate 38 parts, distilled water 300 parts. Prepare a solution of ferrous iodide, using the whole of the distilled 
water, filter, add the lithium carbonate to the still warm liquid, and heat gently to promote complete decomposition. 
The liquid must be slightly alkaline. Filter, wash the precipitated ferrous carbonate, add the washings to the fil- 
trate) evaporate the latter, pour it out to cool and harden, and immediately transfer it into well-dried, glass-stoppered 
vials. It forms a white salt very soluble in water and alcohol. One gramme of it is entirely precipitated by 1’27 
Gm. of silver nitrate. (N. It., July, 1877.) 830 
IAthii Carbonas. 
PART I. 
of extracting lithia from the minerals containing it, an account of which may be seen in 
Roscoe and Bchorlemmer, vol. ii., Part I., p. 158. They contain the alkali in various propor- 
tions, from 3-6 per cent, in lepidolite to 11 per cent, in amblygonite. Lithium carbonate is 
prepared from lepidolite in the following manner. 10 parts of finely powdered lepidolite, 10 
parts of barium carbonate, 5 parts of barium sulphate, and 3 parts of potassium sulphate are 
fused at a very high temperature in a wind furnace. The heavy barium silicate and sulphate 
sink to the bottom, and a layer of potassium and lithium sulphates is found at the top of the 
fused mass. These can be extracted by simple lixiviation, and then the carbonate prepared 
by double decomposition with ammonium carbonate. 
Lithia, LiaO, is the oxide of the metal lithium, and ranks in chemical properties with the 
fixed alkalies. In the form of hydrate, LiOH, it is white and translucent; does not deliquesce 
in the air, but absorbs carbonic acid, and becomes opaque; is fusible below ignition, but not 
volatilizable at a white heat; is soluble in water, but less so than potassa or soda; is sparingly 
soluble in alcohol; and in solution has an acrid alkaline taste, caustic properties, and a strong 
alkaline reaction. The salts of lithium are generally freely soluble, with the exception of the 
neutral carbonate and phosphate, the latter of which is nearly insoluble. Lithium, which was 
first obtained by Bunsen and Matthiessen, in 1855, is silver-white, brilliant, softer than lead, 
ductile, capable of welding, and the lightest known solid. Its sp. gr. is 0594, melting point 
180° C. (356° F.), atomic weight T*01, and symbol Li. 
Lithium carbonate may be prepared directly from one of the lithia minerals, in the manner 
already described, or from lithium sulphate or chloride in concentrated solution by adding 
ammonium carbonate. The precipitated salt should be washed with alcohol and dried. 
Properties. It is “ a light, white powder, odorless, and having an alkaline taste ; perma- 
nent in the air. Soluble in 80 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 140 parts of boiling 
water ; * much more soluble in water saturated with carbon dioxide ; insoluble in alcohol; solu- 
ble in diluted acids with active effervescence. At a low red heat the salt fuses; at a higher 
temperature it loses some of its carbon dioxide, and is partially converted into lithium oxide. 
It imparts a crimson color to a non-luminous flame. The aqueous solution has an alkaline 
reaction upon litmus paper. If 1 Gm. of Lithium Carbonate be dissolved in 40 C.c. of diluted 
acetic acid, no insoluble residue should remain. Separate portions of this solution should not 
be affected by the following reagents: hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of arsenic, lead, 
etc.) ; ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of iron, aluminum, etc.) ; ammonium ox- 
alate test-solution (calcium) ; silver nitrate test-solution (chloride) ; barium chloride test-solution 
(sulphate) ; or sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution (limit of potassium). If 0-5 Gm. of Lithium 
Carbonate be dissolved in 2 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, and the clear solution be evaporated to 
dryness, the dry residue should completely dissolve in 3 C.c. of absolute alcohol, and an addi- 
tion of 3 C.c. of ether should not render the solution turbid (limit of other alkalies'). If 0'5 
Gm. of the dry salt be mixed with 20 C.c. of water, it should require, for complete neutraliza- 
tion, not less than 13-4 C.c. of normal sulphuric acid (corresponding to at least 98-98 per cent, 
of the pure salt), methyl-orange being used as indicator.” U. S. “ In white powder or in 
minute crystalline grains, soluble in about 70 parts of cold water, insoluble in alcohol (90 per 
cent.). Its aqueous solution turns red litmus paper blue. It is dissolved with effervescence 
by hydrochloric acid; the solution evaporated to dryness leaves a residue, which communicates 
a crimson color to flame. This residue redissolved in water yields a precipitate with solution of 
sodium phosphate. 1 gramme of the salt neutralized with sulphuric add and afterwards heated 
to redness leaves 1-479 grammes of dry lithium sulphate, corresponding to 98-5 per cent, of 
the pure carbonate. It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for lead, copper, 
arsenium, iron, aluminium, zinc, magnesium, sodium, potassium, ammonium, or chlorides, and 
only the slightest reactions with the tests for calcium and for sulphates.” Br. Its aqueous 
solution has an alkaline reaction.f 
Medical Properties and Uses. Lithium carbonate has the ordinary remedial prop- 
erties of the alkaline carbonates, over which, however, it possesses advantages, under certain 
* Prof. F. A. Fliickiger states that lithium carbonate is less soluble in warm water than in cold water. He recom- 
mends as a test of purity that it should require for solution 70 parts or a little more of water at 15° C., and states 
further that its solution saturated at 90° C. has the sp. gr. T009 at 15° C.: this latter solution contains 1 part of the 
salt in 111-3 parts of water. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1887, p. 509.) 
f Effervescing Lithium Carbonate. Take of Citric Acid 40 parts, Sodium Bicarbonate 50 parts, and Lithium 
Carbonate 10 parts. Powder and mix well, then introduce into a wide flat-bottomed dish, and heat to about 100° C. 
(212° F.), stirring constantly until the powder becomes granular. Separate the granules of uniform size by means 
of appropriate sieves, and preserve them in well-stopped bottles. PART I. 
Lithii Carbonas.—Lithii Citras. 
831 
circumstances, which render it a valuable addition to the materia medica. In the year 1843, 
Mr. Alexander Ure, of London, called attention to the extraordinary solvent power of a solu- 
tion of lithia over uric acid, with which, unlike the other alkalies, it forms a very soluble salt, 
and suggested its injection into the bladder, for the solution or disintegration of uric acid calculi. 
In 1857, Dr. Garrod, of London, gave it internally in cases of gout and gouty diathesis in ref- 
erence to the same property, as well as in consideration of its low combining number and con- 
sequent extraordinary neutralizing power. From these properties, it is admirably adapted to 
cases in which it is desirable to eliminate uric acid from the system, and especially to cases of 
gout, in which there is a strong indication to prevent the formation of insoluble salts of uric 
acid, and their deposition in the bladder, kidneys, or joints, and to favor the solution of such 
salts when already formed, as in the chalky deposits in the joints and ligamentous tissues of 
gouty patients, consisting chiefly of sodium urate. Dr. Garrod has, moreover, found lithium 
carbonate, in dilute solution, not only to exceed the other alkalies in rendering the urine neutral 
or alkaline, but also to act powerfully as a diuretic, probably more so than the corresponding 
salts of potassium and sodium. (Med. Times and Gaz., March, 1864, p. 303.) The dose of 
lithium carbonate is from five to fifteen grains (0*32 to 1 Gm.), and is most advantageously 
given in carbonic acid water. 
Li3C«H507; 209*57. (LITH'I-I Cl'TRXs.) Li3C6. H5 07; 210. 
LITHII CITRAS. U. S., Br. Lithium Citrate. 
Citrate of Lithium; Lithium Citricum; Citrate of Lithia, E.; Citrate de Lithine, Fr.; Citronensaures Lithium, 0. 
“ Lithium Citrate should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. “ Lithium Citrate, 
C3H4.0H.(C00Li)3,4H20, is prepared by saturating citric acid with lithium carbonate.” Br. 
To saturate the 50 grains of lithium carbonate directed by the British Pharm. (1885) 90-54 
grains of the crystallized acid will be required : so that there is a slight deficiency on the part 
of the acid, whereas it should be in slight excess, and, according to Mr. Squire, 100 grains of 
the acid should be used instead of 90 grains. (See, also, P. J. Tr., Sept. 11, 1875.) This 
proportion was employed in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia process of 1870. See foot-note* 
Mr. C. Umney (P.J. Tr., Sept. 11, 1875) advocates the use of the crystallized salt in place 
of that made by either of the official processes. He obtained it by setting aside a solution of 
the sp. gr. 1-230, when a salt crystallized out having the formula Li3C6H607.4H20: it is de- 
scribed as definite and reliable as found in commerce, and “ not deliquescent.” (See, also, 
P. J. Tr., 1883, p. 783.) 
Properties. Lithium citrate is in the form of a white powder, “odorless, and having a 
cooling, faintly alkaline taste; deliquescent on exposure to air. Soluble in 2 parts of water 
at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 0-5 part of boiling water; almost insoluble in alcohol or ether. At 
a red heat the salt chars, emits inflammable vapors of a pungent odor, and finally leaves a black 
residue of lithium carbonate mixed with carbon. It imparts a crimson color to a non-luminous 
flame. The aqueous solution is neutral to litmus paper. If the aqueous solution (1 in 20) of 
Lithium Citrate be boiled with an equal volume of calcium chloride test-solution, a white pre- 
cipitate will be deposited. Separate portions of the solution, slightly acidulated with acetic 
acid, should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of arsenic, lead, etc.); 
ammonium sulphide test-solution (iron, aluminum, etc.) ; ammonium oxalate test-solution (cal- 
cium); or sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution (limit of potassium). With barium nitrate test- 
solution, or with silver nitrate test-solution, not more than a slight turbidity should appear (limit 
of sulphate and of chloride). If the residue obtained by calcining the salt at a red heat be 
dissolved in a slight excess of diluted hydrochloric acid, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness, 
a portion of the residue, treated with 5 parts of absolute alcohol, should completely dissolve, 
and the addition of an equal volume of ether should not render the solution turbid (limit of 
other alkalies). If 1 Gm. of dry Lithium Citrate be thoroughly ignited in a porcelain crucible, 
so as to burn off most of the carbonaceous matter, and the residue be mixed with 20 C.c. of 
water, it should require, for complete neutralization, not less than 14-2 C.c. of normal sulphuric 
acid (corresponding to at least 99-2 per cent, of the pure salt), methyl-orange being used as 
indicator.” U. S. “2 grammes of the salt dried at 212° F. (100° C.) should lose about 0-38 
* “ Take of Carbonate of Lithium one hundred grains / Citric Acid, in crystals, two hundred grains ; Distilled 
Water ttco fluidounces. Dissolve the Citric Acid in the water gently heated, and to the solution gradually add the 
Carbonate of Lithium until perfectly dissolved, heating the solution so long as effervescence is produced. Evaporate, 
by means of a steam- or sand-bath, to a viscid consistence, dry the residue in an oven, at a temperature of about 240°, 
then rapidly pulverize it, and preserve the powder in a well-stopped bottle.” U. S. 1870. 832 
Lithii Citras Effervescens.—Lithii Salicylas. 
gramme ; at 240° F. (115-5° C.) an additional 0-13 gramme ; and, when burned at a low red 
heat with free access of air, should leave 0-77 gramme of white residue, corresponding to 
98 5 per cent, of the pure citrate. It should be free from the impurities mentioned under 
1 Lithii Carbonas.’ ” Br. That the salt is a citrate will be shown by its solution becoming 
turbid when boiled with lime water, but clear again on cooling. (Brande and Taylor.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. These are essentially the same as those of the carbon- 
ate, as the citric acid is burnt up in the system and a lithium carbonate formed, which is finally 
eliminated by the kidneys. While thus acting like the carbonate, it has the advantages over 
that salt of having a less disagreeable taste and of being less disposed to irritate the stomach, 
—the same advantages that, in many instances, potassium citrate has over the carbonate of 
that alkali. The dose is from ten to thirty grains (0-65-1-95 Gm.). 
PART I. 
LITHII CITRAS EFFERVESCENS. U. S., Br. Effervescent Lithium 
Citrate. 
(LITH'I-! Cl'TElS EF-FER-VES'CEN§.) 
“Lithium Carbonate, seventy grammes [or 2 ounces av., 205 grains] ; Sodium Bicarbonate, 
two hundred and eighty grammes [or 9 ounces av., 384 grains] ; Citric Acid, three hundred and 
seventy grammes [or 13 ounces av., 22 grains] ; Sugar, in fine powder, a sufficient quantity, To 
make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Triturate the Citric Acid with 
about two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] of Sugar, and dry the mixture 
thoroughly. Then incorporate with it, by trituration, the Lithium Carbonate and Sodium Bi- 
carbonate, and enough Sugar to make the product weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces 
av., 120 grains]. Keep the product in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
“ Sodium Bicarbonate, in powder, 58 ounces (Imperial) or 580 grammes; Tartaric Acid, in 
powder, 31 ounces (Imp.) or 310 grammes; Citric Acid, in powder, 21 ounces (Imp.) or 210 
grammes ; Lithium Citrate, 5 ounces (Imp.) or 50 grammes. Mix the Lithium Citrate with 
the Citric Acid, then add the Tartaric Acid, and, lastly, the Sodium Bicarbonate, triturating 
thoroughly. Place the whole in a dish or pan of suitable form heated to between 200° and 
220° F. (93-3° and 104-4° C.). When the mixture, by the aid of careful manipulation, has 
assumed a granular character, separate it, by means of suitable sieves, into granules of uni- 
form and convenient size. Dry the granules at a temperature not exceeding 130° F. (54-4° 
C.). The product should weigh about 100 oimces(Imp.) or 1000 grammes.” Br. 
These official processes do not yield identical products, the U. S. preparation containing 
sugar, which, in our opinion, is objectionable. There seems to be no good reason for em- 
ploying both citric and tartaric acids in the British process. The U. S. process yields a 
powder, whilst that of the British Pharmacopoeia produces a granular salt which is more de- 
sirable for administration. 
This effervescent salt forms an agreeable method of administering the lithia salts ; its med- 
ical properties are those of lithium citrate, and the dose is a teaspoonful in water. 
LITHII SALICYLAS. U. S. Lithium Salicylate. 
LiC7H503; 143*68. (LITH'l-i sIl-I-CY'lXs.) 2LiC7 H5 03. H2'0; 306. 
No process is given in the Pharmacopoeia for this official salt. It maybe prepared by adding 
to a mixture of eleven parts of salicylic acid and three parts of lithium carbonate twenty-five 
parts of water, and heating until effervescence ceases, filtering and evaporating. It may be 
obtained in crystals, and “ should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Properties. “ A white or grayish-white powder, odorless, and having a sweetish taste ; 
deliquescent on exposure to air. Very soluble in water and in alcohol. When heated, the salt 
is decomposed, emitting the odor of phenol, and finally leaving a residue of lithium carbonate 
and carbon. It imparts a crimson color to a non-luminous flame. The aqueous solution slightly 
reddens blue litmus paper. If copper sulphate test-solution be added to an aqueous solution 
(1 in 20) of the salt, the mixture should have a bright-green color. If a small quantity of 
ferric chloride test-solution be added to an excess of a concentrated, aqueous solution (1 in 4) 
of Lithium Salicylate, a deep red color will be produced, which, after the liquid is largely di- 
luted and mixed with more ferric chloride test-solution, will change to a deep bluish-violet tint. 
Upon adding to 1 Gm. of the salt, in a test-tube, about 1 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid, 
then, cautiously, in drops, about 1 C.c. of methylic alcohol, and heating the mixture to boiling, 
the odor of oil of gaultheria will be evolved. Hydrochloric or sulphuric acid produces in the 
aqueous solution a voluminous precipitate of salicylic acid, which, when separated and washed, PART I. 
Lithii Salicylas.—Lobelia. 
833 
should conform to the reactions and tests given under Acidum Salicylicum. The aqueous solu- 
tion should be colorless (absence of iron and organic coloring matters), and should not effervesce 
on the addition of diluted acids (absence of carbonate). If 1 part of the salt be agitated 
with 15 parts of sulphuric acid, no color should be imparted to the acid within 15 minutes 
(absence of readily carbonizable, organic impurities). If a portion of the residue, left after 
ignition, be dissolved in diluted acetic acid, separate portions of the filtrate should not be ren- 
dered turbid on the addition of a few drops of barium chloride test-solution (absence of sulphate), 
nor be rendered more than very slightly turbid by silver nitrate test-solution (limit of chloride). 
Other portions of the same filtrate should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution 
(absence of arsenic, lead, etc.) ; nor by ammonium sulphide test-solution (aluminum, etc.) ; nor 
by ammonium oxalate test-solution (calcium) ; nor by sodium cobaltic nitrite test-solution (limit 
of potassium). If another portion of the residue, left after ignition, be dissolved in diluted hy- 
drochloric acid, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness, a portion of the residue, when treated 
with 5 parts of absolute alcohol, should completely dissolve, and the addition of an equal vol- 
ume of ether should not render the solution turbid (limit of other alkalies). If 2 Gm. of dry 
Lithium Salicylate be thoroughly ignited in a porcelain crucible, so as to burn off most of the 
carbonaceous matter, and the residue be mixed with 20 C.c. of water, it should require, for com- 
plete neutralization, not less than 13-8 C.c. of normal sulphuric acid (corresponding to at least 
99-13 per cent, of the pure salt), methyl-orange being used as indicator.” U. S. 
Medical Properties. This salt has probably been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia as 
a remedy in gout and rheumatism, uniting the virtues of salicylic acid and of lithium. It will 
probably be found efficient, and has the great advantage over salicylic acid of being freely sol- 
uble in water and much less irritant to the stomach. Every drachm of it contains about 57-25 
grains of salicylic acid and 2-75 grains of lithium. The dose is from twenty to forty grains 
(1-3-2-6 Gm.), to be given in an aromatized syrup. 
LOBELIA. U. S., Br. Lobelia. 
(LO-BE'LI-A.) 
“ The leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata, Linn6 (nat. ord. Lobeliaceae), collected after a 
portion of the capsules have become inflated.” U. S. u The dried flowering herb of Lobelia 
inflata, Linn.” Br. 
Herba Lobelia, P. G.; Indian Tobacco; Herbe de Lobelie enfl6e, Fr.; Lobelienkraut, G. 
Lobelia inflata. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 931 ; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 946; Bigelow, Am. Med. 
Bot. i. 177 ; Barton, Med. Bot. i. 181; Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. i. 60, pi. 51 ; B. & T. 162. 
This species of Lobelia, often called Indian tobacco, is an annual or biennial indigenous plant, 
usually a foot or more in height, with a fibrous root, and a solitary, erect, angular, very hairy 
stem, much branched about midway, but rising considerably above the summits of the highest 
branches. The leaves are scattered, or alternate, petiolate, the upper sessile, ovate, or oblong, 
about two inches (5 Cm.) long, irregularly toothed, pubescent, pale green. The flowers are 
numerous, small, disposed in leafy terminal racemes, and upon short axillary footstalks. The 
calyx is five-toothed and much inflated in fruit. The corolla, which is of a delicate blue, has 
a labiate border, with the upper lip divided into two, the lower into three segments. The 
united anthers are curved, and enclose the stigma. The fruit is an oval, striated, inflated 
capsule, crowned with the persistent calyx, and containing, in two cells, numerous very small, 
oblong, reticulated brown seeds* The transverse section of the stem exhibits laticiferous ves- 
sels in the bast. According to Engler and Prantl, the genus Lobelia belongs to the nat. ord. 
Campanulaceae. 
Lobelia inflata f is a very common weed, growing on the roadsides and in neglected fields 
throughout the United States and Canada. Its flowers begin to appear towards the end of 
* In case of poisoning by lobelia, the seeds may be recognized by the following microscopic characters. (Fred. 
Curtis, Lond. Med. Gaz., July, 1851.) They are almond-shaped, about l-30th of an inch long by l-75th broad, puce- 
colored, regularly marked with longitudinal ridges and furrows, and cross ridges generally at right angles with the 
former, so that the surface presents the appearance of basket-work. No other seeds could be mistaken for them, 
except those of Lobelia cardinalis, which, however, are larger, coarser, of a lighter color, and with the superficial 
rectangular checkering less distinct., 
f Two other North American species of lobelia have been used in medicine, but appear to be of very little value, 
—L. cardinalis, or cardinal flower, as an anthelmintic; L. syphilitica, as an antisyphilitic. (See Dr. W. P. C. Bar- 
ton’s Medical Botany.) Mr. V. Rosen has found in the L. nicotiance/olia, which grows in the mountain ranges of 
Ceylon and the Madras peninsula, two alkaloids,—one liquid and identical with lobeline, the other a crystalline solid. 
He believes, as the result of some physiological experiments, that the plant has the same properties as those of L. 
in/lata. (P. J. Tr.} 1886, p. 838.) 834 
Lobelia. 
PART I. 
July, and continue to expand in succession till the occurrence of frost. All parts of it are 
medicinal; but, according to Dr. Eberle, the root and inflated capsules are most powerful. 
The plant should be collected in August or September, when the capsules are numerous, and 
should be carefully dried. It may be kept whole or in powder As found in commerce, it is 
often in oblong compressed cakes, prepared by the Shakers or the herb-dealers. 
Dried lobelia has a slightly irritating odor, and when chewed, though at first without much 
taste, soon produces a burning acrid impression upon the posterior parts of the tongue and 
palate, very closely resembling that occasioned by tobacco, and attended in like manner with 
a flow of saliva and a nauseating effect. “ Leaves alternate, petiolate, the upper ones sessile, 
ovate or oblong, about 5 Cm. long, irregularly toothed, pubescent, pale green ; branches hairy, ter- 
minating in long racemes of small, pale blue flowers, having an adherent five-toothed calyx, which 
is inflated in fruit, a bilabiate corolla, and five united stamens; odor slight, irritating; taste 
mild, afterwards burning and acrid.” U. S. The powder is greenish. The plant yields its vir- 
tues readily to water and alcohol. Water distilled from it has its odor without its acrimony. 
Prof. Procter found the plant to contain an odorous volatile principle, probably volatile oil; a 
peculiar alkaline principle, named lobeline; a peculiar acid, first noticed as distinct by Pereira, 
called hbelic add; besides gum, resin, chlorophyll, fixed oil, lignin, salts of lime and potassa, 
and oxide of iron. The seeds contain at least twice as much of lobeline, in proportion, as the 
whole plant, which yielded only one part in five hundred. They contain also 30 per cent, of a 
nearly colorless fixed oil having the drying property in an extraordinary degree. Lobeline was 
obtained by Prof. Procter by tbe following process. The seeds were treated with alcohol acid- 
ulated with acetic acid, until deprived of acrimony, and the tincture was evaporated; the re- 
sulting extract was triturated with magnesia and water, and, after repeated agitation for several 
hours, the liquor, holding lobeline in solution, was filtered; this was then shaken repeatedly 
with ether until no longer acrid; and the ethereal solution, having been decanted, was allowed 
to evaporate spontaneously. The residue, which was reddish brown and of the consistence of 
honey, was deprived of coloring matter by dissolving it in water, adding a slight excess of sul- 
phuric acid, boiling with animal charcoal, saturating with magnesia, filtering, agitating with 
ether until this fluid had deprived the water of acrimony, and finally decanting, and allowing 
the ether to evaporate. Thus obtained, lobeline is a yellowish liquid, lighter than water, of a 
somewhat aromatic odor, and a very acrid durable taste. It is soluble in water, but much 
more copiously in alcohol and ether: and the latter fluid readily removes it from its aqueous 
solution. It has an alkaline reaction, and forms soluble and crystallizable salts with sulphuric, 
nitric, and hydrochloric acids, and a very soluble but not crystallizable salt with acetic acid. 
It forms an insoluble compound with tannic acid, which instantly precipitates it from its solu- 
tion. By a boiling heat it is entirely decomposed, losing all its acrimony ; but when combined 
with acids it may be subjected to ebullition with water without change. (A. J. P., ix. 105, xiii. 1; 
see, also, a paper by W. D. Richardson, Jr., A. J. P, 1872, p. 293.).* Paschkis and Smita 
(Monatshefte, xi. p. 131) obtained the alkaloid as a viscous oil with an odor resembling at once 
that of honey and that of tobacco. Siebert has also obtained both from the herb and seeds 
of lobelia a pale-yellow alkaline syrup, the crystallized hydrochloride and chloroplatinate of 
which indicated the formula C18H23N02 for the free alkaloid. Enders has also isolated the acrid 
substance of the drug, and gives to it the name lobelacrin. It is obtained in warty tufts of a 
brown color, soluble in ether and chloroform, buttonly slightly in water. It is decomposed by 
boiling with dilute acids or alkalies into sugar and lobelic acid. Lewis (P. J. Tr. [3], 10, p. 
56) considers lobelacrin as only a mixture of lobeline lobeliate with free lobelic acid. (Phar- 
macographia, 2d ea., 400.) Lloyd considers the lobelacrin of Enders to be a mixture of in- 
flatin, resin, lobeline, and the fixed oil which lobelia contains in the proportion of about 30 
per cent. The late Dr. S. Colhoun, of Philadelphia, was the first to announce the existence 
of a peculiar principle in lobelia, capable of forming salts with the acids ; but he did not 
obtain it in an isolated state. An important inference from the effects of heat upon lobeline 
is that, in preparing lobelia for use, the plant should never be heated in connection with a 
salifiable base. Prof. J. U. Lloyd isolated from lobelia a crystalline substance, melting at 225° 
C., which had been observed previously by Prof. Procter. Prof. Lloyd named it inflatin ; it 
is colorless, tasteless, and odorless, insoluble in water or glycerin, soluble in carbon disulphide, 
* Mr. William Bastick, of London, published (P. J. Tr., Dec. 1850) an article on lobeline, apparently in entire 
ignorance of the previous work of Prof. Procter. His process does not differ essentially from that above given. In 
one magnesia is used to decompose the native salt of lobeline, in the other lime, the caustic alkalies not being ap- 
plicable to the purpose, as they decompose this alkaloid with great facility. PART I. 
Loti ones.—Lotio Hydrargyri Nigra. 
835 
benzene, chloroform, ether, and least soluble in alcohol. It is a neutral principle, and appears 
to have no therapeutic value. (Pharm. Rundschau, 1887, 32.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Lobelia is said to have been used as a medicine by the 
aborigines of America, but was first brought into general professional notice by the Rev. Dr. 
Cutler, of Massachusetts. The leaves or capsules, chewed for a short time, occasion giddiness, 
headache, general tremors, and ultimately nausea and vomiting. When swallowed in the full 
dose, the medicine produces speedy and severe vomiting, attended with continued and distress- 
ing nausea, copious sweating, and great general relaxation. When toxic doses are taken, these 
symptoms are very severe, and have added to them burning pain in the fauces or oesophagus, 
progressive failure of voluntary motion, rapid, feeble pulse, fall of temperature, and finally 
collapse with stupor or coma; in some cases convulsions precede death. Death has often re- 
sulted from its empirical use. Its poisonous effects are most apt to occur when, as sometimes 
happens, it is not rejected by vomiting. The experiments of Dr. I. Ott upon the lower animals 
show that the poison causes paralysis of the motor nerve-trunks, of the peripheral vagi, and 
probably also of the vaso-motor centres. Death seems to occur from failure of respiration, 
due, in part at least, to the condition of the motor nerves. 
As an emetic, lobelia should never be used; at present it is rarely employed at all except in 
spasmodic asthma, the paroxysms of which it often greatly mitigates, and sometimes wholly 
relieves, even when not given in doses sufficiently large to vomit. It has been used also in 
catarrh, croup, pertussis, and other laryngeal and pectoral affections, but is chiefly valuable 
where there is bronchial spasm: it must always be employed with caution. The tincture 
affords the most eligible mode of administration; in asthmatic cases it may be given in doses 
of fifteen minims (0-9 C.c.) every hour until an effect is produced. The fluid extract and the 
tincture are official. The process for the vinegar, which was dropped by the U. S. Pharma- 
copoeia of 1890, will be found in the foot-note.* Dr. Nunes (T. G., 1889) asserts that he 
has used lobeline in a number of cases of asthma with most excellent results in doses of from 
three-fourths of a grain to six grains a day; but it can scarcely be doubted that he had a very 
impure alkaloid, and that such doses of a pure sample would be highly dangerous. 
LOTIONES. Lotions. 
(L0-TI-0'NE§—lo-shg-o'nez.) 
Washes; Lotions, Fr.; Waschungen, G. 
This class has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia in order to give official recog- 
nition to two preparations, the black wash, or lotio nigra, and the yellow wash, or lotio flava, 
which have been long in use, and which will be found treated of under Calomel and Corrosive 
Sublimate at pages 688 and 693 of this work. Nothing more is necessary here than to give 
the British formulas. 
LOTIO HYDRARGYRI FLAVA. Br. Yellow Mercurial Lotion. 
(LO'TI-O HY-DRAR'§Y-RI I’LA'VA—lo'shg-o.) 
Aqua Phagedsenica, P. G.; Yellow Wash; Eau phagedenique, Eau divine de Fernel, Phagedenique, Fr.; Phage- 
danisches Wasser, Altschadenwasser, G. 
“ Mercuric Chloride, 20 grains (Imperial) or 0.46 gramme; Solution of Lime, 10 ji. ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres. Mix.” Br. (See Lotio Flava, National Formulary.) 
This lotion is about 11 per cent, stronger than that official in the Br. Ph. 1885. 
LOTIO HYDRARGYRI NIGRA. Br. Black Mercurial Lotion. 
(LO'TI-O HY-DRAR'$Y-RI NI'GRA.) 
Aqua Phagedsenica Nigra,P. G.; Aqua Nigra, Aqua Mercurialis Nigra; Black Wash; Eau phagedenique noire, 
Fr.; Schwarzes Wasser, G. 
“ Mercurous Chloride, 30 grains (Imperial) or 0-685 gramme; Glycerin, £ fl. ounce (Imp. 
meas.) or 5 cubic centimetres; Mucilage of Tragacanth, 1 \ fl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 12-5 
* Aceturn Lobelia, U. S. 1880. Vinegar of Lobelia. ( Vinaigre de Lobelie enflle, Fr.; Lobelien-Essig, G.) 
“ Lobelia, in No. 30 powder, ten parts [or one and three-fourths ounces av.] ; Diluted Acetic Acid, a sufficient quan- 
tity, To make one hundred parts [or one pint]. Moisten the powder with five parts [or one fluidounce] of Diluted 
Acetic Acid, pack it firmly in a conical glass percolator, and gradually pour Diluted Acetic Acid upon it until one 
hundred parts [or one pint] of filtered liquid are obtained.” U. S. Vinegar of Lobelia may also be prepared by 
macerating the powder in one pint of Diluted Acetic Acid for seven days, expressing the liquid, and filtering through 
paper. This is an active preparation of lobelia. Dose, as an expectorant for an adult, from thirty minims to a 
fluidrachm (2-3-75 C.c.). In the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma from one to two fluidrachms (3-75-7-50 C.c.) may 
be given every two or three hours till relief is obtained. 836 
Lupulinum.—Lycopodium. 
cubic centimetres ; Solution of Lime, a sufficient quantity. Triturate the Mercurous Chloride 
with the Glycerin and Mucilage of Tragacanth ; transfer to a bottle ; add two fluid ounces (Imp. 
meas.) or 20 cubic centimetres of the Solution of Lime ; shake well; add sufficient Solution 
of Lime to produce ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred cubic centimetres of the 
Lotion.” Br. (See Lotio Nigra, National Formulary.) The addition of glycerin and muci- 
lage of tragacanth improves this lotion by aiding in the suspension of the insoluble powder. 
PAET I. 
LUPULINUM. U. S., Br. Lupulin. 
(LU-PU-Li'NUM.) 
“ The glandular powder separated from the strobiles of Humulus Lupulus, Linn6 (nat. 
ord. Urticaeeae).” U. S. “ Glands obtained from the 
strobiles of Humulus Lupulus, Linn. It should 
contain not more than 40 per cent, of matter in- 
soluble in ether, and yield not more than 12 per cent, 
of ash when incinerated.” Br. 
Lupulina, Pharm. 1870 ; Lupulinic Glands; Glandulae Lupuli, 
P. G.; Lupuline, Lupulite, Fr.; Hopfenmehl, Lupulin, G. 
Lupulin is officially described as “ bright brown- 
ish yellow, becoming yellowish brown, resinous, con- 
sisting of minute granules, which, as seen under the 
microscope, are subglobular, or rather hood-shaped, 
and reticulate; aromatic and bitter. When Lupu- 
lin is agitated with water and the mixture allowed 
to stand, no considerable sediment (sand, etc.) should 
be deposited. When ignited, Lupulin should not 
leave more than 10 per cent, of ash.” U. S. (See Humulus, p. 685.)* 
Lupulin. Magnified, to show the shape and 
markings of the granules. 
LYCOPODIUM. U.S. Lycopodium. 
(LY-CO-PO'DI-UM.) 
“ The spores of Lycopodium clavatum, Linne, and of other species of Lycopodium (nat. 
ord. Lycopodiacem).” U. S. 
Vegetable Sulphur; Semen Lycopodii, Pulvis Lycopodii, Sulphur Vegetabile; Lycopode, Soufre vegetal, Pied de 
Loup, F>\; Gemeiner Barlapp, Kolbenmoos, Barlappsamen, Streupulver, Hexenmehl, G.; Lieopodio, It., Sp. 
Lycopodium clavatum. Linn. Sp. Plant. (1753) 1101; B. & T. 299. This plant, commonly 
called club-moss, has a trailing, branching stem, several feet long, and thickly beset with linear- 
lanceolate, flat, ribless, smooth, partly serrate leaves with a capillary point, curved upward, and 
of a deep green color. The fructification is in terminal spikes, single or in pairs, with crowded 
ovate, entire, pointed scales, bearing in the axil a transversely oval sporange which splits 
nearly to the base and contains the narrow reticulate spores. The plant is a native of Europe, 
Asia, and America. 
The spores are collected in Switzerland and Germany. Lycopodium is “ a fine powder, pale 
yellowish, very mobile, inodorous, tasteless, floating upon water and not wetted by it, but sink- 
ing on being boiled with it, and burning quickly when 
thrown into a flame. Under the microscope the spores 
are seen to be splimro-tetrahedral, the surfaces marked 
with reticulated ridges, and the edges beset with short 
projections. Lycopodium should be free from pollen, 
starch, sand, and other impurities, any of which are 
easily detected by means of the microscope. When 
ignited with free access of air, Lycopodium should not 
leave more than 5 per cent, of ash.” U. S. Bucholz in 1807 pointed out the existence of a 
fixed oil. Fliickiger, however, by thoroughly comminuting the spores of lycopodium with sand, 
obtained 47 per cent, of a bland oil of bright yellow color and sp. gr. 0-925, which does not 
congeal even at —15° C. (5° F.). Stenhouse found volatile bases to be present in very small 
amount. The ash amounts to 4 per cent. It contains alumina and 1 per cent, of phosphoric 
acid, and is not alkaline. (Pharma cographia, 2d ed., 732.) Lycopodium is often adulterated 
with the pollen of the pines and firs, and sometimes with talc and starch. In Nashville, Tenn., 
A, Pollen-cell of Picea excelsa; B, Lycopodium. 
* Mr. J. S. Ward found, as the results of an examination, four samples of lupulin, which fairly represent the 
commercial article, to yield 54*24, 41 *-<9, 40 04, and 89*41 per cent, of extractive, soluble in ether, and to yield 27*01, 
29-10, 30*86, and 31*42 per cent, of ash. The samples were all gritty. (P. J. Tr., 1886, 656.) PART I. 
Macis.—Magnesia. 
837 
a specimen came into the possession of Mr. Benj. Lillard which was found to contain one- 
half of its bulk of dextrin. (Chicago Pharmacist, Sept. 1873.) Folleto recommends two re- 
actions to detect pollen: one by adding to a syrupy solution of zinc chloride potassium iodide 
and iodine to saturation; the pollen is colored yellow by this reagent, lycopodium is not col- 
ored ; the other reagent is methyl-green, which colors pollen green, but does not color lyco- 
podium. {Pharm. Central., 1896, 527.) Lycopodium is used as an absorbent application to 
excoriated surfaces, especially those which occur in the folds of the skin in infants. In phar- 
macy it answers the purpose of facilitating the rolling of the pilular mass, and of preventing 
the adhesion of the pills when formed. The moss itself has been esteemed diuretic and anti- 
spasmodic : its decoction has been employed in rheumatism, diseases of the lungs and kidneys, 
and in the removal of plica Polonica; but it has fallen into complete desuetude. 
MACIS. U. S. Mace. 
(MA'CIS.) 
“ The arillode of the fruit of Myristica fragrans, Houttuyn (nat. ord. Myristicaceae).” U. S. 
Arillus Myristicm; Macis, Fleur de Muscade, Fr.; Muskatbliithe (Macis), G.; Macis, It.; Macias, Sp. 
Mace occurs “ in narrow bands, 25 Mm. or more long, somewhat branched and lobed above, 
united into broader bands below; brownish-orange; fatty when scratched or pressed; odor 
fragrant, taste warm and aromatic.” U. S. Examined with the microscope, mace will be found 
to be largely made up of uniform, small, angular, parenchymatous cells, interspersed with 
numerous brown oil-cells of larger size. The inner part of the tissue contains also thin brown 
vascular bundles. The cells of the epidermis on either side are colorless, thick-walled, longi- 
tudinally extended, and covered with a peculiar cuticle of broad, flat, ribbon-like cells, which 
cannot, however, be removed as a continuous film. The parenchymatous cells are loaded with 
small albuminous granules, but do not contain starch. In examining ground mace these ele- 
ments of structure come out plainly, and the presence of starch granules or other microscopic 
particles different from those spoken of is proof that the powdered mace has been adulterated* 
Mace contains from 7 to 9 per cent, of a volatile oil, the greater portion of which consists of 
pinene, along with which is some myristicin, C12A1402. Wallach also found a fixed oil, odorous, 
yellow, soluble in ether, insoluble in boiling alcohol; another fixed oil, odorous, red, soluble in 
alcohol and ether in every proportion; a peculiar gummy matter; and a small proportion of 
ligneous fibre. Fliickiger finds that, instead of the fats just described, there is about 25 per 
cent, of resin. (Pharmacographia, 509.) Mace yields a volatile oil by distillation and a fixed 
oil by pressure. Neumann found the former heavier than water. The latter is less consistent 
than the fixed oil of nutmeg. Mace is inferior when it is brittle, less than usually divided, 
whitish or pale yellow, or with little taste and smell. (See Myristica.) 
MAGNESIA. U. S. (Br.) Magnesia. [Light Magnesia. Calcined Magnesia.] 
MgO; 40*26. (hXg-NE'§I-A.) MgO; 40. 
“ Light Magnesium Oxide, MgO, is prepared by exposing Light Magnesium Carbonate to a 
dull red heat.” Br. 
Magnesia Levis, Br.; Magnesia Usta, P.O.; Magnesia Caicinata; Magnesie, Magnesie calcinee, Fr.; Gebrannte 
Magnesia, G. 
In the British Pharmacopoeia 1885 directions were given for preparing two forms of mag- 
nesia, one called Magnesia Levis,\ or Bight Magnesia, from the Bight Carbonate, and the other 
Magnesia Ponderosa, from the Heavy Carbonate. It is the former which corresponds with 
our ordinary magnesia. Neither Pharmacopoeia gives a detailed process. 
By exposure to a red heat, the water and carbonic acid of the magnesium carbonate are ex- 
* Occasionally mace is adulterated with powdered Bombay or wild mace, or with vegetable matters stained with 
turmeric. According to Hefelmann, the presence of Bombay mace, or of turmeric, may be infallibly detected by the 
following test. A strip of filtering paper is saturated with the alcoholic solution, the excess of liquid removed by 
pressing between filtering paper, and the strip drawn through a cold saturated solution of boric acid; if the adul- 
terant be Bombay mace the paper remains unchanged, while turmeric changes the color to orange or even brown. 
The addition now of a drop of potassium hydrate solution to the strip causes a colored ring—with turmeric, blue; 
with Bombay mace, red. (Pharm. Zeit., 1891.) For additional tests, see P. J. Tr., 1897, 288. 
-f- “ Take of Light Carbonate of Magnesium four ounces. Put it into a Cornish or Hessian crucible closed loosely 
by a lid, and expose it to a low red heat until a small quantity, taken from the centre of the crucible, cooled, moist- 
ened with water, and dropped into warm diluted sulphuric acid, causes no effervescence.” Br. 1885. 838 
Magnesia. 
PART I. 
pelled, and the earth is obtained pure. According to Dr. Black, the carbonate loses seven- 
twelfths of its weight by calcination. Brande says that the loss varies from 50 to 60 per 
cent., of which from 15 to 20 per cent, is water: (MgC0„)4 -f- Mg(OH)2 -{- 5H20 = 5MgO 
6H20 -j- 4COa. About the close of the process the earth exhibits a luminous or phosphores- 
cent appearance, which is said to be a good criterion of its freedom from carbonic acid. (Dun- 
can.') A more certain indication, however, is the absence of effervescence when hydrochloric 
acid is added to a little of the magnesia, previously mixed with water. It is an error to sup- 
pose that a very intense heat is requisite in the calcination. The temperature of ignition is 
sufficient for the expulsion of the water and carbonic acid, and any increase serves only to 
render the magnesia harder, denser, less readily soluble in acids, and consequently less useful 
as a medicine. In order to insure a pure product, care should be taken that the carbonate em- 
ployed be free from lime. It should be rubbed to powder before being introduced into the 
pot or crucible; and, as in consequence of its levity it occupies a very large space, the plan 
has been proposed of moistening and compressing it in order to reduce its bulk ; but the French 
pharmaceutical writers direct that the vessels employed should be sufficiently large to contain 
a considerable quantity of the carbonate, without the necessity of resorting to compression* 
The official direction, to keep the magnesia, after it has been prepared, in well-closed vessels, is 
founded on the fact that it absorbs carbonic acid and water from the air; but, as the absorp- 
tion of the acid goes on very slowly, and that of water does not injure the preparation, the 
caution is often neglected. The great bulk of the earth renders its introduction into small 
bottles inconvenient. A four-ounce bottle holds only about an ounce of the purest and finest 
magnesia. But its specific gravity is greatly increased by trituration; and four times the 
quantity may be thus got into the same space. The density of Henry's Magnesia, whieh is at 
least four times that of the earth prepared in the ordinary way, has been ascribed to this cause. 
It has also been attributed to the influence of intense heat employed in the calcination. The 
conjecture has even been advanced, that this magnesia, which has enjoyed so great a popularity 
in England and this country, is prepared by precipitating a solution of magnesium sulphate 
by caustic potassa, as the earth afforded by this plan is comparatively dense. It is asserted 
that the magnesia prepared from the carbonate procured by precipitating magnesium sul- 
phate with potassium carbonate is softer to the touch and bears a closer resemblance to Henry’s 
than that prepared from the ordinary carbonate. The fact is explained by the presence in such 
magnesia of a little potassium sulphate, from which it is difficult entirely to free it in conse- 
quence of the sparing solubility of this salt, and of a portion of silica, which originally existed 
in the potassium carbonate employed to decompose the magnesium sulphate, and of which so- 
dium carbonate is destitute. According to Mr. Richard Phillips, Jr., if equivalent quantities 
of crystallized magnesium sulphate and crystallized sodium carbonate be boiled together in 
water, the mixture evaporated to dryness, the residual salts calcined, and the sodium sulphate 
dissolved out by water, the magnesia obtained will be dense. (See A. J. P., xvi. 118.) By 
packing the carbonate closely in the crucible, or by moistening and then compressing it strongly 
in a cloth, before calcination, a heavy magnesia is obtained. The advantages of Henry’s mag- 
nesia, independently of the convenience of its less bulk, are its greater softness and more ready 
miscibility with water. A preparation similar to Henry’s is made by T. J. Husband, of Phila- 
delphia. In reference to the preparation of heavy magnesia, Mr. T. H. Barr, after trying va- 
rious methods, obtained the best results either by precipitating a hot concentrated solution of 
magnesium sulphate with a like solution of sodium carbonate, or by decomposing magnesium 
chloride by heat. (A. J. P., xxvi. 193.) Dr. P. E. Alessandri proposes the following method, 
which is both simple and rapid, for preparing “ heavy” calcined magnesia. Take ordinary cal- 
cined magnesia, free from carbonate, moisten it, in a mortar, with pure, absolute alcohol, and 
triturate it, at first gently, afterwards with some force, but not rapidly. During the agitation, 
the magnesia is to be moistened three or four times with fresh portions of the alcohol, and the 
operation is suspended when the bulk of the magnesia appears to remain stationary. Then 
* In a paper by M. A. Vee (Journ. de Pharm., Avril, 1860, p. 84) it is stated that the magnesia of commerce, in 
consequence of imperfect preparation, is often found dense, granular, harsh, and of difficult solubility in the acids. 
To remedy this inconvenience the only method heretofore known was to prepare it in small quantities, and to stir 
the magnesia during calcination with an iron spoon. The difficulty in preparing it properly on the large scale de- 
pends upon the unequal action of the heat on large masses, so that the outer part becomes heated in excess before the 
inner is sufficiently so. To remedy this inconvenience, M. Vee uses a furnace and crucible of a peculiar shape, so 
arranged that the magnesia may not be in layers thicker than seven centimeters (2‘7 inches), may be exposed equably 
to heat, and not longer exposed than may be necessary for its decomposition. For an account of the apparatus, and 
of the proper method of management, see A. J. P., 1862, p. 522. PART I. 
Magnesia. 
839 
remove the mass, dry it, rub it to powder, and pass it through a sieve. The product occupies 
only about one-fifteenth of the original bulk. (W. R., March, 1882.) 
Magnesia is now manufactured extensively in the United States, the domestic product 
having almost entirely supplanted that which was formerly imported from Great Britain. 
The Keasbey & Mattison Company have erected extensive works at Ambler, Pa., although 
the greater part of their output is magnesium carbonate, which is used in the arts mainly as 
a non-conductor of heat. This company also makes light and heavy calcined magnesia for 
medicinal purposes, and dolomite is now exclusively used as the source of the magnesium com- 
pounds. (See Magnesii Carbonas for further information.) 
Dr. Pereira found light magnesia, under the microscope, to exhibit the same forms observed 
in the light carbonate : namely, one portion was amorphous and of a flocculent or granular 
consistence, and another was composed of fragments of prismatic crystals ; while the heavy 
magnesia was homogeneous, exhibiting no traces of crystals, and consisting of minute granules 
more or less cohering into small soft balls or masses. (P. J. Tr., viii. 235.) 
Properties. Magnesia is a very light, white, inodorous powder, of a feeble alkaline taste. 
Its sp. gr. is commonly stated at 2-3. It was deemed infusible till melted by means of the 
compound blowpipe of Dr. Hare. Water sprinkled upon it is absorbed to the extent of about 
18 per cent., but with scarcely any increase of temperature. It is almost insoluble, requiring, 
according to Dr. Fyfe, 5142 parts of water at 60° F., and 36,000 parts of boiling water, for solu- 
tion. Water thus impregnated has no effect on vegetable colors ; but magnesia itself produces 
a brown stain by contact with moistened turmeric paper. Magnesia is a metallic oxide, consisting 
of one atom of magnesium and one of oxygen. It is officially described as “ almost insoluble in 
water, and insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in dilute acids. It is not altered by heat, but when 
very strongly heated its density is increased. When moistened with water, it has a faintly alka- 
line reaction upon litmus paper. On stirring 1 part of Magnesia with 15 parts of water, in a 
beaker, and allowing the mixture to stand for about half an hour, it will form a gelatinous 
mass of sufficient consistence to prevent it from dropping out when the glass is inverted. A 
filtered solution of Magnesia in diluted sulphuric acid, mixed with ammonium chloride test- 
solution and an excess of ammonia water, yields, with sodium phosphate test-solution, a white, 
crystalline precipitate. If a mixture of 0-2 6m. of Magnesia with 10 C.c. of water be heated 
to boiling, and, after cooling, 5 C.c. of the supernatant liquid be filtered off, this filtrate should 
not give more than a faintly alkaline reaction with litmus paper, and, when evaporated to dry- 
ness, should not leave more than a very slight residue (limit of foreign soluble salts'). The 
Magnesia mixed with water remaining from the preceding test, when poured into 5 C.c. of 
acetic acid, should dissolve without the evolution of more than a few isolated gas bubbles (limit 
of carbonate). This latter solution, when filtered, should not be rendered more than slightly 
opalescent by ammonium oxalate test-solution (limit of calcium), or by barium chloride test- 
solution (limit of sulphate), or, after the addition of a few drops of nitric acid, by silver nitrate 
test-solution (limit of chloride). If 0'4 Gm. of Magnesia be dissolved in 10 C.c. of diluted 
hydrochloric acid, the solution should be colorless, and should not be affected by hydrogen 
sulphide test-solution, nor, after the addition of a slight excess of ammonia water, should it be 
immediately affected by ammonium sulphide test-solution (absence of metallic impurities). If 
Magnesia be exposed to a low red heat in a porcelain crucible, it should not lose more than 5 
per cent, of its weight (limit of water of hydration)." IT. S. “A bulky white powder differing 
from Heavy Magnesia only in its greater lightness, the volumes corresponding to the same 
weight being to each other in the ratio of three and a half to one.” Br. 
Magnesium is a white, very brilliant metal, of sp. gr. 1-75, resembling silver, malleable, fusible 
at a low temperature, and convertible into magnesia by the combined action of air and moisture. 
It burns with great facility, and yields by its combustion a light which is intensely white and 
very rich in actinic or chemically active rays, so that it finds wide application in signal lights 
and for photography, although the cheaper alloy of magnesium and zinc is often used instead. 
There is a magnesium hydrate, possessing the formula Mg(0H)2. With nitric and hydro- 
chloric acids magnesia forms salts which are soluble in alcohol and very deliquescent. It is 
precipitated from its saline solutions by the pure alkalies in the state of a hydrate, and by 
potassium and sodium carbonates as a carbonate; but it is not precipitated by the alkaline 
bicarbonates, nor by common ammonium carbonate. 
Magnesia is liable to contain, as impurities, magnesium carbonate, lime, alumina, silica, and 
small quantities of the soluble salts employed or produced in the preparation of the carbonate 
from which it is procured. Lime, which is a very frequent impurity, and imparts to the mag- 840 
Magnesia.—Magnesia Ponderosa. 
PART I. 
nesia a more strongly alkaline and more disagreeable taste, is detected by ammonium oxalate 
or potassium bicarbonate. Neither of these salts disturbs a neutral solution of pure magnesia 
in a dilute acid; but if lime is present, both produce a precipitate, the former of oxalate, the 
latter of calcium carbonate. But, according to Wittstein, calcium oxalate is soluble in the 
neutral salts of magnesia, requiring 50 parts of magnesium chloride, and 90 of magnesium 
sulphate; and consequently there might be no precipitate, or one redissolved by the liquid, 
should the proportion of lime be very small. (Journ. de Pharm., 4e s6r., iii. 216.) As mag- 
nesia is completely dissolved by hydrochloric acid, silica and other impurities insoluble in that 
acid would be left behind. Alumina is indicated by the production of a precipitate when am- 
monia is added in excess to a solution of fifty grains of magnesia in a fluidounce of hydro- 
chloric acid. If the magnesia contain a soluble sulphate or carbonate, barium chloride will re- 
veal it by producing a precipitate with water digested on the magnesia. Rochelle salt has been 
found as an impurity in magnesia, probably as the result of accident. (A. J. P., Jan. 1873.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Magnesia is antacid and laxative, and is much used, 
under the name of calcined magnesia, in dyspepsia, sick headache, gout, and other complaints 
attended with sour stomach and constipation. It is also a favorite remedy in the complaints 
of children, in which acidity of the primae vise is often a prominent symptom. Its antacid 
properties render it useful in gravel attended with an excessive secretion of uric acid. Its ad- 
vantages over magnesium carbonate are that it may be given in a smaller dose and does not 
occasion flatulence.* The dose as a laxative is from thirty grains to a drachm (1*95-3*9 
Gm.); as an antacid merely, or an antilithic, from ten to thirty grains (0*65-1*95 Gm.) twice 
a day. When it meets with no acid, it is apt to linger in the stomach or bowels, ajjd may in 
that case be followed by lemonade. It should be administered in water or milk, and thor- 
oughly triturated so as to render the mixture uniform. If mixed with less than 14 or 15 times 
its weight of water, and allowed to stand for a day or two, magnesia is apt to form a more or 
less concrete mass, owing to the production of a hydrate. This change does not take place, or 
at least takes place much less readily, when magnesia already saturated with moisture is em- 
ployed instead of that freshly calcined. It has been conjectured that anhydrous magnesia 
might prove injurious in the stomach by solidifying its liquid contents; and the earth which 
has become saturated with moisture by exposure to a damp air is preferably recommended. 
Freshly precipitated magnesium hydrate will serve as an antidote to arsenous acid, though less 
efficient than ferric hydrate. The experiments of M. Carles have shown that the soluble mag- 
nesium saccharate is not superior as an antidote for arsenic to simple magnesia. Dr. Ohleyer 
(London Lancet, July, 1873) employs magnesia as a dressing in ulcers and abrasions, whilst 
Vergely recommends for burns calcined magnesia triturated with milk so as to form a paste, 
which should be applied thickly several times a day. 
MgO; 40*26. (mXg-ne'§i-a pon-de-ro'sa.) Mgo; 40. 
MAGNESIA PONDEROSA. U. S., Br. Heavy Magnesia 
Heavy Calcined Magnesia; Oxide of Magnesium. 
“ A white, dense, and very fine powder, which should conform to the reactions and tests 
given under Magnesia. It differs, however, from the latter in not readily uniting with water 
to form a gelatinous hydrate.” tf. S. “ Heavy Magnesium Oxide, MgO, is prepared by ex- 
posing Heavy Magnesium Carbonate to a dull red heat.” Br. 
This was directed, in the British Pharmacopoeia 1885, to be prepared precisely in the same 
manner as light magnesia, using, however, the heavy carbonate (Heavy Magnesium Carbo- 
nate, Br.). It is described by the Br. Ph. 1898 as “ A wdiite powder, insoluble in water, but 
readily dissolved by acids, the solution affording the reactions characteristic of magnesium. 
It should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for irou, aluminium, calcium, or car- 
bonates, and only the slightest reactions with the tests for chlorides or sulphates. When heated 
to dull redness it should lose little or no weight.” The two varieties of light and heavy mag- 
nesia differ only in their weight in the same bulk, the volumes corresponding to the same 
weight being to each other in the ratio of three and one-half to one. (See Magnesia, above.) 
* Trochisci Magnesia. U. S. 1880. Troches of Magnesia. “ Magnesia, three hundred grains (19*50 Gm.) ; Nutmeg, 
in fine powder, fifteen grains (1*00 Gm.) ; Sugar, in fine powder, nine hundred grains (58*50 Gm.); Mucilage of 
Tragacanth, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred troches. Rub the Magnesia and powder together until they 
are thoroughly mixed; then, with Mucilage of Tragacanth, form a mass, to be divided into one hundred troches." 
U. S. These each contain three grains (0*20 Gm.) of magnesia, and are useful in acidity of the stomach, especially 
When attended with constipation. Part i. 
Magnesii Carbonas. 
841 
MAGNESII CARBONAS. U. S. (Br.) Magnesium Carbonate. 
Approximately (MgCOsh. Mg (OH)2 + 5H2 O ; 484-62. (MgC03)4. Mg (IIO)2. 5H2 0; 484. 
Carbonate of Magnesia; Magnesia Carbonica, P. G.; Magnesia Hydrico-carbonica, Carbonas Magnesious, Magne- 
sia Alba, Lat.; Carbonate de Magnesie, Magnesie blancbe, Fr.; Kohlensaure Magnesia, Weisse Magnesia, G.; Car- 
bonato di Magnesia, It.; Carbonato de Magnesia, Sp. 
Magnesium Carbonate sometimes occurs as a native mineral known as magnesite, the best 
deposits of which are those of the Grecian Archipelago, though a common variety is found in 
Chester Co., Pa. That which is sold in commerce is prepared on a large scale by the manu- 
facturer. In the British Pharmacopoeia directions are given for preparing it in two forms : that 
of Magnesii Carbonas Ponderosus, or Heavy Magnesium Carbonate; and that of Mao- 
nesii Carbonas Levis, or Light Magnesium Carbonate. The following are the directions: 
1. Magnesii Carbonas Ponderosus. Heavy Magnesium Carbonate. Br. “ This prepara- 
tion, 3(MgC03),Mg(H0)2,4H20, may be obtained by the following process. Magnesium 
Sulphate, 10 ounces (Imperial) or 125 grammes; Sodium Carbonate, 12 ounces (Imp.) or 150 
grammes; Distilled Water, boiling, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Magnesium Sulphate 
and the Sodium Carbonate each in a pint (Imp. meas.) or two hundred and fifty cubic centi- 
metres of the Distilled Water; mix the solutions, and evaporate to dryness; digest the residue 
for half an hour with two pints (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the Distilled 
Water, and having collected the insoluble matter on a calico filter, wash it repeatedly with the 
Distilled Water until the washings are free from sulphates; dry the product at a temperature 
not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. 
This is essentially the old process of the Dublin College for Magnesia: Carbonas Ponde- 
ROSUM, or Heavy Carbonate of Magnesia, and yields a product which is characterized in the 
British Pharmacopoeia as “ A white granular powder, which dissolves readily, with efferves- 
cence, in the diluted mineral acids, the solutions affording the reactions characteristic of mag- 
nesium. 5 grammes calcined at a red heat should be reduced to 2-1 grammes. It should 
yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for iron, aluminium, or calcium, and only the 
slightest reactions with the tests for chlorides or sulphates.” 
2. Magnesii Carbonas Levis. Light Magnesium Carbonate. Br. “ This preparation, 
3(MgC03),Mg(H0)2,4H20, may be obtained by the following process. Magnesium Sulphate, 
10 ounces (Imperial) or 125 grammes; Sodium Carbonate, 12 ounces (Imp.) or 150 grammes; 
Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Magnesium Sulphate and the Sodium Car- 
bonate each in half a gallon (Imp. meas.) or one litre of cold Distilled Water; mix the two 
solutions; boil the mixture for fifteen minutes ; transfer the precipitate to a calico filter; pour 
upon it boiling Distilled Water until the washings are free from sulphates; dry at a tempera- 
ture not exceeding 212° F. (100° C.).” Br. The resulting carbonate is characterized in the 
British Pharmacopoeia as “ A very light powder, which, when examined under the microscope, 
is found to consist of amorphous particles with numerous slender prisms intermixed. The 
other characters and tests are the same as those of Heavy Magnesium Carbonate.” 
Potassium carbonate is less eligible than sodium carbonate for the preparation of magnesium 
carbonate. It is difficult to separate the last portions of potassium sulphate from the precipi- 
tate, and potassium carbonate usually contains silica, which is thrown down with the magnesia. 
The consequence is that, when prepared with that salt, magnesium carbonate is liable to be 
gritty to the touch and to have a saline taste. The following method is said to be pursued 
by some of the best manufacturers. To a saturated solution of 100 parts of magnesium sul- 
phate, a solution of 125 parts of crystallized sodium carbonate is gradually added, the solutions 
being constantly stirred. The mixture is heated to ebullition, to complete the precipitation of 
the magnesia, which is then washed with tepid and finally with cold water, until the washings 
no longer give a precipitate with barium salts. When sufficiently washed, the carbonate is 
allowed to drain for one or two days on large linen filters, and is then placed in wooden moulds 
with a porous bottom of brick or gypsum, and subjected to pressure in order to give it a square 
and compact form. According to Otto and Gabler, very pure magnesium carbonate is made at 
Nauheim, Germany. Pattinson’s process is used. It depends upon the fact that, on treating 
calcined dolomite, in the presence of water, with carbonic acid under pressure, the magnesia 
dissolves as bicarbonate before any of the accompanying lime enters in solution. The calcined 
and finely powdered mineral is introduced, together with water, into a cylinder with a horizontal 
axis, and, while it is being kept in constant motion by a stirring apparatus, carbonic acid gas, 
under a pressure of five to six atmospheres, is forced into it. The resulting solution of mag- 
nesium bicarbonate, which is perfectly free from lime, if the process has been properly man- 
(MAG-NE'§I-! CAR'BO-NAS.) 842 
Magnesii Carbonas. 
PAET I. 
aged, is then transferred to a vertical cylinder, where it is heated with steam, whereby magne- 
sium carbonate is separated, which is collected, formed into prismatic .pieces, and dried. The 
carbonic acid gas required issues from the earth immediately outside of the factory; and the 
dolomite is furnished by the quarries of May and Urban, near Dietz and Steelen on the Lahn. 
(Arch. d. Pharm., Aug. 1880; N. R., Sept. 1881.) 
The density of magnesium carbonate is said to depend upon the strength of the solutions 
from which it is first precipitated, and its fineness and softness to the touch, upon the use of 
sodium carbonate in its preparation. Much of the magnesium carbonate formerly used in this 
country was imported from England and Ireland, but that now consumed in the United States 
is chiefly a home product. The Keasbey & Mattison Company, who are the largest manufac- 
turers of carbonate at the present time (1899), use the process of decomposing calcined dolomite 
by forcing carbonic acid into its aqueous mixture, and heating this to precipitate the carbonate. 
When made from bittern, magnesium carbonate is contaminated with calcium carbonate, salts 
of lime being contained in sea-water; and when it is prepared from magnesite, or from mag- 
nesian schist, iron is almost always present. The only way in which these impurities can be 
avoided is to prepare pure magnesium sulphate by repeated crystallization, and to use a pure 
sodium carbonate. It is also necessary that the water with which the precipitate is washed 
should be free from earthy salts, which would be decomposed and contaminate the magnesia. 
Kippenberger prepares crystallized magnesium carbonate by shaking freshly precipitated mag- 
nesium carbonate with a solution of potassium bicarbonate at the ordinary temperature; much 
of the magnesium carbonate dissolves and crystallizes out of the filtered solution upon standing 
for a day. Sodium bicarbonate may be used instead of the potassium salt, but the crystals 
are smaller. (Zeit.f. Anorg. Chem., 1894, 177.) 
Properties. Magnesium carbonate is inodorous, nearly insipid, perfectly white, smooth to 
the touch, and nearly insoluble in water, requiring 2493 parts of cold and 9000 parts of hot 
water for solution. It is decomposed by strong heat, by all the acids, by potassa, soda, lime, 
barium and strontium oxides, and by acidulous and metallic salts. “ Light, white, friable masses, 
or a light, white powder, without odor, and having a slightly earthy taste ; permanent in the air. 
Almost insoluble in water, to which, however, it imparts a slightly alkaline reaction ; insoluble 
in alcohol, but soluble in dilute acids with active effervescence. When strongly heated, the 
salt loses water and carbon dioxide, and is converted into magnesia. A filtered solution of the 
salt in diluted sulphuric acid, when mixed with ammonium chloride test-solution and an excess 
of ammonia water, yields, with sodium phosphate test-solution, a white, crystalline precipitate. 
If the salt be boiled with water, the filtered liquid, when evaporated to dryness, should not 
leave more than a very slight residue. A 2-per-cent, solution of the salt, prepared by the 
addition of acetic acid, should not be rendered more than slightly opalescent by ammonium 
oxalate test-solution (limit of calcium) ; nor by barium chloride test-solution (limit of sulphate) ; 
nor, after the addition of a few drops of nitric acid, by silver nitrate test-solution (limit of 
chloride'). If 0-4 Gm. of the salt be dissolved in 5 C.c. of diluted hydrochloric acid, the solu- 
tion should be colorless, and should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, nor, 
after the addition of an excess of ammonia water, should it be immediately affected by am- 
monium sulphide test-solution (absence of metallic impurities'). If DO Gm. of the salt be 
ignited in a porcelain crucible, the residue should weigh not less than 0-4 Gm.” U. S. Dr. 
Pereira states that the light carbonate, when examined with the microscope, is seen to consist 
of an amorphous powder, more or less intermingled with slender prismatic crystals, which 
appear as if they were eroded or efflorescent; the heavy carbonate consists of granules of various 
sizes, without any traces of the prismatic crystals observed in the former variety. 
A solution in carbonic acid water, prepared by passing carbonic acid gas into a reservoir con- 
taining magnesium carbonate suspended in water, has been introduced into use as a cathartic 
and antacid. Dinneford's Magnesia is a solution of this nature. According to Dr. Christison, 
it contains only nine grains of carbonate in the fluidounce, though alleged to contain twice 
that quantity. Its taste is more disagreeable than that of the undissolved carbonate. A 
formula for this preparation has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia, with the 
name of Liquor Magnesiae Carbonatis. 
Adulterations and Tests. Magnesium carbonate may contain an alkaline carbonate or 
sulphate, or both, from insufficient washing; also sodium chloride, alumina, and calcium car- 
bonate. If water boiled on it changes turmeric, an alkaline carbonate is indicated. If barium 
chloride produces a precipitate in the water, the presence of a sulphate or carbonate is shown; 
and if silver nitrate produces precipitation, a chloride is indicated. When dissolved in an ex- PART I. 
Magnesii Carbonas.—Magnesii Citras Ejfervescens. 
843 
cess of hydrochloric acid, an excess of ammonia will throw down alumina, which is almost 
always present in minute quantity; and ammonium oxalate, afterwards added to the filtered 
chloride solution, will throw down calcium oxalate if lime be present. When the same solu- 
tion, nearly neutralized, is rendered blue by potassium ferrocyanide, iron is indicated. 
Composition. According to Berzelius, magnesium carbonate of commerce (magnesia alba) 
is a combination of three mols. of magnesium carbonate with one of magnesium hydrate. Ac- 
cording to Phillips, whose analysis agrees with a subsequent one by Fownes, four mols. of the 
carbonate are combined with one of the hydrate and four of water. (P. J. Tr., iii. 480.) The 
formula given by the British Pharmacopoeia is 3MgCOa -f- Mg(OH)2 -}- 4H20 ; in other words, 
a combination of three mols. of magnesium carbonate, two of magnesium hydrate, and four 
of water; while the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890 makes it 4MgCo3 -f Mg(OH)a 5HaO. The 
composition of this salt varies with the mode of preparation. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Magnesium carbonate is antacid, and, by combining 
with acid in the stomach, becomes generally cathartic. When it undergoes no change in the 
alimentary canal it produces no purgative effect. Under these circumstances it may usually 
be made to operate by following it with draughts of lemonade. It is useful in all cases which 
require a laxative antacid; and, though apt to produce flatulence in consequence of the extri- 
cation of its carbonic acid in the stomach and bowels, and therefore in ordinary cases inferior 
to calcined magnesia, it sometimes operates favorably, in consequence of this very property, in 
sick stomach attended with acidity. Magnesium carbonate is also an excellent antilithic when 
uric acid is secreted in excess. The dose is from half a drachm to two drachms (l-95-7’8 Gm.), 
which may be given in water or milk. In order that it may be accurately diffused through 
water, it should be previously rubbed down with syrup or ginger syrup. Magnesium car- 
bonate is a useful agent for diffusing camphor and the volatile oils through water, in preparing 
several of the medicated waters, and is also used with a similar purpose as a diffusing agent 
in preparing syrups or elixirs. 
MAGNESII CITRAS EFFERVESCENS. U.S. Effervescent Magnesium 
Citrate. 
Magnesii Citras Granulatus, U. S. 1880; Granulated Citrate of Magnesium. 
“ Magnesium Carbonate, ten grammes [or 154 grains] ; Citric Acid, forty-six grammes [or 1 
ounce ay., 272 grains] ; Sodium Bicarbonate, thirty-four grammes [or 1 ounce ay., 87 grains] ; 
Sugar, in fine powder, eight grammes [or 123 grains] ; Alcohol, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient 
quantity. Mix the Magnesium Carbonate intimately with thirty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 25 
grains] of Citric Acid and four cubic centimeters [or 65 minims] of Distilled Water, so as to 
form a thick paste. Dry this at a temperature not exceeding 30° C. (86° F.), and reduce it 
to a fine powder. Then mix it intimately with the Sugar, the Sodium Bicarbonate, and the re- 
mainder of the Citric Acid previously reduced to a very fine powder. Dampen the powder 
with a sufficient quantity of Alcohol, so as to form a mass, and rub it through a No. 6 tinned- 
iron sieve. Then dry it, and reduce it to a coarse, granular powder. Keep the product in 
well-closed vessels.” U. S. 
This is an official salt, intended to furnish an agreeable, effervescent drink. It is very im- 
portant to obey the direction to keep it in well-closed bottles, for if permitted access of air the 
moisture would soon cause the acid to act upon the carbonates and liberate the carbonic acid 
gas gradually, and thus destroy the effervescent character of the preparation, its principal rec- 
ommendation. Large quantities of so-called effervescent magnesium citrate are sold in this 
country and in England which contain no magnesium citrate at all, being effervescent salts 
of sodium tartrate.* W. L. Scoville analyzed three commercial specimens. (Pharm. Record, 
1892, 267.) One English brand contained anhydrous magnesium sulphate, Rochelle salt, 
sodium bicarbonate, tartaric acid, and sugar; another English salt contained magnesium sul- 
phate, sodium sulphate, potassium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, tartaric acid, and sugar; a 
Philadelphia preparation contained magnesium carbonate, citric and tartaric acids, sodium and 
potassium bicarbonates, and sugar. 
Properties. “A white, coarsely granular salt, without odor, and having a mildly acidu- 
lous, refreshing taste. Deliquescent on exposure to the air. Soluble, with copious efferves- 
(mXg-ne'§i-i cI'tiias Ef-fer-ves'cen§.) 
* Magnesium acetate has been proposed as a substitute for magnesium citrate. It is very soluble in alcohol and 
also in water, and is said to act well as a saline purgative, but it is open to the objection of having an empyreumatic 
taste. (See A. J. P., Sept. 1884.) 844 
Magnesii Sulphas. 
PART I. 
cence, in 2 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and very soluble in boiling water; almost insolu- 
ble in alcohol. The aqueous solution (1 in 20) has an acid reaction, and, after the addition of 
ammonium chloride test-solution and a slight excess of ammonia water, it yields, with sodium 
phosphate test-solution, a white, crystalline precipitate. If to another portion of the aqueous 
solution a little calcium chloride test-solution be added, and then a slight excess of ammonia 
water, the filtered liquid will deposit a white precipitate on boiling. A saturated aqueous solu- 
tion of the salt, when mixed with potassium acetate test-solution and a small quantity of acetio 
acid, should not yield a white, crystalline precipitate (absence of tartrate)''1 U. S. 
Medical Properties. The medical properties are those of its solution, except that, as 
it does not contain a large excess of acid, it is less pleasant to the palate, but may in some 
cases suit the stomach better. (See Liquor Magnesii Gitratis.) It has also the advantage of 
portability. The dose is from one to three teaspoonfuls. 
MAGNESII SULPHAS. U.S., Br. Magnesium Sulphate. [Epsom Salt.] 
MgS04 + 7H20; 245*84. (MlG-NE'§I-I SUL'PHiS.) MgS04.7II2 0; 246. 
“Magnesium Sulphate, MgS04,7II20, may be prepared by the interaction of the native 
magnesium carbonates and diluted sulphuric acid; or by purifying the native sulphate.” Br. 
Sulphate of Magnesia; Magnesia Sulfurica, P. G.; Sal Arnarum, Sal Epsomense, Sal Anglicum, Sal Sedlicense, 
Sulfas Magnesicus; Sulfate de Magnesie, Sel d’Epsom, Sel de Sedlitz, Sel amer, Fr.; Schwefelsaure Magnesia, Bit- 
tersalz, G.; Solfato di Magnesia, It.; Sulfato de Magnesia, Sp. 
Magnesium Sulphate is a constituent of sea-water, and of some saline springs. It also occurs 
native, either crystallized in slender, prismatic, adhering crystals, or as an efflorescence on cer- 
tain rocks and soils which contain magnesia and a sulphate or sulphide. In the United States 
it is found in the great caves so numerous to the west of the Alleghany Mountains. In one 
of these caves, near Corydon in Indiana, it formed a stratum on the bottom several inches deep, 
or appeared in masses sometimes weighing ten pounds, or disseminated in the earth of the 
cavern, one bushel of which yielded from four to twenty-five pounds of the sulphate. It also 
appeared on the walls of the cavern, and, if it was removed, acicular crystals again appeared 
in a few weeks. ( Cleveland.) 
Under the name of kieserite, a mineral is obtained from the saline deposits at Stassfurt, in 
Germany, which consists chiefly of impure magnesium sulphate. The production of kieserite 
for the year 1896 was 25,198 tons, and for the year 1897, 25,882 tons. It is used as a source 
for preparing magnesium sulphate, and is exported from Germany. 
Magnesium sulphate was originally procured by evaporating the waters of saline springs at 
Epsom, in England. Dr. Grew prepared it in this manner in 1675. It was afterwards discov- 
ered that the brine remaining after the crystallization of common salt from sea-water furnished 
by careful evaporation precisely the same salt; and, as this was a much cheaper product, it 
superseded the former. The residual brine, or bittern, consists of magnesium sulphate and 
magnesium and calcium chlorides. As the magnesium sulphate crystallizes first, it may with 
proper care be obtained nearly pure, although most frequently the salt prepared in this way is 
deliquescent from the presence of magnesium chloride. It may be freed from this impurity 
by washing the crystals with their own saturated solution. It was from this source that the 
greater part of the Epsom salt of commerce was long obtained in Europe. The salt-works of 
New England supplied our own markets with an impure and deliquescent sulphate. With the 
improvements of chemistry, other and better processes have been adopted. In the neighbor- 
hood of Genoa and Nice, magnesium sulphate is prepared in large quantities from a schistose 
rock containing magnesia and iron sulphide. The mineral is roasted, and exposed in heaps 
for some months to the action of air and water. It is then lixiviated, the ferrous sulphate 
decomposed by lime water, and the salt obtained pure by repeated solution and crystallization. 
William Henry, of Manchester, whose calcined magnesia has become famous throughout the 
world, took out a patent for a mode of preparing magnesia and its salts from the double mag- 
nesium and calcium carbonate,—the dolomite of mineralogists. His process was to drive off 
the carbonic acid by heat, and to convert the remaining earth into hydrates. He treated these 
with a sufficient quantity of hydrochloric acid to dissolve out the lime, and then converted the 
magnesia into a sulphate either by sulphuric acid or by ferrous sulphate. 
The .salt is extensively manufactured in Baltimore and Philadelphia from a silicious magne- 
sium hydrate. This mineral occurs in veins in the serpentine and other magnesian rocks which 
abound in the neighborhood of Baltimore and in the southern counties of Pennsylvania. The 
advantage which it possesses over the dolomite, in the preparation of this salt, is the almost PART I. 
Magnesii Sulphas. 
845 
entire absence of lime, owing to wliich there is little or no waste of acid, and the operation is 
much simplified. The mineral is reduced to a fine powder and saturated with sulphuric acid. 
The mass is then dried and calcined at a red heat, in order to convert any ferrous sulphate 
which may be present into ferric oxide. It is then dissolved in water, and calcium sulphide 
added to separate any remaining portion of iron. The salt is crystallized and dissolved a third 
time, in order to purify it. The sulphate prepared by this process is generally very pure and 
clean, although it sometimes contains a trace of ferrous sulphate. A very pure magnesium 
sulphate free from chloride is obtained as a side product in the manufacture of carbon dioxide 
from magnesite when sulphuric acid is used to decompose the carbonate. This industry has 
assumed large proportions because of the demand for liquefied carbon dioxide in the manufac- 
ture of aerated and effervescing mineral waters. 
Properties. Magnesium sulphate is in “ small, colorless, rhombic prisms, or acicular crys- 
tals, without odor, and having a cooling, saline, and bitter taste; slowly efflorescent in dry air. 
Soluble in 1-5 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 0-7 part of boiling water; insoluble in 
alcohol. When heated to 52° C. (125-6° F.), the salt loses 1 molecule of water, and is con- 
verted into a white powder. At about 132° C. (269-6° F.) it still retains 1 molecule of water, 
and at a temperature of 200° to 238° C. (392° to 460-4° F.) it is rendered anhydrous. The 
aqueous solution is neutral to litmus paper. When mixed with ammonium chloride test-solution 
and ammonia water, it yields, with sodium phosphate test-solution, a white, crystalline precipitate. 
With barium chloride test-solution it yields a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. When 
a small portion of the salt is introduced, on a clean platinum wire, into a non-luminous flame, 
it should not impart to the latter a persistent yellow color (limit of sodium). A 5-per-cent, 
aqueous solution of the salt should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence 
of metallic impurities), nor produce more than a slight opalescence with silver nitrate test-solu- 
tion (limit of chloride) ; nor should 20 C.c. of the same solution give any coloration or precipi- 
tate on the addition of 0-5 C.c. of potassium ferrocyanide test-solution (absence of iron, zinc, 
or copper). If 1 G-m. of the powdered salt be shaken with 3 C.c. of stannous chloride test- 
solution (see List of Reagents, BettendorfFs Test for Arsenic), a small piece of pure tin-foil 
added, and the test-tube then set aside, no coloration should appear within one hour (limit of 
arsenic)." TJ. S. “ Soluble in 1 part of cold water, and possessing a bitter taste. It affords 
the reactions characteristic of magnesium and of sulphates. 0 5 gramme dissolved in 250 
cubic centimetres of water, when set aside for twelve hours with a mixture of solution of am- 
monia, solution of ammonium chloride, and solution of sodium phosphate, yields a precipitate 
which, when thoroughly washed, dried, and heated to redness, weighs 0-22 gramme. Magne- 
sium Sulphate should yield no characteristic reaction with the tests for iron, aluminium, zinc, 
calcium, sodium, potassium, ammonium, or nitrates, and only the slightest reactions with the 
tests for chlorides.” Br. It usually occurs in small acicular crystals, which are produced by 
agitating the solution while crystallizing. It slowly effloresces in the air. At 32° F. 100 
parts of water dissolve 25-76 parts of the anhydrous salt, and for every increased degree 0-8597 
part additional is taken up. . The crystals contain 54-22 per cent, of water of crystallization, 
dissolve in their own weight of water at 60° F. and in three-fourths of their weight at 212° F., 
melt in their water of crystallization, and at a high temperature fuse into an enamel. 
Magnesium sulphate is completely decomposed by potassa, soda, and their carbonates; by lime, 
barium and strontium oxides, and their soluble salts. Ammonia partially decomposes it, and 
forms with the remainder a double sulphate. Potassium and sodium bicarbonates do not decom- 
pose it, except by the aid of heat. An aqueous solution of 100 grains of the salt should yield, 
when completely decomposed by a boiling solution of sodium carbonate, 34 grains of dry mag- 
nesium carbonate, and, according to the British Pharmacopoeia, 16-26 grains of the carbonate 
after having been well washed, dried, and heated to redness. If the dry precipitate be less, the 
specimen tested is not all magnesium sulphate, and probably contains sodium sulphate. An 
economical use which has been recommended of magnesium sulphate is the addition of a 
strong solution to ordinary whitewash, whereby a beautiful whiteness may be given to walls 
and ceilings. A little of it, moreover, added to starch considerably increases its stiffening 
properties, and at the same time in some degree resists the action of fire. (Chem. News, April. 
1867.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Magnesium sulphate is an active but safe cathartic, 
operating with little pain or nausea, and producing watery stools. It is more acceptable to the 
stomach than most medicines of its class, and will often be retained when others are rejected. 
Like many of the other neutral salts, it is refrigerant, and may be made to act as a diuretic by 846 
Magnesii Sulphas Effervescens.—Mangani Dioxidum. 
PART I. 
keeping the skin cool and walking about after it has been taken. It is well adapted to the 
treatment of fevers and inflammatory affections. It is also useful in colic and obstinate constipa- 
tion., and may be employed in most cases which require the use of a cathartic without being 
attended with debility or relaxation of the stomach and bowels. The medium dose is an ounce 
(31*1 Gm.) ; but advantage often results from its administration in divided doses frequently 
repeated. It is often given in combination with other medicines, especially with senna, the 
griping effect of which it tends to obviate. The most agreeable form for administering the 
salt, and that in which it usually agrees best with the stomach, is a solution in carbonic acid 
water with lemon syrup. By Dr. Henry, of Dublin, it is highly recommended in connection 
with diluted sulphuric acid. To seven ounces of a saturated aqueous solution of the salt he 
adds an ounce of the diluted sulphuric acid of the Pharmacopoeias, and gives a tablespoonful 
of the mixture for a dose, in a wineglassful of water* 
The experiments of Recke, Hay, and Henry Curci show that when injected into the veins 
magnesium sulphate acts as a violent poison, producing at first increase of the blood-pressure 
with slowing of the pulse, and finally lowering of the blood-pressure, quickening of the pulse, 
and death sometimes by failure of respiration, at other times by cardiac arrest. As Christison 
reported the case of a boy ten years old who was said to have been killed by two ounces of the 
salt without the induction of purgation, it is possible that under some circumstances very large 
amounts of magnesium sulphate given by the mouth may be sufficiently absorbed to produce 
poisonous effects. 
Many years ago the hypodermic use of magnesium sulphate as a purgative was reported 
upon favorably by clinicians, but certainly this use of the remedy failed to become at all gen- 
eral. Recently the method has been recommended by Fincke, by Rohd, by Wade, and by 
James Wood, who assert that the hypodermic injection of from one and a half to four and a 
half grains of the magnesium sulphate will produce watery stools in the majority of cases; 
but no purgation follows in from twenty to forty per cent, of the cases. The effects of the 
injection of large doses into the lower animals must cause some hesitation in the use of large 
amounts of the magnesium sulphate hypodermically. Rectal injections of from one to three 
ounces of the saturated solution of the magnesium sulphate often act very favorably, but are 
somewhat uncertain. 
MAGNESII SULPHAS EFFERVESCENS. Br. Effervescent Magnesium 
Sulphate. 
(MAG-NE'fjI-! SUL'PHAS fiF-FER-VES'CEN§.) 
Magnesias Sulphas Effervescens; Effervescent Sulphate of Magnesia; Effervescent Epsom Salt. 
“ Magnesium Sulphate, in crystals, 50 ounces (Imperial) or 500 grammes; Sodium Bicar- 
bonate, in powder, 36 ounces (Imp.) or 360 grammes; Tartaric Acid, in powder, 19 ounces 
(Imp.) or 190 grammes; Citric Acid, in powder, 12J ounces (Imp.) or 125 grammes; Refined 
Sugar, in powder, 10£ ounces (Imp.) or 105 grammes. Dry the Magnesium Sulphate at about 
130° F. (54-4° C.) until it has lost twenty-three per cent, of its weight; powder the product; 
mix it with the Refined Sugar and then with the other ingredients. Place the mixture in a 
dish or pan of suitable form heated to between 200° and 220° F. (93-3° and 104-4° C.). 
When the mixture, by aid of careful manipulation, has assumed a granular character, separate 
it into granules of uniform and convenient size by means of suitable sieves. Dry the granules 
at a temperature not exceeding 130° F. (54-4° C.). The product should weigh about 100 
ounces (Imp.) or 1000 grammes.” Br. 
This is a British official effervescent salt, intended to furnish a less disagreeable form of 
administering Epsom salt. The dose is from one-quarter to one ounce (7*77-311 Gm.). 
MANGANI DIOXIDUM. U. S. (Br.) Manganese Dioxide. [Mangani Oxidum 
Nigrum, Pharm. 1880. Black Oxide of Manganese.] 
“ Native crude Manganese Dioxide, containing at least 66 per cent, of the pure Dioxide 
[Mn02 = 86-72].” U. S. 
Manganese Peroxide, Br. 1898, Appendix; Manganum Hyperoxydatum, P.G.; Oxydum Manganicum; Man- 
ganese, Peroxide of Manganese, Deutoxide of Manganese, Black Oxide of Manganese, Pyrolusite; Oxide noir de 
Manganese, Fr.; Braunstein, G.; Manganese, It., Sp. 
(man'ga-n! di-5x'i-dum.) 
* It is said that a solution of an ounce of the salt in about a pint of water, boiled for three minutes with a grain 
and a half of tannic acid, or with two or three drachms of roasted coffee, is entirely deprived of bitterness. The 
liquid prepared with coffee should be strained, and may be sweetened with sugar. (Combes, Journ. de Pharm., 3e 
s6r., xii. 110.) PART I. 
Mcmgani Dioxidum. 
847 
The official oxide of manganese is the dioxide of the metal manganese. Metallic manganese 
was discovered by Scheele and Gahn in 1774, and is obtained from the native black oxide by 
intense ignition with charcoal. As obtained by C. Brunner, by decomposing sodium fluoride, 
manganese is brittle, grayish white, and very hard, being capable of cutting glass and scratch- 
ing the best tempered steel. It is susceptible of the most perfect polish, and decomposes water 
at a boiling temperature. Its sp. gr. is about 8’0, or, according to more recent determinations, 
7-2. Deville obtained the metal by heating the black oxide in excess with charcoal, in a lime 
crucible. The metal thus obtained is more refractory than iron, while that procured by 
Brunner fused at the same heat as white cast iron. Greene and Wahl have lately succeeded 
in getting the metal in large masses by the reduction of the ores with the aid of silicon, 
which they add in the form of an iron silicide. The atomic weight of manganese is 54-8. 
With oxygen it forms five and possibly seven compounds: MnO, Mn203, Mn304, MnOa, and 
Mn207. The monoxide is of a light green color, and is the oxide present in or correspond- 
ing to manganous salts. The sesquioxide is black or dark brown, when in the hydrated state; 
the magnetic oxide, Mn304, is red; the dioxide is black; and the permanganic oxide, Mn207, 
is, when in the free state, a very unstable dark reddish-brown liquid. The monoxide is a 
stable base, the sesquioxide is feebly basic, and the dioxide when acted upon by acids yields 
manganous salts, while oxygen is evolved. The highest oxide is acid-forming, yielding per- 
manganic acid, HMn04, the salts of which are known as permanganates. (See Potassii Per- 
manganas.) There exists also an acid, H2Mn04 (manganic), of which the salts formed are 
called manganates. The oxide corresponding is not known, however. Metallic manganese is 
an occasional constituent of organic matter. It has been detected in minute quantity in bone, 
hair, brain, epidermis, gastric juice, bile, urine, and pus, and has been found by Millon and 
others in the blood. M. Glenard, of Lyons, denies that it is a normal constituent of the blood, 
although sometimes present; but the evidence of numerous experimenters shows that it gen- 
erally exists in that fluid ; and when not detected it may be because the quantity present is too 
minute to be easily discovered * According to Mr. E. Davy, caustic potassa, dissolved in an 
equal weight of water, forms a delicate test for manganese, not obscured by the presence of other 
metals. The smallest portion of matter suspected to contain the metal, being finely pulverized 
or in solution, is placed upon a slip of silver foil, and a drop of the test added. Upon evap- 
orating to dryness with a spirit-lamp, and raising the heat, the characteristic green potassium 
manganate will appear on the foil. ( Chem. Gaz., March 15, 1854.) Manganese is a constitu- 
ent of all arable land, and is found in the ashes of most of the vegetables which form the 
food of man and the inferior animals. In the mineral kingdom it occurs sometimes as silicate 
(rhodonite) or carbonate (diallogite), and very abundantly as the black oxide, or dioxide, 
called pyrolusite. It is the latter mineral which constitutes the official oxide. 
Properties. Manganese dioxide, as it occurs in nature, is very diversified in its appear- 
ance. Its sp. gr. varies from 4-7 to 4-9. It is found sometimes in brilliant needle-shaped 
crystals, often in compact masses having the metallic lustre, but far more frequently in the 
form of a dull earthy-looking substance of a black or brown color. It is purest when crystal- 
lized. As it occurs in commerce, it is usually in the form of a black powder, insoluble in 
water, and containing more or less oxidized iron, calcium carbonate, barium sulphate, and 
earthy matter. Iron, which is rarely absent, is detected by the production of a greenish or 
blue tint on the addition of potassium ferrocyanide to its chloride solution. When exposed to 
a red heat it yields a portion of its oxygen, and is reduced to the state of sesquioxide. Hence 
its use in obtaining that gas. Good samples, after being dried, lose, when heated to whiteness, 
12 per cent, of oxygen. It is distinguished from antimony sulphide by its infusibility, and by 
causing the evolution of chlorine on being heated with hydrochloric acid. When of a brown 
color, it is not of good quality. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ a heavy, grayish-black, more or less gritty pow- 
der, without odor or taste; permanent in the air. Insoluble in water or alcohol. It is not 
affected by cold, concentrated sulphuric acid, but when heated with the latter it is converted 
into manganous sulphate, with the evolution of oxygen. When heated with hydrochloric acid, 
it is converted into manganous chloride, with the development of chlorine. At a red heat the 
Dioxide gives off oxygen gas, and is converted into reddish-brown manganoso-manganic oxide 
[Mn304]. On intimately mixing 1 part of the Dioxide with 1 part of potassium hydrate and 
1 part of potassium chlorate, introducing the mass into a crucible, moistening with water, 
drying, and igniting, a dark fused mass is obtained, which yields, with water, a green solution, 
* For an elaborate article on the absorption of manganese, see Arch /. Exper. Path, und Pharm., xviii. p. 129. 848 
Mangani Dioxidum.—Mangani Sulphas. 
PART I. 
changing to purplish red on being boiled, or on the addition of diluted sulphuric acid. If a 
portion of the Dioxide be strongly heated in a dry test-tube, no combustion should ensue, nor 
should any carbon dioxide be evolved (absence of organic impurities). If to another portion 
of the Dioxide, contained in a test-tube, a small quantity of diluted hydrochloric acid be added, 
no odor of hydrogen sulphide should be developed, nor should a strip of paper moistened with 
lead acetate test-solution, and suspended over the mixture, become blackened (absence of me- 
tallic sulphides). After the mixture of the Dioxide with hydrochloric acid has been raised to 
boiling and filtered, the filtered liquid should not give, with hydrogen sulphide test-solution, an 
orange-colored precipitate (absence of antimony sulphide). If 1 Gm. of the finely-powdered 
Dioxide, contained in a small, long-necked flask, be mixed with 5 C.c. of water, then 4-22 Gm. 
of ferrous sulphate, in clear crystals, added, and subsequently 5 C.c. of hydrochloric acid, the 
mixture digested for about fifteen minutes at a gentle heat, and finally heated to boiling, 
the cooled filtrate, when immediately tested with freshly prepared potassium ferricyanide test- 
solution, should not acquire a blue color (presence of at least 66 per cent, of pure Manganese 
Dioxide)." 
But few mines of manganese dioxide exist; though the metal itself is very generally diffused 
throughout the mineral kingdom. It occurs most abundantly in the Russian Caucasus, which 
furnishes nearly half of the annual production of the world, in Chili, Cuba, Great Britain, 
Turkey, and Australia. In the United States it occurs in largest amount at Crimora, Ya., Car- 
tersville, Ga., and Batesville, Ark. ; other isolated localities exist in California, Utah, Alabama, 
and Tennessee. The amount of manganese ore mined in the United States in 1896 was 
162,526 tons, valued at $339,083, and in 1897, 156,787 tons, valued at $332,700. These 
figures include, however, not only the high grade manganese ores and the franklinite residuum 
of New Jersey, but the low grade manganiferous iron ores of Lake Superior, the last forming 
the largest part of the total. These two classes last mentioned make all but about 20,000 
tons of the total. (Mineral Industry.) Besides these sources, the mineral is received from 
Germany and Russia, and in smaller amount from New Brunswick and Brazil. It comes 
packed in casks or barrels, generally in lumps and coarse powder, just as it is dug out of the 
mines; though occasionally it is received from England ready pulverized. It is a good rule to 
buy it unpowdered, as its quality can be better judged of in that state. A dark shining crys- 
talline appearance is an indication of good quality, although an assay will alone determine its 
quality with certainty. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Manganese dioxide is deemed tonic and alterative. 
When slowly introduced into the system, as happens to those engaged in grinding the mineral, 
it acts, according to Dr. Coupar, of Glasgow, as a cumulative poison, inducing a disease which 
begins with a staggering gait and ends in paraplegia. It has been used in syphilis, chlorosis, 
scurvy, and various shin diseases, especially itch and porrigo. It has been employed, in a purified 
state, with alleged great advantage by Dr. Arthur Leared, in stomachic pains of a purely ner- 
vous character, such as are apt to come on after eating. He has also found it useful in pyro- 
sis, and in other irritable states of the stomach which are purely functional. It has the ad- 
vantage over the preparations of bismuth, in these cases, that it does not constipate. (Glasgow 
Med. Journ., Jan. 1865, p. 79.) The dose is from three to twenty grains (0'20-l-3 Gm.) 
three times a day, given in the form of pill. Dr. Leared gave ten grains (0-65 Gm.) of the 
powder three times a day. For external use, an ointment may be made of one or two drachms 
of the oxide to an ounce of lard. The sulphate is official. For other compounds of manga- 
nese, see Part II.; also Syrupus Ferri et Mangani lodidi, National Formulary. 
This oxide is used in the arts for obtaining chlorine in the manufacture of bleaching powder, 
for giving a black glazing to pottery, and for freeing glass from the color which it derives from 
iron. In the laboratory it is employed to obtain oxygen and chlorine, and to form the salts 
of manganese. In pharmacy it is used for liberating chlorine from hydrochloric acid and from 
common salt, and iodine from sodium iodide contained in kelp. 
MANGANI SULPHAS. U. S. Manganese Sulphate. [Manganous Sulphate.] 
M11SO4 + 4H2O; 222*46. (mXN'GA-NI SUL'PHXs.) MnSO*. 4H2 0; 222. 
“ Manganese Sulphate should he kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Manganesii Sulphas, U. S. 1870; Manganum Sulphuricum, Sulfas Manganosus; Manganous Sulphate; Sulfate 
de Manganese, Sulfate manganeux, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Manganoxydul, O. 
This salt may be prepared by heating the native black oxide with concentrated sulphuric 
acid. Oxygen is thereby evolved, and the sulphate is formed. The product, when exhausted Mangani Sulphas. 
849 
PART I. 
by water, furnishes a solution of the salt which must be heated nearly to the boiling point, and 
treated with manganese carbonate, added by small portions at a time, which will precipitate 
any iron present, and change the color of the liquid from a dark red to a pale rose tint. The 
liquid is then filtered, evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup, and set aside to crystallize. 
Prof. C. Lewis Diehl has obtained by means of the following process an abundant product of 
the pure salt. A mixture of 5 parts of black manganese oxide and 0-75 part of coarsely 
powdered charcoal is exposed to a red heat, in a covered crucible, until all the charcoal is con- 
sumed. The contents of the crucible, after cooling, are put into a porcelain dish, and treated 
with 6-5 parts of sulphuric acid. The whole is then evaporated to dryness, and the residue, 
being returned to the crucible, is again heated to redness. When cool, the mass is rubbed to 
powder if necessary, and treated twice with eight parts of boiling water; and the liquors, 
having been mixed, are filtered, evaporated till a pellicle appears, and set aside to crystallize. 
It is important that the liquid should be removed from the sand-bath as soon as the pellicle 
begins to form ; as, if the heat be continued longer, an insoluble sulphate will be deposited. If 
the black manganese oxide employed be of good quality, a pure sulphate will be obtained, any 
salt of iron or copper present being rendered insoluble by the heat. (A. J. P., 1867.) Laster’s 
process is as follows. “ Take of Black Oxide of Manganese 40 parts, Commercial Hydro- 
chloric Acid 200 parts. Dissolve the black oxide in the acid beneath a chimney-flue, and, 
when solution is complete, and chlorine no longer evolved, mix very gradually 53 parts of sul- 
phuric acid with the reddish liquid ; continue the evaporation beneath the flue until acid vapor 
is no longer driven off, and the mass becomes dry. Dissolve this mass in 350 parts of water 
heated to the boiling point. Treat the solution with manganese carbonate until it becomes 
rose-red, filter or decant, evaporate and crystallize.” (A. J. P., 1868.) Mr. F. Mahla, of 
Chicago, proposes to utilize chlorine residues. He takes the liquid remaining in the retort 
after the preparation of chlorine, adds to it sodium carbonate sufficient to precipitate all the 
metallic oxides, or at least to cause a slight alkalinity, collects the precipitate thus produced 
on a muslin filter, and washes it with pure water, until the filtrate no longer produces an obvi- 
ous reaction with silver nitrate. Three-fourths of the moist mass are removed from the filter 
to an evaporating dish, and sufficient dilute sulphuric acid is added to dissolve it completely. 
The solution is heated nearly to the boiling point, and the remaining fourth of the mass from 
the filter is gradually added to it, until the liquid, after being filtered, is no longer blackened 
by tannic acid. The whole solution is then filtered, and the filtrate, with the waters, after 
washing, is evaporated to crystallization. The first crop of crystals is sometimes contaminated 
with calcium sulphate, from the calcium carbonate in the commercial black oxide employed in 
the process. To separate this impurity, evaporate to dryness, redissolve the residue in a little 
water, which leaves the calcium sulphate undissolved; and the pure solution of manganese 
sulphate is obtained by filtration. (A. J. P., 1869.) Mr. Edo Claassen adds alcohol to the 
concentrated solution to promote crystallization. (Pharm. Rundschau, 1887.) 
Properties. Manganese sulphate has the formula MnS04, in which the dyad metal man- 
ganese replaces the Ha of H2S04. From its aqueous solution it crystallizes in rhombic prisms, 
which contain variable proportions of water of crystallization according to the temperature of 
the solution and other circumstances. Obtained by evaporation at a gentle heat, they contain 
four mols. of water; between 45° and 68°, five mols.; under 42°, seven mols.; and a concen- 
trated solution, mixed with sulphuric acid, and evaporated, yields granular crystals with one 
mol. Heated to 240°, these crystals lose three mols. of water, and at a red heat become an- 
hydrous. (Brande and Taylor.') The crystals usually have a pale-rose or pink color. The salt 
has an astringent and bitterish taste. It is very soluble in water; but its solubility varies with 
its water of crystallization. When anhydrous, it is dissolved by two parts of water at 15-5° 
C. (60° F.), and in its own weight at 100° C. (212° F.). If carelessly prepared, it is apt to 
contain copper and arsenic, as well as iron. As it is the source of nearly all the preparations 
of manganese, it is of importance that it should be pure. Hence the sulphate, as first ob- 
tained, should be calcined at a low red heat at least twice, to render the contaminating metals 
insoluble, and then tested in solution, to be sure of its purity. According to M. A. Gorgeu, 
copper and iron, as well as nickel and cobalt, are completely precipitated by manganese sul- 
phide. In applying this reagent, the impure solution is shaken for about a quarter of an 
hour with the sulphide, and then boiled for a few minutes. (C'/iem. Gaz., July 1,1853, p. 249.) 
The description of it in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is as follows. “ Colorless, or pale rose-colored, 
transparent, tetragonal prisms (crystallized at a temperature between 20° and 30° C. (68°-86° 
F.), and containing 4 molecules, or 32-29 per cent., of water of crystallization), odorless, and 850 
Mangani Sulphas.—Manna. 
PART I. 
having a slightly bitter and astringent taste. Slightly efflorescent in dry air. Soluble in 0-8 
part of water at 15° C. (59° F.), and in 1 part of boiling water; insoluble in alcohol. The 
aqueous solution is neutral or very slightly acid to litmus paper, and yields with ammonium 
sulphide test-solution a flesh-colored precipitate soluble in dilute acids; with potassium ferro- 
cyanide test-solution, a reddish-white precipitate; and with potassium ferricyanide test-solution, 
a brown precipitate. With barium chloride test-solution it yields a white precipitate insoluble 
in hydrochloric acid. If a fragment of the salt be mixed with a little sodium hydrate test- 
solution, and the mixture then dried and fused, it will yield a dark-green mass, dissolving in 
water with a green color. A 5-per-cent, aqueous solution of the salt, after being heated 
with a few drops of hydrochloric acid and a little chlorine water, should not be colored 
red by potassium sulphocyanate test-solution (absence of iron), and should not be affected 
by hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of copper or arsenic). If the manganese be 
completely precipitated from an aqueous solution of the salt by ammonium carbonate test- 
solution, the filtrate, on evaporation and gentle ignition, should leave no residue (absence 
of salts of the alkalies, or of magnesium). A solution of 1 6m., each, of the salt, and of 
sodium acetate, in 10 C.c. of water, to which a few drops of acetic acid are added, should 
not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution (absence of zinc). If 1 Gm. of the salt 
be gently ignited, in a porcelain crucible, it should lose not more than 0-323 Gm. in weight (dis- 
tinction from Manganese Sulphate containing a larger amount of water of crystallization)'' If. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. C. G. Gmelin found manganese sulphate to produce 
an extraordinary secretion of bile when given to the inferior animals, and its effects as a chol- 
agogue have been observed in man. According to the late Thomas Thomson, of Glasgow, it re- 
sembles sodium sulphate both in taste and in effect, operating as a purgative in the dose of from 
one to two drachms (3-9-7-5 Gm.). From the circumstance that manganese had been found 
in small proportion in the blood, it was conjectured that this metal, like iron, might play an 
important part in the human economy, and trial was made of it in ansemia, with the hope 
that it might prove a useful adjuvant of the chalybeates as a reconstructive agent. When 
given with iron, its use was certainly in many instances followed by the most satisfactory 
results ; but it may be questioned whether the beneficial effects were in any respect greater 
than those which the iron would have produced without such an auxiliary; and where man- 
ganese has been used alone in antemic cases it has generally failed. Dr. Garrod, of London, 
after a fair trial of it, pronounced against it. {Med. Times and Gaz., Feb. 1863.) The dose of 
manganese sulphate as a tonic is from five to twenty grains (0-33-1-3 Gm.). It may be given 
dissolved in a flavored syrup. 
MANNA. U. S. Manna 
(mXn'na.) 
“ The concrete, saccharine exudation of Fraxinus Ornus, Linn6 (nat ord. Oleaceas).” TJ. S. 
Manne, Fr.; Manna, G., It.; Mana, Sp. 
Manna is said to be obtained from several other trees besides Fraxinus omus, among which 
F. rotundifolia, F. excelsior, and F. parvijlora have been particularly designated. Many sac- 
charine substances, generally exudations from plants, have, from their resemblance to this sub- 
stance, obtained the name of manna, and attracted more or less attention from writers. They 
are described in a note.* 
* False Mannas. An efflorescence of mannite is said to occur upon certain sea-weeds upon exposure to the air. 
(Journ. de Pharm., Avril, 1859.) The term “ manna” has been applied to certain substances which have no relation 
with true manna, notably to the lichen Lecanora escidenta, which at times has suddenly fallen like rain over im- 
mense tracts of country, from Persia to the African Sahara. It occurs in the form of small roundish lumps, from 
the size of a pin’s head to that of a pea, yellowish or grayish externally and whitish within, hard, inodorous, and 
insipid. It has been affirmed that this lichen does not contain starch, but it is really used as an article of food, 
and good bread is said to have been made out of it. (Nature, Jan. 1891.) It is probable that it is the manna of 
Scripture. 
The proper false mannas, exudations from various trees, are best considered under the headings of the countries 
which yield them: 
European False Manna, or Brianqon manna, an exudation from the common European larch (Larix europcea, or 
Pinus larix), differs chemically from ordinary manna in containing no mannite. Berthelot found in it a peculiar 
sugar, analogous to that of the cane, which he named melezitose. (See A. J. P., 1859, p. 61.) To this the formula 
C18H32O16 + 2H2O is given. 
American False Manna. A substance resembling manna, of a sweet, slightly bitter and terebinthinate taste, and 
actively purgative, exudes from incisions in Pinus lambertiana, of Oregon, and is used by the natives. (Ear. of 
U. S. Expl. Exped., v. 232.) M. Berthelot has extracted from this product a peculiar saccharine principle, which he 
calls pinite. It is very sweet, but does not undergo the vinous fermentation. (See A. J. P.} xxviii. 157.) Pinite PART I. 
Manna. 
851 
Fraxinus ornus. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 1057; Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 1104; B. & T. 170.— 
Omits europsea. Persoon, Synops. i. 9 ; Lindley, Flor. Med. 547 ; Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot. 
ii. 8, pi. 61. The flowering ash * is a tree of moderate height, usually from twenty to twenty- 
five feet, very branching, with opposite, petiolate, pinnate leaves, composed of three or four 
pairs of leaflets, and an odd one at the end. The leaflets are oval, acuminate, obtusely serrate, 
about an inch and a half in length, smooth, of a bright green color, and supported on short 
footstalks. The flowers are white, and usually expand with the leaves. They grow in close 
panicles at the extremities of the young branches, and have a very short calyx with four teeth, 
and four linear lanceolate petals. 
Both Fraxinus ornus and Fraxinus rotundifolia are natives of Sicily, Calabria, and Apulia; 
and both contribute to supply the manna of commerce. The former is cultivated in Sicily, 
yields manna after the eighth year, and continues to yield it for ten or twelve years, when it is 
usually cut down and young sprouts are allowed to grow up from the root. (Stettner, Archiv d. 
Pharm., liii. 194.) During the hot months the juice exudes spontaneously from the bark, and 
concretes upon its surface; but, as the exudation is slow, it is customary to facilitate the 
was for a long time classed among the sugars, but the latest researches seem to show that it is a pentahydric phenol 
derived from hexahydrobenzene. The formula is C6H12O5. 
California Manna, or Father Picolo’s Manna. Proust (Ann. d. Chim., 1806, 145) alludes to a manna mentioned 
by Father Picolo as being deposited on a species of grass in California. J. U. Lloyd (A. J. P., 1897, 337) believes 
Picolo’s manna to be a saccharine deposit, caused by aphides on Phragmites communis. It is apparently still col- 
lected hy the Indians. 
African False Mannas. Turkish Manna is a product from a species of larch (Echinops persica), and is obtained 
by treating the cocoons of a coleopterous insect (Larinus maculatus) with hot water, filtering, and crystallizing the 
sugar. From it M. Berthelot obtained a new variety of sugar, trehalose, C12H22O11 + 2H20. (Gaz. Med. de Paris, 
1857.) Larix cedrus, of Mount Lebanon, yields a similar product, which has some repute in Syria as a remedy in 
phthisis. (P. J. Tr., xiii. 411.) In the neighborhood of Diarbekir, in Asiatic Turkey, a saccharine substance, known 
as Diarhekir manna, is found on the leaves of dwarf oaks, from which it appears to be exuded. (Ibid., Nov. 1862, p. 
546.) The manna of the oak of Kurdistan, spoken qf by Fliickiger, is probably the same as that of Diarbekir, which 
may be its entrepot. According to Fliickiger, this consists chiefly (90 per cent.) of a crystallizable sugar. It deviates 
to the right the plane of polarized light, and reduces in the cold the solution of copper oxide in soda and glycerin. 
This manna contains a mucilage, but no cane sugar or dextrin. (Journ. de Pharm., Avril, 1873, p. 335.) Quercus 
vallonea, Kotsehy, and Q. persica, Jaub. et Spach, yield “ oak manna,” through insect agency, while certain species 
of Echinops (probably E. persica, Fisch.) yield the singular manna-like substance that is known as Trehala in 
Syria and as Shukkar Tigal in India. Pyrus glabra yields a manna which is collected by the people of Luristan, in 
Persia. It has long been known that Salix fragilis and probably other species of willow yield to the Persians a 
manna-like exudation. According to M. Raby (L’ Union Pharm., Mai, 1889), there are two varieties, chirkhest and 
bidenguebin, which contain respectively, according to the analysis of Ludwig, chirkhestite (CeHuOe), allied to sorbite, 
and bidenguebinose (Ci2H220ii), allied to melezitose. Whether these mannas are really distinct from those sold in the 
Indian bazaars as coming from Afghanistan and Persia seems uncertain. Of these bazaar mannas the most important 
is the Shir-koit or Oriental manna. By Haussknecht it is referred to Atraphaxis spinosa ; but Mr. J. E. T. Aitchi- 
son states that it is yielded by the Cotoneaster nummularia, Fisch. et Mey., a tall, stout shrub, whose smaller branches 
in July beeome covered with an exudation, which is eaten as a sweetmeat, and exported in quantity to Russia and India. 
The second variety, Taranjabin, is yielded by the camel-thorn, Alhagi camelorum, Fisch., in Persia and Afghanistan, 
and probably by Alhagi maurorum of De Candolle, a leguminous thorny shrub abundant in India,—if indeed the two 
species be distinct. According to A. Yilliers, it is nearly pure melezitose. (P. J. Tr., 3d ser., vii. 917.) A third 
kind of manna is Gazangabin, or Gazanjabin, yielded by Tamarix gallica, Linn., var. mannifera ; a fourth kind is 
obtained from the Salsola feetida, Dec. (P. J. Tr., Dec. 11, 1886, 467.) The tamarisk of Northern Africa (Tamarix 
gallica, Ehr.), which produces the small tamarisk galls of Mogador, containing 40 per cent, of tannic acid (A. J. P., 
1878, p. 27 ; also N. /{., 1877, p. 41), according to Burckhardt also gives origin to a species of manna that is used by 
the Bedouin Arabs near Mount Sinai with their food. This substance, however, according to Mitscherlich, contains 
no mannite, but consists wholly of mucilaginous sugar. M. Berthelot found a manna from Sinai to consist of 55 
per cent, of cane sugar, 25 of levulose and glucose, and 20 of dextrin and analogous substances. (Annales de Chim. 
et Phys., lxvii.) 
Persian Manna, or Gez, has been identified (Chem. and Drug., 1894, 790) as being derived from Astragalus 
anisacanthus, and is found in the districts of Khonsar, Feridan and Chahar Mahal, and Ispahan. In the form of 
sweetmeat, having the appearance of flour, it is sent all over Persia and much esteemed. 
Australian Mannas. A manna-like exudation on the Eucalyptus mannifera, growing in New South Wales, con- 
tains a saccharine matter called melitose, different in properties from mannite and from all the varieties of sugar, 
though isomeric with glucose. It is susceptible of the vinous fermentation. (See A. J. P., xxviii. 157.) Lerp is pro- 
duced upon the leaves of Eucalyptus dumosa, when very small, and sometimes appears spread over large extents of 
country like a kind of snow. The natives use it for food. It is a complex body, containing an unfermentable 
sugar, euealin, gum, starch, inulin, and lignin. (Journ. de Chim. et de Pharm., xvi. 240.) It is said to be a secre- 
tion from an insect, formed into minute cells, each of which is the abode of one of the insects. (See A. J. P., 1862, 
p. 547.) Myoporum platycarpum, R. Br., the sandalwood- or dogwood-tree of Australia, exudes an exceedingly sweet 
and pleasant manna, which is much used as an article of food. Mr. F. W. Passmore obtained from Eucalyptus 
gumii a sugar termed melitriose. (P. J. Tr., 1891, 718.) 
New South Wales Manna. According to R. T. Baker (Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc. New South Wales, xxx., 1897), 
this manna is produced in the form of nodules at the nodes of the stems of the blue grass Andropogon annulalus. 
It contains numerous crystals of mannite, amounting, according to the analysis of Dr. H. G. Smith, to 50 per cent. 
* A syrup prepared from the inner bark of this tree has been employed in Europe by Dr. Devergie, with supposed 
advantage, in chronic eczema and impetigo. The bark contains much tannin, and a mucilaginous principle which 
renders diluted alcohol a better menstruum than boiling water. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., ix. 347.) 852 
Manna. 
PART I. 
process by making deep longitudinal incisions on one side of the trunk. In the following season 
these are repeated on the other side, and thus alternately for the whole period during which 
the tree yields manna, extending sometimes, it is said, to thirty or even forty years. Straw or 
chips are frequently placed so as to receive the juice, which concretes upon them. The manna 
varies in its character according to the mode of collection, the nature of the season, and the 
period of the year at which the exudation takes place. That procured in Sicily is said to he 
the best. Mr. Daniel Hanbury travelled through the old manna region, and satisfied himself 
that the collection of manna for commercial purposes is confined almost exclusively to Sicily. 
(P. J. Tr., Nov. 1872, 421.) But a more recent writer (Ibid., Nov. 1879) asserts that the 
manna-trees are still cultivated in Calabria. For still later information on manna collection 
in Sicily, see notes by J. S. Ward. (Ibid., 1893, 381.) 
In commerce three varieties are distinguishable: 
1. Flake Manna, or manna canulata, is the purest variety. It exudes spontaneously, or from 
incisions, during the hottest and dryest weather in July and August. According to Stettner, 
it is furnished by the upper incisions upon the trunk, while the lower incisions yield the in- 
ferior varieties. It is in irregular, unequal pieces, often several inches long, resembling stalac- 
tites, rough, light, porous, brittle, whitish or yellowish-white, and frequently concave on the 
surface by which they were attached to the trunk, and which is often soiled by impurities, 
sometimes by adherent fragments of the bark. When broken, these pieces exhibit a crystalline 
or granular structure. This variety is sometimes in small fragments, generally less than an 
inch in length. 
2. Common Manna—the manne en sorte of French pharmacy—is next in quality, and is col- 
lected in September and the beginning of October, when the heat of the weather has begun 
to moderate. The juice does not now concrete so readily, and a portion, falling on the ground 
at the root of the tree, becomes more or less mixed with impurities, and forms imperfectly 
solid masses, which require to be further dried in the sun. Common manna consists of whitish 
or yellowish fragments, similar to the pieces of flake manna, but much smaller, mixed with a 
soft, viscid, uncrystallized brownish matter, identical with fat manna. 
3. Fat Manna is collected in the latter part of October and November, when the weather is 
cooler and rains are more common. The juice is now still less disposed to concrete, and flowing 
down the trunk is received in a small excavation at its base. As found in commerce, it is in 
the form of a soft, viscous mass, containing few crystalline fragments, of a brown or yellowish- 
brown color, and full of impurities. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs that such manna should 
be rejected* 
Properties. Manna is officially described as “ in flattish, somewhat three-edged pieces, 
occasionally 20 Cm. long, and 5 Cm. broad, usually smaller; friable ; externally yellowish-white, 
internally white, porous, and crystalline ; or in fragments of different sizes, brownish-wliite and 
somewhat glutinous on the surface, internally white and crystalline; odor honey-like; taste 
sweet, slightly bitter and faintly acrid. On heating 5 parts of Manna with 100 parts of alcohol 
to boiling, and filtering, the filtrate should rapidly deposit separate crystals of mannite. Manna 
consisting of brownish, viscid masses containing few or no fragments of a crystalline structure 
should be rejected.” U. S. Manna lias a slight, peculiar odor, and a sweet taste, which in the 
impure kinds is also very nauseous, but in the finest flake manna scarcely so much so as to be 
disagreeable. Its sp. gr. is (>834. It melts with heat, and takes fire, burning with a blue 
flame. When pure it is soluble in three parts of cold and in its own weight of boiling water. 
From a boiling saturated aqueous solution it separates in partially crystalline masses on cooling. 
* Fictitious Manna. Attempts have been made to counterfeit manna; but the facility of detection renders such 
frauds unprofitable, and they are not often practised. Dr. R. P. Thomas described (A. J. P., xxiv.) a sophisticated 
manna which differed from the genuine drug both in sensible and in chemical properties, not even containing mannite. 
Baumti describes a method in which common manna is purified so as to resemble flake manna. It consists in dis- 
solving common manna in a little water, allowing the liquid to settle, decanting it in order to separate the impurities, 
then inspissating it so that it will congeal on cooling, and immersing threads in the inspissated liquid, several times 
successively, in the manner practised by candle-makers. It may be still further purified by the use of animal char- 
coal. Thus prepared, it contains less mannite than flake manna, and less of the nauseous principle, but is said not to 
operate less effectively as a laxative. A fictitious manna is described by Mr. Edmond Histed (P. J. Tr., April, 1870) 
as having been taken from Paris to London, which bears a close resemblance to flake manna, for which it might be 
mistaken upon a hasty notice. The resemblance is, moreover, increased by the fact that it contains mannite, of which 
Mr. Histed obtained 40 per cent., while fine natural flake manna yielded him 70 per cent. Closely examined, it is 
found to differ essentially from genuine flake manna, showing no crystals of mannite when broken, not having the 
taste and smell characteristic of good manna, and, besides, being cleaner, lighter-colored, more solid, and making a 
clearer solution in water. (See A. J. P., 1870.) May not this have been a specimen of artificial flake manna, prepared 
from the inferior or common manna ? PART I. 
Manna. 
853 
Alcohol also dissolves it. Boiling alcohol will dissolve 15 parts of it, and upon cooling deposit 
beautiful crystals of mannite. Fourcroy and Vauquelin found manna to consist of—1, a pecu- 
liar sweet principle, mannite, which constitutes 75 per cent.; 2, a variety of sugar; 3, a yellow 
nauseous matter, upon which the purgative property is thought chiefly to depend; and. 4, a 
little mucilage. Leuchtweiss obtained from 105 parts of manna 11-6 of water, 0-4 of insoluble 
matter, 9-1 of sugar, 42-6 of mannite, 40-0 of a mixture of mucilaginous matter containing 
mannite, resin, organic acid, and a nitrogenous substance, and 1-3 of ashes. In manna canellata 
in fragmentis he found 37‘6 per cent, of mannite, and in manna Calabrina 32 per cent. (Pflan- 
zenstoffe, 2d ed., p. 180.) M. Buignet discovered in manna a considerable proportion of dextrin. 
He appears to have been led to this discovery by observing a very energetic dextrogyrate power 
in flake manna, which could not be owing to the saccharine matter it contained, because the 
same power continued after all the sugar had been destroyed by fermentation. Dextrin forms 
about one-fifth part of flake manna, and a much larger part of the inferior kinds. It may be 
readily obtained separate by triturating 200 parts of flake manna with 400 of alcohol of 70° F. 
in successive portions, filtering the resulting mixture, by which the mannite is left behind, and 
then separating the sugar and dextrin contained in the clear liquor. This is done by concen- 
trating the liquor to a syrupy consistence, and adding about 10 parts of alcohol at 90° F. The 
mixture separates into two layers, the upper consisting of a strong alcoholic solution of sugar, 
the lower of a saturated solution of dextrin in weak alcohol. The latter is separated, washed 
repeatedly with alcohol at 90° F., and then, after dilution with water, decolorization, and filtra- 
tion, is evaporated gently by a water-bath till it ceases to lose weight. The substance remaining 
is dextrin. The saccharine matter of manna is a mixture of cane sugar and levulose, which are 
in such proportion as almost to neutralize their reciprocal optic properties. All the forms of 
commercial manna contain both sugar and dextrin, and, though the quantity of the two jointly 
varies considerably, yet their relative proportion is invariable, being 2 mols. of dextrin and 1 
mol. of sugar. This is the same result that is reached in the saccharification of starch; and 
the inference is fair that the dextrin and sugar in manna are the result of a transformation 
of starch in the plant. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Juillet, 1868.) It is owing to the 
presence of glucose and dextrin that manna is capable of fermenting. Fliickiger found in all 
samples of mannite examined a small amount of a dextrogyrate mucilage, which is precipitated 
by neutral lead acetate, and yields mucic acid when boiled with strong nitric acid. The 
greenish color of certain pieces of manna is produced by fraxin, C10H18Olo, a glucoside closely 
resembling sesculin. Fraxin crystallizes in colorless prisms, easily soluble in hot water and in 
alcohol, and has a faintly astringent and bitter taste. By dilute acids it is resolved into frax- 
etin, C10II805, and glucose, CeH1206. Even its dilute solutions are fluorescent. (Pharmaco- 
graphia, 2d ed.) 
Mannite (mannitol) is white, inodorous, crystallizable in semi-transparent needles, of a sweetish 
taste, soluble in five parts of cold water, scarcely soluble in cold alcohol, but readily dissolved 
by that liquid when hot, and deposited when it cools. Its composition is C6H140e, and it is 
considered as belonging to the class of Tiexatomic alcohols. If mixed with chalk and cream' 
cheese and kept for some weeks at the temperature of 40° C. (104° F.), it yields alcohol largely, 
with the disengagement of carbonic acid and hydrogen and the production of lactic acid. No 
fungus is produced, as in the ordinary fermentation of sugar. (Berthelot, Journ. de Pharm., 
xxx.) With lime, barium and strontium oxides, it forms definite compounds, soluble in water, 
and precipitable from their aqueous solutions by alcohol. (Ibid., Jan. 1860.) It does not reduce 
an alkaline solution of copper oxide ; and a test of its purity is thus presented. (A. J. P., Jan. 
1861, p. 26.) Its optical activity can be observed only after the addition of borax. It is then 
found to be dextro-rotatory. Emil Fischer has shown that there are three mannites obtain- 
able : the ordinary mannite is the dextro-rotatory variety, and is always obtained in the reduc- 
tion of a-mannose with sodium amalgam ; a laevo-rotatory variety is obtained by the reduction 
of ; and an inactive mannite is obtained from the inactive mannose. These three 
physical isomers differ slightly in their fusing points and crystalline form. The native variety 
may be obtained by boiling manna in alcohol, allowing the solution to cool, and redissolving 
the crystalline precipitate: pure mannite is now deposited. Another method is to dissolve 
flake manna in water, precipitate by solution of lead subacetate, filter, throw down the excess 
of lead by sulphuric acid, evaporate the solution, and mix with alcohol. On cooling, the man- 
nite is deposited. (Bonsall, Arch, der Pharm., cxxxiv. 70.) This principle has been found in 
numerous vegetables. It is said to be gently laxative in the dose of from one to two ounces 
(31-1-62-2 Gm.). 854 
Marrubium.—Massa Copaibse. 
PART I. 
Manna, when long kept, acquires a deeper color, softens, and ultimately deliquesces into a 
liquid, which, on the addition of yeast, undergoes the vinous fermentation. This is probably 
owing to its conversion into sugar by the absorption of enough oxygen to cause it to pass over 
into some variety of glucose or fermentable sugar. That which is dryest resists this change 
the longest. It is said that manna recently gathered is less purgative than it afterwards 
becomes. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Manna is a gentle laxative, usually operating mildly, 
but in some cases producing flatulence and pain. It is usually prescribed with other purgatives, 
particularly senna, rhubarb, magnesia, and the neutral salts, the taste of which it conceals, 
while it adds to the purgative effect. The dose for an adult is from one to two ounces (31-1- 
62'2 Gm.) ; for children, from one to four drachms (3-9—15-5 Gm.). It is usually given dis- 
solved in water or some aromatic infusion; but the best flake manna may be administered in 
substance. Manna forms a combination with iron, which it preserves against change. (See 
P. J. Tr., March, 1873.) 
MARRUBIUM. U. S. Marrubium. [Horehound.] 
(MAR-RU'BI-UM.) 
“ The leaves and tops of Marrubium vulgare, Linne (nat. ord. Labiatae).” U. S. 
Herba Mafrrubii; Herbe de Marrube blano, Marrube blanc, Fr.; Andornkraut, Weisser Andorn, G.; Marrubio, 
It., Sp. 
Marrubium vulgare. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 583; Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. Ill; B. & T. 210. 
White Horehound has a perennial fibrous root, and numerous annual stems, which are quad- 
rangular, erect, very downy, and from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are about 
an inch long, roundish-ovate, dentate or deeply serrate, obtuse, wrinkled, veined, downy above, 
hoary on the under surface, and supported in pairs on strong footstalks. The flowers are 
white, and in crowded axillary woolly whorls. The calyx is tubular, and divided at the mar- 
gin into ten narrow segments, which are hooked at the end. The corolla is also tubular, 
whitish, with a labiate margin, of which the upper lip is bifid, the under reflected and three- 
cleft, with the middle segment broad and slightly scalloped: stamens four, included. The 
seeds are four, in the bottom of the calyx. The plant is a native of Europe, but has been 
naturalized in this country, where it grows on the roadsides, and flowers in July and August. 
The herb has a strong, rather agreeable odor, which is diminished by drying and lost by keep- 
ing. Its taste is bitter and durable. The bitterness is extracted by water and alcohol. It 
contains a volatile oil, resin, tannin, lignin, and a bitter principle called marrubiin by Mein. 
This marrubiin is slightly soluble in cold water, crystallizes from alcohol in prismatic and from 
ether in tabular crystals, is not precipitated by tannin, and has a very bitter and somewhat 
acrid taste. The fusing point of the crystals is 160° C., according to Kromayer. Marrubiin 
was afterwards obtained by Harms (Archiv der Pharm., 116,141), by Hertel (A. J. P., June, 
1890), and by Morrison (Ibid., July, 1890). A more recent study was by Matusow {Ibid., 
1897, 201). He gives to it the formula C30H43Oe, and states the melting point of the purified 
substance to be from 154° to 155° C. According to him, it is not a glucoside. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Horehound is tonic, in large doses laxative, and 
may be so given as to increase the secretion from the skin, and occasionally from the kidneys. 
It was formerly considered a valuable deobstruent, and was recommended in chronic hepatitis, 
jaundice, amenorrhoea, phthisis, and various cachectic affections. By its gently tonic powers it 
may have proved advantageous in some of these complaints; but it exerts no specific influence 
over any of them, and has passed mainly from the hands of physicians into domestic use. It 
is employed chiefly in catarrh, and in other chronic affections of the lungs, attended with cough 
and copious expectoration. The infusion, made in the proportion of an ounce of the herb 
to a pint of boiling water, may be given in wineglassful doses. The dose of the powder is 
from thirty grains to a drachm (1-95-3-9 Gm.). The medicine is also much used in syrup 
and candy. 
MASSA COPAIB/E. U. S. Mass of Copaiba. [Solidified Copaiba.] 
(MlS'SA CO-PA'I-BiE.) 
Pilulae Copaiba;, U. S. 1870; Pilules de Copahu, Fr.; Copaiva-Pillen, G. 
“ Copaiba, ninety-four grammes [or 3 ounces av., 138 grains] ; Magnesia, six grammes [or 93 
grains] ; Water, a sufficient quantity. Triturate the Magnesia with a little Water, in a capsule, 
until the powder is uniformly dampened throughout. Then gradually incorporate with it the PART I. 
Massa Copaibse. 
855 
Copaiba, so that a uniform mixture may result, place the capsule on a water-bath, and heat 
during half an hour, frequently stirring. Lastly, transfer the mixture to a suitable vessel, and 
set this aside until the mass has acquired a pilular consistence.” TJ. S. 
This preparation is identical with that formerly official. When copaiba is mixed with pure 
magnesia, it gradually loses its fluidity, forming at first a soft tenacious mass, and ultimately 
becoming dry, hard, and brittle. The quantity of magnesia, and the length of time requisite 
for this change, vary with the condition of the copaiba; being greater in proportion to the 
fluidity of this substance, or, in other words, to its amount of volatile oil. The quantity of 
magnesia directed by the Pharmacopoeia, one-sixteenth of the weight of the copaiba, is suffi- 
cient to solidify the latter, as it is often found in commerce, in the course of six or eight hours ; 
but when the copaiba is fresh, or has been kept in closely-stopped bottles, and retains, there- 
fore, nearly the whole of its oil, it is often necessary either to augment the proportion of mag- 
nesia, or to expose the mixture for a much longer time, or to diminish the volatile oil of the 
copaiba by evaporation. The magnesia combines chemically with the copaivic acid or hard 
resin, but in relation to the volatile oil acts merely as an absorbent; for, when the solidified 
mass is submitted to the action of boiling alcohol, a part is dissolved, abandoning the magnesia 
with which it was mixed, while the resin, combined with another portion of magnesia, remains 
undissolved. Varieties of copaiba, therefore, are solidifiable by magnesia directly in propor- 
tion to the hard resin they contain, and inversely in proportion to the volatile oil; the soft 
resin being indifferent. According to Guibourt, copaiba not solidifiable by magnesia may be 
made so by adding one-sixth of Bordeaux or common European turpentine. 
Calcium hydrate produces the same effect as magnesia, and, as stated by M. Thierry, in a 
shorter time, if employed according to his formula. He takes 15 parts of copaiba and 1 part 
of slaked lime, mixes them in a marble mortar, transfers the mixture to an open vessel, places 
this upon a sand-bath, and sustains the heat for four hours, occasionally stirring. The calcium 
hydrate must have been freshly prepared from recently-burnt lime. The mixture loses only a 
twenty-fourth of its weight, chiefly the water of the hydrate. (Joum. de Pharm., 3e s£r., i.) 
Notwithstanding the accuracy of the above statements, it sometimes happens that copaiba 
of undoubted genuineness, and with a due proportion of volatile oil, will not solidify with mag- 
nesia or with lime; and the cause of this uncertainty of action remained long undetermined. 
At length it was ascertained by M. Roussin, through a series of well-devised experiments, that 
the occasional want of solidifying power is owing to the absence of water, the presence of a 
certain quantity of which, whether in the copaiba or in the earth employed, is essential to the 
combination of the magnesia or lime with the copaivic acid. In instances of deficiency in the 
solidifying property, M. Roussin recommends that the copaiba be shaken for some time with 
about one-twentieth of its weight of water, and then allowed to stand for some days in a warm 
place so as to allow all the water in excess to subside. The copaiba may now be decanted and 
preserved. Thus prepared, it will solidify with one-sixteenth of calcined anhydrous magnesia 
in the course of a few days, and often in twenty-four hours. (Joum. de Pharm., 4e ser., i.) 
M. Rabot proposes a process by which the copaiba can in a few minutes be solidified to a con- 
sistence fit for preparing pills. He mixes pure copaiba with one-sixteenth of its weight of 
magnesia, previously slightly hydrated by sprinkling on it some drops of water, equal to about 
one-tenth of its weight, then introduces the capsule containing the mixture into boiling water, 
and keeps it thus by means of a water-bath for several minutes. The immediate consolidation 
is explained by the fact that the magnesia combines most readily with the resin of copaiba at 
a temperature of about 50° C. (122° F.), a heat which in no degree impairs the virtue of 
the medicine. (Ibid., ii.) For Kirchmann’s method of making the mass from an emulsion 
with the aid of borax, see Amer. Drug., 1884. 
Pills may also be made by incorporating vegetable powders with copaiba so as to bring it to 
the proper consistence; but this method has the inconvenience of greatly increasing the bulk. 
Spermaceti and wax have been proposed as excipients; and the latter, which was originally 
suggested by J. F. Simon, is recommended on account of its retaining all the volatile oil, and, 
with some vegetable powder, forming a mass that will retain its plasticity for years. One part, 
each, of wax, copaiba, and vegetable powder will answer the purpose, when the copaiba does 
not contain more than 50 per cent, of volatile oil; but if richer than this it will require more 
of the excipient. To prepare the pills, melt the wax at the lowest possible heat, then gradu- 
ally add the copaiba, and lastly incorporate some vegetable powder, as pulverized liquorice 
root, for example, with the other ingredients. (See A. J. P., Jan. 1863.) In the preparation 
of the pills of copaiba, care should be taken to divide the mass before it has become too hard. 856 
Massa Ferri Carbonatis. 
PART I. 
The advantage of this preparation is that the copaiba is brought to the state of pill with little 
increase of bulk. Five grains (0-33 Gm.) of the mass make a pill of convenient size ; of these 
from two to six may be taken for a dose twice or three times a day. 
MASSA FERRI CARBONATIS. U. S., Br. Mass of Ferrous Carbonate. 
[Vallet’s Mass.] 
Pilula Ferri Carbonatis, Br. 1885, also U. S. 1870; Pill of Carbonate of Iron, Yallet’s Ferruginous Pills; Pilulse 
Ferri Carbonici, P. G.; Pilulae Ferratae Valleti; Yallet’s Mass; Pilules de Carbonate ferreux, Pilules ferrugineuses, 
Fr.; Vallet’sche Pillen, G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, in clear crystals, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; 
Sodium Carbonate, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains] ; Clarified Honey, thirty- 
eight grammes [or 1 ounce av., 149 grains] ; Sugar, in coarse powder, twenty-jive grammes [or 
385 grains] ; Syrup, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred grammes 
[or 3 ounces av., 230 grains]. Dissolve the Ferrous Sulphate and the Sodium Carbonate, each 
separately, in two hundred cubic centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of boiling Distilled 
Water, and, having added twenty cubic centimeters [or 324 minims] of Syrup to the solution of 
the Iron salt, filter both solutions, and allow them to become cold. Introduce the solution of 
Sodium Carbonate into a bottle having a capacity of about Jive hundred cubic centimeters [or 16 
fluidounces, 435 minims], and gradually add the solution of the Iron salt, rotating the flask 
constantly or frequently, until carbonic acid gas no longer escapes. Add a sufficient quantity 
of Distilled Water to fill the bottle; then cork the bottle and set it aside, so that the ferrous 
carbonate may subside. Pour off the supernatant liquid, and, having mixed Syrup and Dis- 
tilled Water in the proportion of one volume of Syrup to nineteen volumes of Distilled Water, 
wash the precipitate with the mixture by decantation until the washings no longer have a 
saline taste. Drain the precipitate on a muslin strainer, and express as much of the Water as 
possible. Lastly, mix the precipitate at once with the Honey and Sugar, and, by means of a 
water-bath, evaporate the mixture in a tared capsule, with constant stirring, until it is reduced 
to one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 230 grains].” U. S.* 
The effect of saccharine matter in protecting iron from oxidation has been explained under 
the heads of Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus and Syrupus Ferri Iodidi. The U. S. mass of ferrous 
carbonate is another example of a ferruginous preparation in which the iron is protected from 
further oxidation by the same means. The salts employed are the same as those used for ob- 
taining the formerly official ferric subcarbonate; but in forming that preparation the carbon- 
ate which is at first precipitated absorbs oxygen, and loses nearly all its carbonic acid in the 
processes of washing and drying. When, however, as in the U. S. formula above given, the 
reacting salts are dissolved in weak syrup instead of water, and the washing is performed with 
weak syrup also, the absorption of oxygen and loss of carbonic acid during the separation of 
the precipitate are almost completely prevented. It only remains, therefore, to preserve it un- 
altered, and to bring it to the pilular consistence, and this is effected by admixture with honey 
and sugar, and evaporation by means of a water-bath. It is essential to the success of this 
process that the ferrous sulphate should be pure; otherwise some ferric oxide will be present 
in the product. The process is that of M. Yallet, of Paris, after whom the preparation is 
popularly called. The present U. S. process differs from that of 1870 in omitting to direct 
boiled water for washing the precipitated ferrous carbonate. This is an important omission, 
because there is apt to be some oxidation of the salt, due to the air in the water. The British 
Pharmacopoeia 1898 omitted Yallet’s mass. (See Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus.') Gonnermann 
prepares powdered Vallet's mass by mixing intimately ten parts of milk sugar and five parts 
of powdered liquorice root with sufficient freshly precipitated ferrous carbonate to make, when 
dried, thirty-five parts, and adding enough powdered liquorice root to make the whole weigh 
forty parts. (Pharm. Post, 1893, 238.) 
(mXs'sa FER'RI car-bo-na'tis.) 
* Wm. Silver Thompson states that the mass is more stable when made by the following formula than when pre- 
pared in the official manner. Take of Ferrous Sulphate eight ounces; Sodium Bicarbonate six ounces; Sugar, in 
fine powder, four and a half ounces; Clarified Honey half an ounce; Syrup, Water, each, a sufficient quantity. 
Dissolve each salt separately in water, add the sodium solution to the iron solution gradually, constantly stirring 
until the effervescence ceases, then add about a fluidounce of syrup, and again stir. After the carbonate" has sub- 
sided, draw off the supernatant liquid, and repeat the washing with cold water slightly sweetened with syrup, until 
the washings are free from a saline taste; when, having again drawn off the supernatant liquid, transfer the precipi- 
tate to a muslin cloth, and express as much of the water as possible. To the precipitate, in a porcelain dish placed 
over a water-bath, add the honey and sugar, and with frequent stirring evaporate to the pilular consistence. (AJP 
1870, p. 30.) Massa Hydrargyri. 
857 
PART I. 
Properties. The U. S. preparation is in the form of a soft pilular mass, of a dark green- 
ish-gray color, becoming black on exposure, and with a strong ferruginous taste. When care- 
fully prepared, it is wholly and readily soluble in acids. It contains nearly half its weight of 
ferrous carbonate. The corresponding pill, obtained from the saccharine carbonate, may be 
supposed to contain one-third of ferruginous matter. 
Medical Properties. The U. S. mass of ferrous carbonate, or Vallet’s ferruginous mass, 
is admirably adapted to cases in which pure chalybeate preparations are indicated. It is, there- 
fore, extremely valuable in simple anaemia and chlorosis. Its chief merits are its unchangeable- 
ness, its freedom from astringency, and its ready solubility in acids. Dose, from three to five 
grains (0-20-0-33 Gm.), in pill-form, after meals. 
MASSA HYDRARGYRI. U. S. (Br.) Mass of Mercury. [Pilula Hydrargyri. 
Blue Mass. Blue Pill.] 
Pilula Hydrargyri, Br., Mercury Pill; Pilulae Hydrargyri, U. S. 1870; Pills of Mercury, Mercurial Pill; Pilulae 
Coeruleae, Massa Coerulea; Blue Pills; Pilule de Mercure, Pilules bleues, Fr.; Mercurial Pillen, G. 
“ Mercury, thirty-three grammes [or 1 ounce av., 72 grains] ; Glycyrrhiza, in No. 60 powder, 
five grammes [or 77 grains] ; Althaea, in No. 60 powder, twenty-five grammes [or 385 grains] ; 
Glycerin, three grammes [or 46 grains] ; Honey of Eose, thirty-four grammes ’or 1 ounce av., 
88 grains], To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Triturate the Mer- 
cury with the Honey of Eose and Glycerin until it is extinguished. Then gradually add the 
Glycyrrhiza and Althaea, and continue the trituration until globules of mercury are no longer 
visible under a lens magnifying at least ten diameters.” U. S. 
“ Mercury, 2 ounces (Imperial) or 40 grammes; Confection of Eoses, 3 ounces (Imp.) or 60 
grammes; Liquorice Eoot, in fine powder, 1 ounce (Imp.) or 20 grammes. Eub the Mercury 
with the Confection of Eoses until metallic globules are no longer visible; add the Liquorice 
Eoot; beat together until thoroughly mixed.” Br. 
The mercury constitutes one-third of the mass. The ingredients for this mass do not differ 
essentially from those of the U. S. 1880 formula. The U. S. 1890 process is well suited for the 
needs of the pharmacist, as the mass can be made with ordinary apparatus extemporaneously. 
The precise condition of the mercury in this preparation is somewhat uncertain. By far 
the greater proportion is in a state of minute mechanical division, and not chemically altered. 
Some maintain that the whole of the metal is in this state, others, that a small portion is con- 
verted during the trituration into mercurous oxide, and that this is the ingredient upon which 
the activity of the pill depends. The supposed oxidation is attributed partly to the influence 
of the air upon the surface of the metal, greatly extended by the separation of its particles, 
partly to the action of the substance used in the trituration. If the mercury is not oxidized 
during the trituration, there can be little doubt that it becomes so, to a slight extent, by sub- 
sequent exposure. The obvious changes which the mass undergoes by time can be explained 
in no other way; and mercurous oxide is asserted to have been actually extracted from old 
mercurial pill. Mr. Harold Senier analyzed a number of samples of blue mass, with the view 
of determining the amount of metallic mercury and of mercurous and mercuric oxides. The 
results showed that the latter gradually increased in quantity with the age of the blue mass, 
which, 18 hours after preparation, contained but a trace of mercurous oxide; after three months, 
0-24 per cent, of mercuric and 0-62 per cent, of mercurous oxides were obtained, and in another 
sample, 0-44 and 1-60 per cent, respectively. After two years, 1-80 per cent, of mercuric and 
4-22 per cent, of mercurous oxides were present. (P. J. Tr., 1876.) Nevertheless, it scarcely 
admits of dispute that the metal, independently of oxidation out of the body, is capable of 
producing the peculiar mercurial effects when introduced into the stomach, probably under- 
going chemical changes there. The U. S. P. 1890 provides a test which limits the quantity of 
mercurous oxide and proves the absence of mercuric oxide ; it will be difficult for the ordinary 
“ blue mass” of commerce to withstand these requirements: “If a portion of the Mass be 
triturated, in a mortar, with warm acetic acid, the filtrate should not become more than slightly 
opalescent on the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid (limit of mercurous oxide'). If 
another portion of the Mass be digested with warm diluted hydrochloric acid and a little puri- 
fied animal charcoal, the filtrate should not be affected by hydrogen sulphide test-solution, or 
by stannous chloride test-solution (absence of mercuric oxide)." U. S. According to M. Mialhe, 
mercury is slowly converted into corrosive sublimate in the stomach, under the combined agency 
of air and sodium chloride. All agree that the efficacy of the preparation is proportionate to 
(MXS'SA HY-DRAE'gY-KI.) 858 
Massa Hydrargyri. 
PART I. 
the extinction of the mercury; in other words, to the degree in which the metallic globules 
disappear. This extinction may be effected by trituration with various substances ; and manna, 
syrup, honey, liquorice, mucilage, soap, guaiac, and extract of dandelion have been recommended, 
among others, for this purpose; but the confection of roses has been adopted in all the Phar- 
macopoeias, as less liable to objection than any other. The mercury is known to be completely 
extinguished when, upon rubbing a small portion of the mass with the end of the finger upon 
a piece of paper or glass, no globules appear; or more accurately by the microscopic test of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. Powdered liquorice root and powdered marshmallow root are added 
in order to give due consistence to the mass. The process now official was proposed by Prof. 
C. Lewis Diehl, and is very satisfactory. It is possible for the apothecary to make moderate 
quantities extemporaneously with no other appliances than the mortar and pestle. As the tritu- 
ration requires to be long continued, which renders the process very laborious when conducted 
on the large scale, it is customary to prepare the mass by machinery. At Apothecaries’ Hall, 
in London, the trituration is effected by the agency of steam. The machine there employed 
consists of “ a circular iron trough for the reception of the materials, in which revolve four 
wooden cylinders, having also a motion on their axes.” A machine for preparing blue mass, 
capable of being worked by hand or steam-power, was invented by Mr. J. W. W. Gordon, of 
Baltimore, and, having been found to answer well, was at one time in extensive use. (A.J. P., 
xxi. 6.) We have already referred, under Hydrargyrum cum Creta, to another ingenious appa- 
ratus, invented by Dr. Squibb, by which the extinguishment of mercury is very satisfactorily 
effected. Formerly much of the blue mass used in this country was imported ; but at present 
the market is chiefly supplied by our own manufacturers. The preparation slowly changes color 
upon being kept, assuming an olive and sometimes even a reddish tint, in consequence, probably, 
of the further oxidation of the mercury* 
In consideration of the incomplete extinguishment of the mercury in many specimens of 
the blue pill, arising from the tedious process employed, Mr. F. B. Benger proposes to obtain 
the metal in a state of minute division. For this purpose he adds to a solution of an ounce 
of stannous chloride, in a mixture of two drachms of hydrochloric acid and two ounces of 
cold water, a boiling hot solution of 136 grains of corrosive sublimate in four ounces of dis- 
tilled water, and stirs the mixture for a few seconds. The mercury of the corrosive chloride 
is thrown down in the form of a black powder, to which, after the liquid has been drawn off 
by means of a pipette, 30 grains of sugar, 100 grains of powdered liquorice, and about a 
drachm of glycerin are added. The mass, being transferred to a porcelain slab, is allowed to 
become sufficiently dry, and then mixed with enough glycerin and liquorice to make it weigh 
300 grains. (P. J. Tr., ii. 165.) Theoretically, this appears to be a good process; but only a 
long experience of its practical advantages would justify its substitution for a plan which has 
been followed for so many years with results, upon the whole, so satisfactory. An obvious 
objection to the process is the possibility, with carelessness of manipulation, of having in the 
preparation a minute proportion of corrosive sublimate or stannous chloride. 
The blue pill is sometimes wanted in the state of powder ; but, from its peculiar constitution, 
it is not eligible for reduction to this form, as the mercury is disposed to aggregate during pul- 
verization, and, from the honey it contains, it is apt, when pulverized, to attract moisture from 
the air. Mr. Chas. Bullock recommends the following method of preparing a powder which, 
as nearly as possible, represents the blue pill, in reference to its therapeutic effects: 
Powdered Blue Mass. Take of finely powdered Elm-bark, finely powdered Sugar, and Mer- 
cury, equal parts, and of Alcohol a sufficiency. Rub the mercury with the powdered bark, 
adding from time to time enough alcohol to maintain a pasty consistence, till the mercury is 
completely extinguished; then spread the mass on paper to dry. When dry, powder it, add 
the sugar, and rub the mixture thoroughly until the powder will pass through a sieve of fine 
bolting-cloth. (A. J. P., 1859, p. 271.) 
* The mercurial mass is very apt to contain less than the due proportion of the metal. This was frequently the 
case with the mass as formerly imported. The fraud may be detected by the following plan of estimating the pro- 
portion of mercury, suggested by Prof. Reid, of New York, and modified by a committee of the Philadelphia College 
of Pharmacy. A certain weight of the mercurial mass, say fifty grains, is mixed with about one-fourth of its weight 
of iron filings, and introduced into a small green glass bulb, at the end of a somewhat curved tube, the open ex- 
tremity of which is inserted, through a cork, into alcohol, contained in a broad-mouthed glass vial; another tube, 
open at both ends, passing through the cork, in order to permit the escape of uncondensed gases. Heat is then ap- 
plied to the bulb by means of a spirit-lamp, is gradually increased until the glass becomes red hot, and continued 
for an hour. The alcohol in the vial dissolves the empyreumatic products, and, by being allowed to rise in the tube, 
and then expelled, serves to wash out any mercury that may be condensed upon its sides. The alcohol is poured off 
from the condensed mercury, which is then washed with fresh alcohol, dried, and weighed. (See A. J. P., xvii.) PART I. 
Massa Hydrargyri.—Mastiche. 
859 
Medical Properties and Uses. This mass is among the mildest of the mercurials, 
being less liable than most others to act upon the bowels, and exercising the peculiar influence 
of the remedy upon the system with, less irritation. It is much employed for producing the 
sialagogue and alterative action of mercury. For the former purpose, three grains (0-20 Gm.) 
may be given two or three times a day ; and in urgent cases the dose may be increased. Even 
this preparation sometimes disturbs the bowels. It should then be given combined with a little 
opium, or in very minute doses, as half a grain or a grain (0-03-0-065 Gm.) of the mass, re- 
peated every hour or two through the day, so as to allow of its absorption before a sufficient 
quantity has been administered to act as an irritant. With a view to the alterative effect upon 
the digestive organs, three grains (0-20 Gm.) may be given every night, or every other night, 
at bedtime, and followed in the morning, if the bowels should not be opened, by a small dose 
of laxative medicine. From five to fifteen grains (0-33—0-97 Gm.) of the mass are occasionally 
given as a cathartic, in cases requiring a peculiar impression upon the liver; but when used 
for this purpose it should always either be combined with or speedily followed by a more cer- 
tain purgative. The blue mass may often be administered with advantage suspended in water 
by the intervention of thick mucilage; and it forms an excellent addition to the chalk mix- 
ture in diarrhoea, particularly that of children, when the biliary secretion is deficient or other- 
wise deranged. 
MASTICHE. U. S. Mastic. 
“ A concrete resinous exudation from Pistacia Lentiscus, Linne (nat. ord. Anacardieae).” 
u. s. 
Mastich; Mastix, P. G.; Resina Mastiche; Mastic, Fr.; Mastice, It.; Almastiga, Sp.; Sakes, Turk.; Arah, Arab. 
Pistacia lentiscus. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 1026; Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 753; B. & T. 68. The 
lentisk is a shrub or small tree, seldom more than twelve feet in height, much branched towards 
the top, and furnished with petiolate, abruptly pinnate leaves. The leaflets are from eight to 
twelve, and usually alternate, with the exception of the two upper, which are opposite. They 
are. ovate-lanceolate, entire, obtuse, often mucronate, and sessile upon the common footstalk, 
which has a narrow foliaceous expansion on each side. The flowers are dioecious, and very 
small. The male are in an axillary ament; the female are arranged alternately upon a com- 
mon peduncle, which is also axillary. The tree is a native of the countries bordering upon 
the Mediterranean. The fruit yields by expression a fixed oil, of a deep green color, and liquid 
at about 90° F., which the Arabs of North Africa use both as an article of diet and for light. 
A resinous exudation from the stem and branches is the official part, but it does not appear to 
be collected in all places where the tree flourishes. 
Mastic is obtained chiefly from the island of Scio, or Chios, in the Grecian Archipelago, 
where the tree is cultivated for this product. Incisions are made in the trunk and principal 
branches, from which the juice slowly exudes, and either hardens in tears upon the bark, or 
drops on the ground, where it is received upon cloths or the bare earth, and concretes in 
irregular masses. The tears are most esteemed, and are the only form recognized by the U. S. 
P. They are of various sizes, oval or roundish, often compressed, smooth, semi-transparent, 
of a pale-yellow color, of a shining fracture, friable, and usually covered with a whitish 
powder, occasioned by their friction against each other. They are brittle, but become plastic 
when chewed. The masses consist of yellowish agglutinated tears, with others of a darker 
color and less translucent, and often fragments of wood, bark, or earthy matter intermingled * 
Mastic is nearly inodorous, unless rubbed or heated, when it becomes fragrant. Its taste is 
weak, but agreeably terebinthinate, and, after long chewing, very slightly acrid. It is at first 
friable under the teeth, but soon becomes soft and ductile, and acquires a white opaque ap- 
pearance. Its sp. gr. is 1-074. It is fusible and inflammable by heat. Alcohol dissolves about 
90 per cent, of it, leaving a viscid substance which becomes brittle when dried, and for which 
the name of masticin or beta-resin of mastiche has been proposed. This substance, though not 
dissolved by alcohol, softens and swells up in it, as gluten does in water. According to Ber- 
(MiS'TI-£!HE—m&a'tj-ke.) 
* In a more recent account by M. J. Leon Soubeiran, it is stated that the juice is obtained not only by incision, 
but by spontaneous exudation from the branches, where it concretes in drops, which, after hardening, are gathered 
under the name of tears, which constitute the most valued part of the drug. But the greater part of the resin comes 
from longitudinal incisions in the stem, made with a knife, close together, and extending from the root to the 
branches. In fifteen or twenty days the resin has concreted, and is collected in little panniers of white paper or 
cotton cloth. Great care is taken to prevent it from falling on the ground and becoming soiled by the earth, and 
if any is thus soiled it is immediately cleansed at the time of collection. (Journ. de Pharm., Nov.-D6c. 1870, 359. 
See also Chem. and Drug., 1897, 273 ; also Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 563.) 860 
Mastiche.—Matico. 
PART I. 
zelius, it possesses the same general properties as copal, and should be considered as a variety 
of resin. Hlasiwetz gives C20H310 as the formula of the resin. Th'e portion dissolved by the 
alcohol is called by Johnston alpha resin of mastiche or mastichic add because of its acid prop- 
erties, and has the formula C20H3202. (Handworterhuch der Chemie, iv. p. 280.) Mastic is 
wholly soluble in ether, chloroform, and oil of turpentine, scarcely soluble in the fixed oils, and 
insoluble in water. It consists chiefly of resin, with mastidn, and a volatile oil, which can 
scarcely be said to have been obtained in a separate state, though it imparts flavor to alcohol 
and water distilled from the mastic, especially when this has been previously triturated with 
an equal weight of potassium carbonate. Prof. Fliickiger, through Schimmel & Co., of 
Leipsic, ascertained that this volatile oil is present in mastic to the extent of 2 per cent. He 
found it to be a terpene of the composition C10Hie. Schimmel & Co. (Semi-annual Report, 
April, 1897) state that mastic resin yields from 0 9 to 2-5 per cent, of a powerful balsamic 
essential oil of the same order as the raw material, a sp. gr. of from 0855 to 0-87 at 15° C., and 
an optical rotation (100-Mm. tube) of from -\-22° to -(-27°. Mastic is occasionally adulterated 
with olibanum, sandarach, and other resinous bodies, and, in seasons of scarcity, with sea-salt. 
The present shipments from Chios are estimated at 30,000 kilos annually. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Mastic was formerly thought to possess properties 
analogous to those of the turpentines, and was used in debility of the stomach, hsemoptysis from 
ulceration, leucorrhoea, chronic diarrhoea, etc.; but its virtues were overrated, and it is at pres- 
ent scarcely ever given internally. In the East, however, an aqueous infusion is said to be 
still used in infantile cholera ; and the Greeks employ cataplasms made by mixing it with bread 
and red wine, which they apply to the lower abdomen. (Landerer.) It is sometimes employed 
to fill the cavities of carious teeth, for which purpose it is well fitted by its softness. Great 
quantities of it are consumed in Turkey, where it is habitually chewed by the women, under 
the impression that it sweetens the breath and preserves the gums and teeth. The alcoholic 
solution has been employed as a styptic in bleeding from the nose, leech-bites, etc., being applied 
by means of a camel’s-hair pencil directly to the bleeding vessel. Dissolved in alcohol or oil 
of turpentine, it forms a brilliant varnish. A solution made by macerating half an ounce of 
mastic and fifteen grains of caoutchouc in two fluidounces of chloroform, and filtering in 
close vessels, forms a valuable microscopic varnish. The following mode of applying it to ca- 
rious teeth has been recommended. Dissolve four parts of mastic in one of ether, in a bottle 
well stopped. With the solution thus formed, which is yellow and of an oily consistence, sat- 
urate a small piece of cotton of the size of the carious cavity, and, having well cleansed and 
dried the cavity, introduce the cotton, without painful pressure, so as to fill it exactly. The 
resin attaches itself to the diseased surface of the tooth, which it protects from the air, and 
from the food taken into the mouth. 
MATICO. U. S. Matico. 
“ The leaves of Piper angustifolium, Ruiz et Pavon (nat. ord. Piperaceae).” U. S. 
Matico Leaves; Feuilles de Matico, Fr.; Maticoblatter, G. 
The genus Piper, according to Engler and Prantl, includes nearly six hundred species, which 
are distributed throughout the tropics of the Old and New World, being particularly numerous 
in tropical America and of relatively less number in Africa. 
Piper angustifolium. Ruiz and Pavon, Flor. Peruv.—Piper elongatum. Yahl.—Artantlie 
elongata. Miquel; Lindley, Med. and (Econom. Bot. 133, fig. 195. This is a shrub with a 
jointed stem about twelve feet in height. In a dried specimen received from Dr. Ruschenber- 
ger, of the U. S. navy, the leaves are sessile or very shortly petiolate, oval-lanceolate, acuminate, 
from two to six inches long by about an inch in breadth, bright green on the upper surface, 
paler and downy beneath, finely crenate, tessellated above, reticulate beneath, the meshes small, 
and the veins densely brownish hairy ; of an agreeable aromatic odor and a strong spicy taste. 
The spikes are solitary, opposite the leaves, and cylindrical. The bracts are peltate or cucul- 
late ; the flowers hermaphrodite. The plant is a native of Peru, where the fruit, under the 
name of Thoho-Thoho, is employed in the same manner as cubebs. This species is also found 
in other parts of South America. The commercial drug matico is furnished, according to G. 
Dethan and R. Bertault (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 1897, 537), by two varieties of Piper 
angustifolium,—viz., a-cordulatum (Artantlie elongata Miq.), and fi-ossanum, which differ some- 
what in the shape of the leaves. The former has the leaves larger, shorter, and broader, with 
an oblique cordate base. The midrib of a-cordulatum is much less convex below than in the 
(MAT'I-CO.) PART I. 
Matico.—Matricaria. 
861 
other variety. In 1864 Prof. Bentley (P. J. Tr., Jan. 1864) described a false matico from 
Central America believed to be yielded by the Artanthe adunca. It is distinguished by the 
want of the reticulations on the upper and the down on the under surface which characterize 
true matico. 
The leaves, spikes, and stalks are mixed together, and more or less compressed, in the pack- 
ages of the imported drug, and are all possessed of activity, though the leaves only are recog- 
nized by the Pharmacopoeias. They are officially described as “ from 10 to 15 Cm. long, short- 
petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, apex pointed, base unequally heart-shaped, margin very finely 
crenulate, tessellated above, reticulate beneath, the meshes small, and the veins densely brown- 
ish-hairy ; aromatic, spicy, and bitterish.” TJ. S. They are readily pulverized, forming a light, 
greenish, absorbent powder. According to Dr. Hodges, they contain chlorophyll, a soft dark- 
green resin, brown and yellow coloring matters, gum, salts, lignin, a light-green, tliickish volatile 
oil, and a peculiar bitter principle, which he calls maticin, soluble in water and in alcohol, but 
not in ether. (Philos. Mag., Sept. 1844, p. 206.) According to Mr. Wiegand, the maticin of 
Dr. Hodges is a salt of potassa. Mr. John J. Stell, who examined the drug in the expectation 
of discovering a principle analogous to cubebin or piperin, failed in the attempt. Fliickiger 
found it to contain 2-7 per cent, of the volatile oil, which was slightly dextrogyre and boiling 
in large part at 180° C.—200° C. In winter-time it deposited large crystals of a camphor 
fusing at 103° C. and having the odor and taste of the oil. The crystals have the formula 
Ci2H200 according to Kiigler, and are perhaps the ethyl-derivative of ordinary camphor. (Per. 
d. Chem. Ges. [16], p. 2841; also A. J. P., 1884, p. 477.) Matico also affords, according to 
Marcotte, a crystallizable acid named artanthic acid, with some tannin. (Pharmacographia, 
Fliickiger and Hanbury, 2d ed., p. 590.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Matico is an agreeable aromatic tonic and stimulant, 
having a tendency, like cubeb, to act on the urinary passages. It has long been known as a 
medicine in Peru. Dr. Martius speaks of its use by the natives externally as a vulnerary, and 
internally as an aphrodisiac (Pharm. Centralb., 1843) ; and, according to Dr. Scrivener, who 
practised medicine at Lima, it is much employed in Peru locally for arresting hemorrhage, and 
in the treatment of ulcers. (A. J. P., xviii.) In 1839 it was taken to England, and was pre- 
scribed by Dr. Jeffreys, of Liverpool, with advantage, in diseases of the mucous membranes, as 
gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, catarrh of the bladder, hemorrhoids, and epistaxis. Others 
have employed it with benefit in similar cases and in diarrhoea ; and it is said to have proved 
useful in hsemoptysis, hsematemesis, dysentery, and hsematuria. Dr. Ruschenberger gives strong 
testimony in its favor in several of the diseases mentioned. Its most useful internal applica- 
tion is probably as an alterative stimulant to the diseased mucous membranes. If efficient as 
a haemostatic, it must be on principles similar to those upon which oil of turpentine acts; for 
it is not astringent. As a local styptic it probably acts mechanically in the same manner as 
does agaric. The dose of the powder is from half a drachm to two drachms (l-95-7‘8 Gm.) 
three times a day. The tincture and the fluid extract are official. 
MATRICARIA. U. S. Matricaria. [German Chamomile.] 
(MAT-KI-CA'RI-A.) 
“ The flower-heads of Matricaria Chamomilla, Linne (nat. ord. Compositae).” JJ. S. 
Flores Chamomillse Vulgaris, P. G.; Fleurs de Chamomille commune (d’Allemagne), Fr.; Kamille, Kamillen- 
blumen, G. 
Matricaria chamomilla. Linn. Sp. Plant. (1753) 891. This is an annual plant, with a 
branching stem a foot or two in height, bearing alternate leaves about two inches long, the 
lower ones tripinnate, the upper bipinnate or simply pinnate, and all of them very green, and 
nearly or quite smooth. The leaflets are linear and very small. The flowers appear singly at 
the ends of the stem and branches. They are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, 
with the ray spreading. The bracts of the involucre are obtuse, green in the middle, and 
whitish, membranous, and translucent at the margin. The ray-florets are white, at first spread- 
ing, and ultimately reflected. The disk is of a deep yellow color, at first flat, but in the end 
convex, and even somewhat conical. 
The plant is a native of Europe, and is occasionally cultivated in our gardens. All parts of 
it are active; but the flowers only are official. These shrink in drying, so that they are scarcely 
half as large as in their recent state. Those found in commerce are imported from Germany. 
They are officially described as “ about 15 to 20 Mm. broad, composed of a flattish, imbricate 
involucre, a conical, hollow, naked receptacle, which is about 5 Mm. high, about fifteen white, 862 
Matricaria.—Mel. 
PART I. 
ligulate, reflexed ray-florets, and numerous yellow, tubular, perfect disk florets without pappus ; 
strongly aromatic and bitter. The similar flower-heads of Anthemis arvensis Linn6, and Maruta 
cotida De Candolle (nat. ord. Compositse), have conical, solid, and chaffy receptacles.” U. S. 
The dried flowers of the Matricaria are considerably smaller than those of common chamo- 
mile, and exhibit a larger proportion of the disk-florets compared with those of the ray. They 
have a strong, peculiar, rather unpleasant odor, and a disagreeable bitter taste. Their active 
constituents are volatile oil and bitter extractive, which are readily taken up by water and alco- 
hol. The oil, which is obtained by distillation with water, is thick, somewhat tenacious, of a 
fine deep blue color becoming green and brown by age, and almost opaque in mass. Though 
supposed by Gerhardt to be identical with the oil of chamomile (Anthemis nohilis), it has been 
shown to be distinct. (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1862, p. 429.) It congeals at —4° F., has the sp. gr. 
0 93, and contains a terpene, C10H16, and a colorless oil, C10HieO. Schimmel & Co.'s Report for 
April, 1897, states that the German chamomile oil contains a paraffin hydrocarbon. The blue 
color is due to a volatile principle called azulene by Piesse, and coerulein by Gladstone and 
others. This, when distilled with potassium, yields a terpene, (C10H16)3, and with phosphoric 
oxide a hydrocarbon, C10H14. (Kachler, Ber. d. Chem. Ges., iv. 36.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Matricaria is a mild tonic, very similar to chamomile 
in medical properties, and, like it, in very large doses an emetic. It is considered also in Europe 
to be antispasmodic and anthelmintic. It is much employed in Germany, but in this country 
scarcely at all, unless by German practitioners. It may be given for the same purposes and in 
the same manner as chamomile. 
MEL. U. S. Honey. 
(MEL.) 
“ A saccharine secretion deposited in the honey-comb by Apis mellifica, Linne (class, In- 
secta ; order, Hymenoptera).” U S. 
Miel, Fr.; Honig, G.; Miele, It.; Miel, Sp. 
Naturalists have not yet determined whether honey is a secretion of the bee, Apis mel- 
lifica, or exists already formed in plants. It is certain that the nectaries of flowers contain 
a saccharine matter, which is extracted by the insect; and the fact is well known that the 
flavor and character of honey are very much affected by the nature of the plants which pre- 
dominate in the vicinity of the hive,—so much so that when these plants are poisonous the 
fluid sometimes partakes of their noxious qualities. Several cases of poisoning from eating 
honey from a particular source are recorded in the New Jersey Medical Reporter for November, 
1852, p. 46* Still, it probably undergoes change in the organs of the bee, as the saccharine 
matter of the nectaries, so far as it has been possible to examine it, lacks some of the charac- 
teristic properties of honey.f The finest honey is that which is allowed to drain from the 
comb. If obtained from hives that have never swarmed, it is called virgin honey. An inferior* 
kind is procured by submitting the comb to pressure; and if heat be employed previous to 
expression, the product is still more impure. 
In the recent state honey is fluid; but on being kept it is apt to form a crystalline deposit, 
and to be ultimately converted into a soft granular mass. In commerce it is found of every 
* H. Bley states that poisonous honey is sometimes imported into Europe from Trebizond, and also from America, 
and attributes the toxic properties to the bees feeding upon Datura stramonium and Gelsemium. (Pharm. Zeit., 
Nov. 1885.) For an interesting paper on “Poisonous Honey,” by L. F. Kebler, see Proc. A. P. A., 1896, 167. 
f Propolis. This is a resinous substance, deposited by bees at the base of the hive, and in other parts which re- 
quire protection from the outer air, of a nature entirely different from that of wax or honey, and supposed to be in- 
tended for the protection of the comb from injurious external agencies. Dr. H. 0. Hitchcock (Chicago Med. Journ., 
1867) considers it one of the best remedies in simple mucous diarrhoea, even when severe and attended with pain 
and vomiting. In many cases only a single dose is required. It appears to possess anodyne and soporific properties. 
He has found it also efficacious in dysentery in the early stage; but it has proved useless in the disease when fully 
established. In chronic diarrhoea, even of the kind contracted in camp and remarkable for its obstinacy, it has 
seemed to act like a charm. It is of a dark reddish or yellowish-brown color, of a shining fracture, an aromatic 
taste and smell, quite insoluble in water, nearly so in ether, but readily dissolved by alcohol and solution of potassa. 
Dr. Hitchcock has used both a tincture and an alkaline solution; the former (two drachms of propolis and four fluid- 
ounces of alcohol) in doses of from thirty minims to a fluidrachm (l-9-3'75 C.c.); the latter (two drachms of the 
resin to a fluidrachm of liquor potassa; and four fluidounces of a menstruum consisting of equal parts of water and 
simple syrup) in the dose of half a fluidrachm (1*9 C.c.) after each stool. 
Bee-bread is the name given to a material found in some of the cells of the comb, consisting mainly of the pollen 
of plants. (Chicago Med. Examiner, Sept. 1865.) Dr. Jas. S. Whitmire found that in the dose of a drachm (3‘9 Gm.) 
three times a day it caused great increase of the urinary secretion. No disagreeable effects followed its use, except 
a slight flatulency and looseness of the bowels. It is entirely palatable and inoffensive to the stomach. (A. J. P., 1866.) 
Eucalyptus Honey, or Black Honey. This honey, a detailed description of which may be found in U. S. D., 16th ed., 
appears to have been not a natural but a sophisticated article. PART I. 
863 
consistence, from that of a viscid liquid like thin syrup or oil, to that of lard or soft suet. Its 
color is sometimes white, but usually yellowish, and occasionally of a brownish or reddish tinge. 
It has a peculiar agreeable odor, varying somewhat with the flowers from which it was collected, 
and a very sweet, feebly aromatic taste, which is followed by a slight prickling or sense of 
acrimony in the fauces. Its sp. gr. is about 1-333. (Duncan.') Cold water dissolves it readily, 
alcohol with less facility. “ A syrupy liquid of a light yellowish to pale yellowish-brown color, 
translucent when fresh, but gradually becoming opaque and crystalline, having a characteristic, 
aromatic odor, and a sweet, faintly acrid taste. When recent Honey is diluted with 2 parts of 
water, the resulting liquid should be almost clear, not stringy, and should have a specific grav- 
ity not lower than 1*100 (corresponding to a specific gravity of 1-375 for the original Honey). 
Honey has a faintly acid reaction towards litmus paper. If 1 part of Honey be dissolved in 
4 parts of water, a clear or nearly clear solution will result, which should not be rendered more 
than faintly opalescent by a few drops of silver nitrate test-solution (limit of chlorides), or of 
barium chloride test-solution (limit of sulphates). If 1 volume of Honey be diluted with 1 
volume of water, and a portion of this liquid gradually mixed with 5 volumes of absolute 
alcohol, it should not become more than faintly opalescent (as compared with the reserved por- 
tion of the solution), and should neither become opaque, nor deposit a slimy substance on the 
inner walls and bottom of the test-tube. And when Honey is incinerated, in small portions at 
a time, in a platinum crucible, it should not leave more than 0-2 per cent, of ash (absence of 
glucose and foreign inorganic substances). On boiling 1 part of Honey with 5 parts of water, 
the resulting solution, when cold, should not be rendered blue or green on the addition of iodine 
test-solution (absence of starch)." TJ. S. It is essentially a strong aqueous solution of mixed 
dextrose and levulose, the mixture being known as “glucose,” and amounting generally to from 
70 to 80 per cent. 
The following analyses of pure, unadulterated honey show the variations in its composition. 
They were made by Dr. J. Campbell Brown (Analyst, iii. 269). 
Locality. 
Levulose. 
Dextrose. 
Sucrose. 
Wax, Pollen, 
and Insoluble 
Matter. 
Ash. 
Water ex- 
pelled at 
100° C. 
Water 
expelled 
above 
100° C. 
and Loss. 
English 
37-04 
36-11 
None. 
Good trace. 
•15 
19-10 
7-60 
Welsh 
37-66 
39-24 
None. 
Trace. 
•14 
16-40 
6-56 
Normandy 
37-36 
42-02 
None. 
Slight trace. 
•17 
15-50 
4-95 
German 
33-56 
36-16 
None. 
Trace. 
•17 
19-11 
11-00 
Greek 
40-43 
31-77 
None. 
•05 
•15 
19-80 
7-80 
Lisbon 
37-69 
34-51 
None. 
Nearly 1-0 
•14 
18-80 
6-86 
Jamaica 
33-60 
34-80 
2-2 (?) 
2-1 
•25 
19 46 
7-58 
California 
38-29 
35-57 
None. 
Good trace. 
•11 
17-90 
8-13 
Mexican 
36-39 
35-04 
None. 
Trace. 
•97 
18-47 
10-03 
The glucose may be obtained by treating granular honey with a small quantity of alcohol, 
which, when expressed, takes along with it the other ingredients, leaving the crystals nearly 
untouched. The same end may be obtained by melting the honey, saturating its acid with 
calcium carbonate, filtering the liquid, then setting it aside to crystallize, and washing the crys- 
tals with alcohol. Inferior honey usually contains a large proportion of uncrystallizable sugar 
and vegetable acid. Diluted with water, honey undergoes the vinous fermentation. In warm 
weather, honey itself, if not very pure, sometimes ferments, acquiring a pungent taste and deeper 
color* The presence of dextrin in pure honey seems to be established. G. L. Spencer 
(A. J. P., 1895, 27) has found as much as 4 per cent, of dextrin, and Haenle (Zeits. Anal. 
Chem., 94, 99) has shown that honey from Coniferae always contains dextrin. Kiinnmann 
and Hilger (A. J. P., 1896, 570) state that dextrin is present in all honey, whether dextro- 
rotatory or laevo-rotatory, and claim to have identified it as achroo-dextrin. Starch is said to 
be occasionally added to the inferior kinds to give them a white appearance. The adultera- 
tion may be detected by adding water, which dissolves the honey and leaves the starch at the 
* Dr. Miillenhoff believes that the honey is preserved in the sealed cells of the comb by the secretion with it of a 
minute quantity of formic acid, and has found by experiment that the addition of one part of 25-per-cent, formio 
acid is sufficient to keep permanently 250 parts of honey; but in this connection it should be remembered that the 
absence of contact with the air would account for the preservation of honey in the comb. 864 
Mel.—Mel Despumatum. 
PART T. 
bottom of the vessel. Dilution with water may be suspected from the greater thinness of the 
honey and its want of disposition to crystallize. 
Honey is largely adulterated with artificial glucose. This may be detected by the official 
tests, but the safest method is to determine the sugar by the use of Fehling’s solution. The 
grape sugar may be determined directly in a weighed quantity of honey. An equal weight 
of the same honey is boiled with 2-per-cent, sulphuric acid, and the sugar may be determined 
after inversion; finally the dextrin may be determined in a third portion by precipitation with 
alcohol. The difference in the quantity of sugar found before and after inversion is so great 
as to furnish a certain method for distinguishing natural and artificial honey. According to 
Oscar Haenle, glucose can also be detected by first dialysing thoroughly and then polarizing, 
under which circumstance, if glucose be present, rotation to the right occurs ; if the honey be 
pure the light is not affected. Undialysed honey ordinarily polarizes to the left, but unadulter- 
ated conifer-honeys are dextrogyre. (P. J. Tr., xxi.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Honey possesses the same medical properties as sugar, 
but is more disposed to affect the bowels. Though largely consumed as an article of food, it 
is seldom employed medicinally, except as a vehicle. Its taste and demulcent qualities render 
it a useful addition to gargles; and it is sometimes employed as an application to foul ulcers. 
MEL BORACIS. Br. Borax Honey. 
Mel Sodii Boratis, U. S. 1870; Honey of Borax, Honey of Borate of Sodium; Miel borate, Mellite de Borax, 
Fr.; Boraxhonig, G. 
“ Borax, in fine powder, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 50 grammes; Glycerin I ounce (Imp.) or 25 
grammes; Clarified Honey, 8 ounces (Imp.) or 400 grammes. Mix.” Br. 
This preparation was very properly dropped from the U. S. Pharmacopoeia at the 1880 
revision, as it may well be left to extemporaneous prescription. The U. S. formula of 1870 
was practically identical with the British process given above. Borax honey is used in the 
thrush of infants and in aphthous ulcerations of the mouth. 
(MEL BO-RA'CIS.) 
MEL DESPUMATUM. U. S. (Br.) Clarified Honey. 
“ Honey of commerce, melted in a water-bath, and strained, while hot, through flannel pre- 
viously moistened with warm water.” Br. 
Mel Depuratam, Br.; Miel d6spumij, Mellite simple, Fr.; Gereinigter Honig, G. 
“ Honey, a convenient quantity ; Glycerin, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Honey intimately 
with two per cent, of its weight of paper-pulp, which has been previously reduced to shreds, 
thoroughly washed and soaked in water, and then strongly expressed and again shredded. 
Then apply the heat of a water-bath, and, as long as any scum rises to the surface, carefully 
remove this. Finally, add enough Distilled Water to make up the loss incurred by evapora- 
tion, strain, and mix the strained liquid with jive per cent, of its weight of glycerin.” V S. 
The U. S. 1890 method of clarifying honey is new as far as the Pharmacopoeia is concerned : 
paper-pulp is very effective as a clarifying agent, and the glycerin offers some protection to the 
honey against change. Honey may be made brilliant by hot filtration through paper. (See 
Remington’s Practice of Pharmacy, “ Hot Filtration,” p. 217.) 
Honey, by the heat of the water-bath, becomes so fluid that the wax and other lighter 
impurities which it contains rise to the surface and may be skimmed off; while the heavier 
substances which may have been accidentally or fraudulently added, such as sand or other 
earth, sink to the bottom. A neat method of separating is described in JV. R., Feb. 1880. It 
is as follows. “ Pour the honey into a perfectly clean cylindrical vessel, with straight sides, 
rather narrow, and having a small lip at the open margin, and heat the vessel on a water-bath. 
When the water is hot, pour enough honey into the vessel to fill it to within about 1 inch of 
the edge, and allow it to remain at rest in the water-bath, at a moderate heat, for about one 
hour. During this time, most of the impurities will rise to the top, while some others may 
sink to the bottom. Now remove the vessel very carefully from the water-bath, and pour on 
top of the hot honey, very gently, a sufficient amount of cold water to fill the vessel completely. 
This will cause all the impurities floating on the honey at once to rise to the top of the cold 
water, where they will often solidify to a tough skin or cake, which may be taken off without 
difficulty. Then pour off the water through the lip, remove the last remnants, if necessary, 
by means of blotting-paper, and filter the honey through a piece of well-washed, wetted, and 
(MEL DES-PU-MA-TUM.) PART I. 
Mel Despumcitum.—Melissa. 
865 
dense white flannel. The resulting product—if the honey be pure—will be very brilliant.” 
The French Codex simply directs six pounds of white honey to be heated with two pounds of 
water, skimmed, concentrated to 30° B. while boiling hot, and then strained through flannel. 
The British Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ A viscid translucent liquid of a light-yellowish or 
brownish-yellow color, gradually becoming partially crystalline and opaque. It has a character- 
istic odor and very sweet taste. Incinerated it should not yield more than 0‘25 per cent, of 
ash, the solution of which in water acidulated with nitric acid should not afford more than 
a slight turbidity with solution of barium chloride (absence of more than traces of sulphates). 
It should yield no characteristic reaction with the iodine test for starch.” 
The following method of clarifying honey is recommended by Andre von Hirschberg. Boil 
25 pounds of honey, to which half the quantity of water has been added, with a pulp obtained 
by stirring three sheets of white blotting-paper with water, over a slow fire, till the paper is 
reduced to minute fibres. When the mixture cools, put it into a woollen filtering bag, previ- 
ously moistened, and allow the honey to pass. It comes away quite clear. The pulp may then 
be washed, and the dark liquid evaporated by a water-bath to the proper consistence. (P. J. Tr., 
ix.) Another process, recommended by A. Hofmann, is to dissolve 28 pounds of honey in 
twice its weight of water, heat the solution to the boiling point, and then add a solution of 
three drachms of gelatin in three times its weight of water, and afterwards an aqueous solution 
of one drachm of tannin, or an infusion of two drachms of galls. The mixture is to be well 
stirred, and kept hot for an hour. Lastly, seven-eighths of the honey may be drawn off clear, 
the remainder filtered through flannel, and the whole evaporated. (Ibid., xv. 121.) The use 
of tannin is objectionable, however, on account of its solubility in honey, and the danger of 
honey so purified reacting when brought in contact with ferric salts. For other processes of 
purifying honey, see 14th edition of this work, p. 1321, and A. J. P, 1877, p. 19 ; also 1879, 
pp. 193, 598, and 1880, p. 132. Heugel’s method is to mix two pounds each of honey and 
water with a half-ounce of magnesium carbonate, frequently agitate for two or three hours, 
filter through doubled white filtering-paper, boil slowly, remove the scum carefully, and evapo- 
rate upon a steam-bath to a syrupy consistence. 
Honey clarified with calcium carbonate and animal charcoal, or as in the first process described, 
is as clear and colorless as syrup made with sugar, but still retains a peculiar flavor. It is 
less disposed to ferment than crude honey, and is said not to be so liable to produce griping 
pain when swallowed. 
MEL ROSiE. U. S. Honey of Rose 
Mel Rosatum, P. G.; Mellitum Rosatum; Mellite de Roses rouges, Miel Rosat, Fr.; Rosenbonig, G. 
“ Fluid Extract of Bose, one hundred and twenty cubic centimeters [or 4 fluidounces, 27 
minims] ; Clarified Honey, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces 
av., 120 grains. Into a tared vessel introduce the Fluid Extract of Rose, then add enough 
Clarified Honey to make the contents weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains], and mix them thoroughly.” TJ. S. 
Though one of the officials in the late London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, the Honey 
of Rose has been dropped in the British. The U. S. formula is based on that of Prof. Grahame. 
(See A. J. P., 1859, p. 443.) Honey of rose forms a pleasant addition to the gargles employed 
in inflammation and ulceration of the mouth and throat. 
(MEL RO'§AI.) 
MELISSA. U. S. Melissa. [Balm.] 
“ The leaves and tops of Melissa officinalis, Linne (nat. ord. Labiatae).” U. S. 
Folia Melissas, P. G.; Herba Melissae; Lemon Balm; Herbe au Citron, Melisse, Fr.; Melissenblatter, Citronen- 
kraut, Garten-Melisse, G.; Melissa, It.; Torongil, Sp. 
Melissa officinalis. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 592; Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 146; Woodv. Med. Bot., 
334, t. 119. Balm has a perennial root, which sends up annually several erect quadrangular 
stems, usually branched towards the base, and a foot or two in height. The leaves are about 
two inches long, are opposite, ovate or cordate, obtuse, deeply serrate, glandular or pubescent; 
the lower on long footstalks, the uppermost nearly sessile. The flowers are white or yellowish, 
upon short peduncles, and in axillary whorls of four or five, surrounding only half the stem. 
The calyx is tubular, pentangular, and bilabiate, with the upper lip tridentate and flattened, 
the lower cut into two pointed teeth. The corolla is whitish or purplish, tubular and bilabiate, 
the upper lip less convex and notched, the lower three-cleft. The plant is a native of the 
(ME-LIS'SA.) 866 
Menispermum.—Mentha Piperita. 
PART I. 
south of Europe. It has been introduced into this country, where it is cultivated in gardens 
and grows wild along the fences of our roads and lanes. For use the herb should be cut 
before the appearance of the flowers, which begin to expand in July. In the fresh state it has 
a fragrant, lemon-like odor, but it is nearly inodorous when dried. The taste is somewhat 
austere, and slightly aromatic. The herb contains a minute proportion of a yellowish, highly 
flavored essential oil; also tannin, bitter extractive, and gum. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Balm produces scarcely any remedial effects upon the 
system. The quantity of oil which it contains is not more than sufficient to communicate an 
agreable flavor to the infusion, which forms an excellent drink in febrile complaints, and when 
taken warm tends to promote the operation of diaphoretic medicines. 
MENISPERMUM. U. S. Menispermum. [Yellow Parilla. Canadian Moonseed.] 
(MEN-I-SPER'MUM.) 
“ The rhizome and roots of Menispermum Canadense, Linne (nat. ord. Menispermaceae).” 
US. 
M. canadense. L. This is a woody, climbing plant, which grows throughout Eastern North 
America. It is specifically characterized by its peltate three- to seven-lobed leaves, its small 
clusters of greenish-yellow flowers, and its somewhat kidney-shaped glaucous fruit, which is 
ripened in the month of September. Its root was first brought into market as Texas Sarsa- 
parilla, and identified by Prof. Robt. P. Thomas. (A. J. P., xxvii. 7.) There are but two 
other species of Menispermum known,—viz., M. dahuricum D. C., in Central and Eastern 
Asia, and M. divers if olium (Cocculus Miq.) Prantl, in Japan. 
Properties. Menispermum is officially described as follows: “ Rhizome several feet long, 
5 Mm. thick, brown or yellowish-brown, somewhat knotty, finely wrinkled longitudinally and 
beset with numerous thin, rather brittle roots; fracture tough, woody; internally yellowish, 
the bark rather thick, the wood-rays broad, porous, and longest on the lower side; pith dis- 
tinct. Nearly inodorous; taste bitter.” U S. Prof. J. M. Maisch proved the presence of a 
white alkaloid, and of a small quantity of berberine. The former reacts with the usual alka- 
loidal precipitants, is not very soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. H. L. Barber 
(A. J. P., 1884, p. 401) obtained the white amorphous alkaloid above referred to, for which 
Prof. Maisch proposed the name menispine. He gives, moreover, a comparison of the prop- 
erties of this alkaloid with those of menispermine and oxyacanthine. Starch was also found 
in the root. (A. J. P., 1863, p. 301.) 
Medical Properties. In an unpublished inaugural dissertation by Dr. George F. Terrell 
(Feb. 1844), it is stated that the root of this plant is considerably employed in Virginia, both 
in domestic practice and by physicians, as a substitute for sarsaparilla in scrofulous affections. 
It is also reputed to be tonic, but is very rarely used in regular practice, and is probably inert. 
MENTHA PIPERITA. U. S. Peppermint. 
“ The leaves and tops of Mentha piperita, Smith (nat. ord. Labiatae).” U. S. 
Folia (Herba) Menthse Piperita.', P. G.; Menthe poivrec, Fr.; Pfefferminze, PfefiFermiinze, G.; Menta piperita, 
It.; Pimenta piperita, Sp. 
The genus Mentha comprises at least fifteen species, of which there are also a great many 
varieties. M. piperita,—L. (1753), also Smith (1800),—the most important member of this 
genus, was long ago cultivated by the Egyptians, and is now grown in considerable amounts 
in Europe, North America, and Eastern Asia. It is also found growing wild in other parts 
of the world, as South America and Australia. The oldest existing peppermint district is in 
the neighborhood of Mitcham (Surrey), England. In some parts of the United States, espe- 
cially in Michigan, the western part of New York, Ohio, and Indiana, it is largely cultivated * 
On the continent of Europe other species of Mentha (particularly M. arvensis) grow with 
M. piperita, deteriorating the product. In America other plants (as Erigeron canadense and 
Erechthites hieracifolia) cause the same trouble. Besides M. piperita other species are culti- 
vated, as some Asiatic varieties of M. arvensis, M. viridis, M. longifolia (var. undulata), M. 
gentilis, M. dalmatica, and M. pulegium. 
Mentha piperita. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 576; Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 79; B. & T. 203; Carson, 
Illust. of Med. Bot., ii. 16, pi. 63. Peppermint is a perennial herbaceous plant, with a creeping 
(MfiN'THA PI-PE-RI'TA.) 
* For an interesting account of the distribution of the peppermint culture in the United States and the amount 
of oil produced in 1897, see Sohimmel & Co.’s Report for October, 1897, 40. PART I. 
Mentlia Pipei'ita.—Menthol. 
867 
root, and quadrangular, channelled, purplish, somewhat hairy stems, branched towards the 
top, and about two feet in height. The leaves are about two inches long, opposite, petiolate, 
ovate, serrate, pointed, smoother on the upper than on the under surface, and of a dark green 
color, which is paler beneath. The flowers are small, purple, and in terminal obtuse spikes, 
interrupted below, and cymosely arranged. Late in the season, the growth of the lateral 
lower branches often gives to the inflorescence the appearance of a corymb. The calyx is 
tubular, furrowed, and five-toothed, often purplish; the corolla is purplish, 
tubular, with its border divided into four segments, of which the upper- 
most is broadest, and notched at its apex. The four short stamens are 
concealed within the tube of the corolla; the style projects beyond it, and 
terminates in a bifid stigma. The plant should be cut for medical use in 
dry weather, in August, about the period of the expansion of the flowers. 
John C. Umney points out differences between white and black pepper- 
mint in P. J. Tr., 1896, 123. 
The herb, both in the recent and in the dried state, has a peculiar, pene- 
trating, grateful odor. There is sometimes difficulty in distinguishing be- 
tween the leaves of M. piperita and those of M. viridis. According to 
Joseph Schrenk, crystals can always be found in the glandular hairs of 
the peppermint, but are absent in those of the spearmint. The crystals 
are doubly refractive, and so transparent that sometimes a polariscope is 
necessary for their easy detection. These crystals have been thought to 
be menthol, but they seem not to dissolve in alcohol, and their nature re- 
mains doubtful. The taste of the herb is aromatic, warm, pungent, cam- 
phorous, bitterish, and attended with a sensation of coolness when air is 
admitted into the mouth. These properties depend on a volatile oil, of 
which from 1 to 1-25 per cent, can be obtained from the herb. The leaves are said to contain 
a little tannic acid. The virtues of the herb are imparted to water, and more readily to alcohol. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Peppermint is a grateful aromatic stimulant, much 
used for all the purposes to which medicines of this class are applied. To allay nausea, relieve 
spasmodic pains of the stomach and bowels, expel flatus, and cover the taste or qualify the 
nauseating or griping effects of other medicines, are among the most common of these purposes. 
The fresh herb, bruised and applied to the epigastrium, often allays sick stomach, and is useful 
in the cholera of children. The medicine may be given in infusion ; but the volatile oil, either 
alone or in some state of preparation, is generally preferred. (See Oleum Menthse Piperitsei) 
Peppermint le<ii 1 
epidermis of the upper 
of the ’under side, 
hair?1 a 1 
MENTHA VIRIDIS. U. S. Spearmint 
(MEN'THA VIR'I-DIS.) 
“ The leaves and tops of Mentha viridis, Linne (nat. ord. Lahiatae).” U. S. 
Herba Menthae Acutae (veR.Romanae); Menthe verte, Menthe romaine, Baume vert, Menthe & 5pi, Fr.; Griine 
Miinze, Rbmische Minze, G.; Menta Romana, It.; Yerba buena puntiaguda, Sp. 
Mentha viridis. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 804 ; Willd. Sp. Plant, iii. 76 ; B. & T. 302 ; M. spicata, 
L. (1753) ; M. spicata, var. viridis, L. (1753). Spearmint, sometimes called simply mint, differs 
from M. piperita chiefly in having sessile or nearly sessile, lanceolate, naked leaves; elongated, 
interrupted, panicled spikes ; setaceous bracts ; and stamens longer than the tube of the corolla. 
It is a native of Europe and Asia, and naturalized in waste places from Nova Scotia and 
Ontario to Minnesota and Kansas in the West and Florida in the South United States. It 
is also cultivated for domestic use and for the sake of its oil. Its flowering season is August. 
According to Thomson, it should be cut in very dry weather, and, if intended for medical 
use, just as the flowers appear ; if for obtaining the oil, after they have expanded. 
The odor of spearmint is strong and aromatic, the taste warm and slightly bitter, less pun- 
gent than that of peppermint, but considered by some to be more agreeable. These properties 
are retained for some time by the dried plant. They depend on a volatile oil, which is ob- 
tained by distillation, and is imparted to alcohol and water by maceration. (See Oleum Menthae 
Viridis.) The virtues and applications of this plant are the same as those of peppermint. 
MENTHOL. U. S., Br. 
“ A stearopten (having the character of a secondary alcohol), obtained from the official oil 
of peppermint (from Mentha piperita, Smith), or from Japanese or Chinese oil of peppermint 
Cio H19 OH; 155*66. (men'thol.) C10H20O. Menthol. 
868 
PART I. 
(from Mentha arvensis, Linne, var. piperascens, Holmes, and Mentha canadensis, Linne, var. 
glabrata, Holmes; nat. ord. Labiatm). Menthol should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a 
cool place.” U S. “A crystalline substance, CeH OH.CH3.C3H7, obtained by cooling the oil 
distilled from the fresh herb of Mentha arvensis, DC., vars. piperascens et glabrata, Holmes; 
and of Mentha piperita, Sm.” Br. 
This substance was admitted to the British Pharmacopoeia of 1885, and is one of the new 
officials of the U. S. P. 1890. Menthol, or peppermint camphor, may be obtained from either 
American or Japanese oil of peppermint by cooling the oil to a very low temperature, when 
the menthol crystallizes out, often in a dense mass; the adhering oil may be separated by 
expression. Menthol may also be obtained by fractional distillation, and there is reason to 
believe that the oil of peppermint of commerce is often contaminated with the dementholized 
oil. A larger yield of menthol is obtained from Japanese or Chinese oils, and for this reason 
Japanese menthol is largely found in commerce. It is practically identical with American 
menthol, differing, however, in the character of its crystals, which occur in small prisms 
instead of in long needles. 
The U. S. P. 1890 describes it as follows : “ Colorless, acicular or prismatic crystals, having 
a strong and pure odor of peppermint, and a warm, aromatic taste, followed by a sensation of 
cold, when air is drawn into the mouth. Menthol is only slightly soluble in water, but im- 
parts to the latter its odor and taste. It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbon 
disulphide, or glacial acetic acid. It melts at 43° C. (109-4° F.) to a colorless liquid, boils at 
212° C. (413-6° F.), and volatilizes slowly at the ordinary temperature. When it is triturated 
with about an equal weight of camphor, thymol, or chloral hydrate, the mixture becomes 
liquid. Its alcoholic solution is neutral to litmus paper, and deviates polarized light to the 
left. If a little Menthol be heated in an open capsule, on a water-bath, it should gradually 
volatilize without leaving any residue (absence of wax, paraffin, or inorganic substances). If 
a few crystals of Menthol be dissolved in 1 C.c. of glacial acetic acid, and then 3 drops of 
sulphuric acid and 1 drop of nitric acid added, no green color should be produced (absence of 
thymol)." “ Melting point 107-6° F. (42° C.); it should not exceed 109-4° F. (43° C.). It 
has the odor and flavor of peppermint, producing a sensation of warmth on the tongue, and, 
if air is inhaled, a sensation of coolness. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily solu- 
ble in alcohol (90 per cent.), the solutions having a neutral reaction. Boiled with sulphuric 
acid diluted with half its volume of water, Menthol acquires an indigo-blue or ultramarine 
color, the acid becoming brown. It should be entirely volatilized by the heat of a water- 
bath.” Br. 
Menthol belongs to the class of camphors. Its formula may be written C10H19OII, as it is 
recognized as being a saturated secondary alcohol. Chromic acid oxidizes menthol to dextro- 
and Isevo-menthone, C10H180, which is the ketone corresponding. The menthones are liquids, 
with an odor resembling that of peppermint. They boil at 207° C. Distillation with zinc 
chloride or phosphoric anhydride changes menthol into liquid menthene, C10H18. boiling at 
167° C. (See papers by Kremers, Urban, and Bichtmann on the menthol group, Proc. A. P. 
A., 1893, 185 ; also 1896, 200.) Menthol has been grossly adulterated with spermaceti, 
paraffin, etc., and, after being compressed into pencils or cones, sold as a local panacea for 
headache and neuralgia. 
Medical Properties and Uses. According to the experiments of Pellacani, menthol 
in sufficient dose, taken internally, is capable of paralyzing the spinal nerve-centres, and also 
the nerve-trunks, destroying both motility and sensibility. It has not been used in internal 
medicine, although the British Pharmacopoeia gives the dose of it as from one and one-half to 
two grains, but it is very largely employed as a local anaesthetic application for the relief of 
neuralgic pains, toothache, sciatica, etc. When it is applied in solid form to the skin it produces 
a burning pain, associated with a sensation of cold and some benumbing of the skin, and it is 
chiefly used in the shape of cones without dilution. In this way it has had a very wide popu- 
larity in the treatment of headache, neuralgia, and superficial pains of various character, but 
is at present not so much used as formerly. According to Dr. S. A. Bussel, an ethereal 
solution of the strength of from 10 to 50 per cent, applied two or three times a day has a 
remarkable power of controlling superficial inflammations, such as boils, carbuncles, etc. Its 
solution (from two to ten grains in a fluidormce of water) is said to be effective in pruritus ant, 
chronic painful eczemas, urticaria;, etc. It is also largely used as a local remedy in the treat- 
ment of inflammations about the mouth, such as stomatitis, angina, tonsillitis, etc., either in 
dilute watery solution, two grains to the fluidounce, or, preferably, in troches. PART I. 
Methyl Salicylas.—Mezereum. 
869 
METHYL SALICYLAS. U. S. Methyl Salicylate. [Artificial (or Synthetic) Oil 
of Wintergreen.] 
“ Methyl Salicylate, produced synthetically. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, 
protected from light.” U. S. 
Methyl salicylate, or artificial oil of wintergreen, has been introduced into the U. S. P. 1890 
largely because of its extensive use and on account of its being a manufactured product: it is 
asserted that it can be produced of more uniform quality and is more definite and certain in its 
action than either the oil from gaultheria or the oil from birch, which are natural oils. (See 
A. J. P., 1889, p. 398 ; Pharm. Rundschau, 1889,283 ; see, also, 1892, 7-9.) Methyl salicylate 
may be made by distilling salicylic acid, or a salicylate, with methyl alcohol and strong sulphuric 
acid. The following process was devised by Gr. M. Beringer, A. J. P., 1887, p. 8. Dissolve 
half an ounce of salicylic acid in two fluidounces of absolute methylic alcohol, then gradually 
add one fluidounce of sulphuric acid; warm gently for twenty-four hours, then distil from a 
retort into which a current of steam is introduced. The distillate is to be well washed, and 
separated by decantation. The odor improves with age. Methyl salicylate has been found 
in a great number of plants. (See A. J. P., 1898, 412.) 
Properties. Methyl salicylate is officially described as “ a colorless or slightly yellowish 
liquid, having the characteristic, strongly aromatic odor and the sweetish, warm, and aromatic 
taste of Oil of Graultheria, with the essential constituent of which it is identical. It is wholly 
identical with Volatile Oil of Betula (see Oleum Betidse Volatile). Specific gravity, 1-183— 
1-185 at 15° C. (59° F.). Boiling point: 219°-221° C. (426-2°-429-8° F.). It is optically 
inactive. Soluble, in all proportions, in alcohol, glacial acetic acid, or carbon disulphide. The 
alcoholic solution is neutral or slightly acid to litmus paper. If a drop of Methyl Salicylate 
be shaken with a little water, and a drop of ferric chloride test-solution subsequently added, a 
deep violet color will be produced. When heated on a water-bath, in a flask provided with a 
suitable condenser, it should yield no distillate having the characteristics of alcohol or chloro- 
form. If to 1 C.c. of Methyl Salicylate, contained in a capacious test-tube, 10 C.c. of sodium 
hydrate test-solution be added, and the mixture agitated, a bulky, white, crystalline precipitate 
will be produced; then, if the test-tube, loosely corked, be allowed to stand in boiling water 
for about five minutes, with occasional agitation, the precipitate should dissolve, and form a 
clear, colorless or faintly yellowish solution, without the separation of any oily drops, either 
on the surface or at the bottom of the liquid (absence of other volatile oils, or of petroleum). 
If the alkaline liquid thus obtained be subsequently diluted with about three times its volume 
of water, and a slight excess of hydrochloric acid added, a white crystalline precipitate will be 
produced which, when collected on a filter, washed with a little water, and recrystallized from 
hot water, should respond to the tests of identity and purity described under Acidum Salicyli- 
cum (absence of methyl benzoate, etc.).” U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. So far as is known, the physiological and remedial 
properties of the artificial oil of gaultheria do not differ from those of the natural product. 
(See Oleum Gaultherise.) 
CH3C7H5O3; 151*64. (ME'THYL SXL-I-CY'LXS.) 
MEZEREUM. U. S. (Br.) Mezereum. 
(MB-ZE'RB-UM.) 
“ The bark of Daphne Mezereum, Linne, and of other species of Daphne (nat. ord. Thyme- 
laceae).” U. S. “ The dried bark of Daphne Mezereum, Linn., or of Daphne Laureola, Linn., 
or of Daphne Gnidium, Linn.” Br. 
Mezerei Cortex, Br., Mezereon Bark; Cortex Mezerei, P. G.; Cortex Thymeleae (vel Coccognidii); Eeorce de 
Mezereon de Garou, de Laureole, de Thymelee, Bois gentil, Fr.; Kellerhals, Seidelbastrinde, Kellerhalsrinde, G.; 
Mezereo, It.; Mecereon, Sp. 
All the species of Daphne are possessed of active properties; hut three only are official,— 
D. mezereum, D. laureola, and D. gnidium, all of which are recognized in the British Pharma- 
copoeia, only the last in the French Codex. 
1. Daphne mezereum. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 356; Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 415; B. & T. 225; 
Carson, Illust. of Med. Bot., ii. 26, pi. 72. This is a very hardy shrub, three or four feet high, 
with a branching stem, and a smooth, dark gray bark, very easily separable from the wood. 
The leaves spring from the ends of the branches, are deciduous, sessile, obovate-lanceolate, 
entire, smooth, of a pale green color, somewhat glaucous beneath, and about two inches long. 
They are preceded by the flowers, which appear very early in spring, and sometimes bloom 870 
Mezereum. 
PART I. 
even amidst the snow. These are of a pale rose color, highly fragrant, and disposed in clusters, 
each consisting of two or three flowers, forming together a kind of spike at the upper part of 
the stem and branches. At the base of each cluster are deciduous floral leaves. The fruit is 
oval, shining, fleshy, of a bright red color, and contains a single round seed. Another variety 
produces white flowers and yellow fruit. This species of Daphne occurs throughout the forests 
of Europe, and extends in Western Asia from the Caucasus to Altai. It is cultivated in 
Eui’ope, and is occasionally found in our own gardens. 
2. Daphne gnidium. Willd. Sp. Plant, ii. 420 ; B. & T. 227. In this species, called garou 
or sain-hois by the French, the leaves are linear-lanceolate, acute, entire, smooth, and irregu- 
larly but closely set upon the branches. The flowers are white, downy, odoriferous, and dis- 
posed in terminal panicled racemes. The fruit is globular, dry, at first green, but ultimately 
black. D. gnidium grows in dry uncultivated places in the south of Europe, and flowers in 
June. Its bark, which in France is used indiscriminately with that of the former species, is 
of a deep purplish-brown color, and hairy in the younger portions. It appears to be equally 
as active, medicinally, as the other official species. 
Besides the species above described, Daphne laureola, or spurge laurel, is said to furnish a 
portion of the mezereum of commerce, and is recognized by the 
British Pharmacopoeia; but its product is inferior in acrimony, and 
consequently in medicinal activity. 
The bark of the root was formerly directed ; but the mezereum 
with which our markets are supplied is evidently the bark of the 
stem ; and the Pharmacopoeias at present very properly direct the 
bark, without designating the part from which it must be taken. 
British writers state that the bark of the root is the most active. 
The berries and leaves of the plant are also active; and the former 
have sometimes proved fatal to children who have eaten them. 
Pallas states that they are used as a purgative by the Russian peas- 
ants, and that thirty berries are required to act. French authors 
observe that fifteen are sufficient to kill a Frenchman. A tincture 
of them is used in Germany as a local application in neuralgia. 
Properties. Mezereum, as it comes to us, chiefly from Germany, 
is in strips from two to four feet long and an inch or less in breadth, 
sometimes flat, sometimes partially rolled, and always folded in bun- 
dles or wrapped in the shape of balls. It is covered externally with 
a grayish or olive-, purplish-, or reddish-brown wrinkled epidermis, 
with transverse scars and minute black dots, very thin, and easily 
separable from the bark. Beneath the epidermis is a soft, greenish 
tissue. The inner bark is tough, pliable, fibrous, striated, and of a 
whitish color, with a silky surface. Its transverse section exhibits 
numerous groups of bast fibres in the secondary bast. When fresh 
it has a nauseous smell, but in the dry state is nearly inodorous. 
Its taste is at first sweetish, but afterwards highly acrid and even 
corrosive. It yields its virtues to water by decoction. 
Vauquelin discovered a peculiar principle in the bark of Daphne 
alpina. This has subsequently been found in other species, and has 
received the name of daphnin. Gmelin and Bar found it in the 
bark of D. mezereum, associated with wax, an acrid resin, a yellow 
coloring matter, a reddish-brown extractive, an uncrystallizable and 
fermentable sugar, a gummy matter containing nitrogen, ligneous fibre, 
malic acid, and several malates. By J. B. Eng it has been discovered, together with a volatile 
oil, in the flowers of D. mezereum. ( Wittstein's Viertelj., viii. 23.) Daphnin is in prismatic 
crystals grouped together, colorless, transparent, brilliant, slightly soluble in cold water, very 
soluble in boiling water and alcohol, without odor, and of a bitter, somewhat austere taste. By 
Zwenger it is said to be insoluble in ether. The same chemist states that it has an acid reac- 
tion, and acts like the glucosides, being resolvable by sulphuric or hydrochloric acid into sugar, 
and a peculiar crystallizable principle called daphnetin, C9He04 -|- H20. He gives for daphnin 
the formula C1BH1609 2HaO, the same as that of sesculin, of which it is, therefore, an isomer. 
(Ami. Chern. und Pharm., cxv. 1.) It is obtained by treating the alcoholic extract of the bark 
with water, decanting the solution, precipitating with lead subacetate, filtering, decomposing the 
Mezereum bark, r, medul- 
lary rays; s, bast-bundles; t, 
parenchymatous tissue. (After 
Berg.) PART I. 
Mezereum.—Misturse. 
871 
excess of the subacetate by hydrogen sulphide, again filtering, evaporating to dryness, sub- 
mitting the residue to the action of anhydrous alcohol, and evaporating the alcoholic solution 
to the point of crystallization. Though daphnin is probably not inert, it is not the principle 
upon which the virtues of mezereum chiefly depend. Vauquelin thinks that in the recent 
plant they reside in an essential oil, which by time and exposure is changed into a resin, with- 
out losing its activity. The acrid resin observed by Ganelin and Bar is probably the charac- 
teristic principle to which the bark owes its vesicating properties. It is obtained separate by 
boiling mezereum in alcohol, allowing the liquor to cool in order that it may deposit some wax 
which it has taken up, then distilling off the alcohol, and treating the residue with water, which 
leaves the resin. This is of a dark green, almost black color, hard and brittle, and of an ex- 
ceedingly acrid and permanent taste. In the isolated state it is slightly soluble in water; and 
it is much more so when combined with the other principles of the bark. It appears, how- 
ever, not to be a pure proximate principle, but rather a resinoid combination of an acrid fixed 
oil with another substance. The acrid principle of mezereum is partially given off by decoc- 
tion with water, as proved by the irritating character of the vapor; but none of it appears to 
escape when the bark is boiled with alcohol. (Squire, P. J. Tr., i.) Messrs. W. Will and O. 
Jung have investigated daphnetin, which was shown in 1879 by Stiinkel to be dioxycoumarin, 
C6Ha(0H)2< I ; they obtained but about one ounce of daphnetin from fifty pounds 
CII = CH 
of extract of mezereum, and they proved that it has the same relation to pyrogallic acid that 
coumarin has to phenol, or umbelliferone to resorcin. (A. J. P., 1885.) Coccognin, isolated 
in 1870 by Casselmann from the fruits of D. mezereum, appears to be closely allied to, if not 
identical with, daphnin. By the dry distillation of an alcoholic extract of mezereum bark, 
Zwenger obtained umbelliferone, C9H603. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The recent bark applied to the skin produces inflam- 
mation followed by vesication, and has been popularly used as an epispastic, from time imme- 
morial, in some of the southern countries of Europe. The dried bark, though less active, is 
possessed of a similar property, and is occasionally employed in France by regular practitioners 
for the purpose of forming issues. A small square piece, moistened with vinegar, is applied 
to the skin, and renewed twice a day till a blister is formed, and occasionally afterwards to 
keep up the discharge. It is slow in its operation, generally requiring from twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours to vesicate. An irritant ointment* is prepared from mezereum, which is used 
for maintaining the discharge from blistered surfaces, and may be applied advantageously to 
obstinate, ill-conditioned, indolent ulcers. An alcoholic extract has also been employed to com- 
municate irritant properties to issue-peas. Internally administered, mezereum is a stimulant 
capable of being directed to the skin or kidneys, and in large doses apt to excite purging, nau- 
sea, and vomiting. In overdoses it produces the fatal effects of the acrid poisons; and a case 
of apparently severe narcotic effects has been recorded. (Am. Journ. of Med. Sci., xxi.) It 
had at one time much reputation as a remedy in the secondary stages of syphilis, and still enters 
as an ingredient into the official compound decoction of sarsaparilla. It has also been thought 
to act favorably as an alterative in scrofulous affections, chronic rheumatism, and obstinate dis- 
eases of the shin. For this purpose it is usually administered in decoction. The dose of the 
bark in substance is ten grains (0-60 Gm.) ; but it is seldom used. 
MISTUR./E. Mixtures. 
Mixtures, Fr.; Mixturen, G. 
This term should be restricted, in the language of pharmacy, to those preparations in 
which insoluble substances, whether solid or liquid, are suspended in watery fluids, by the in- 
tervention of gum arabic, sugar, yolk of egg, or other viscid matter. When the suspended 
substance is of an oleaginous nature, the mixture is properly called an emulsion, and the U. S. 
(MIS-TU'lt/E.) 
* Unguentum Mezerei. U. S. 1880. Mezereum Ointment. (Pommade ipispastique au Garou, Pommade de Mezereon, 
Fr.; Seidelbast8albe, G.) “Fluid Extract of Mezereum, twenty-jive parts [or two fluidrachms]; Lard, eighty parts 
[or three hundred and sixty grains] ; Yellow Wax, twelve parts [or fifty-four grains] [To make about one ounce av.]. 
Melt together the Lard and Wax with a moderate heat, add the Fluid Extract, and stir the mixture constantly until 
the alcohol has evaporated; then continue to stir until cool.” U. S. 
This ointment is equivalent to the Pommade epispastique aw Garou of the French Codex, which is prepared from 
the hark of Daphne gnidium. It may also be made, as proposed by Guibourt, by mixing two drachms of the alco- 
holic extract of mezereum with nine ounces of lard and one ounce of wax. It is used as a stimulating application 
to blistered surfaces and to obstinate, ill-conditioned, and indolent ulcers. 872 
Mistura Creosoti.—Mistura Ferri Composita. 
PART I. 
Pharmacopoeia of 1890 has recognized them by creating a special class for these. (See Emulsa, 
p. 509.) The object of these preparations is usually to facilitate the administration, to con- 
ceal the taste, or to obviate the nauseating effects of unpleasant medicines; and their perfec- 
tion depends upon the intimacy with which the ingredients are blended. Some skill and care 
are requisite for the production of uniform and perfect mixtures. As a rule, the body to be 
suspended should be thoroughly mixed by trituration with the substance intended to act as 
the inter-medium, before the aqueous vehicle is added. In Great Britain, and to some extent 
in this country, the term mixture is used indiscriminately for aqueous medicinal liquids having 
more than one ingredient, and for aqueous liquids which cannot be easily classified. Many 
of such liquids are perfectly transparent and should be in the class of Solutions. 
MISTURA CREOSOTI. Br. Creosote Mixture. 
Mixture de Creosote, Fr.; Kreosot-Mixtur, G. 
“Creosote, 16 minims (Imperial measure) or 1 cubic centimetre; Spirit of Juniper, 16 
minims (Imp. meas.) or 1 cubic centimetre ; Syrup, 1 fl. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 30 cubic centi- 
metres; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Shake the Creosote with fourteen fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or four hundred and twenty cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water; add the 
Syrup and the Spirit of Juniper, and sufficient Distilled Water to produce sixteen fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or four hundred and eighty cubic centimetres of the Mixture.” Br. The glacial 
acetic acid has been omitted from creosote mixture by the Br. Ph. 1898. 
The dose of this mixture, which is too weak for practical use, is a fluidounce (30 C.c.), 
containing a minim of creosote. 
(MIS-TC'BA CKE-O-SO'TI.) 
MISTURA CRETSE. U. S., Br. Chalk Mixture 
Mixture avec la Craie, Fr.; Kreidemixtur, G. 
“ Compound Chalk Powder, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] ; Cinnamon 
Water, four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 fluidounces, 252 minims] ; Water, a sufficient quan- 
tity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Rub the Com- 
pound Chalk Powder, in a mortar, with the Cinnamon Water and about two hundred cubic 
centimeters [or 6 fluidounces, 366 minims] of Water gradually added, to a uniform mixture; 
transfer this to a graduated vessel, and rinse the mortar with enough Water to make the prod- 
uct measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Mix the whole 
thoroughly. This preparation should be freshly made, when wanted.” U. S. 
“Prepared Chalk, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 5 grammes; Tragacanth, in powder, 15 grains 
(Imp.) or 0-7 gramme; Refined Sugar, I ounce (Imp.) or 10 grammes; Cinnamon Water, a 
sufficient quantity. Triturate the Prepared Chalk with the Tragacanth and Refined Sugar, and 
gradually add sufficient Cinnamon Water to produce eight fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one 
hundred and sixty cubic centimetres of the Mixture.” Br. 
The direction that this mixture be prepared extemporaneously is a decided improvement. 
Unsuccessful attempts have been repeatedly made to devise a formula which would yield a per- 
manent product, and much injury has been done through the dispensing of chalk mixture in 
an incipient fermentative condition. The trifling amount of glycerin present in the chalk mix- 
ture official in 1870 was totally inadequate to preserve it during the warm summer months, 
when it is in greatest vogue. Compound Chalk Powder is now official (see Palms Cretse Com- 
positus) ; it will keep indefinitely, and, besides being itself a valuable addition to the materia 
medica, is quickly made into chalk mixture by rubbing it with the water and cinnamon water, 
so that there can be no excuse for not dispensing a fresh mixture. This mixture is a convenient 
form for administering chalk, and is much employed in looseness of the bowels accompanied with 
acidity. Laudanum and kino or catechu are very often added to increase its astringency. The 
dose is a tablespoonful (15 C.c.) frequently repeated. 
(MIS-TU'KA CllE'TiE.) 
MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA. U. S., Br. Compound Iron Mixture. 
[Griffith’s Mixture.] 
Mixture de Griffith, Fr.; Griffith’s Eisenmixtur, G. 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, in clear crystals, six grammes [or 93 grains] ; Myrrh, in small pieces, 
eighteen grammes [or 278 grains] ; Sugar, eighteen grammes [or 278 grains] ; Potassium Car- 
(MIS-TU'RA FKR'RI COM-PO§'l-TA.) PAKT I. 
Mistura Fern Composita.—Mistura Glycyrrhizse Composita. 
873 
bonate, eight grammes [or 123 grains] ; Spirit of Lavender, sixty cubic centimeters [or 2 
fluidounces, 14 minims] ; Rose Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centi- 
meters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. Rub tbe Myrrh, Sugar, and Potassium Carbonate, in 
a mortar, with seven hundred cubic centimeters [or 23 fluidounces, 321 minims] of Rose Water, 
at first very gradually added, so that a uniform mixture may result. Transfer this to a grad- 
uated vessel, add the Spirit of Lavender, then the Ferrous Sulphate, previously dissolved in 
about fifty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] of Rose Water, and, lastly, enough 
Rose Water to make the product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 
minims]. Mix the whole thoroughly. This preparation should be freshly made when wanted.” 
“ Ferrous Sulphate, 25 grains (Imperial) or 2-5 grammes; Potassium Carbonate, 30 grains 
(Imp.) or 3 grammes ; Myrrh, 60 grains (Imp.) or 6 grammes ; Refined Sugar, 60 grains (Imp.) 
or 6 grammes; Spirit of Nutmeg, 50 minims (Imp. meas.) or 4-5 cubic centimetres; Rose 
Water, 10 jl. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 437-5 cubic centimetres or a suflicient quantity. Reduce 
the Myrrh to powder; add the Potassium Carbonate and Refined Sugar; triturate the mixture 
with a small quantity of the Rose Water so as to form a thin paste; gradually add more Rose 
Water and the Spirit of Nutmeg; continue the trituration and further addition of Rose Water 
until seven fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or three hundred and six and a quarter cubic centimetres 
of liquid result; dissolve the Ferrous Sulphate in three fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred 
and thirty-one and a quarter cubic centimetres of the Rose Water; mix the liquids.” Br. 
This is very nearly the same with the celebrated tonic or anti-hectic myrrh mixture of Dr. 
Griffith. The ferrous sulphate is decomposed by the potassium carbonate, with the production 
of potassium sulphate and ferrous carbonate ; while the excess of the alkaline carbonate forms 
a saponaceous compound with the myrrh. The mixture is at first of a greenish color, which it 
loses upon exposure to the air, in consequence of the conversion of the ferrous carbonate into 
the ferric compound. Mr. C. A. Staples remedies this tendency by making a concentrated 
myrrh emulsion of such strength that one fluidrachm of it contains the amount of myrrh and 
potassium carbonate found in a fluidounce of the official mixture, and also a concentrated syrup 
of ferrous sulphate, fifteen minims of which equal one fluidounce of Mistura Ferri Composita. 
When the latter is called for, the emulsion, properly diluted, is put in a bottle and the requisite 
quantity of the iron syrup added. (A. J. P., Nov. 1871.) The official solution may, however, 
be kept for some time without change, if the vessel in which it is contained be well closed ; 
but the best plan is to prepare it extemporaneously. The sugar contained in it contributes 
somewhat to retard the further oxidation of the ferrous salt, and if considerably increased in 
amount would act still more efficiently. The finest pieces of myrrh in lump should be selected, 
and rubbed down for the occasion with a little of the rose water, as the powdered myrrh of,1 
commerce is often impure, and otherwise does not make a good mixture, owing mainly to its 
loss of volatile oil. 
This mixture is a good tonic in debility of the digestive organs, especially when attended with 
derangement of the menstrual function. Hence it is used with advantage in chlorosis and 
hysterical affections. It has been also much employed in the hectic fever of phthisis and chronic 
catarrh. It is contra-indicated by the existence of inflammation of the gastric mucous mem' 
brane. The dose is from one to twro fluidounces (30-60 C.c.) two or three times a day. 
MISTURA GLYCYRRHIZZE COMPOSITA. U. S. Compound Mixture 
of Glycyrrhiza. [Brown Mixture.] 
(MIS-TU'RA GLYg-YR-RHI'ZiE CQM-P0§'I-TA.) 
Mixture de Reglisse, Fr.; Lakrizen-Mixtur, G. 
“ Pure Extract of Glycyrrhiza, thirty grammes [or 1 ounce av., 25 grains] ; Syrup, fifty cubic 
centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 331 minims] ; Mucilage of Acacia, one hundred cubic centimeters 
[or 3 fluidounces, 183 minims] ; Camphorated Tincture of Opium, one hundred and twenty 
cubic centimeters [or 4 fluidounces, 28 minims] ; Wine of Antimony, sixty cubic centimeters [or 
2 fluidounces, 14 minims] ; Spirit of Nitrous Ether, thirty cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 7 
minims] ; Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 
390 minims]. Rub the Pure Extract of Grlycyrrhiza, in a mortar, with five hundred cubic centi- 
meters [or 10 fluidounces, 435 minims] of Water, until it is dissolved. Transfer the solution 
to & graduated vessel containing the other ingredients, and rinse the mortar with enough Water 
to make the product measure one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims]. 
Mix the whole thoroughly.” U. S. 874 
Mistura Guaiaci.—Mistura Rhei et Sodse. 
PART I. 
This is an exceedingly popular cough mixture, which was made official in the U. S. Pharma- 
copeia of 1850. The Sugar in the U. S. 1880 formula has been replaced by Syrup, and the 
mixture made sweeter, and the Acacia has been replaced by Mucilage of Acacia. The latter 
change is of doubtful utility; indeed, the stability of the mixture would be improved if acacia 
were left out entirely: the “ body” which seems to be needed could be much better supplied 
by the use of glycerin. The substitution in the official process of 1880 of pure Extract of 
Liquorice for the former impure powdered extract was undoubtedly an improvement; although 
by the change the mixture has lost somewhat its original appearance, and a large proportion 
of the precipitate which gave it a distinctive character. The spirit of nitrous ether is probably 
useful by somewhat retarding decomposition. W. L. Stephen (A. J. P., 1892, 563) prefers a 
mixture without sediment, which he makes by rubbing into a paste half an ounce each of 
acacia, glycyrrhiza, and sugar with six fluidounces of water, heating until fluid, then adding 
half a fluidounce of spirit of nitrous ether, one fluidounce of wine of antimony, two fluidounces 
of camphorated tincture of opium, and sufficient water to make a pint. The dose is from one 
to two tablespoonfuls (15-30 C.c.) for an adult; a teaspoonful (3-75 C.c.) for a child two years 
old. It should be well shaken when administered. 
MISTURA GUAIACI. Br. Guaiacum Mixture. 
(MIS-TU'BA GUA'IA-CI—gwa'ya-sl.) 
Emulsio Resinas Guaiaci; Emulsion de Resine de Ga'iac, Lait de Ga'iac, Fr.; Guajak-Emulsion, G. 
“ Guaiacum Resin, % ounce (Imperial) or 10 grammes; Refined Sugar, $ ounce (Imp.) or 10 
grammes; Tragacanth, in powder, 35 grains (Imp.) or 1-6 grammes; Cinnamon Water, 1 pint 
(Imp. meas.) or 400 cubic centimetres. Triturate the Guaiacum Resin with the Refined Sugar 
and the Tragacanth ; add gradually the Cinnamon Water.” Br. 
For the changes of color which the Guaiac in this mixture undergoes, and which it produces 
in other substances, see Guaiaci Resina, p. 674. Tragacanth was substituted for acacia in 
the Br. Ph. 1898 process. From one to four tablespoonfuls (15-60 C.c.) may be given for 
a dose, repeated two or three times a day, or more frequently. 
MISTURA OLEI RICINI. Br. Castor Oil Mixture. 
“ Castor Oil, 3 fit. ounces (Imperial measure) or 75 cubic centimetres ; Mucilage of Gum 
Acacia, lz fit. ounces (Imp. meas.) or 37*5 cubic centimetres; Orange-flower Water of com- 
merce, undiluted, 1 fit. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 25 cubic centimetres; Cinnamon Water, 2\ fit. 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or 62-5 cubic centimetres. Mix the undiluted Orange-flower Water and 
the Cinnamon Water; place the mucilage of Gum Acacia in a mortar and to it add, alter- 
nately, in portions, the Castor Oil and the mixed Waters, with constant trituration.” Br. 
This emulsion of the British Pharmacopoeia might be termed a “ perfumed dose of castor 
oil.” The dose is from one-half to two fluidounces (15-60 C.c.). 
(MIS-TU'RA O'LE-I RIQ'I-Sf!.) 
MISTURA RHEI ET SOD/E. U. S. Mixture of Rhubarb and Soda. 
“Sodium Bicarbonate, thirty-five grammes [or 1 ounce av., 103 grains]; Fluid Extract of 
Rhubarb, fifteen cubic centimeters [or 243 minims] ; Fluid Extract of Ipecac, three cubic centi- 
meters [or 49 minims] ; Glycerin, three hundred and fifty cubic centimeters [or 11 fluidounces, 
400 minims] ; Spirit of Peppermint, thirty-five cubic centimeters [or 1 fluidounce, 88 minims] ; 
Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 
minims]. Dissolve the Sodium Bicarbonate in about four hundred cubic centimeters [or 13 
fluidounces, 252 minims] of Water. Then add the Fluid Extracts, the Glycerin, and the 
Spirit of Peppermint, and, lastly, enough Water to make one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 
fluidounces, 390 minims].” U. S. 
This is a preparation which closely resembles one which has been used in Brooklyn, N.Y., 
the formula of which was published by Dr. E. R. Squibb. The ingredients in the original 
preparation were fluid extract of ipecac 51 minims, fluid extract of rhubarb 256 minims, so- 
dium bicarbonate 512 grains, glycerin 12 fluidounces, peppermint water 2 pints. The formula 
in the U. S. P. 1880 did not contain fluid extract of ipecac. The official mixture may be given 
to children as a stomachic and carminative in the dose of from one-half to one teaspoonful 
(1-9-3-75 C.c.) two or three times a day. 
(MIS-TU'RA rhM £t so'd^e.) Midura Sennse Composita.—Morphina. 
875 
PAKT I. 
MISTURA SENNiE COMPOSITA. Br. Compound Mixture of Senna. 
(MIS-TU'RA sen'na; com-p5§'i-ta.) 
Black Draught; Tisane de SSne coinposee, Fr.; Senna-Aufguss, G. 
“ Magnesium Sulphate, 5 ounces (Imperial) or 250 grammes; Liquid Extract of Liquorice, 
1 fl. ounce (Imp. meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres ; Compound Tincture of Cardamoms, 2 fl. 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or 100 cubic centimetres ; Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, 1 fl. ounce (Imp. 
meas.) or 50 cubic centimetres ; Infusion of Senna, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Mag- 
nesium Sulphate in ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or five hundred cubic centimetres of the In- 
fusion of Senna; add the mixed Liquid Extract of Liquorice, Compound Tincture of Carda- 
moms, and Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia ; and enough Infusion of Senna to produce one pint 
(Imp. meas.) or one thousand cubic centimetres of the Compound Mixture.” Br. 
This is a new form of Compound Infusion of Senna, called commonly black draught. We 
prefer the form given under Infusum Sennse Compositum, as being more easily prepared and 
quite as efficient. Dose (Br. Pharm.), from one to one and a half fluidounces (30-45 C.c.). 
MISTURA SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI. Br. Mixture of Brandy. 
Mixture de Cognac, Fr.; Branntwein-Mixtur, G. 
“ Brandy, 4 fl. ounces (Imperial measure) or 113 cubic centimetres ; Cinnamon Water, 4 fl. 
ounces (Imp. meas.) or 113 cubic centimetres ; Refined Sugar, £ ounce (Imp.) or 14 grammes; 
Two yolks of eggs. Rub the yolks of eggs and Refined Sugar together; add the Cinnamon 
Water and Brandy ; mix.” Br. 
This nutritious and stimulant draught is scarcely entitled to a place in the Pharmacopoeia. 
It serves the purpose, however, of enabling the practitioner to prescribe the stimulant under 
an official designation. Dose, from one to two fluidounces (30-60 C.c.). 
(MIS-TU'RA SPIR'I-TUS VI'NI GAL'LI-CI.) 
C17H19NO3 + H2O; 302*34. (MOR-PHi'NA.) C17H19NO3. H20; 303. 
MORPHINA. U. S. Morphine. 
“ An alkaloid obtained from Opium.” U. S. 
Morphia, U. S. 1870; Morphinum, P. G.; Morphium, Morphina; Morphine, Fr.; Morphin, G. 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia no longer contains a process for the extraction of morphine: that 
of 1870, which has been known as Staples’s process, is given in the foot-note* 
Various processes for preparing morphine have been employed. In most of them the mor- 
phine is extracted from opium by maceration with water, either pure or acidulated, is then pre- 
cipitated by ammonia, and is afterwards purified by the agency of alcohol, or by repeated solu- 
tion in a dilute acid and precipitation. Sertiirner, the discoverer of morphine, made an infusion 
of opium in distilled water, precipitated the morphine by ammonia in excess, dissolved the 
precipitate in dilute sulphuric acid, precipitated anew by ammonia, and purified by solution in 
boiling alcohol, and crystallization. In evaporating aqueous solutions containing morphine a 
temperature of 40° C. (104° F.) should not be exceeded. 
Properties. Morphine crystallizes from alcohol in the form of small, colorless, shining 
crystals. It is officially described as follows : “ Colorless or white, shining, prismatic crystals, 
or fine needles, or a crystalline powder, odorless, and having a bitter taste; permanent in the 
air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 4350 parts of water, and in 300 parts of alcohol; in 455 
parts of boiling water, and in 36 parts of boiling alcohol; also soluble in 4000 parts of ether. 
When heated to about 75° C. (167° F.), Morphine begins to lose its water of crystallization. 
Heated for some time at 100° C. (212° F.), it becomes anhydrous. At 254° C. (489,2° F.) it 
melts, forming a black liquid. Upon ignition, it is consumed without leaving a residue. Mor- 
phine has an alkaline reaction upon litmus paper. When crystals of Morphine are sprinkled 
upon nitric acid (specific gravity P250 to P300), they will assume an orange-red color, and 
* “ Take of Opium, sliced, twelve troyounces ; Water of Ammonia six fluidounces ; Animal Charcoal, in fine pow- 
der, Alcohol, Distilled Water, each, a sufficient quantity. Macerate the Opium with four pints of Distilled Water 
for twenty-four hours, and, having worked it with the hand, again macerate for twenty-four hours, and strain. In 
like manner, macerate the residue twice successively with the same quantity of Distilled Water, and strain. Mix 
the infusions, evaporate to six pints, and filter; then add five pints of Alcohol, and afterwards three fluidounces of 
the Water of Ammonia, previously mixed with half a pint of Alcohol. After twenty-four hours, pour in the re- 
mainder of the Water of Ammonia, mixed, as before, with half a pint of Alcohol; and set the liquid aside for twenty- 
four hours that crystals may form. To purify these, boil them with two pints of Alcohol until they are dissolved, 
filter the solution, while hot, through Animal Charcoal, and set it aside to crystallize.” 17. S. For other processes, 
see U. S. D., 17th ed., 876. 876 
Morphina. 
PART i. 
then produce a reddish solution gradually changing to yellow. On shaking a small portion of 
Morphine, in a test-tube, with 10 C.c. of chlorine water, the latter will acquire a yellowish 
color. On now carefully pouring a small amount of ammonia water on the surface of the 
liquid, a brown or reddish-brown zone will form at the line of contact of the two liquids. If 
to a neutral 1-per-cent, solution of Morphine, made by the careful addition of dilute sulphuric 
acid, a few drops of ferric chloride test-solution be added, a blue color will be produced which 
is destroyed by acids, alcohol, or heating. On treating Morphine with cold, concentrated sul- 
phuric acid free from nitric acid, the liquid should not at once acquire more than a faintly 
yellowish tinge (absence of more than traces of narcotine, papaverine, etc.) ; and the subse- 
quent addition of a small crystal of potassium permanganate should produce only a greenish, 
but no violet or purple, color (difference from strychnine'). On precipitating a solution of any 
of the salts of Morphine by ammonia water, dissolving the washed precipitate in sodium hy- 
drate test-solution, shaking the solution with an equal volume of ether, and evaporating the 
ethereal solution, no appreciable residue should remain (absence of narcotine, codeine, etc.). 
On adding 4 C.c. of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution to 0-2 Gm. of Morphine, a clear, 
colorless solution, free from any undissolved residue, should result (absence of, and difference 
from, various other alkaloids)." U. S. 
Von Gerichten and Schrotter {Ber. der Chem. Ges., 1882, pp. 1484 and 2179) showed that 
morphine and codeine were derivatives of phenanthrene, as when distilled with zinc dust they 
yielded phenanthrene, pyridine, and quinoline. Knorr (Ber. der Chem. Ges., 22, p. 2081) has 
made it very probable that morphine contains, combined with the phenanthrene nucleus, the 
CH CH 
moipholine group. Morpholine, NH <£]j2’(ipj2>0, is formed when dioxyethylamine is heated 
to 160° C. with hydrochloric acid, or is boiled with alkali. As seen from the formula, it bears 
a structural relation to both pyrrol and pyridine. For later views on the structure of the mor- 
phine molecule by Knorr and Yis, see Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 1122. 
Heated in the open air, morphine burns with a bright flame, and at a red heat is wholly dis- 
sipated. In the products resulting from the combustion of opium or morphine this alkaloid 
may be detected, proving that it is partly volatilized when burned. (Descharmes, Arch. G6n., 
Fev. 1855, 240.) Morphine in solution is to a considerable extent absorbed by animal charcoal, 
which, though it will part with most of the alkaloid to alcohol, cannot be wholly deprived of it 
by repeated washings with that liquid, either cold or hot. (Lefort, Journ. de Pharm., Aout, 1861, 
98.) Its solution restores the blue color of litmus paper reddened by acids, and turns the yellow 
of turmeric to brown. Hager (Ph. Zeit., 93, 250, also Proc. A. P. A., 1893, 680) states that on 
heating solutions containing morphine, oxygen is absorbed gradually and oxy morphine is formed; 
at a boiling temperature this change proceeds rapidly. The oxymorphine is much less active as 
a narcotic than is morphine. With the acids morphine forms salts, which are generally soluble, 
and are decomposed by the alkalies. It is dissolved also by the fixed and volatile oils. The solu- 
tions of potassa and soda also dissolve morphine, which is precipitated slowly from them on expos- 
ure to the air, in consequence of the absorption of carbonic acid. Solution of ammonia has to a 
certain extent the same solvent power; and hence the necessity, in precipitating morphine by this 
alkali, not to employ it in great excess. Solution of iodine with potassium iodide precipitates 
the salts of morphine in aqueous solution. With chlorine water morphine and its salts assume 
an orange color, and the same effect is produced on them by solution of chlorinated soda. 
(Fairthorne, A. J. P., xxviii. 9.) By the contact of nitric acid they assume a blood-red color, 
which ultimately changes to yellow; and this is one of the tests of morphine; but, as the 
same change of color is produced with brucine and impure strychnine, it cannot be relied on 
in the absence of other evidence. Nitric acid also produces a red color with oil of cloves, but 
in this case the red does not change to yellow. When added to a solution of iodic acid, or an 
acidulous iodate, morphine and its salts redden the liquid and set iodine free. (Seridlas.) This 
is a very delicate test, but is not conclusive, as various other organic substances act in a similar 
manner. M. J. Lefort, however, has found that the color produced by these substances is re- 
moved by ammonia, while the redness produced with morphine is greatly intensified by addi- 
tion of that alkali. This test, thus modified by the addition of ammonia, is so delicate that, 
according to M. Lefort, it will detect one part of morphine in 10,000 parts of a liquid holding 
it in solution. {Journ. de Pharm., Aout, 1861, 113.)* Husemann’s test consists in leaving 
* Stas’s Method of extracting the Alkaloids from Mixtures. To separate the alkaloid from foreign matters, the 
mixture is treated alternately with water and alcohol in different degrees of concentration ; the liquors thus obtained 
are filtered; tartaric or oxalic acid, but preferably the former, is added in excess; the mixture is heated to 71'1° or PART I. 
Morphinci. 
877 
morphine or its salt in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid for 12 or 15 hours, or in heat- 
ing for half an hour with the acid to 100° C. (212° F.), and then adding either a little nitric 
acid, a nitrate or chlorate or chlorine water, or chlorinated soda, when a beautiful bluish or 
reddish-violet color, passing into deep blood-red and gradually paling, is developed. The pres- 
ence of small quantities of coloring matter does not prevent this reaction, if chlorinated re- 
agents are selected. A. Husemann asserts that this test will recognize the hundredth part of 
a milligramme of the alkaloid. (A. J. P., xlvii. 210.) According to R. Schneider, a very 
delicate test is afforded by putting a drop of the suspected liquid on a plate, saturating with 
sugar, and putting alongside of it a drop of sulphuric acid ; if morphine he present, a very 
intense purple will be developed at the point of contact, passing after half an hour into violet, 
then bluish green, and finally dirty yellow. {Journ. de Pharm., 4e ser., xviii. 221.) Accord- 
ing to H. Weppen, the delicacy of this test is much increased by the addition of a minute 
quantity of bromine water to the solution. Codeine and aconitine are stated, however, to give 
the same reaction. (Ibid., 4e s6r., xix. 246.) 
Frohde’s reagent (a fresh solution of -005 Gm. sodium molybdate in 1 C.c. of pure concen- 
trated sulphuric acid) strikes with morphine and its salts a beautiful blue-violet color, passing 
into blue, then green, finally back to bluish violet. This reaction is stated to be delicate but 
not characteristic. Prof. A. B. Prescott gives a thorough resum6 of the views of investigators 
on this test in A. J. P'., 1876, 59. Bruylants combines Froehde’s test with that of Husemann. 
A trace of Froehde’s reagent added to a solution of morphine in sulphuric acid produces 
the well-known lilac tint; if the sulphuric acid solution be warmed and treated in the same 
way, a green tint will be noted. On dropping a particle of potassium nitrate into this green 
liquid, the color changes to red and finally yellowish. The other opium alkaloids give different 
tints. (Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 1016.) In the presence of sulphuric acid morphine exhibits 
surprising powers as a reducing agent. Among the most notable instances of deoxidation 
may be mentioned those of silver oxide, hydrated bismuth oxide, the acids of tin, tungsten, 
vanadium, titanium, and molybdenum. A solution of titanic acid in concentrated sulphuric 
acid is one of the most delicate reagents for morphine. An intense brown-red to violet color 
is produced if titanic acid is added to concentrated sulphuric acid containing a trace of mor- 
phine in solution. (Fliickiger, JV. R., Feb. 1880. See, also, N. R., 1881, p. 237.) M. H. Kal- 
brunner states that the most sensitive test is made with a solution (No. 1) of crystallized ferric 
chloride (thirty grains to four fluidrachms of distilled water) and a fresh solution (No. 2) of 
potassium ferricyanide (two grains in four drachms). To the suspected liquor five or six drops 
of No. 1 are added, and afterwards three or four drops of No. 2. If morphine be present, a 
color varying from deep blue to pale blue and bluish green, according to the proportion of the 
alkaloid, is developed. Neither gum, sugar, alcohol, glycerin, atropine, quinine, nor strychnine 
interferes with this test. An excess of alkali does so by decomposing the ferric chloride. This 
test depends upon the fact that the potassium ferricyanide solution is reduced by morphine to 
the ferrocyanide. It is affirmed that even 010-7 of one per cent, of morphine can be detected. 
{Ibid.; see also Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 701.) (4. Yulpius {Arch. d. Pharm., 1887, 25) states 
that if about 0-00025 Gm. of a morphine salt be dissolved in a porcelain dish in about six 
drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, a few centigrammes of sodium phosphate added, and the 
mixture carefully heated, white fumes will be evolved and a violet color appear. On adding 
water drop by drop, a brilliant red appears, which, on further addition, changes to a dirty 
green. If the solution be then shaken with the same volume of chloroform, the latter will 
be colored blue. Isobutylic alcohol has been used by Nagelvoort for the detection of mor- 
phine and codeine. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 273.) 
M. Siebold heats gently the suspected substance with some drops of concentrated sulphuric 
acid and a small quantity of chemically pure potassium perchlorate: a deep brown color will 
be produced if morphine be present. {P. J. Tr., Oct. 1873.) According to H. S. Wellcome, one 
part of morphine in ten thousand parts of water can be recognized by chlorine water, if care 
be exercised not to decolorize by an excess of the reagent; the color varies from light orange- 
76*6° C. (160° or 170° F.); the whole is placed upon a filter; the deposited matter is washed with concentrated alco- 
hol; the alcoholic solution is evaporated at a temperature not exceeding 35° C. (95° F.); the residue is introduced 
into a small bottle; a solution of caustic potassa or soda is added, little by little, and afterwards four or five times 
the measure of ether; the mixture is shaken and then allowed to stand; and, finally, the ether is decanted, and 
yields the alkaloid by spontaneous evaporation. Stas included morphine among the alkaloids thus separable, though 
known to be nearly insoluble in ether; but Lefort has shown that the process is not applicable to that alkaloid. 
(Journ. de Pharm., Aoftt, 1861, p. 99.) M. Alfred Valser, however, has ascertained that, if acetic ether be substi- 
tuted for ether, the process is equally applicable to morphine. (See A. J. P., Sept. 1864, p. 439.) 878 
Morpliina. 
PART I. 
red to deep red according to the proportion of morphine present. Brucine is the only other 
alkaloid giving the same reaction ; but, while the color produced by morphine is discharged by 
excess of chlorine, that caused by brucine is not affected. {A. J. P., 1874, p. 305.) To discover 
morphine in the presence of quinine, see ibid., p. 361. Morphine and its salts assume a fine 
blue color with ferric chloride ; at least this is true of the alkaloid, its sulphate, acetate, and 
oxalate; and the same effect will be produced by the other salts, if previously decomposed by 
an alkali; but that this test should be satisfactory it is necessary to operate on morphine either 
in powder or in concentrated solution. (Lefort.) Water, acids, and alkalies, added in large 
quantity to the blue compound formed, destroy its color. According to Pelletier, moreover, 
there occasionally exists in opium a principle, called by him pseudomorphine, which becomes red 
under the action of nitric acid and changes ferric salts blue, and yet is destitute of poisonous 
properties: so that the occurrence of these phenomena in any medico-legal case cannot 
be considered certain evidence of the presence of morphine. (See A. J. P., viii. 77.) Auric 
chloride precipitates morphine first yellow, then bluish, and lastly violet. (Larocque and 
Thibierge.) Copper peroxide and silver oxide are precipitated by morphine from their am- 
moniacal solutions. (Chem. Gaz., No. 367, p. 54.) A solution of morphine acetate or sul- 
phate containing only one part of the salt in 100 precipitates silver from a solution of the 
nitrate of that metal, (jHorsley.') Morphine is precipitated from its solutions by potassa or 
soda, and redissolved by an excess of the alkali. Infusion of galls and other vegetable sub- 
stances containing tannic acid precipitate morphine in the state of a tannate, which is soluble 
in acetic acid; but, according to Dublanc, the alkaloid is not precipitated by pure gallic acid. 
If ammonia be added to a mixture of the solutions of chlorine and morphine, there will be 
produced a dark brown color, which will be destroyed by a further addition of chlorine. For 
methods of separating narcotine, see U. S. D., 17th ed., 879. 
The proportion of pure morphine which Turkey opium is capable of affording varies from 9 
per cent., or less, to 20 per cent., according to the quality of the drug ; but much less than the 
least quantity mentioned is often obtained, in consequence of the incomplete exhaustion of the 
opium, the loss in the process for preparing it, the destructive action of heat, or inferiority in 
the quality of the drug. (See Opium.) Formaldehyde reacts with both morphine and codeine 
to form medically active condensation products by the union of two molecules of the base with 
one molecule of the formaldehyde, with elimination of water. That formed from morphine 
is an amorphous base, difficultly soluble in water but easily soluble in alkaline solution and in 
alcohol. It melts at 270° C., and forms a hydrochlorate soluble in water. (Proc. A.P.A., 
1897,702.) 
Medical Properties. There can be no doubt that morphine is the chief narcotic prin- 
ciple of opium, from which, however, it differs somewhat in its mode of action. The difference 
probably arises in part from the peculiar state of combination in which morphine exists in 
opium, but chiefly from other narcotic principles being associated with it. In consequence of 
its insolubility in water, morphine in its pure state is less convenient than its salts, which are 
therefore always preferred. The acetate, sulphate, and hydrochlorate have been employed. 
Between these there is a great similarity of action, and what may be said of one, in regard to 
its therapeutic effects, will equally apply to the others. They have the anodyne, soporific, and 
diaphoretic properties of opium, but are less stimulant, and less disposed to constipate the bowels. 
The morphine salts are perhaps less apt to cause disagreeable after-effects than is opium, but the 
deodorized tincture is certainly preferable to them for many purposes. A great advantage 
which they possess is the convenience of their external application to blistered surfaces, and 
the certainty of their effects when thus applied. In cases which do not admit of the internal 
use of opium or its preparations, morphine acetate or sulphate, sprinkled, in triple the ordinary 
dose, upon a blistered surface denuded of the cuticle, will be found to exercise upon the system 
all the influence it is capable of exerting when taken into the stomach. Applied in this manner, 
these salts are peculiarly useful in relieving violent neuralgic pains, and in controlling obstinate 
sickness of the stomach. When intended to act on the system through the medium of the skin, 
they should be applied preferably to the epigastrium; when to act locally, as near the affected 
part as possible. Solutions of the salts of morphine also sometimes operate very favorably, both 
generally and locally, when injected, by means of a hypodermic syringe, into the areolar tissue 
beneath the skin* Oleic acid has also been proposed as a vehicle for morphine externally 
* Morphine Lactate (CnHigNOajCgHeOs). This salt crystallizes in four-sided prisms, one part being soluble in 
eight parts of water and ninety-three parts of alcohol. (P. J. Tr., 1886, 958.) 
Morphine Hydrocyanate. Prof. J. M. Maisch has noticed that when a soluble salt of morphine is added to a Morphinse Acetas. 
879 
PART I. 
used, as it dissolves both the alkaloid and its salts perfectly in considerable proportion. A lini- 
ment has been proposed, consisting of 300 parts of oleic acid and 1 part of morphine, scented 
with a little oil of bergamot. (Ibid., xxvi. 302.) 
The toxicology of morphine is identical with that of opium. 
As the proportion of acid necessary to neutralize morphine is very small, the dose of the 
alkaloid is the same as that of its salts. One-fourth of a grain (0-016 Gm.) may be considered 
about equivalent to a grain of opium of the medium strength. 
MORPHINE ACETAS. U. S., Br. Morphine Acetate. 
(MOR-PHl'XiE A-CE'TAS.) 
Cit Hi9 N03 C2 H4 02 + 3H2 O ; 398*12. Cn Hi9 N03. HC2 H3 02. 3H2 O; 399. 
“ Morphine Acetate should he kept in dark amber-colored, well-stoppered vials.” U. S. 
“ The carefully dried salt, C17HigN03,C2H402,3H20, obtained by neutralizing morphine with 
acetic acid.” Br. 
Morphias Acetas, Br. 1867, U. S. 1870 ; Acetate of Morphia; Morphinum Aceticum, P. G.; Acetas Morphicus ; 
Acetate de Morphine, Fr.; Bssigsaures Morphin, G. 
A process for this salt is no longer official: that of the U. S. P. 1870 is appended.* 
In the U. S. process of 1870, morphine is saturated with acetic acid, which is employed in 
preference to vinegar for saturating the alkaloid, because it can leave no impurity in the result- 
ing salt. The solution of the morphine in the water is an indication that it is saturated. A 
small excess of acid is attended with no inconvenience, as it is subsequently driven off by the 
heat. Care is required not to employ too much heat in the evaporation, as the acetate is easily 
decomposed, a portion of the acetic acid escaping, and leaving an equivalent portion of un- 
combined morphine. With attention to arrest the evaporation at a certain point, the acetate 
may be obtained in the state of crystals; hut the crystallization is attended with some diffi- 
culty, and evaporation to dryness is almost universally preferred. Some recommend to dissolve 
the morphine in boiling alcohol, instead of suspending it in water, previously to the addition 
of the acetic acid. Less heat is thus required in the evaporation, and impurities in the mor- 
phine may often he detected, as they are apt to be insoluble in alcohol. To ascertain, in this 
case, whether the morphine is saturated, it is necessary to employ litmus paper, the blue color 
of which should not be restored if previously reddened by an acid. If the morphine used in 
preparing the acetate contain narcotine, it will be best to employ as the solvent distilled vinegar, 
or diluted acetic acid of the same strength, and to favor its solvent power by heat. Under these 
circumstances it dissolves only the morphine, leaving the narcotine nearly or quite untouched. 
(Hodgson, Journ. Pliila. Coll. Phamn., v.) The British process (1885) differed from that of 
the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1870 only in obtaining uncombined morphine, as the first step, by 
precipitating it from a solution of the hydrochlorate, morphine itself not being official. 
It is officially described as “ a white or faintly yellowish-white, crystalline or amorphous 
powder, having a faint, acetous odor, and a bitter taste. It slowly loses acetic acid when ex- 
posed to the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), when freshly prepared, in 2-5 parts of water, 
and in 47-6 parts of alcohol; in 1-5 parts of boiling water, and in 14 parts of boiling alcohol; 
also soluble in about 1700 parts of ether, 2100 parts of cold chloroform, and 60 parts of boil- 
ing chloroform. On protracted exposure to the air the salt gradually loses some acetic acid, 
and becomes less soluble. When heated, the salt loses water as well as acetic acid. Upon 
ignition, it is consumed, leaving no residue. The salt is neutral or faintly alkaline to litmus 
paper. The addition of potassium or sodium hydrate test-solution to an aqueous solution of 
the salt causes a white precipitate, which is soluble in an excess of the alkali, and which con- 
forms to the reactions and tests of Morphine (see Morphtna). On adding sulphuric acid to 
solution of soluble cyanide, crystals of morphine hydrocyanate form. This salt, although sparingly soluble in water, 
is freely dissolved by that liquid when acidulated. It is evident that potassium cyanide and morphine should not 
be prescribed together in solution, except in connection with free acid. 
Morphine Hydrohrornate, or Morphine Bromide (CnHigNOsHBr + 2H20), is made by double decomposition 
between morphine sulphate and barium bromide. (See A. J. P., xliv. 447.) 
Morphine Phthalate is made by adding pure morphine to a hot solution of absolutely pure phthalic acid as long 
as it is dissolved, filtering, and evaporating. One part of the salt is soluble in five parts of water. The solutions 
are perfectly neutral, and have been especially recommended by E. Bombelon for hypodermic use. (Pharm. Ztg., 
1887, 488.) 
* Morphias Acetas, U. S. 1870. “Take of Morphia, in fine powder, a troyounce ; Distilled Water half a pint; 
Acetic Acid a sufficient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Distilled Water; then carefully drop Acetic Acid into 
the mixture, stirring it constantly until the Morphia is neutralized and dissolved. Evaporate the solution, by means 
of a water-bath, to the consistence of syrup, and set aside until it concretes. Lastly, dry the salt with a gentle heat, 
and rub it into powder.” 880 
Morphinae Acetcis.—Morphinae Hydrochloras. 
PART I. 
the salt, vapors of acetic acid are evolved.” U. S. “A white crystalline or amorphous powder, 
almost entirely soluble in 2£ parts of water and in about 100 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.). 
It loses acetic acid when exposed to the air. It affords the reactions for morphine mentioned 
under ‘ Morphinae Hydrochloridum,’ and the reactions characteristic of acetates. 2 grammes 
of the salt form with 6 cubic centimetres of warm morphinated water a slightly turbid solution, 
which is rendered clear by the addition of 0-1 cubic centimetre of acetic acid; and this solu- 
tion, when mixed with solution of ammonia in slight excess, yields a precipitate which, after 
washing and drying as described under ‘Morphinae Hydrochloridum,’ weighs 1-42 grammes. 
If the salt yield a larger proportion of morphine than this, it should be recrystallized from hot 
water acidulated with acetic acid. Heated to redness with free access of air, it leaves no 
residue (absence of mineral impurities).” Br. Morphine acetate crystallizes in slender needles 
united in fasciculi. As ordinarily obtained by evaporation to dryness, it is not entirely solu- 
ble in water, a portion of it being uncombined morphine. To render it soluble, all that is 
necessary is to add a little acetic acid. 
This and the other official salts of morphine are of identical medical value. They are 
almost invariably preferred to the alkaloid itself, and are given by the mouth, in pill or solution, 
in doses of from one-eighth to one-half grain (0-008—0-03 dm.). They are employed externally, 
sprinkled on blistered surfaces, and are very frequently exhibited by subcutaneous injection ; 
but great caution must be observed that they be not thrown into a vein. We have seen one- 
sixth of a grain thus given produce almost instantaneous insensibility, with dropping of jaw, 
and other evidence of immediate death, from which the patient was saved with difficulty. 
When given hypodermically fifteen minutes before the anaesthetic, the morphine salt was found 
by Claude Bernard to prolong and intensify the anaesthesia in animals, and many surgeons 
have employed it in man in this way, with satisfactory results. The solutions for hypodermic 
use should be freshly prepared, as morphine salts, especially the acetate, are very prone to 
undergo decomposition, through the growth of a fungus. 
MORPHINE HYDROCHLORAS. U. S. (Br.) Morphine Hydrochlorate. 
(MOB-PHl'NiE HY-DRO-CHLO'kXS.) 
CnHi9N03.HCl +3H20 ; 374-63. Cn Hi9 NOs. HC1.3H? 0; 375. 
“ The hydrochloride, C17H10NO3,HC1,3H2O, of an alkaloid obtained from opium.” Br. 
Morphinae Hydroohloridum, Br., Morphine Hydrochloride; Morphiae Murias, Br. 1867, U. S. 1870; Mor- 
phinum Hydrochloricum, P.G.; Murias (Hydrochloras) Morphicus; Muriate of Morphia; Chlorhydrate de Mor- 
phine, Fr.; Salzsaures Morphin, 0. 
A process for this salt is no longer official: that of the U. S. P. 1870 is appended* The 
British process (1885) will be found in XJ. S. D., 17th ed., 882. 
Morphine hydrochlorate crystallizes in “ white, feathery needles of a silky lustre, or minute, 
colorless, needle-shaped crystals, odorless, and having a bitter taste; permanent in the air. 
Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in 24 parts of water, and in 62 parts of alcohol; f in 0-5 part of 
boiling water, and in 31 parts of boiling alcohol. Very slightly soluble in ether or chloroform. 
When heated at 100° C. (212° F.), the salt loses its water of crystallization (14-38 per cent.) ; 
at 300° C. (572° F.) it coheres slightly, but does not completely melt; and upon ignition it is 
consumed, leaving no residue. The salt is neutral to litmus paper. The addition of potassium 
or sodium hydrate test-solution to an aqueous solution of the salt causes a white precipitate, 
soluble in an excess of the alkali, and conforming to the reactions and tests of Morphine (see 
Morphind). The aqueous solution of the salt yields, with silver nitrate test-solution, a white 
precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.” U. S. “ Acicular prisms of a silky lustre, or a white 
powder consisting of minute cubical crystals, unchanged by exposure to the air. Soluble in 
24 parts of cold water, 1 part of boiling water, and in 50 parts of alcohol. It should be with- 
out action on litmus. Solution of ammonia causes a white precipitate in the aqueous solution, 
with difficulty soluble in excess ; solution of potassium hydroxide a similar precipitate readily 
soluble in excess. This precipitate yields mere traces to benzol (absence of other alkaloids). 
Moistened with nitric acid the salt yields an orange-red coloration ; with test-solution of ferric 
* “Take of Morphia, in fine powder, a troyounce ; Distilled Water four fluidounees ; Muriatic Acid a sufficient 
quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Distilled Water; then carefully drop in Muriatic Acid, constantly stirring, 
until the Morphia is neutralized and dissolved. Evaporate the solution, by means of a water-bath, so that on cooling 
it may crystallize. Lastly, drain the crystals, and dry them on bibulous paper.” U. S. 1870. 
f According to Mr. D. B. Dott, the solubility of morphine hydrochlorate in rectified spirit at 60° F. is one in 
forty. (P. J. Tr., 1887, 941.) Morpkinse Hydrochloras.—Morphinse Sulphas. 
881 
PART I. 
chloride a dull greenish-blue coloration. Heated on a water-bath for ten or fifteen minutes 
with a few drops of sulphuric acid, cooled, and treated with a few drops of diluted nitric acid, 
it gives a violet color rapidly passing to blood-red. It dissolves without coloration in strong 
sulphuric acid; the addition of a small quantity of sodium arsenate to a portion of this solution 
causes a bluish-green coloration, and a small quantity of bismuth oxynitrate added to another 
portion gives a purplish-brown coloration. It affords the reactions characteristic of hydrochlo- 
rides. 2 grammes of Morphine Hydrochloride dissolved in 250 cubic centimetres of warm 
morphinated water, with solution of ammonia added in the slightest possible excess, will give 
on cooling a crystalline precipitate which, when washed with a little cold morphinated water 
and dried, should weigh 1-51 grammes. The drying should be accomplished, first by pressing 
the precipitate between sheets of bibulous paper, then by exposing it to a temperature between 
131° and 140° F. (55° and 60° C.), and finally to a temperature of 230° F. (110° C.) for 
twenty minutes. Heated to redness with free access of air, it burns, leaving no residue (absence 
of mineral impurities).” Br. A saturated solution in boiling water forms a solid crystalline 
mass on cooling. The solution of morphine hydrochlorate, when kept several months, has 
been known to produce vomiting, through the formation of traces of apomorphine. (Pharm. 
Centralhalle, 1885, 93.) The salt may be known to be a hydrochlorate by responding to the 
official test with silver nitrate. Potassa throws down from its solution a precipitate which is 
redissolved by an excess of the alkali. The salt is affected by heat, nitric acid, iodic acid, fer- 
ric chloride, and chlorine followed by ammonia, in the same manner as morphine. Sugar is 
said to have been used largely in the adulteration of this salt. It may be detected by Trom- 
mer’s test. (See Saccharum.) 
This preparation of morphine is much used in Great Britain, but in this country less than 
either the sulphate or the acetate. For medical properties, see Morphina. 
MORPHINE SULPHAS. U. S. Morphine Sulphate. 
(MOK-PHl'NiE SUL'PHAS.) 
(Ci7Hi9N03)2.H2S04 + 5H20; 756*38. (Cn IIi9N03)2. H2S04. 5H2 0; 758. 
Morphiae Sulphas, Br. 1867, U. S. 1870; Morphinum Sulphuricum, P.G.; Sulphas Morphicus; Sulphate of 
Morphia; Sulfate de Morphine, Fr.; Schwefelsaures Morphin, G. 
No process is given in the U. S. P. 1890 : that of the U. S. P. 1870 is appended * Mor- 
phine sulphate is no longer official in the British Pharmacopoeia 1898, the hydrochloride 
being used in Great Britain almost exclusively. 
In the process of 1870 the morphine is known to be saturated when it is wholly dissolved 
by the water. To ascertain whether the acid is added in excess, litmus paper may be resorted 
to. If the morphine employed contain narcotine, this will remain in the mother-liquor, and 
will not contaminate the product. The mother-liquor remaining after the first crystallization 
may be evaporated so as to afford a fresh supply of the sulphate; but, if the morphine was 
not originally quite pure, the second product will contain the impurities, and should not be 
used till it has undergone further preparation. When impure morphine is employed, the 
mother-liquor should be mixed with alcohol, or boiled with purified animal charcoal and fil- 
tered, and then decomposed by ammonia, which will precipitate the morphine. This may be 
converted into the sulphate in the manner directed by the Pharmacopoeia. 
Another mode of obtaining morphine sulphate is to dissolve the alkaloid in boiling alcohol 
of 36° Baum6 (sp. gr. 0-8428), saturate it while hot with sulphuric acid, add purified animal 
charcoal, boil for a few minutes, and filter the solution at the boiling temperature. Upon 
cooling, it deposits most of the sulphate; and the remainder may be obtained by evaporating 
the mother-liquor. For an account by J. Calvert of the manufacture of morphine sulphate 
on the large scale, see Proc. A. P. A., 1894, 650. 
In the evaporation of the solution of this salt, care should be taken not to carry the heat 
too far; for, when pushed to incipient decomposition with an excess of acid, a new substance 
is formed containing no morphine. This salt is sometimes adulterated. Mr. D. B. Dott met 
with a sample in the English market which contained 34-63 per cent, of anhydrous sodium 
sulphate. (P. J. Tr., August 4, 1877.) 
* “Take of Morphia, in fine powder, a troy ounce ; Distilled Water half a pint; Diluted Sulphuric Acid a suffi- 
cient quantity. Mix the Morphia with the Distilled Water, then carefully drop in Diluted Sulphuric Acid, con- 
stantly stirring until the Morphia is neutralized and dissolved. Evaporate the solution, by means of a water-bath, 
so that on cooling it may crystallize. Lastly, drain the crystals, and dry them on bibulous paper.” U. S. 1870. 882 
Morphinae Sulphas.—Morphinae Tartras. 
Morphine sulphate crystallizes in beautifully “ white, feathery, acicular crystals, of a silky 
lustre, odorless, and having a bitter taste; permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), 
in 21 parts of water, and in 702 parts of alcohol; in 0-75 part of boiling water, and in 144 
parts of boiling alcohol; almost insoluble in ether. When heated for some time at 100° C. 
(212° F.), the salt loses 3 molecules (7-12 per cent.) of water of crystallization; the remain- 
ing 2 molecules (4-75 per cent.) are gradually expelled by raising the temperature to 130° C. 
(266° F.). At 255° C. (491° F.) the salt melts, and, upon ignition, it is consumed, leaving 
no residue. The salt is neutral to litmus paper. The addition of potassium or sodium hydrate 
test-solution to an aqueous solution of the salt causes a white precipitate, which is soluble in 
an excess of the alkali, and which conforms to the reactions and tests of Morphine (see Mor- 
phina). The aqueous solution yields, with barium chloride test-solution, a white precipitate 
insoluble in hydrochloric acid.” U. S. By exposure to a heat of 120° C. (248° F.) it loses 
9-66 parts of the water, but cannot be deprived of the remainder without decomposition. (Lie- 
big.) The official tests for it are those for sulphuric acid and for morphine. Considerable 
discussion has taken place in the pharmaceutical journals about the solubility in water of 
morphine sulphate. Owing to the ease with which the salt parts with its water of crystal- 
lization, even at ordinary temperatures, it is not difficult to account for some of the discrepan- 
cies that exist in the text-hooks on this subject. Yet there can be no doubt that the heretofore 
commonly quoted solubility, “ twice its weight of cold water,” is an oft-repeated error. Prof. 
J. U. Lloyd (JV. R., May, 1882) found it soluble in 21-60 parts of cold water. Prof. F. B. 
Power, after a. determination by precipitation with barium chloride, found a commercial speci- 
men of undoubted purity to require very nearly 24 parts of cold water, and the U. S. P. 1880 
has adopted his results. (A. J. P., 1882, p. 97.) Yirgil Coblentz subsequently examined five 
commercial samples, and practically confirmed Prof. Power’s results, finding the specimens sol- 
uble respectively in 21-38, 23-90, 23-18, 17-69, and 18-97 parts of water. Mr. D. B. Dott 
criticises the methods employed by Prof. J. U. Lloyd, and to some extent those of Prof. Power, 
but fails to establish a very different result. (P. J. Tr., 1882, p. 252.) The dose is from an eighth 
to a quarter of a grain (0-008-0-016 Grin.), which may be given in pill or in solution. The 
solution of morphine sulphate formerly official was made by dissolving 1 grain of morphine sul- 
phate in 1 fluidounce of distilled water, and, although the solution is more stable than that of 
any other of the morphine salts in common use, it will in time become weakened through the 
presence of microscopic plants belonging to the Confervoideae, and hence it is not desirable to 
keep it on hand. According to Prof. Hamberg, of Stockholm, the sulphate should be dissolved in 
boiling distilled water which is free from ammonia, phosphoric, nitric, and nitrous acids; the 
solution should be filtered through paper not previously moistened, and is best preserved in small 
well-filled vials closed with a glass stopper. (Pharm. Zeitung, No. 49 ; A. J. P., 1881.) It is 
asserted by M. Yidal that the addition of chloral to a solution of morphine renders it much 
less liable to spontaneous change. This statement, if it be true, is important. He adds to the 
solution a quantity of chloral equivalent to twice the weight of the morphine it contains, and 
affirms that the injection of this mixture is not painful. For medical properties, see Morphina 
and Morphinse Acetas, pp. 878, 880. 
PART I. 
MORPHINE TARTRAS. Br. Morphine Tartrate. 
(mor-phi'na; tar'tras.) 
“ Morphine Tartrate, (C17H19N03)2C4H60e,3H20, may be prepared by the combination of 
morphine and tartaric acid in molecular proportions.” Br. 
This salt of morphine has been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia 1898; it was 
brought into notice by Erskine Stuart (1880), and recommended for hypodermic injection 
because of its greater solubility in water over the other salts of morphine. (See Injectio Mor- 
phinae Hypodermica, p. 738, and Liquor Morphinae Tartratis, p. 812.) It is officially described 
as “ A white powder consisting of fine nodular tufts of minute acicular crystals. Efflores- 
cent at 68° F. (20° C.). Soluble in 11 parts of cold water, almost insoluble in alcohol (90 per 
cent.). It affords the reactions characteristic of morphine and of tartrates. 2 grammes dis- 
solved in 20 cubic centimetres of warm morphinated water, with solution of ammonia added 
in the slightest possible excess, will give, on cooling, a crystalline precipitate which, after 
washing and drying as described under ‘ Morphinae Hydrochloridum,’ should weigh 147 
grammes. Heated to redness with free access of air, it burns without leaving any residue 
(absence of mineral impurities).” Br. PART I. 
Moschus. 
883 
MOSCHUS. U. S., Br. Musk. 
“ The dried secretion from the preputial follicles of Moschus moschiferus, Linn6 (class, 
Mammalia; order, Ruminantia).” U. S. “ The dried secretion from the preputial follicles 
of Moschus moschiferus, Linn.” Br. 
Muse, Fr.; Bisam, Moschus, G.; Muschio, It.; Almizcle, Sp. 
Gen. Ch. Horns none. Fore teeth eight in the lower jaw. Tusks one on each side, in the 
upper jaw, projecting out of the mouth. 
Moschus moschiferus. Gmelin, Syst. Nat. i. 172; Rees's Cyclopaedia. This animal hears a 
close resemblance to the deer in shape and size. It is usually about three feet in length and 
two feet high, with haunches considerably more elevated than the shoulders. From its upper 
jaw two tusks project downward out of the mouth, each about two inches long, curved back- 
ward, and serving to extract the roots which are used as food by the animal. The ears are 
long and narrow, and the tail very short. The fleece, consisting of strong, elastic, undulated 
hairs, varies in color with the season, the age of the animal, and perhaps the place which it 
inhabits. The general color is a deep iron-gray. The individual hairs are whitish near the 
root, and fawn-colored or blackish towards the tip. The musk is contained in an oval, hairy, 
projecting sac, found only in the male, situated between the umbilicus and the prepuce, from 
two to three inches long, and from one to two broad, opening by a small hairy orifice at its an- 
terior part, and marked posteriorly by a groove or furrow which corresponds with the opening 
of the prepuce. It is lined internally by a smooth membrane, thrown into a number of irreg- 
ular folds, forming incomplete partitions. In the vigorous adult animal, the sac sometimes 
contains six drachms of musk; but in the old, seldom more than two drachms, and none in 
the young.* The musk is secreted by the lining membrane, and in the living animal forms a 
consistent mass, which on the outside is compact, and marked with the folds of the mem- 
brane, but is less firm towards the centre, where there is sometimes a vacant space. As first 
secreted it is probably liquid, and a portion is occasionally forced out by the animal, to which 
it communicates its odor. The musk-deer inhabits the vast mountainous regions of Central 
Asia, extending from India to Siberia, and from the country of the Turcomans to China. It 
is an active and timid animal, springing from rock to rock with surprising agility, and fre- 
quenting the snowy recesses and most inaccessible crags of the mountains. Concealing itself 
during the day, it chooses the night for roaming in search of food, and, though said to be 
abundant in its native regions, is taken with difficulty. It is hunted for its hide, as well as for 
the musk. The natives often take it by snaring. As soon as the animal is killed, the sac is 
cut off, dried, and sent into the market.f It has been calculated that about twenty thousand 
deer, male and female, are annually killed. 
Musk varies in quality with the country inhabited by the animal. That procured from the 
mountains on the southern borders of Siberia, and brought into the market through Russia, is 
comparatively feeble. Chinese musk has been said to come from Tonquin, but appears really 
to be chiefly obtained in Yun-Nan, a province in the extreme south of China, whence it is sent 
1400 miles to Shanghai, the export centre. A variety intermediate between these is procured 
in the Himalaya Mountains and Thibet and sent to Calcutta. This is sometimes enclosed in 
the membranous lining of the sac, without the hairy envelope, and in this condition is said to 
be quite equal if not superior to that surrounded by the skin, as in the former condition it dries 
readily in the sun, while in the latter the aid of artificial heat is deemed necessary, by which 
the musk may sometimes be injured. (F. Peake, P. J. Tr., Feb. 1861.) A musk which is also 
said to pass from Thibet into China is Gabardine musk. (See Chemist and Druggist, 1890.) 
Two varieties are known in commerce, the Chinese, Thibet or Tonquin musk, and Russian or 
Siberian musk. J Both come in sacs, convex and hairy on one side, flat and destitute of hair 
(MOS'juHDS.) 
* According to Col. Frederick Markham, as much as two ounces are sometimes found, and the average for a full- 
grown animal is an ounce; but, as many of the deer are killed young, the pods in the market do not contain more 
than half an ounce upon an average. He states that the musk of the younger animals is not so strong as that of 
the old, but is much pleasanter. (P. J. Tr., xv. 472.) 
f Attention has been drawn by Dr. E. Bertherand to the excrement of the Algerian gazelle, Antilope dorcas, L., 
which possesses a powerful musk-like odor. It is said to contain about 7 per cent, of an acid resin (?) of a musky 
odor. (Proc. A. P. A., xxvi. 332.) 
J American Mimic. Owing to the costliness of true musk, the sacs derived from Fiber zibethicue, the common 
musk-rat, have been used as a substitute. This product possesses many of the properties of musk, and, although 
the odor is not identical, it can often replace it in perfumery if used judiciously. If the fatty matter present has 
become rancid, it should be washed out by agitating the bruised sacs with a little ether and pouring it off, and 
allowing the musk to beconue dry by exposure to the air. 884 
Moschus. 
PART I. 
on the other. The hairs are brownish-yellow, grayish, or whitish, stiff and short, and arranged 
concentrically around the orifice of the sac. The Chinese, which is the most highly valued, is 
in bags of a rounder shape, covered with brownish-yellow or reddish-brown hairs, and contain- 
ing at most a drachm and a half of large-grained, dark, strong-scented musk, of an ammoni- 
acal odor. The Russian is in longer and larger bags, small-grained, of a light yellowish-brown 
color, and of a weaker and more fetid odor, with less smell of ammonia. 
Properties. Musk is in grains or lumps concreted together, soft and unctuous to the touch, 
and of a reddish-brown or ferruginous color resembling that of dried blood. Some hairs of 
the pod are generally mixed with it. It is officially described as “ in irregular, crumbly, some- 
what unctuous grains, dark reddish-brown, having a peculiar, penetrating and persistent odor, 
and a bitterish taste. It is contained in oval or roundish sacs about 4 to 5 Cm. in diameter, 
on one side invested with a smoothish membrane, on the other side covered with stiff, appressed, 
grayish hairs, concentrically arranged around two orifices near the centre. About 10 per cent, 
of Musk is soluble in alcohol, the tincture being light brownish-yellow, and on the addition of 
water becoming slightly turbid. About 50 per cent, of Musk is soluble in water, the solution 
being deep brown, faintly acid, and strongly odorous. When ignited with free access of air, 
Musk gives off a peculiar, somewhat urinous odor, and leaves behind not more than 8 per cent, 
of a grayish ash.” U. S. The odor is strong, penetrating, and so diffusive that one part of 
musk communicates its smell to more than 3000 parts of inodorous powder. (Fte.) In some 
delicate individuals it produces headache and other disagreeable symptoms, and it has even 
caused convulsions. The taste is bitter, disagreeable, and somewhat acrid. The color of the 
powder is reddish-brown. Musk is inflammable, burning with a white flame, and leaving a 
light spongy charcoal. Reduced to ashes, it leaves about 5 per cent, of residue, containing 
potassa, lime, magnesia, iron, carbonic, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids, chlorine, and traces of 
potassium ferrocyanide and ammonium sulphide. ( W. Bernatzik.') It yields, upon analysis, a 
great number of proximate principles. Guibourt and Blondeau obtained water, ammonia, 
stearin, olein, cholesterin, an oily acid combined with ammonia, volatile oil, ammonium chlo- 
ride, potassium and calcium chlorides, an uncertain acid combined with ammonia, potassa, and 
lime, gelatin, albumen, fibrin, a highly carbonaceous matter soluble in water, a soluble calca- 
reous salt with a combustible acid, calcium carbonate and phosphate, hair, and sand. (M?m. de 
Chim. et de Pliys., ix. 327.) Besides these constituents, Geiger and Reinman found a peculiar 
bitter resin, a peculiar substance in part combined with ammonia, and lactic acid both free and 
in combination. According to Guibourt and Blondeau, it contains 47 per cent, of volatile mat- 
ter, thought by some to be chiefly ammonia, by others to be a compound of ammonia and vol- 
atile oil. Theimann obtained only from 10 to 15 per cent. But the quantity of volatile as 
well as of soluble matter varies exceedingly in different specimens. Tlius, Theimann found 
from 80 to 90 per cent, of matter soluble in water, Buchner only 54-5 per cent., and other 
chemists intermediate proportions. The proportion soluble in alcohol, as ascertained by dif- 
ferent experimenters, varies from 25 to 62 per cent. Ether is a good solvent. The aqueous 
infusion has a yellowish-brown color, a bitterish taste, a strong smell, and an acid reaction. 
The alcoholic tincture is transparent, and of a reddish-brown color, with the peculiar odor 
of musk. The action of potassa upon musk is accompanied with the extrication of am- 
monia and an increase of its peculiar odor. By the influence of heat and moisture long 
continued, ammonia is developed, which acts upon the fatty matter, producing a substance 
resembling adipocere, but, according to Guibourt, without diminishing the medicinal activity. 
The correctness of this opinion, however, is perhaps questionable; and it is advisable to pre- 
serve the musk as much as possible unaltered. When kept in glass bottles, in a situation 
neither moist nor very dry, it remains for a great length of time without material change. The 
odor of musk is very much diminished by mixing it with emulsion or syrup of bitter almond, 
or with cherry-laurel water. From the experiments of Wimmer, it appears that musk loses 
its odor when rubbed with kermes mineral, or golden sulphide of antimony, and reacquires it 
on the addition of a little solution of ammonia. (Pharm. Centralbl., 1843, 406.) Camphor 
rubbed up wfith musk is also said to destroy its odor. (See Artificial Musk, Part II.) 
Adulterations. The price of this medicine is so high, and its sources are so limited, as 
to offer strong temptations to adulteration; and little genuine unmixed musk is to be found in 
the market. The sophistication commences in China, and is completed in Europe and this 
country. A common practice in the East is to open the sac and to supply the place of the 
musk with an adulterated mixture. Sometimes the scrotum of the animal is filled with this 
mixture, and not unfrequently the sacs are made out of the skin. Dried blood, from its re- Moschus.—Mucilagines. 
885 
PART I. 
semblance to musk, is one of tbe most common adulterations; but, besides this, sand, lead, 
iron filings, hair, animal membrane, tobacco, the dung of birds, wax, benzoin, storax, asphaltum, 
artificial musk, and other substances are introduced. These are mixed with a portion of musk, 
the powerful odor of which is diffused through the mass and renders the discovery of the fraud 
sometimes difficult. It is said that the Chinese sometimes mix the musk of Tonquin with that 
of Siberia. The bags containing the drug should have the characters before described as be- 
longing to the natural sac, and should present no evidence of having been opened. The slit is 
sometimes carefully sewed up, sometimes glued together. The former condition may be dis- 
covered by close inspection, the latter by immersion in hot water. When the bag is made from 
any other portion of the skin, the difference may be detected, according to Mr. Neligan, by a 
microscope which magnifies 300 diameters. The genuine hairs exhibit innumerable cells, which 
are wanting in the spurious. (Ghem. Gaz., Feb. 1846, p. 79.) Musk which burns with diffi- 
culty, has a feeble odor and a color either pale or entirely black, feels gritty to the finger, is 
very moist so as to lose much weight in drying, or contains obvious impurities, should be re- 
jected. Russian musk is said never to be adulterated before leaving Russia.* “ Musk should 
be free from earthy impurities, and should on incineration yield not more than 8 per cent, of 
ash.” Br. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Musk is stimulant and antispasmodic, in some way 
stimulating very decidedly the nervous centres when exhausted, without producing either in 
health or in disease any very pronounced symptoms. It is a very valuable remedy in the 
treatment of nervous exhaustion coming on at or about the crisis of acute disease. When, in 
low cases of typhus affections, subsultus tendinum, tremors, singultus, and similar symptoms in- 
dicate the failure of nerve-power, its exhibition is often of great advantage. We have seen 
it apparently save life in the acme of typhoid fever, when the vital powers seemed to have 
almost succumbed, and when violent alterations of temperature or symptoms resembling those 
of coma vigil had manifested themselves. It was many years ago especially commended 
by Prof. Trousseau in the treatment of adynamic pneumonia of drunkards with severe cerebral 
symptoms. Under these circumstances it certainly appears to do great good. In very obstinate 
hiccough it is one of the most efficient of our remedies; and, according to the late Dr. Gr. B. Wood, 
it is very effective in those alarming conmdsions of infants originating in spasm of the intestines. 
In the laryngismus stridulus or crowing disease of infants, M. Bouchut relied mainly on musk, 
having found it more efficacious than any of the narcotics. (N. Y. Med. Journ., Sept. 1868, p. 
545.) According to our experience, musk rapidly loses its power of influencing the nerve- 
centres, and for this reason, and on account of its costliness, its employment should always 
be dela}red until severe nervous exhaustion becomes alarming. Musk was unknown to the 
ancients. Aetius was the first writer who noticed it as a medicine. It was introduced into 
Europe through the Arabians, from whose language its name is derived. It may be given 
in the form of pill or emulsion. In preparing mixtures of musk, it is recommended to rub 
the musk up first with a very little boiling water containing a trace of solution of potassa, 
afterwards with a larger quantity, and to add the liquid thus prepared to whatever mixture 
may be prescribed. The insolubility of musk in cold water, and its much greater solubility 
in that liquid when boiling hot, render this mode of preparation much preferable to rubbing 
up with cold water. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e ser., iii. 291.) The medium dose is ten 
grains (0-65 Grin.), to be repeated every two or three hours. It may often be administered 
with great advantage in the form of enema. 
MUCILAGINES. Mucilages. 
Mucilages, Fr.; Schleime, G. 
Mucilage, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, and in the sense in which it is employed 
in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, is an aqueous solution of gum, or of substances closely allied to 
it. In the British Pharmacopoeia the term is applied also to the semi-liquid, jelly-like sub- 
stance resulting from the cooling of a hot solution of starch. 
(MU-CI-LA$'I-NE§.) 
* For an account of the effects of numerous reagents on musk, and other modes of identification, as well as of de- 
tecting adulterations, see a paper by Prof. W. Bernatzik, in A. J. P., 1861, p. 427. There is a discrepancy between 
Prof. Bernatzik’s statement of the solubilities of musk and that of the text. According to the latter, ether is a good 
solvent; according to the former, ether and chloroform possess scarcely any solvent power. 886 
Mucilago Acacix.—Mucilago Sassafras Medullae. 
PART I. 
MUCILAGO ACACLE. U. S., Br. Mucilage of Acacia. 
Mucilago Gummi Arabici, P. G.; Mucilage of Gum Arabic; Mucilage de Gomme arabique, Mucilage arabique, 
Fr.; Gummischleim, G. 
“ Acacia, in small fragments, three hundred and forty grammes [or 11 ounces av., 435 grains] ; 
Water, a sufficient quantity, To make one thousand, grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. 
Wash the Acacia with cold Water, and let it drain. Then add to it enough Water to make 
the mixture weigh one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 grains], agitate or stir occa- 
sionally until the Acacia is dissolved, and strain. Keep the product in well-stoppered, com- 
pletely filled bottles, in a cool place.” U. S. 
“ G-um Acacia, in small pieces, 4 ounces (Imperial) or 100 grammes; Distilled Water, a suf- 
ficient quantity. Rapidly rinse the Gum Acacia with a little Distilled Water; then dissolve 
it in six fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or one hundred and fifty cubic centimetres of Distilled Water 
in a closed vessel and strain.” Br. 
The gum used for this purpose should be in small fragments or coarse powder, as it is more 
readily dissolved in this state than when finely pulverized. Straining is necessary to separate 
the foreign substances which are often mixed with gum arabic. This mucilage is semi-trans- 
parent, almost colorless if prepared from good gum, viscid, tenacious, of a feeble peculiar odor, 
and nearly tasteless. If the solution of gum should be colored, it may be rendered colorless by 
the addition of a concentrated solution of chlorine ; and by boiling for about half an hour, so 
as to drive off the chlorine and hydrochloric acid, it may be rendered fit for use. (Guinn.') By 
straining a solution of gum through a layer of freshly precipitated alumina it can be almost 
entirely decolorized, particularly if the operation be repeated several times. By keeping, 
mucilage becomes sour, in consequence of the spontaneous generation of acetic acid; and this 
happens even though it be enclosed in well-stopped bottles; but, according to Guevin, the solu- 
tion of pure gum undergoes no change in vacuo. Heat in its preparation is said to favor the pro- 
duction of acid ; and hence cold has been substituted for boiling water in the present formulas. 
According to R. Rother (A. J. P., xliv. 113), if glycerin be employed in the proportion of one to 
eight of the mass, and the mixture of water and it be added to the gum in a bottle and solu- 
tion secured by agitation at intervals over several hours, the resulting mucilage does not spoil: 
the presence of glycerin is objectionable, however, for many of the uses of mucilage of acacia. 
E. D. Oesch ( West. Drug., 1892, 38) adds about 6 per cent, of alcohol as a preservative. Kel- 
lar preserves the mucilage by the addition of acetanilid (two grains in the fluidounce). ( Chem. 
and Drug., 1896, 378.) Archer & Co. have found (A. J. P., xlvi. 469) that if “ Tolu water” be 
substituted for water the mucilage will keep for months. The Tolu water is made by rubbing 
two drachms of the tincture with magnesium carbonate and two pints of water, and filtering. 
Mucilage is employed chiefly in the making of pills, and in suspending insoluble substances in 
water. In prescribing it for mixtures, it should be recollected that it is a solution of definite 
strength, containing, according to the U. S. formula, half an ounce of the gum to each fluid- 
ounce of mucilage. The British mucilage is a little stronger. Half a fluidounce is usually 
sufficient for a six- or eight-ounce mixture. The adhesiveness of the mucilage is stated to be 
very much increased by the addition of one part of aluminum sulphate to one hundred and 
twenty-five parts of the mucilage. 
(MU-CI-LA'GO A-CA'CI-A*:.) 
MUCILAGO SASSAFRAS MEDULLA. U. S. Mucilage of Sassafras Pith. 
Mucilage de Moelle de Sassafras, Fr.; Sassafrasmark-Schleim, G. 
“Sassafras Pith, two grammes [or 31 grains]; Visiter, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 
fluidounces, 183 minims]. Macerate the Sassafras Pith in the Water during three hours, and 
strain. This preparation should he freshly made, when wanted.” U. S. 
This mucilage may be prepared in a much shorter time, if the pith be broken into small 
fragments and the mixture often agitated. When a thicker mucilage is desired, J. W. England 
recommends beating the pith with sterilized water in a mortar until pasty, expressing through 
coarse muslin, returning the residue, and continuing the process until a thick mucilage is 
obtained. (A. J. P., 1894, 350.) It is much used as an application to the eye in conjunctivitis. 
It may be taken as a drink ad libitum in inflammations of the mucous passages. 
(MU-CI-LA'GO SAS'SA-FKAS ME-IJUL'LiE.) PART I. 
Mucilago Tragacanthse.—Myristiea. 
887 
MUCILAGO TRAGACANTHAE. U. S., Br. Mucilage of Tragacanth 
(MU-CI-LA'GO TKXG-A-CXN'THUE.) 
Mucilage de Gomme adragante, Mucilage adragant, Fr.; Traganthschleim, G. 
“ Tragacanth, six grammes [or 93 grains] ; Glycerin, eighteen grammes [or 278 grains]; 
Water a sufficient quantity, To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Mix 
the Glycerin with seventy-five cubic centimeters [or 2 fluidounces, 257 minims] of Water in a 
tared vessel, heat the mixture to boiling, add the Tragacanth, and let it macerate during 
twenty-four hours, stirring occasionally. Then add enough Water to make the mixture weigh 
one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains], beat it so as to make it of uniform con- 
sistence, and strain it forcibly through muslin.” U. S. 
“ Tragacanth, in powder, 60 grains (Imperial) or 5-5 grammes; Alcohol (90 per cent.), 2 
fl. drachms (Imp. meas.) or 10 cubic centimetres; Distilled Water, a sufficient, quantity. Mix 
the Tragacanth with the Alcohol in a bottle; add a sufficient quantity of Distilled Water to 
form ten fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) or four hundred cubic centimetres, and shake immedi- 
ately.” Br. 
A part only of tragacanth is soluble in water. The remainder swells up and forms a soft 
tenacious mass, which may be mechanically mixed with water, but does not form a proper so- 
lution. Hence trituration is necessary to complete the incorporation of the ingredients. This 
mucilage is thick and very viscid, but not permanent, as the water separates from the insoluble 
portion of the tragacanth on standing. It is chiefly used in making pills and troches. The 
addition of glycerin renders it more serviceable as an excipient. From its great tenacity, it 
may be advantageously employed for the suspension of heavy insoluble substances, such as the 
metallic oxides, in water. When kept long, it is apt to undergo decomposition, and to become 
offensive, but it will keep well if enough carbolic acid be added to impart its characteristic 
odor faintly. (A. J. P., 1864.) The alcohol in the British process facilitates the quick pro- 
duction of the mucilage, and in addition acts as a preservative. 
MUCILAGO ULMI. U. S. Mucilage of Elm 
(MU-CI-LA'GO UL'Ml.) 
Mucilage of Slippery Elm Bark; Mucilage d’Ecorce d’Orme fauve, Fr.; Ulmenrinden-Schleim, G. 
“ Elm, bruised, six grammes [or 93 grains] ; Water, one hundred cubic centimeters [or 3 fluid- 
ounces, 183 minims]. Digest the Elm with the Water, on a water-bath, in a covered vessel, 
during one hour, then strain. This preparation should be freshly made, when wanted.” U. S. 
This may be used ad libitum as a demulcent and nutritious drink in catarrhal and nephritic 
diseases, and in inflammatory intestinal affections. It is much employed locally as a soothing 
application to boils and carbuncles, and as a demulcent in dermatitis, erysipelas, etc. 
MYRISTICA. U. S., Br. Nutmeg. 
(MY-RIS'TI-CA.) 
“The seed of Myristiea fragrans, Houttuyn (nat. ord. Myristicaceae), deprived of its testa.” 
U. S. “ The dried seed of Myristiea fragrans, Houtt., divested of its testa.” Br. 
Semen Myristicae, P. 0.; Nux Moschata, Muscade, Noix muscade, Fr.; Muskatnuss, G.j Noce moschata, It.; 
Nuez moscada, Sp. 
Myristiea fragrans. Houttuyn, Nat. Hist. vol. ii., part iii., 333 ; B. & T. 218.*—M. moschata. 
* Various species of the genus Myristiea, other than those spoken of in the text, yield commercial seeds or 
products : 
Ucuhula nut is a round or oval seed of Myristiea surinamensis. It is one-half to two-thirds of an inch in diameter, 
light brown, but usually covered by a blackish, thin, friable testa. Internally it resembles the nutmeg, but is dis- 
tinguished by the presence of extraordinarily large and handsome albuminous crystalloids. These seeds are said to 
contain over 70 per cent, of a solid yellow fat, melting at 36° C. (See A. J. P., 1886; also Arch, de Pharrn., July, 
1888.) The kernel of the fruit of the Brazilian Myristiea officinalis, Mart. (M. bicuhiha, Schott), resembles the nut- 
meg in fortn and structure, but is covered with a black shell marked with broad furrows. It contains crystals like 
those above spoken of, but less splendid and regular, and apt to be in three forms. It yields a fat (bicuhiha fat, or 
bicuhiha balsam) very much like that of the ordinary nutmeg, but having a rather sour, sharp taste, melting at 47° 
F. It contains a peculiar fatty acid, hicuhibastearic acid. The otoba fat is the product of the fruit of Myristiea 
otoba. It is almost colorless, when fresh has a nutmeg-like odor, melts at 38° C., and contains myristin, olein, and 
otobite. The latter principle crystallizes in shiny, colorless crystals, melting at 133° C. The fruit of Virola sebi- 
fera, AubUfs. Myristiea sebifera, Lam.), also yields a fatty substance which is known as ocuba wax. The so-called 
California nutmeg is not a nutmeg at all, but the seed of a coniferous tree, Torreya californica. It is oblong, with 
a smooth, brownish, thin testa, and affords a marbled cross-section. Its odor and taste are terebinthinate. Neither 
are the Jamaica or calabash nutmeg, from Monodora myristiea, the New Holland or plume nutmeg, from Atherosperma 
moschata, and the clove nutmeg, from Agathophyllum aromaticum, true nutmegs. 888 
Myristica. 
PART I. 
Thunberg; Willd. Sp. Plant, iv. 869.—M. officinalis. Linn. Suppl. 265 ; Lindlej, Flor. Med. 
21. The nutmeg-tree is about thirty feet high, with numerous branches, and an aspect 
somewhat resembling that of the orange-tree. The leaves stand alternately on short foot- 
stalks, are oblong-oval, pointed, entire, undulated, obliquely nerved, bright green and some- 
what glossy on their upper surface, whitish beneath, and of an aromatic taste. The flowers 
are male and female upon different trees. The former are disposed in axillary, peduncled, sol- 
itary clusters; the latter are single, solitary, and axillary; both are minute and of a pale yel- 
lowish color. The fruit, which appears on the tree mingled with the flowers, is round or oval, 
of the size of a small peach, smooth, at first pale green, but yellow when ripe, and marked 
with a longitudinal furrow. The external covering, which is at first thick and fleshy and 
abounds in an austere, astringent juice, afterwards becomes dry and coriaceous, and, separating 
into two valves from the apex, discloses a scarlet reticulated membrane or arillus, commonly 
called mace, closely investing a thin, brown, shining shell, which contains the kernel or nutmeg. 
The nutmeg-tree is a native of the Moluccas and other neighboring islands, and abounds 
especially in that small cluster distinguished by the name of Banda, whence the chief supplies 
of nutmegs were long derived. But numerous varieties of the plant are now cultivated in 
Sumatra, Java, Singapore, Penang, Ceylon, and other parts of the East Indies, and have been 
introduced into the Isles of France and Bourbon, Cayenne, and several of the West India 
islands. The larger part of the nutmegs of commerce is, however, said still to come from the 
Dutch Banda Islands. The Penang nutmegs are distinguished by not being limed. The tree 
is produced from the seed. , It does not flower until the eighth or ninth year; after which it 
bears flowers and fruit together, without intermission, and is said to continue bearing for seventy 
or eighty years. Little trouble is requisite in its cultivation. A branch of the female tree is 
grafted into all the young plants when about two years old, so as to insure their early fruitful- 
ness. In the Moluccas the tree yields three crops annually. The fruit is gathered by hand, 
and the outside covering rejected. The mace is then carefully separated, so as to break it as little 
as possible, is flattened, dried in the sun, and afterwards sprinkled with salt water, with the 
view of contributing to its preservation. Its fine red color is much impaired by drying. The 
nuts are dried in the sun or by ovens, and exposed to smoke till the kernel rattles in the shell. 
They are then broken open; and the kernels, having been removed and steeped for a short 
time in a mixture of lime and water, probably in order to preserve them from the attacks of 
worms, are next cleaned, and packed in casks or chests for exportation. Dr. Lumsdaine has 
found them to keep better if rubbed over with dry lime than when prepared in the moist 
way. (See Am. Journ. of Science and Arts, Nov. 1851.) Nutmegs are brought to this country 
either directly from the East Indies or indirectly through England and Holland. They are 
also occasionally imported in small quantities from the West Indies. 
The amount of unground nutmegs imported into the United States for the year ending June 
30, 1897, was 1,669,740 pounds, valued at $451,614. (ZZ S. Bureau of Statistics, 1898.) 
Properties. The nutmeg (nux moschata) is of a roundish or oval shape, obtuse at the 
extremities, marked with vermicular furrows, of a grayish color, hard, smooth to the touch, 
yielding readily to the knife or the grater, but not very pulverulent. When cut or broken it 
presents a yellowish surface, varied with reddish-brown, branching, irregular veins, which give 
to it a marbled appearance. These dark veins abound in oily matter, upon which the medicinal 
properties depend. The odor of nutmeg is delightfully fragrant, the taste warm, aromatic, and 
grateful. Its virtues are extracted by alcohol and ether. Clifford Richardson ( Bulletin U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, No. 13, 1887) gives as the average of three analyses of imported 
nutmegs: water, 5-56 per cent.; ash, 2-88; volatile oil, 3-23; fixed oil or fat, 34-22; starch, 
etc., 39 62; crude fibre, 9-21; albuminoids, 5-28: total, lOO'OO. The volatile oil is obtained 
by distillation with water. (See Oleum Myristicsei) 
Under the names of long, female, or wild nutmeg, Macassar nutmeg, Papua nutmeg, New 
Guinea nutmeg, horse nutmeg, certain seeds have long been known in European commerce, and 
have finally become an important article of trade, nearly 77,000 kilos of them having been sold in 
Holland in the year 1894. These seeds have been variously ascribed to M. fatua Houtt. (M. 
tomentosa Thunb., M. macrophylla Boxb.) and other species of the genus Myristica, but by 
Bassermann and Warburg have in all their varieties been traced to the M. argentea Warburg, 
of New Guinea, from which country they are often taken to Macassar to finally enter com- 
merce as Macassar nutmegs. The numerous varieties of these false nutmegs are readily 
reducible to two, which differ chiefly in size, the largest being commonly known as the Papua 
nuts, the smaller as the Macassar nuts. They are distinguished from the true nutmeg by their Myristica. 
889 
PART I. 
greater length, their elliptical shape, their comparatively feeble odor and disagreeable taste, and 
by the absence of the dark brown veins. 
Nutmegs have been punctured and boiled in order to extract their essential oil, and the orifice 
afterwards closed so carefully as not to he discoverable unless by breaking the kernel. The 
fraud may be detected by their levity. They are also apt to be injured by worms, which, how- 
ever, attack preferably the parts least impregnated with the volatile oil. The Dutch were for- 
merly said to heat them in a stove in order to deprive them of the power of germinating and 
thus prevent the propagation of the tree. The largest nutmegs now command the highest 
prices. They should be rejected when very light in weight, with a feeble taste and smell, worm- 
eaten, musty, or marked with black veins. 
The concrete or expressed oil of nutmeg (Oleum Myristicse Expressum, Br.), commonly called 
oil of mace, or nutmeg butter, is obtained by bruising nutmegs, exposing them in a bag to 
steam, and then compressing them strongly between heated plates. A liquid oil flows out, 
which becomes solid when it cools. Nutmegs are said to yield from 10 to 12 per cent, of this 
oil, but Fliickiger and Hanbury obtained as much as 28 per cent* (See analyses of Richard- 
son, quoted previously.) The best is imported from the East Indies in stone jars, or in rec- 
tangular blocks 10 inches long by 21 inches wide, wrapped in palm leaves. It is solid, soft, 
unctuous to the touch, of a yellowish or orange-yellow color more or less mottled, with the odor 
and taste of nutmeg. It is composed, according to Schrader, of 52-09 per cent, of a soft oily 
substance, yellowish or brownish, soluble in cold alcohol and ether; 43-75 of a white, pulveru- 
lent, inodorous substance, insoluble in these liquids; and 4-16 of volatile oil. The pulverulent 
constituent, which received from Playfair the name of myristin, has a silky lustre, melts at 31° 
C. (88° F.), and yields on saponification glycerin and myristic acid, C14H2802. Myristin, 
C3H6(0Ci4II270)3, is a true fat, or glyceryl myristate. It is also found in spermaceti, in cocoa- 
nuts, and in the fixed oil of linseed and poppy oil. It may be obtained directly from nutmeg 
by exhausting it by means of benzol, filtering the liquid, and allowing it to crystallize by spon- 
taneous evaporation. To purify the product, it may be dissolved in a mixture of two parts of 
absolute alcohol and three of benzol with the aid of heat, then filtering the liquid while hot, 
and setting it aside. On cooling, it deposits the pure myristin in crystals. {Journ. de Pharm., 
Juin, 1859, p. 471.) Analyzed by Roller, the expressed oil was found to contain, in 100 parts, 
6 of a volatile oil analogous to the oil of mace, 70 of myristin, 20 of olein, 3 of resin, and 1 
of salts, etc. (Arch, der Pharm., clxxiii. 280.) Wallach found in the volatile oil pinene and 
dipentene of the class of terpenes, and Semmler found myristicol, CIOH160, which is liquid, and 
myristidn, a solid ester of the composition C12H1403. An inferior kind of the oil is prepared 
in Holland, and sometimes found in commerce. It is in hard, shining, square cakes, lighter- 
colored than that from the East Indies, and with less smell and taste. It is supposed to be 
derived from nutmegs previously deprived of most of their volatile oil by distillation. An 
artificial preparation is sometimes sold for the genuine oil. It is made by mixing various fatty 
matters, such as suet, palm oil, spermaceti, wax, etc., adding some coloring substance, and 
giving flavor to the mixture by the volatile oil. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Nutmeg unites to the medicinal properties of the 
ordinary aromatics considerable narcotic power. In the quantity of two or three drachms (7-8 
or 11-65 Gm.),it has been known to produce stupor and delirium ; and dangerous if not fatal 
consequences are said to have followed its free use in India. For cases, see A. J. P., 1855 ; 
Brit. Med. Journ., Dec. 1889 ; also Lancet, Jan. 19, 1895. Dr. H. C. Wood found in experi- 
ments upon the lower animals that the oil of nutmeg is a powerful narcotic, with very much 
less sedative influence upon the heart than is possessed by most volatile oils. Injected into 
the circulation of the dog, it caused profound sleep, with slowing of the respiration, and, if 
the dose had been large enough, loss of reflex activity. Nutmeg is usually employed to cover 
the taste or correct the operation of other medicines, but more frequently as an agreeable ad- 
dition to farinaceous articles of diet, and to various kinds of drink in cases of languid appe- 
tite and delicate stomach. It is usually given in substance, and is brought by grating to the 
state of a powder. Mace possesses properties essentially the same as those of nutmeg, and has 
caused alarming sensorial disturbance. (Gr. C. Watson, Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ., Jan. 26, 
* A process for obtaining it by means of carbon disulphide has been proposed by M. Lepage, of Gisors, in France, 
and has received the sanction of the Society of Pharmacy of Paris. It consists in treating the nutmeg, thoroughly 
comminuted, with three times its weight of the well-rectified liquid referred to, agitating the mixture frequently for 
24 hours, expressing, repeating the process with two parts only of the menstruum, mixing the products of the two 
macerations, filtering in a covered vessel, and then distilling off the disulphide until the residue is entirely deprived 
of the menstruum. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., xxxi. 28.) 890 
Myrrha. 
PART I. 
1848.) It is, however, less used as a medicine. The dose of either is from five to twenty 
grains (0-33—1*3 Gm.). The volatile oil may be substituted, in the dose of from two to five 
drops (0-10-0 25 C.c.). The expressed oil is occasionally used as a gentle external stimulant, 
and is an ingredient in the Emplastrum Picis of the British Pharm. 1885. The ancients were 
wholly unacquainted with the nutmeg; and Avicenna is said to be the first author by whom 
it was noticed. 
MYRRHA. U. S., Br. Myrrh. 
“ A gum-resin obtained from Commiphora Myrrha (Nees), Engler (nat. ord. Burseraceae).” 
U. S. “A gum-resin obtained from the stem of Balsamodendron Myrrha, Nees, and probably 
other species.” Br. 
Gummi-Resina Myrrha; Myrrhe, Fr., G.; Mirra, It., SpMurr, Ar.; Bowl, Hindoat. 
Though myrrh has been employed from the earliest times, it is still uncertain by what plant 
it is yielded. The Amyris kataf of Forskhal, seen by that traveller in Arabia, was supposed 
by him to be the myrrh-tree, but without sufficient proof. Afterwards Ehrenberg met on the 
frontiers of Arabia Felix with a plant from the bark of which he collected a gum-resin pre- 
cisely similar to the myrrli of commerce. From specimens of the plant taken by Ehrenberg 
to Germany, Nees von Esenbeck referred it to the genus Balsamodendron of Kunth, and named 
it Balsamodendron myrrha. This genus was formed by Kunth from Amyris, and includes the 
Amyris kataf of Forskhal, which may possibly also produce a variety of myrrh * The new 
genus differs from Amyris chiefly in having the stamens beneath instead of upon the germ. It 
was not thought by Be Candolle sufficiently distinct. Berg found another species in Ehren- 
berg’s collection, to which was attached a label by the discoverer, stating that he had col- 
lected myrrh from it, and proposed to call it Balsamodendron ehrenbergianum. (A. J. P., 1873, 
314.) Both Oliver and Trimen agree that this plant is not specifically distinct from B. opo- 
balsamum. The belief that myrrh is the product of B. myrrha has been confirmed by the 
German traveller Hildebrand, who collected the plant in 1873, in the Adel Mountains, on the 
north Somali coast (P. J. Tr., 3d ser., ix. 893) ; but the opinion is held that much of the 
myrrh of commerce is the product of B. ehrenbergianum, or of other non-official species Defiers 
and Schweinfurth (Ber. d. Pharm. Ges. zu Berlin, 1893) believe that the genuine myrrh is 
yielded by Commiphora abyssinica (Berg.) Engl., which is found in Southern Arabia, Erithrea, 
and Northern Abyssinia. C. Schimperi (Berg.) Engl., occurring in the Yemen, Abyssinia, and 
from Kern to Tigr6, is likely also to yield some of the commercial Arabian myrrh. C. Myrrha 
(Nees) Engl, does not apparently produce any myrrh, although Hildebrand states that a plant 
of the Somali region resembling C. myrrha—but probably a distinct species, C. Playfairii 
(Hook, f.) Engl.—yields naturally myrrh. On the other hand, the director of the Kew Gar- 
dens believes that myrrh is yielded by C. myrrha and C. simplicifolia, while E. M. Holmes is 
of the opinion that Arabian myrrh is the product of Balsamodendron myrrha. 
Balsamodendron myrrha. Fee. Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm. i. 641; Carson, Illust. of Med. 
Bot. i. 28, pi. 20 ; B. & T. 60. This is a small tree, with a stunted trunk, covered with a 
whitish-gray bark, and furnished with rough abortive branches terminating in spines. The 
leaves are ternate, consisting of obovate, blunt, smooth, obtusely denticulate leaflets, of which the 
two latter are much smaller than the one at the end. The fruit is oval-lanceolate, pointed, lon- 
gitudinally furrowed, of a brown color, and surrounded at its base by the persistent calyx. The 
tree grows in Arabia Felix, in the neighborhood of Gison, in dwarfish thickets, interspersed 
among the Acaciae and Euphorbias. The juice concretes spontaneously upon the bark. 
Formerly the best myrrh was brought from the shores of the Red Sea by way of Egypt and 
the Levant, and hence received the name of Turkey myrrh; while the inferior qualities were 
imported from the East Indies, and commonly called India myrrh. These titles have ceased 
to be applicable, as myrrh of all qualities is now brought from the East Indies, whither it is 
carried from Arabia and the northeastern coast of Africa. Aden in the former region, and 
Berbera in the latter, would appear, from the statements of Mr. James Vaughan, to be the 
chief entrepots of the trade. (P. J. Tr., xii. 226.) Great quantities are collected on the African 
coast, near the mouth of the Red Sea, whence it is taken to Aden. (Ibid., Oct. 1859, p. 217.) 
It is usually imported in chests containing between one and two hundred-weight. Sometimes 
(MYR'RHA.) 
* According to Prof. Rusby (Bulletin of Pharmacy, July, 1892), who has been followed by the revisers of the 
U. S. P., the name Commiphora antedates the name Balsamodendron some twenty-seven years, having been given 
by Jacques in 1797. PART I. 
Myrrha. 
891 
the different qualities are brought separate, sometimes more or less mingled. Only the best 
kind should be selected for medical use.* 
Properties. Myrrh is in small irregular fragments or tears, or in larger masses, composed 
apparently of agglutinated portions differing somewhat in their shade of color. The pieces 
are exceedingly irregular in shape and size, being sometimes not larger than a pea, and some- 
times, though rarely, almost as large as the fist. They are often powdery upon the surface. 
When of good quality, myrrh is reddish yellow or reddish brown and translucent, of a strong, 
peculiar, somewhat fragrant odor, and a bitter, aromatic taste. It is brittle and pulverizable, 
presenting when broken a shining surface, which in the larger masses is very irregular, and 
sometimes exhibits opaque whitish or yellowish veins. In powder it is of a light-yellowish 
color. Under the teeth it is at first friable, but soon softens and becomes adhesive. It is 
inflammable, but does not burn vigorously, and is not fusible by heat. Its sp. gr. is stated at 
T36. The inferior kind, commonly called India myrrh, is in pieces much darker than those 
described, more opaque, less odorous, and often abounding with impurities. We have seen 
pieces of India myrrh enclosing large crystals of common salt, as if the juice had fallen from 
the tree and concreted upon the ground where this mineral abounds. Pieces of bdellium, and 
other gummy or resinous substances of unknown origin, are often mixed with it. Among these 
is a product which may be called false myrrh. It is in irregular pieces, of a dirty reddish- 
brown color, a vitreous brownish-yellow fracture, semi-transparent, of a faint odor of myrrh, 
and a bitter balsamic taste. Myrrh is best purchased in mass, as in powder it is liable to 
adulterations not easily detected. “ When triturated with water, Myrrh yields a brownish- 
yellow emulsion ; with alcohol it yields a brownish-yellow tincture which acquires a purple tint 
on the addition of nitric acid. Dark-colored pieces, the alcoholic solution of which is not ren- 
dered purple by nitric acid, and pieces of gum which dissolve completely, as well as those 
which merely swell in water, should be rejected.” U. N.f 
Myrrh is partially soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Triturated wnth water it forms an 
opaque yellowish or whitish emulsion, which deposits the larger portion upon standing. Its 
alcoholic tincture is rendered opaque by the addition of water, but throws down no precipitate. 
According to Neumann, alcohol and water severally extract the whole of its odor and taste. 
By distillation a volatile oil rises, having the peculiar flavor of myrrh, and leaving the residue 
in the retort simply bitter. The gum-resin is soluble in solutions of the alkalies, and, when 
triturated with them in a crystalline state, forms a tenacious liquid. Hence potassium car- 
bonate may be used to facilitate its suspension in water. Braconnot found 2-5 per cent, of 
volatile oil, 23 of a bitter resin, 46 of soluble and 12 of insoluble gum. (Ann. de Chim., lxvii. 
52.) Pelletier obtained 34 per cent, of resin, with a small proportion of volatile oil, and 66 
of gum. A more recent analysis by Buickoldt gave 2T83 per cent, of volatile oil, 44-760 of 
resin, 40-818 of gum or arabin, 1-475 of water, and 3-650 of calcium and magnesium carbon- 
ate, with some gypsum and ferric oxide. The volatile oil has been called myrrhol or myrrhe- 
nol, and, according to Ruickoldt, has the formula C10H140. Koehler (A. J. P., 1890, p. 346) 
confirms this formula, and states that this body, while isomeric with thymol and carvol, is dis- 
tinct from them. He found from 7 to 8 per cent, of essential oil, instead of 2-18 as previously 
given. Gladstone (Chem. Soc. Jour. [2], 2, 1) found that the oil had a sp. gr. of 1-0189 at 
* According to G. Schweinfurth, Mecca Balaam is yielded by Commiphora opobalsamum, from which it is col- 
lected in the valleys near Mecca. It is said to be the myrrh of the Bible, the error of translation having been made 
on account of the similarity of the old Hebrew word “ mar” with the modern Arabic word “ morr,” the name of the 
true myrrh. 
f Four varieties of myrrh are recognized by writers on Materia Medica, but as they do not seem to be clearly dis- 
tinguishable in the markets, we confine our notice to a foot-note. They are: First. Somali Myrrh, which is described 
in the Pharmacographia as follows: “ Myrrh consists of irregular roundish masses, varying in size from small grains 
up to pieces as large as a hen’s egg, and occasionally much larger. They are of an opaque reddish-brown color, with a. 
dull, dusty surface. When broken they exhibit a rough or waxy fracture, having a moist and unctuous appearance, 
especially when pressed, and a rich brown hue. The fractured translucent surface often displays characteristic whitish 
marks, which the ancients compared to the semicircular mark at the base of the finger-nails. It has a peculiar fra- 
grance and an aromatic, very bitter, and somewhat acrid taste.” Second. Arabian Myrrh of Hanbury, described in 
the Pharmacographia as “occurring in irregular masses, seldom exceeding 1£ inches long, and having a somewhat 
gummy-looking exterior. The larger lumps seem formed by the cohesion of small, rounded, translucent, externally 
shining drops or tears. The fracture is like that of common myrrh, hut less unctuous, and has not the whitish 
markings. The odor and taste are those of the ordinary drug.” Third. “ Meetiya,” or Arabian Myrrh of Bymock, 
who states that it is sold in India as true myrrh. This myrrh has a dull surface, a dark reddish-brown color, a 
more unctuous and waxy fracture, and has white marks like Somali myrrh, which it resembles in taste, but its odor 
is rather less fragrant. Fourth. Yemen Myrrh, which is said by Hanbury to be produced in Yemen, and to contain 
a resin which differs from that of Somali myrrh and the Arabian myrrh of Hanbury in that its solution in petroleum 
spirit does not give a violet color on the addition of bromine. 892 
Myrrha.—Naphtalinum. 
PART I. 
7-5° C., a boiling point of 266° C., and was laevorotatory. The resin, which he calls myrrhin, 
c48h32o10, is neutral, but becomes acid when kept for a short time in fusion. In the latter state 
M. Ruickoldt proposes to call it myrrhic acid. (Archiv der Pharm., lxi. 1.) An investigation 
of the essential oil of Bisabol myrrh from the interior of the Somali country has recently been 
made by W. Tucholka. (,Schimmel's Report, Oct. 1897, 36.) He obtained 7-8 per cent, of an oil 
of 0-8836 sp. gr., boiling at from 220°-270° C. From this was separated, by means of the crys- 
talline hydrochloride, a terpene boiling at from 259°—260-2° C., which the author calls bisabolene, 
and an oxygenated portion to which he gives the rather strange formula C66H0eO. Koehler 
(loc. citi) finds in the portion soluble in alcohol an indifferent soft resin, to which he gave the 
formula C26H„406, containing three replaceable OH groups, and two dibasic resin acids, of the 
formulas E13H1608 and C2eH32O0. According to MM. Bley and Diesel, myrrh containing little 
volatile oil always has an acid reaction, which they ascribe to the oxidation of the oil. They 
found formic acid in the specimen examined by them. (Ibid., xliii. 304.) The same writers 
give as a test of myrrh the production of a transparent dirty-yellow liquid with nitric acid; 
while false myrrh affords a bright-yellow solution in the same fluid, and bdellium is not dissolved, 
but becomes whitish and opaque. (A. J. P., xviii. 228.) According to M. Righini, if pow- 
dered myrrh, rubbed for 15 minutes with an equal weight of ammonium chloride, and fifteen 
times its weight of water gradually added, dissolve quickly and entirely, it may be considered 
pure. (Journ. de Chim. Med., 1844.) Chas. E. Escott (A. J. P., 1887) extracted a sample 
of myrrh with petroleum benzin, and on spontaneous evaporation of the solvent obtained 
18-75 per cent of oily residue. The gum left after treatment with alcohol had a barely per- 
ceptible odor of myrrh and a slightly mucilaginous taste, was neutral to test-paper, and, 
though of a pale color, gave with water a dark-brown solution. The insoluble portion 
amounted to 15 per cent., or 8-4 per cent, of the weight of the myrrh. The dilute solution 
acquired a purple color by ferric chloride, changed to reddish yellow by ammonia. Stronger 
solutions were precipitated by alcohol, not gelatinized by borax, and the precipitate with lead 
subacetate was not redissolved. The gum makes a good mucilage, and, when making tincture 
of myrrh, the residue insoluble in the alcoholic menstruum should be saved for that purpose. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Myrrh is a stimulant tonic, with some tendency to 
the lungs, and perhaps to the uterus. Hence it is employed as a tonic in dyspepsia, and as 
an expectorant and emmenagogue in debilitated states of the system, in the absence of febrile 
excitement or acute inflammation. The complaints in which it is usually administered are 
chronic catarrh, phthisis pulmonalis, other pectoral affections in which the secretion of mucus is 
abundant but not easily expectorated, chlorosis, amenorrhoea, and the various affections con- 
nected with this state of the uterine function. It is generally given combined with chalybeates 
or other tonics, and in amenorrhoea very frequently with aloes. It is used also as an application 
to spongy gums, the aphthous sore mouth of children, and various kinds of unhealthy ulcers. The 
dose is from ten to thirty grains (0-65-1 -95 Gm.), and may be given in the form of powder 
or pill, or suspended in water, as in the famous antihectic mixture of Dr. Griffith, which has 
become official under the name of Mistura Ferri Composita. The infusion is also sometimes 
given, and an aqueous extract has been recommended as milder than myrrh in substance. The 
tincture is used chiefly as a local application. 
A plaster of myrrh is made by rubbing together powdered myrrh, camphor, and balsam of 
Peru, of each an ounce and a half, then adding the mixture to 32 ounces of lead plaster pre- 
viously melted, and stirring well until the plaster thickens on cooling. It is then to be formed 
into rolls. This plaster may be employed in all cases where a gentle and long-continued rube- 
facient effect is desired. 
CioH8; 127*7. (NlPH-TA-LI'NUM.) 
NAPHTALINUM. U. S. Naphtalin. [Naphtalene.] 
“ A hydrocarbon obtained from coal-tar. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. 
Naphthaline. 
This may be obtained by subjecting coal-tar to distillation, when it passes over in the 
middle oil and heavy oil; in the fractions of the latter it often constitutes the main constituent, 
causing it to become almost solid on cooling. It is frequently produced during the dry distil- 
lation of organic bodies. For a method of preparing it on a large scale for commercial purposes, 
see a paper by Vohl, in the Journ. de Pharm, 1868, 399 ; from Polytech. Journ. ; see also Lunge’s 
Coal-Tar and Ammonia, London, 1887. It is made very extensively and cheaply at present PART I. 
Naphtalinum.—Naphtol. 
893 
(1899), the sublimed commercial product being nearly pure. It is a white, shining, crystalline 
substance, fusible at 80° C. (176° F.), and boiling at 217*2° C. (423° F.), but volatilizing with 
vapor of water. According to Kopp, its sp. gr. in the liquid state is 0*9774; according to 
Alluard, at 98*8° C. (210° F.), 0*9628. It is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, carbon disulphide, 
ether, naphtha, and the oils, but insoluble in water. A good test for the purity of naphtalin 
is to warm a little of it in a test-tube with pure sulphuric acid. As little as one per cent, of 
impurity will be indicated by its imparting a pinkish tint to the sulphuric acid: the depth of 
the color indicates the degree of impurity. It is officially described as in “ colorless, shining, 
transparent laminae, having a strong, characteristic odor resembling that of coal-tar, and a 
burning, aromatic taste ; slowly volatilized on exposure to air. Insoluble in water, but when 
boiled with the latter imparting to it a faint odor and taste. Soluble in 15 parts of alcohol at 
15° C. (59° F.), and very soluble in boiling alcohol; also very soluble in ether, chloroform, 
carbon disulphide, and fixed or volatile oils. Naphtalin volatilizes slowly at ordinary tempera- 
tures ; rapidly when heated. It also volatilizes with the vapors of water or alcohol. At 80° 
C. (176° F.) it melts, and at 218° C. (424*4° F.) it boils. Its vapor is inflammable, burning 
with a luminous and smoky flame. When ignited, it is consumed, leaving no residue. Naph- 
talin is neutral to litmus paper moistened with alcohol. On shaking a small portion of Naph- 
talin with concentrated sulphuric acid, the acid should remain colorless; nor should it acquire 
more than a pale reddish tint if the mixture be heated for five minutes on a water-bath 
(absence of contaminations derived from coal-tar)?' U. S. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Naphtalin is possessed of antiseptic properties, and is 
poisonous to most fungi and probably to most insects. Under the name of “ tar camphor,” it 
has largely supplanted true camphor as a means of preventing the deposition by moths of eggs 
in woollen clothing, and of preventing the destruction by insects in natural history museums. 
In internal medicine it was some years ago brought forward by Dupasquier as an expectorant 
especially valuable in chronic bronchitis accompanied with a large amount of secretion. It 
has also been used with asserted excellent results as a tasnicide, and as a vermifuge in cases of 
seat-worms, when it should be given by injection, from fifteen grains to half a drachm in two 
to three ounces of olive oil. First employed by Prof. Rossbach, of Jena, in intestinal catarrh, 
it has been largely used in all forms of intestinal inflammation and in typhoid fever. There 
seems to be no doubt that in some cases it acts very happily, but the reports concerning it 
vary, and the remedy is probably inferior to naphtalol. The dose of it is from two to eight 
grains (0*13-0*52 Gm.), as much as eighty grains being said to have been given in a day 
without deleterious effects. On the other hand, Dr. J. A. Otte ( Chinese Med. Missionary Journ., 
xi., 1897) violently poisoned himself by eight grains of naphtalin, which was afterwards ex- 
amined by the chemist and found to be pure. The symptoms were excessive vomiting and 
purging and great abdominal pain, followed by nephritis. Moreover, employees in gutta- 
percha works, where it is largely used, are said to be occasionally thrown into a peculiar con- 
dition of delirious intoxication. Naphtalin has been used externally as an antiseptic dressing, 
and also in the treatment of various skin diseases. When given internally, it should always 
be in the form of powder, and is best administered in capsules. 
NAPHTOL. U. S., Br. Naphtol. [Beta-Naphtol.] 
“ A phenol occurring in coal-tar, hut usually prepared artificially from naphtalin. Naphtol 
should he kept in dark amber-colored, well-stoppered bottles.” U. S. “ Beta-naphthol, or 
beta-mono-hydroxy-naphthalene, C10H7OH, is usually prepared from naphthalene-sulphonic 
acid.” Br. 
On digesting four parts of naphtalin with three parts of sulphuric acid at 80° C. we have 
formed a- and p-naphtalin-sulplionic acids, C10H7S03H, which may be separated by means of 
the barium or lead salts. When heated with sulphuric acid, the a acid passes into the /? 
variety; therefore the latter acid is exclusively produced at higher temperatures (160° C.). 
Both of the naphtalin sulphonic acids, when fused with alkaline hydrates, yield the corre- 
sponding naphtols, which are designated as a- and fi-naphtol, respectively. The second of 
these, beta-naphtol, is the official naphtol, CioH7OH. It bears to naphtalin the same re- 
lation that phenol (carbolic acid) does to benzene* It is officially described as “ colorless, 
or pale buff-colored, shining, crystalline laminae, or a white, or yellowish-white, crystalline 
Cio H7 OH ; 143*66. (NiPH'TOL.) 
* E. Merck states that the substance known in commerce as hydronaphtol is identical with beta-naphtol. 894 
Naphtol. 
PART I. 
powder, having a faint, phenol like odor, and a sharp and pungent but not persistent taste. 
Permanent in the air. Soluble, at 15° C. (59° F.), in about 1000 parts of water, and in 0-75 
part of alcohol; in about 75 parts of boiling water, and very soluble in boiling alcohol. Also, 
very soluble in ether, chloroform, or solutions of caustic alkalies. When heated, Naphtol 
sublimes easily. It is also volatilized with the vapors of alcohol or water. It melts at 122° C. 
(251-6° F.), and boils at 286° C. (546-8° F.). On ignition, it is consumed, leaving no residue. 
It is neutral to litmus paper moistened with alcohol. A cold, saturated, aqueous solution of 
Naphtol, when mixed with ammonia water, exhibits a faint bluish fluorescence. Chlorine or 
bromine water, added to the aqueous solution, produces a white turbidity, which disappears on 
adding ammonia water in excess. On adding about 0-1 Gm. of Naphtol to about 5 C.c. of an 
aqueous solution (1 in 4) of potassium hydrate, then about 1 C.c. of chloroform, and gently 
warming, the aqueous layer will acquire a blue tint, changing after a while to green and brown. 
Ferric chloride test-solution colors the aqueous solution of Naphtol greenish, and, after some 
time, causes the separation of white flakes, which turn brown upon the application of heat. 
A piece of pine wood dipped into an aqueous solution of Naphtol, and afterwards moistened 
with diluted hydrochloric acid, becomes green on exposure to daylight. Naphtol should dis- 
solve in 50 parts of ammonia water without leaving a residue (absence of naphtalin), and the 
solution should not have a deeper tint than pale yellow (absence of various other organic im- 
purities'). If 0-1 Gm. of Naphtol be mixed, in a test-tube, with 1 drop of syrup and 5 C.c. 
of water, and about 3 C.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid be then poured into the tube held in 
a slanting position, so that the liquids may form separate layers, a yellowish-brown color will 
appear at the zone of contact, which becomes darker on standing (absence of, and distinction 
from, alpha-naphtol, which produces at once a crimson color, turning deep blue in the upper 
part of the zone on standing).” TJ. S. “ In white or nearly white crystalline laminae, or in 
powder. It has a sharp, pungent taste, and an odor resembling phenol. Soluble in about 1000 
parts of cold water, in 75 parts of boiling water, in less than 2 parts of cold alcohol (90 per 
cent.), and very soluble in boiling alcohol (90 per cent.), ether, chloroform, or solution of sodium 
hydroxide. Melting point 251-6° F. (122° C.). On the addition of 1 drop of solution of 
ammonia to a hot saturated aqueous solution of Beta-naphthol a blue fluorescence is developed. 
A cold saturated aqueous solution gives a white turbidity with solution of chlorine, which, on 
the addition of excess of solution of ammonia, gives place to a green or brown coloration. 
0-1 gramme of Beta-naphthol dissolved in 10 cubic centimetres of boiling water, and treated 
with 10 drops of a 3 per cent, aqueous solution of ferric chloride, gives a white precipitate 
becoming brown, but not violet (absence of alpha-naphthol). Beta-naphthol should be neutral 
to litmus paper moistened with alcohol (90 per cent.), and should leave no residue on heating 
to redness (absence of mineral impurities).” Br. For Yvon’s tests to distinguish between 
alpha- and beta-naphtol, see Proc. A. P. A., 1892, 955; see also Chem. News, 1892, 18. 
For Liebman’s test for presence of alpha-naphtol, see Merck's Report, 1897, 281. 
The antiseptic and physiological properties of beta-naphtol were first studied by Bouchard 
and Maximovitch,* who found that the strength of one to three thousand was sufficient to arrest 
* Alpha-Naphtol. M. Maximovitch has studied alpha-naphtol in the same manner as beta-naphtol. He finds 
that one part in four thousand is enough to arrest completely the germination of the tubercle-bacillus, that in 
order to cause death in the rabbit it is necessary to give nine grammes per kilogramme, and that, calculating the 
toxic dose for man as it was taken for beta-naphtol, it is three times less poisonous than beta-naphtol, and seven 
hundred times less toxic than mercuric iodide. According to these experiments, alpha-naphtol ought to be superior 
to beta-naphtol, as being antiseptically much more active, whilst toxically much less active. The dose appears to 
be the same as that of beta-naphtol. Alpha-naphtol has been proposed as a test for sugar in urine. Posner and 
Epenstein have studied the action of the test, and consider it to be free from many of the objections raised against 
other tests for sugar. The test depends upon the fact that a solution of sugar, in the presence of pure concentrated 
sulphuric acid and a solution of alpha-naphtol, gives a violet-colored reaction, due, according to Udransky, to the 
separation of furfurol. This reaction occurs not only with sugars, but with all carbohydrates and with certain 
albuminoids ; hence the urine must be free from albumin. The test is said to be extremely sensitive, showing one- 
hundredth of one per cent, of sugar. The urine must always be previously diluted. Winckler’s test for hydrochloric 
acid in the stomach is performed as follows. 5 Gm. of alpha-naphtol are dissolved in 100 C.c. of alcohol, to which 
is added from 0"5 to 1*0 Gm. of grape sugar. A mixture of the filtered gastric juice is then evaporated with a few 
drops of the reagent in a porcelain capsule on a water-bath; if free hydrochloric acid be present, a bluish-violet 
marginal zone will appear and rapidly become inky black. 
Various compounds of naphtol have been proposed in medicine. The substance recommended by Polaillon, under 
the name of microcidin, as being ten times more powerful than carbolic acid and less toxic than naphtol, is said to 
be sodium naphtol. (Ilelbing’s Mod. Mat. Med., 79.) 
Betol (or p-naphtyl salicylate) is specially treated under Part II. 
Benzo-naphtol, or (3-naphtyl benzoate, is a compound of benzoyl and /3-naphtol, which in the intestinal tract, theo- 
retically at least, is split up into these constituents. It has been given in doses of from ten to fifteen grains up to 
ninety grains a day. (See Benzo-naphtol, Part II.) PABT I. 
Naphtol. 
895 
completely the development of some pathogenetic germs in the agar tube, and greatly to retard 
the development of the bacillus of typhoid fever and of tuberculosis; that the dose of about 
three grains per quart (0-20 Gm. per liter) was enough to arrest completely the process of putre- 
faction when in full development. In a careful series of experiments it was found that 
mercuric iodide is six times more antiseptic than beta-naphtol, but that carbolic acid is five 
times less antiseptic, and creosote four times less antiseptic. The toxic dose of beta-naphtol 
was found to be 3-8 Gm. per kilo of the animal, making it two hundred and fifty-three times less 
poisonous than mercuric iodide. At this rate the poisonous dose for an ordinary man would be 
between three and four thousand grains. In the animals killed by it, death took place through 
an arrest of respiration, the heart retaining its activity. As a practical remedy, beta-naphtol 
was first used in 1881 by Prof. Kaposi, of Vienna, who found that in the dose of one gramme 
per liter it disinfects and deodorizes urine and fecal discharges, and that applied to the mucous 
membranes it causes at first a burning sensation and a local irritation, which disappears very 
rapidly. In solution either in oil or in alcohol it was much more irritating to the skin, one 
part to one hundred distinctly affecting eczematous eruptions, and one to one and a half parts per 
hundred being sufficient to provoke urticaria on a healthy skin. In the form of soap, contain- 
ing two parts per hundred, Kaposi found it useful in prurigo, ichthyosis, herpes, and favus, 
obtaining in many cases the best results by alternating this soap with a sulphur soap, and 
avoiding in this way a cumulation in the system which he believed was possible by the absorp- 
tion of the drug. The practice of Kaposi was followed by numerous dermatologists with success, 
and led to the use of the remedy locally in inflammation of the mucous membranes, such as 
conjunctivitis, chronic laryngitis, otitis, etc. 
Prof. Bouchard appears to have been the first to use the drug internally, first, to disinfect 
pathological cavities ; secondly, for intestinal antisepsis, especially in typhoid fever. In order to 
determine whether digestion would not be seriously interfered with by this agent, Mr. Clarke 
made a series of experiments of its effect upon artificial digestion. He found that hydro- 
naphtol has a very distinct retarding influence on the digestion of egg albumen by peptic 
fluids, a very slight effect on the digestion of milk by the same, and no effect at all on pancre- 
atic digestion of milk or albumen, nor on the conversion of starch into sugar. The paper of 
Prof. Bouchard led to the use of beta-naphtol in typhoid fever by a large number of clini- 
cians, and the reports are very strongly in its favor. It is borne well both by adults and by 
children, rapidly lessening the diarrhoea and other local abdominal symptoms, an amelioration 
which is said almost invariably to be followed by marked subsidence of the constitutional dis- 
turbances. Naphtol has also been used with asserted good results in almost all forms of diarrhoea 
and of dysentery. It has also been employed in dilatation of the stomach, and in dyspepsias of 
various character, in which, however, the reports of its action are distinctly less favorable. It 
has even been injected into the trachea by M. Pignol, in pneumonia, with asserted good results, 
from two to three hundred cubic centimetres of a solution of one part per thousand being 
thrown, drop by drop, during a half-hour, into the trachea by a syringe. Teissier is said to 
have given it intravenously. It has also been employed, with asserted excellent results, in 
epidemic influenza, and in low fevers with albuminous urine, causing the albumin to disappear. 
It is a valuable intestinal disinfectant; from three to five grains may be given one hour after 
meals, in capsules. The same dose of it may be administered every two hours without danger, 
though the drug is capable of acting as a poison. M. Netter (Journ. de Clinique et de Therap. 
Infantlies') reports a case in which the injection of a dilute solution containing four grains into 
the peritoneal cavity for the cure of tubercular disease, produced in a child four years old, in 
about three-quarters of an hour, violent epileptiform convulsions ending in death. The fol- 
lowing formula may be used in the making of the solution: 1. Weak solution, for parts in 
which mucous membranes are exposed: /3-naphtol, 5 grammes; alcohol at 60° F., 1 litre. 2. 
Ordinary solution: /3-naphtol, 15 grammes ; alcohol at 60° F., 1 litre. 3. Strong solution, for 
touching diseased portions of the skin, or septic excoriations: /3-naphtol, 15 to 500 grammes 
per litre. 4. Solution for interstitial injections, or closed septic cavities: /3-naphtol, 5 grammes ; 
alcohol at 90° F., 33 grammes; hot distilled water, to make 100 cubic centimetres; filter, and 
use warm. A few drops may be injected into indurated glands or abscesses. 
Naphtol-aristol, an odorless, tasteless, greenish-yellow substance, has been used as a local anaesthetic, like iodo- 
form. 
Alpha-oxynaphtoic acid is made by the action of carbonic acid gas upon sodium a-naphtol, and bears the same 
relation to a-naphtol that salicylic acid does to phenol. It has been used as an antiseptic and disinfectant stimulant 
in skin diseases; also applied as an ointment of 10 per cent. 896 
Nux Vomica. 
PART I. 
NUX VOMICA. U. S., Br. Nux Vomica, 
(NUX v5m'i-ca.) 
“The seed of Strychnos Nux vomica, Linne (nat. ord. Loganiaceae). U. S. “The dried 
ripe seeds of Strychnos Nux-vomica, Linn.” Br. 
Semen Strychni, P. G.; Semen Nucis Vomiose; Poison Nut, Quaker Buttons; Noix vomique, Fr.; Krahenaugen, 
Brechniisse, G.; Noce vomica, It.; Nuez vomica, Sp. 
Strychnos nux vomica. L. Sp. PI. (1753) 189; Willd. Sp. Plant, i. 1052; B. & T. 178. 
This tree is of a moderate size, with numerous strong branches, covered with a smooth, dark 
gray bark. The young branches are long, flexuous, smooth, and dark green, with opposite, 
roundish-oval, entire, smooth, and shining leaves, having three or five ribs, and short footstalks. 
The flowers are small, white, funnel-shaped, and in terminal corymbs. The fruit is a round 
berry, about as large as an orange, with a smooth, yellow or orange-colored, hard, fragile rind, 
and many seeds in a juicy pulp. It has frequently been asserted that the pulp is innocuous; 
but Fliickiger and Hanbury, and also Dunstan and Short (P. J. Tr., xv. 1), have demon- 
strated that it contains strychnine. Dunstan and Short have also proved that of the com- 
mercial varieties of nux vomica Bombay seed stands first, then Cochin, and lastly Madras 
(A*. J. Tr., 1883, 1053) in percentage of contained strychnine. 
The tree is a native of the East Indies, growing in Bengal, Malabar, on the Coromandel 
Coast, in Ceylon, in many islands of the Indian Archipelago, in Cochin-China, and in other 
neighboring countries. The wood and root are very bitter, and are employed in the East 
Indies for the cure of intermittents. The radices coluhrinse and lignum colubrinum of the older 
writers, long known in Europe as 
narcotic poisons, have been as- 
cribed to this species of Strych- 
nos, under the impression that it 
is identical with Strychnos colu- 
hrina, to which Linnaeus refers 
them. They have been ascer- 
tained by Pelletier and Caventou 
to contain a large quantity of 
strychnine. The bark is said by 
Dr. O’Shaughnessy to answer ex- 
actly to the description given by 
authors of the false Angustura, 
and, like that, to contain a large 
quantity of brucine. The iden- 
tity of the two barks has been 
confirmed by Dr. Pereira by a 
comparison of specimens. (See 
Cusparise Cortex.') 
The seeds are circular, about 
three-quarters of an inch in di- 
ameter, and two lines in thick- 
ness, flat or slightly convex on 
one side, and concave on the 
other, with a slight ridge extend- 
ing from the centre of one side 
to the edge. They are thickly 
covered with fine, silky, shining, 
ash-colored or yellowish-gray 
hairs, springing from, and indeed composed of elongated cells of, a thin fragile coating or testa, 
which closely invests the interior nucleus or kernel. This is very hard, horny, usually whitish 
and semi-transparent, sometimes dark-colored and opaque, and very difficult of pulverization. 
It is composed chiefly of a hard, horny albumen, which on section is seen to be formed of 
numerous small parenchymatous cells. In a fissure in the centre lies the embryo. It is about 
a third of an inch long, with a club-shaped radicle and two cordate, five- to seven-nerved coty- 
ledons. The powder is yellowish gray, and has a faint sweetish- odor. The seeds are destitute 
of odor, but have an acrid, very bitter taste, which is much stronger in the kernel than in the 
Nux Vomica. A, seed, natural size; B, same, divided, so as to show the 
embryo; 4, cotyledon; 5, plumule; w, radicle; C, cross-section; D, section 
through albumen and hilum. (After Berg.) PART I. 
Nux Vomica. 
897 
investing membrane. They impart tbeir virtues to water, but more readily to diluted alcohol. 
For a method of distinguishing powdered nux vomica from powdered ignatia and other powders, 
see Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 503. 
Pelletier and Caventou discovered in nux vomica two alkaline principles, strychnine and 
brucine, united with a peculiar acid which they named igasuric. Its other constituents are a 
yellow coloring matter, a concrete oil, gum, starch, a small quantity of wax, and several earthy 
phosphates. Mr. Charles Bullock, in preparing the alcoholic extract of nux vomica with a 
moderate continuous heat, so as to dry it sufficiently to be pulverized, separated from 150 
pounds of the seeds 5 pints of a liquid oil. (A. J. P., 1874, 405.)* Shenstone (Journ. Chem. 
Soc., xxxix. 453) has shown 
that the igasurine of M. Des- 
noix is a mixture of strychnine 
and brucine. A glucoside, loga- 
nin, has also been found in the 
nux vomica seeds, but it exists 
more largely in the surrounding 
pulp. Dunstan and Short, its 
discoverers (Pharm. Journ. [3], 
xiv. 1025), give to it the for- 
mula C26H34014.t 
Strychnine (C21H22N202) was 
discovered by Pelletier and Ca- 
ventou in 1818, in both the nux 
vomica and the bean of St. 
Ignatius, and received its name 
from the generic title of the 
plants (Strychnos) to which 
these two products belong. Ac- 
cording to these chemists, it 
exists much more abundantly 
in the bean of St. Ignatius 
than in the nux vomica, the 
former yielding 1-2 per cent., 
the latter only 0-4 per cent., of the alkaloid; but Dragendorff obtained from the nux vomica 
from 1-9 to 2-1 per cent, of mixed alkaloids, about half of which was strychnine. (Jahresbericht, 
1874,103.) | For valuable practical information about the yield of the alkaloids, extracts, etc., 
by Prof. E. L. Patch, see Proc. A. P. A., 1891, 91 ; also P. J. Tr., 1889, 341 ; Proc. Michigan 
Pharm. Assoc., 1889 ; Proc. Ohio Pharm. Assoc., 1889; P. J. Tr., 1890, 493. 
Brucine (C23H26N204) was discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, first in the bark called false 
Angustura, in combination with gallic acid, and subsequently, associated with strychnine in the 
form of igasurates, in the nux vomica and the bean of St. Ignatius. It is crystallizable from 
alcohol, the crystals then containing 4H20. It is without smell, but of a permanent, harsh, 
Transverse section of Nux Vomica. 
* F. Meyer (Disnertatinn, St. Petersburg, 1875) investigated the fatty oil from nux vomica, and found it to consist 
of the glycerides of capric, caprylic, caproic, butyric, and palmitic acids. 
f Loganin is present in the pulp to the amount of 4 or 5 per cent., and is contained in small quantity also in 
the seeds. It was obtained by exhausting the pulp with a mixture of chloroform and alcohol (100:25). The 
exhaustion was effected in an apparatus for hot repercolation. The percolate, on cooling, deposited crystals, which 
when recrystallized a number of times from alcohol, and finally from absolute alcohol, were obtained pure. Loganin 
is easily soluble in water and alcohol, less soluble in ether, chloroform, and benzene. Its aqueous solution is 
not precipitated by any of the alkaloidal reagents. Its most characteristic reaction is found in its behavior 
with concentrated sulphuric acid. A very small quantity of loganin, when gently warmed with a few drops of 
concentrated sulphuric acid, yields a fine red color, which, on standing, develops into a deep purple. By boiling 
with dilute sulphuric acid, loganin is resolved into glucose (reducing Fehling’s solution), and a body for which the 
name loganetin is proposed. This substance, like loganin, gives the characteristic reaction with sulphuric acid, but 
the purple color does not develop so rapidly. Loganetin is soluble in water and alcohol, less soluble in ether and 
chloroform. (P. J. Tr., 1884, p. 1025.) 
J Other species of Strychnos contain the poisonous alkaloids, and may some time become a commercial source of 
them. Bidara laut of the Indian bazaars, believed to be obtained from S. ligmtrina, has been analyzed by Prof. 
Russow, who found the wood to contain 2'26 per cent, and the bark 7‘38 per cent, of brucine without strychnine. 
Mr. Henry G. Greenish found in the wood and bark respectively of S. colubrinum fl'96 per cent, and 5-54 per cent, 
of mixed alkaloids; the same analyst obtained from false Angustura bark (S. nux vomica), young bark 3-10 per cent., 
old bark 1-68. (P. J. Tr., 3d ser., ix. 1014.) According to M. Bernelot-Moens, the dry seeds of the S. tieute contain 
1-469 per cent, of strychnine, with a trace of brucine. (A. J. P., 1866, p. 506.) 898 
Nux Vomica. 
PART I. 
very bitter taste; is soluble in 850 parts of cold and in 500 of boiling water; very soluble in 
alcohol, whether hot or cold ; it dissolves in 4 parts of chloroform, 440 parts of ether, 60 parts 
of benzene, and 120 parts of benzin. It is permanent in the air, hut melts at a temperature 
a little above that of boiling water, and on cooling congeals into a mass resembling wax. The 
hydrated crystals melt at 115° C. (239° F.), and sublime at 204° C. (399 2° F.), while the 
anhydrous base melts at 178° C. (352-4° F.), changing color, and depositing carbon. (P. J. Tr., 
1868, 375.) It forms crystallizable salts with acids. Concentrated nitric acid produces with 
brucine or its salts an intense crimson color, which changes to yellow by heat, and upon the 
addition of stannous chloride becomes violet. A test for brucine, given by M. Stanislas Cotton, 
consists in adding to a warm solution of brucine (from 40° to 50° C.) in nitric acid, a concen- 
trated solution of sodium hyposulphite (thiosulphate). The mixture first becomes violet, and 
then passes to green when the alkaline salt is in excess. (Journ. de Pharm., Juillet, 1869, 18.) 
These effects serve to distinguish brucine from strychnine, and, if produced with the latter 
alkaloid, evince the presence of the former. According to MM. Larocque and Thibierge, 
auric chloride produces, with solutions of the salts of brucine, precipitates at first milky, then 
coffee-colored, and finally chocolate-brown. (Journ. de Chim. Med., Oct. 1842.) Chlorine 
water produces with solution of brucine a rose color, due to the formation of dichlor-brucine. 
This is a reddish-brown, hygroscopic powder. (Arcliiv d. Pharm., 1886, 934.) A dinitro- 
brucine, C23II24(N02)2N204, has also been obtained by the action of nitrogen trioxide upon the 
brucine in alcoholic solution. Brucine appears to bear a definite relation to strychnine in 
chemical constitution, being a dimethoxy-strychnine. According to the analyses of Shenstone 
and Dragendorff, the bark of the nux vomica contains brucine, with a trace of strychnine, 
whilst in the leaves Hooper found only brucine. (P. J. Tr., xxi.) 
This alkaloid has been detected in the body three months after death, being present in all 
the solids and fluids, but especially in the liver and kidneys. (Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., 
July 10,1873, p. 36.) Brucine may be procured from false Angustura bark, in a manner essen- 
tially the same as that in which strychnine is procured from nux vomica; with this differ- 
ence, that the alcoholic extract obtained from the precipitate produced by lime or magnesia 
should be treated with oxalic acid, and subsequently with a mixture of rectified alcohol and 
ether, which takes up the coloring matter, leaving brucine oxalate. This is decomposed by 
magnesia, and the brucine is separated by alcohol, which by spontaneous evaporation yields it 
in the state of crystals. Prescott ( Organic Analysis, 1887, p. 458) gives two methods for the 
separation of strychnine from brucine : first, by the use of alcohol of 0-97 sp. gr., which easily 
dissolves brucine, but has very slight solvent power upon strychnine; second, by Dunstan and 
Short’s method with potassium ferrocyanide. This has recently been reported upon by Holst 
and Beckurts (Pharm. Centralhalle, N. F., 1887, p. 119), who find that if the mixed alkaloids 
be in not too dilute hydrochloric acid solution, on the addition of potassium ferrocyanide the 
whole of the strychnine will be precipitated as ferrocyanide, while the brucine salt will remain 
in solution. 
Igasurine was said to be found in the mother-waters from which strychnine and brucine have 
been precipitated by lime. Jorgensen believed that it was identical with brucine (see A. J. P., 
June, 1872, p. 257), and W. A. Shenstone confirmed this view. (A. J. P., Dec. 1881.) Recent 
investigations show, however, that its existence is very doubtful. 
Igasuric acid has been regarded as erroneously named, and investigators have stated that 
it was malic acid and tannic acid, whilst Gr. Sander (Archiv d. Pharm. 1897, 133) believes that 
the acid found in nux vomica, heretofore known as igasuric acid, is caffeo-tannic acid. 
As a test for nux vomica, Vielgruth proposes to treat a few grains of the suspected powder 
with proof spirit, evaporate the tincture to dryness at a heat not exceeding 96° F., then add a 
drop or two of dilute sulphuric acid, and again raise to the heat mentioned. If nux vomica 
be present, a beautiful carmine-red color will be produced, which will disappear in ten or fif- 
teen minutes after cooling, and reappear, but less brightly, on the reapplication of the heat. 
Sc-hweissinger advocates the direct determination of the alkaloids in nux vomica by titration 
with hydrochloric acid as the best way of ascertaining the strength of pharmaceutical prepa- 
rations. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1885, 579.) Keller’s method of estimating the alkaloids in nux 
vomica (see Proc. A. P. A., 1895, 1024) is commended by Sander. (Archiv d. Pharm., 1897, 
133; see also A. J. P., 1896, 189.) 
Brucine. On account of the difficulty of separating strychnine from brucine, it has been 
found by physiologists difficult to determine the exact action upon the human organism of 
the pure alkaloid. It would seem, however, from the studies of Prof. Reichert, made upon Nux Vomica.—Olea Fixa. 
899 
PART I. 
carefully tested brucine, that its physiological actions are similar to those of strychnine, ex- 
cept that it is much less rapidly absorbed than is strychnine, is from forty to fifty times less 
powerful as a convulsant, is more poisonous to the sensory nerves, and is more uncertain in 
its effects upon bodily temperature. When brucine is brought in contact with the nerves of 
the frog it produces a rapid paralysis of the sensory fibres. Dr. Mays found that a five- or 
ten-per-cent, solution of chemically pure brucine applied to the mouth of man causes rapid 
loss of sensibility, and asserts that a twenty-per-cent, solution is capable of exerting a decided 
local anassthetic influence when placed upon the skin. He has found it very advantageous 
for the relief of the itching of chronic pruritus. Drs. Zeiss and Burnett find that a five-per- 
cent. solution gives great relief as a local application in inflammations about the external ear, 
Dr. Burnett affirming that his results have been far more satisfactory than those which he 
has obtained with cocaine. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The medical and toxic properties of nux vomica are 
those of its alkaloid. (See Strychnina) The belief held by some physicians that it acts more 
favorably as a bitter upon the stomach has only this much of justification,—namely, that it is 
more slowly absorbed, and therefore acts locally somewhat more persistently. 
OLEA. Oils. 
These are liquid or solid substances, unctuous to the touch and characterized by inflamma- 
bility and the property of making a greasy stain upon paper. They are divided into two 
classes, the fixed and the volatile, because distinguished, as their names imply, most readily by 
their different behavior on the application of heat. 
(O'LE-A.) 
These are sometimes termed fatty oils, because they constitute in part the "vegetable and 
animal fats. The distinction between liquid and solid fats is for the most part a physical 
one only, as they contain the same chemical compounds, although in relatively different propor- 
tions. The fatty oils, though existing in greater or less proportion in various parts of plants, 
are furnished for use exclusively by the fruit, and, as a rule, are most abundant in the dicoty- 
ledonous seeds. They are obtained either by submitting the bruised seeds to pressure in 
hempen bags, or by boiling them in water, and skimming off the oil as it rises to the surface. 
When pressure is employed, it is customary to prepare the seeds for the press by exposing them 
to a moderate heat, so as to render the oil more liquid and thus enable it to flow out more 
readily. Another mode of extracting certain oils is by means of liquids having the power of 
dissolving them, and this method is now largely used in practice, carbon disulphide being the 
solvent availed of. Near Berlin, in Germany, is an establishment where the oil existing in 
various grains, as the colza, flaxseed, and mustard, is extracted by means of carbon disulphide, 
on a large scale. For the details of the process, see A. J. P., Nov. 1868, 549. Fixed oils 
may be clarified by subsidence, filtration through animal charcoal or porous solids, precipitation 
with tannin, lead acetate, plaster of Paris, albumen, gelatin, or other agents; cellulose and 
asbestos filters are often used; and on the large scale, for separating mechanical impurities, 
centrifugal machines like those employed for milk. 
The following scheme of classification of the fixed oils, both liquid and solid (Allen, Com- 
mercial Organic Analysis, 2d ed., vol. ii. pp. 62-73), gives a general view of their most essential 
characters, points of difference, etc. 
I. Olive Oil Group. Vegetable Non-drying Oils. The oils of this group solidify on treat- 
ment with nitrous acid or mercuric nitrate, but do not lose their power of producing a greasy 
stain on paper, however long they may be exposed to the air. Their density varies from 0-912 
to about 0-920, and hence is less than that of Groups II., III., and IV. Their fluidity is nota- 
bly less than that of the drying oils. 
This group includes almond oil (from Amygdalus communis), oil of ben (from Moringa olei- 
fera), colza oil (from Brassica campestris oleifera), ground-nut oil (from Arachis hypogsea), oil 
of black mustard (from Sinapis nigra), oil of white mustard (from Sinapis alba), olive oil 
(from Olea europsea), winter rape-seed oil (from Brassica campestris; B. napus), and summer 
rape-seed oil (from Brassica prsecox). 
II. Cotton-seed Oil Group. The oils of this group occupy a position intermediate be- 
tween the vegetable non-drying and the true drying oils (Groups I. and III.). In density they 
1. OLE A FIX A. Fixed Oils. 900 
Olea Fixa. 
PART I. 
somewhat exceed the oils of Group I., hut are lighter than those of Groups III. and IV. They 
form more or less elaidin on treatment with nitrous acid or mercuric nitrate, but do not become 
wholly solidified. On the other hand, they undergo more or less drying on exposure to the air, 
but not so markedly as the oils of Group III. 
This group includes beech-nut oil (from Fagus sylvatica), cotton-seed oil (from Gossypium 
bcirbadense and other species), hazel-nut oil (from Corylus avellana, see Proc. A. P. A., 1893), 
sesame or teel oil (from Sesamum oriental#), sunflower oil (from Helianthus annuus ; II. peren- 
nis), and niger-seed oil (from Guizotia oleifera). 
III. Linseed Oil Group. Vegetable Prying Oils. These oils are not solidified by treatment 
with nitrous acid or mercuric nitrate, but become gradually converted into solid masses or var- 
nishes, by exposure to the air. In density the oils of this group vary from about 0-923 to 
0-937, and hence are distinctly heavier than the non-drying oils and than most of the oils of 
Group II. On the other hand, they are lighter than the oils of Group IV. The fluidity of 
the drying oils is also much higher than that of the non-drying oils. 
This group includes camelina oil (from Myagrum sativum), cress-seed oil (from Lepidium 
sativum), hemp-seed oil (from Cannabis sativa), linseed oil (from Linum usitatissimum ; L. per- 
enne), poppy-seed oil (from Papaver somniferum), Scotch fir-seed oil (from Pinus sylvestris), 
tobacco-seed oil (from Nicotiana tabacum), walnut oil (from Juglans regia), and weld-seed oil 
(from Reseda luteola). 
IV. Castor Oil Group. The oils of this group are distinguished from those of Groups 
I., II., and III. by their very high density and viscosity (i.e., deficient fluidity). They are 
also remarkable for their ready solubility in alcohol, and their marked purgative properties. 
In their drying characters and behavior with the elaidin test they resemble the oils of the 
cotton-seed oil group. Both castor and croton oil are miscible in all proportions with glacial 
acetic acid. 
This group includes castor oil (from Ricinus communis) and croton oil (from Croton tiglium). 
V. Palm Oil Group. Solid Vegetable Fats. This group includes solid fats not containing 
notable quantities of glycerides of lower fatty acids. The densities for the melted fats at 98° 
and 99° C. are compared with the density of water at 15-5° C., taken as 1-000, and vary from 
0*920 to 0-995, calculated at 15-5° C. This group includes palm oil (from fruit of Elais gui- 
neensis), cacao butter (from nuts of Theobroma cacao), nutmeg butter (from nuts of Myristica 
fragrans), and shea butter (from seeds of Bassia parkii). 
VI. Cocoanut Oil Group. Solid Vegetable Fats. This group includes solid fats contain- 
ing notable quantities of glycerides of lower fatty acids,—that is, of acids distilling with more 
or less facility in a current of steam at 100° C. The group includes cocoanut oil (from nuts 
of Cocos nuci/era), palm-nut oil (from kernels of nut of Avoir a elais or Elais guineensis), and 
laurel oil (from fruit of Laurus nobilis). 
VII. Lard Oil Group. Animal Oleins. This group includes those oils fluid at ordinary 
temperatures which are obtained from terrestrial animals. They resemble the fish oils in their 
reaction with chlorine, but are not turned red or brown by boiling with caustic soda. On ex- 
posure to air and on treatment with nitrous acid or mercuric nitrate, they behave like the non- 
drying vegetable oils (Group I.). 
This group includes bone oil, lard oil, tallow oil, and neat’s-foot oil. 
VIII. Tallow Group. Solid Animal Fats. This group comprises such oils as are solid at 
the ordinary temperature. Their melting points vary somewhat, and are capable of permanent 
alteration. The group includes bone fat, butter fat, butterine and oleomargarine, hog’s lard, 
horse fat, beef tallow and mutton tallow, and wool-fat (suint). 
IX. Whale Oil Group. Marine Animal Oils. This group comprises the various fluid 
oils obtained from fish and cetaceous mammals. They are distinguished as a class by their 
offensive fishy odor, by the brown color they assume when subjected to the action of chlorine, 
and by the reddish color which is produced on boiling them with a solution of caustic alkali. 
With sulphuric acid they give colorations varying from light red to purple or brown. Sperm 
oil is distinguished from the others by its peculiar chemical constitution and low specific grav- 
ity. The fish oils do not dry up on exposure to air, and mostly yield but little elaidin on treat- 
ment with nitrous acid. The term “ train oil’ includes whale, seal, shark, cod, and all similar 
oils. Cod oil (from Gadus morrhua and allied species), cod-liver oil (from the same), tanner’s 
cod oil (from various fish), menhaden oil (from Alosa menhaden), porpoise oil (from Delpliinus 
phocsena and allied species), seal oil (from Phoca of various species), shark oil (from Squalus 
maximus and allied species), sperm oil (from the cranial cavities of Physeter macroceplialus), PART I. 
Olea Fixa. 
901 
and whale oil (from Balsena mistecetus and allied species), are all members of this group. For 
a description of various animal oils, see Bull. Pharm., 1893, 297. 
X. Sperm Oil Group. Liquid Waxes. The members of this group differ from all the 
fatty oils of previous classes in not being glycerides, consisting essentially of ethers of mon- 
atomic alcohols of the ethylic series, in which respect they resemble the true waxes, but are 
fluid at ordinary temperatures. They are less dense than the glycerides, they do not dry or 
thicken notably on exposure to air, but they yield solid elaidins on treatment with nitrous acid. 
The group includes sperm oil, doegling oil or bottle-nose oil, and dolphin oil. 
XI. Spermaceti Group. Waxes Proper. Spermaceti and the various waxes differ from the 
true fixed oils and fats in not forming glycerin when saponified, yielding instead certain of the 
higher monatomic alcohols, the identity of which varies with the nature of the wax. These 
alcohols are insoluble in water, and dissolve to but a limited extent in alcohol, but they are 
soluble in ether, chloroform, carbon disulphide, benzene, and petroleum spirit, and are apt to be 
mistaken for added paraffin wax when the substance is saponified and the soap extracted with 
a solvent. 
This group includes beeswax (from honey-comb of various species of bees), Carnauba or 
Brazil wax (from the leaf-coverings of Copernicus cerifera), Chinese wax or Pela wax (pro- 
duced by a species of Coccus which punctures the branches of certain trees), myrtle wax (from 
berries of Myrica cerifera), Ocuba wax (from Myrica ocuba), palm wax (from bark of Ceroxy- 
lon andicola of the Cordilleras), and spermaceti (deposit from the oil found in the cranial 
cavities of the sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus). 
When oils are decomposed by heat they emit vapors of acrolein, a highly volatile liquid 
resulting from the decomposition of glycerin, upon which the fumes of oils mainly depend for 
their irritating effects on the eyes and nostrils. Exposed to a red heat, in closed vessels, they 
yield, among other products of the destructive distillation, a large quantity of combustible and 
illuminating gases, among which ethylene and acetylene are readily recognized. Heated in 
the open air, they take fire, burning with a bright flame, and producing water and carbonic 
acid. When kept in air-tight vessels, they remain unchanged for a great length of time; but 
exposed to the atmosphere they attract oxygen and undergo change. Some, in drying, lose 
their unctuous character, and are converted into a transparent, yellowish, flexible solid. These 
are called drying oils. Others, especially such as contain mucilaginous impurities, become 
rancid, acquiring a sharp taste and an unpleasant smell. This change is owing to the forma- 
tion of an acid, from which the oil may be freed by boiling it for a short time with magnesium 
hydrate and water* The fixed oils are insoluble in water, but are miscible with that fluid by 
means of mucilage, forming mixtures which are called emulsions. They are in general very 
sparingly soluble in alcohol, but readily dissolved by ether, which serves to separate them from 
other vegetable proximate principles. By the aid of heat they can dissolve sulphur and phos- 
phorus. The stronger acids decompose them, giving rise, among other products, to oleic, pal- 
mitic, and stearic acids. Boiled with diluted nitric acid, some of them give rise to malic and 
oxalic acids, besides other substances usually resulting from the action of this acid upon vege- 
table matter. Several acids are dissolved by them without producing any sensible change. 
They are decomposed by salifiable bases, which set free glycerin and oleic, stearic, or other 
fatty acids, which acids unite with the base employed. The compounds of these acids with 
potassa and soda are called soaps. (See Sapo and Emplastrum Plurnbi.) By the addition of 
one part of potassium or sodium carbonate, 160 parts of oil may be brought with distilled 
water into the form of an emulsion. The potassa and soda soaps and the alkaline sulphides 
have a similar effect, but not the bicarbonates. The fixed oils also serve as good vehicles for 
various metallic bases and subsalts, which form soaps to a certain extent soluble in the oil, and 
thus become less irritant to the tissues. Oils thus impregnated may, like the pure oils, be 
* M. Cloes has made investigations in relation to the influence of light in promoting oxidation, and obtained some 
curious results. The general influence of light is very great, as oils undergo comparatively little change in the dark 
for a long time ; though in relation to some of them the change is at length as great as under the light. Thus, while 
the oil of poppies has in 30 days increased about 5 per cent, in weight under colorless light, and has gained only 
a 5000th in the dark, yet at the end of 150 days the weight in the former condition was rather lessened than aug- 
mented, and in the latter, or in the dark, had increased 6'4 per cent. The effect of the different colored rays is also 
very different. The change is at first most rapid under the white light, less so under the blue, and much less under 
the red, yellow, and green, being least of all with the green; but with the advance of time the blue overtakes and even 
passes the white, and at the end of three or four months all are about equal in effect. Heat also accelerates the con- 
cretion of the oils, by favoring their oxidation; and the same effect is produced by introducing into the unchanged 
oil a little which has already been altered by exposure to the air. The oxidation of an oil may be very greatly 
hastened in this way without the aid of heat. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Ohim., 4e ser., ii. 345, 1865.) 902 
Olea Fixa. 
PART I. 
brought to the state of emulsion with water, for convenient administration, by the addition of 
a small proportion of potassium carbonate. (Jeannel and Monsel, Revue Pharm., 1857, p. 48.) 
The fixed oils dissolve many of the alkaloids, the volatile oils, resin, and other proximate prin- 
ciples of plants. The alkaloids are more readily dissolved in them by being first combined with 
oleic acid, the oleates being more soluble than the alkaloids themselves. (Attfield, P. J. Tr., 
March, 1863, p. 308.) According to Buignet, they are, with very few exceptions, indifferent 
to polarized light; of all those used in medicine, the only exceptions being the liver-oils of the 
ray and dog-fish, which have a very feeble left-rotatory power, and castor oil, which is decidedly 
dextrogyrate. (Journ. de Pharm., Oct. 1861, p. 264.) 
The fixed oils, whether animal or vegetable, in their natural state consist in most cases of 
at least two or three distinct oleaginous ingredients, one liquid at ordinary temperatures, and 
the other two concrete. The liquid is a distinct proximate principle, called olein ; the concrete 
principles consist of stearin and palmitin, the former being found most largely in animal and 
the latter in vegetable oils or fats, and the two in most cases existing together in the same oil. 
As the most frequent of these proximate constituents of the fixed oils, and existing in many 
different oleaginous substances, olein, palmitin, and stearin merit a special notice. Prelimi- 
narily, however, to their individual consideration, it will be proper to refer to the existing 
views in relation to their nature and composition generally. 
These three substances, olein, palmitin, and stearin, together with hutyrin, caprin, and other 
minor fat principles, are glycerides ; that is, compound ethers or salts of the triatomic alcohol 
glycerin, C3tI6(0H)3, and of the several fatty acids, oleic, palmitic, stearic, etc., all of which 
are monobasic acids. Thus, olein has the composition 
f0C18H330 (0C16H310 (OC18H360 
C3H6 ] 0Ci8H33°> palmitin, C3II6 1 0CieH310, and stearin, C3H6 ] 0C181I360. 
(oc18h33o _ (oc,6h31o (oc18h35o < 
When these substances, or oils composed principally of them, are treated with alkali with the 
aid of heat, the following decomposition takes place: 
(0C18H330 (OH 
C3H6 ] 0C18H330 + 3(NaOH) = C8H6 ] OH + 3(Na.0C18H330) ; 
(oc18h33o (oh 
that is, olein is decomposed by sodium hydrate into glyceryl hydrate, or glycerin and sodium 
oleate, or a sodium soap. 
The waxes differ from the fats proper in being compound ethers of the higher monatomic 
alcohols, like cetyl alcohol, C16H33.0H, and myricyl alcohol, C30HerOH, instead of being glyce- 
rides. The fatty acids present are partly palmitic and stearic, but more largely still higher 
ones, like cerotic acid, C27HB4Oa. 
Olein. Elain. Liquid Principle of Oils. It is extremely difficult to obtain olein pure. Being 
in most oils associated with the solids stearin and palmitin, it has to be separated by pressure 
and other mechanical means, which separation is not always perfectly effected. As ordinarily 
procured, therefore, olein contains more or less of palmitin or stearin, or both. In this some- 
what impure state it is obtained either by the agency of alcohol or by expression. When one 
of the oils, olive oil, for example, is dissolved in boiling alcohol, the solution, on cooling, de- 
posits the concrete principles, still retaining the olein, which it yields upon evaporation. The 
other method consists in compressing one of the solid fats, or one of the liquid oils rendered 
concrete by cold, between folds of bibulous paper, which absorb the olein, and give it up after- 
wards by compression under water. Olein is a liquid of oily consistence, congealing at —6° C. 
(21-2° F.), colorless when pure, with little odor and a sweetish taste, insoluble in water, solu- 
ble in boiling alcohol and ether. Its formula, as already stated, is C3H6(0C18H330)3, being 
an oleate of the triad radical glyceryl, C„II5. By reaction with nitric acid, or, more exactly 
stated, under the influence of nitrous acid fumes, olein is converted into a deep yellow, buty- 
raceous mass. If this be treated with hot alcohol, a deep orange-red oil is dissolved, and a 
peculiar fatty matter remains, called elaidin. This is white, crystalline, fusible at 34° C. 
(93-2° F.), insoluble in water, readily soluble in ether, and appears to be isomeric with olein. 
It is resolved by saponification with the alkalies into elaidic acid and glycerin. 
Palmitin. Palmitic acid occurs in the more liquid fats, such as palm oil and cocoa-nut oil, 
as well as in butter and human fat, as glyceride; while in spermaceti and some forms of wax 
it is combined with monatomic alcohol radicals. Palmitin is the palmitic acid glyceride, or 
glyceryl tripalmitate. It is best obtained from palm oil. 
Stearin. This exists abundantly in tallow and other animal fats. It may be obtained by PAKT I. 
Olea Fixa. 
903 
treating the concrete matter of lard, free from olein, by cold ether so long as anything is dis- 
solved. The palmitin is thus taken up, and stearin remains. A better method is to dissolve 
suet in heated oil of turpentine, allow the solution to cool, submit the solid matter to expression 
in unsized paper, repeat the treatment several times, and finally dissolve in hot ether, which 
deposits the stearin on cooling. This is concrete, white, opaque in mass, but of a pearly ap- 
pearance as crystallized from ether, pulverizable, fusible at 66-5° C. (152° F.), soluble in boil- 
ing alcohol and ether, but nearly insoluble in those liquids cold, and quite insoluble in water. 
It consists of glyceryl and stearic acid in combination as a glyceride, C3H6(0C18Hg50)g, and 
has been formed synthetically by heating a mixture of these two materials to 280°—300° C. 
Margarin. What was long known under this name was stated by Heintz in 1852 (Journ. 
fur Prakt. Chem., 56, p. 1) to be a mixture of stearin and palmitin : this view has been contra- 
dicted recently, however, and some chemists recognize the identity of margarin as one of the 
simple constituents of fats. The true margaric acid was believed to have been obtained only 
by synthesis, not occurring in nature. 
The fixed oils are liable to certain spontaneous changes, which have been investigated by 
MM. Pelouze and Boudet. It appears from their researches that the oils are accompanied, in 
the seeds which contain them, with principles which act as a ferment and cause the oils to re- 
solve themselves spontaneously into the several fatty acids which they afford on saponification, 
and into glycerin. This change takes place in the seeds as soon as the cells containing the oil 
are broken, so as to permit the contact of the fermenting principle existing in the grain. 
Sometimes the fermenting principle is to a certain extent separated from the seeds along with 
the oil. In such a case the oil undergoes this resolution into the fatty acids and glycerin after 
expression. Such was ascertained to be the case with palm oil, in which, after long keeping, 
MM. Pelouze and Boudet detected the presence of glycerin and of palmitic and oleic acids. 
They moreover proved that, under the continued influence of the ferment, the fatty acids 
themselves undergo changes, among which is the conversion of the oleic into sebacic acid ; and 
it is probable that with a still longer continuance of the same influence the oil would be com- 
pletely destroyed. As this rancidity in fats renders them altogether useless in pharmacy, and 
as it is not always readily discoverable by the senses in its earlier stages, it becomes desirable 
to possess a test by which it may be readily detected. Such a test is to be found, according to 
Mr. Thos. B. Groves, in potassium iodide, which is rapidly decomposed by the new principles 
developed, and, by the orange-brown discoloration produced by the liberation of the iodine, in- 
dicates the existence of rancidity, and by the rapidity and degree of that discoloration, approxi- 
the extent of the change. The alteration of color is said by Mr. Groves to be plainly 
perceptible when only one-twentieth of rancid fat is present. The presence of water in a fatty 
oil favors the production of rancidity. 
It is also extremely important to he able to protect fats against this change. The complete 
exclusion of air, light, and moisture—and, when in relation to air this may not be entirely 
practicable, the destruction by heat of the ferment-germs contained in the air, by which 
the decomposition is often originated—will go far to effect this object; but it would often be 
very inconvenient, if not impossible, to carry these measures into complete effect; and hence 
the discovery of substances which may have the effect of retarding, if not wholly preventing, 
these fermenting processes, whether by the destruction of the ferment-germs or otherwise, is 
extremely desirable. It is now long since one or more substances having this preservative effect 
have been made known and practically used; and since the principle upon which they are 
supposed to act has been discovered the number has been much extended. Thus, benzoin 
rubbed up with fats is well known to preserve them long against rancidity, and benzoinated lard, 
made by mixing ten per cent, of benzoin with melted lard, is one of the official preparations; 
and the buds of the poplar (.Populus nigra') are perhaps still more effectual, as, according to M. 
Deschamps, lard impregnated with their virtues will keep good indefinitely. In the French 
Codex the poplar buds are employed for this purpose in the Pommade Popvleum, in which 
eight parts of the dried buds are used to 60 parts of the ointment, consisting of lard impreg- 
nated with the virtues of several narcotic substances, the fresh narcotic plants being boiled 
with lard until all their water is evaporated, and the buds afterwards digested in the strained 
liquid for 24 hours. Mr. Groves made experiments with many volatile oils and other analogous 
substances to test their preservative power; and, while many of them were found to have con- 
siderable effect, as cloves, Peruvian balsam, sassafras, guaiacum, and creosote, yet the one which 
appeared to act most efficiently was the oil of pimenta; and he proposes to add to the official 
prepared lard of the British Pharmacopoeia either oil of pimenta or balsam of Peru, in the 904 
Olea Volatilia. 
PART I. 
proportion of two drops to the ounce, in order to contribute to its preservation. (See A. J. P., 
1865, 54, 61.) 
Animal fats are especially liable to become rancid when kept; and it is very desirable to 
obviate this elfect; for, instead of having the mild demulcent properties which constitute their 
chief value, they become irritant, and unfit as vehicles for other substances to be applied to 
the skin. Prof. Hirzel says that animal fats may be kept in a good condition for a year by 
the following plan. Mix 14 pounds of the recently melted fat with 5 drachms of common salt 
and 15 grains of alum, in fine powder, heat till a scum is formed on the surface, separate the 
scum, and, when the clear liquid has cooled, wash it many times with water with malaxation, 
so as to remove all the salt, then evaporate the water at a heat insufficient to injure the fat. 
(A. J. R, 1868, 334.) 
The adulteration of the fixed oils may be effected in two ways,—by admixture with the fatty 
oil of substances distinctly foreign to the fats, and by adding a cheaper or inferior oil to one 
of greater value. In the former case we may have the addition of paraffin wax, ceresine, 
mineral oils, neutral tar oils, resin oils, resin, and waxes. Of these, the first three are entirely 
unsaponifiable, resin oils contain but small quantities of saponifiable substances, waxes are 
partly saponifiable, and resin almost completely saponifiable. The determination of unsaponi- 
fiable matter is therefore of great importance. The common method for this is to saponify 
the suspected sample with alcoholic potash and then to shake out the unsaponifiable matter 
with ether or petroleum ether. From this solution, on evaporation, will be obtained the min- 
eral resin or tar oils that may have been present. For these there are appropriate tests else- 
where noted. In case a cheaper oil or fat has been added for the purpose of adulterating a 
more valuable one, we must be guided by the determination of certain constants, such as those 
mentioned below by Cowley, or by the indication of certain qualitative color tests. The con- 
stants referred to are much more to be depended upon in such a case. 
R. C. Cowley (P. J. Tr., 1897, 331) regards the following as the most important deter- 
minations in examining fats and fixed oils. 1. Specific gravity. 2. Melting and solidifying 
points. 3. Melting and solidifying points of fatty acids. 4. Behavior with solvents. 5. The 
Hehner value. 6. The Reichert-Meissl value. 7. The saponification value. 8. The iodine 
value. 
It is sometimes desirable to deprive the fixed oils of color. The following process for this 
purpose is recommended by M. Brunner. The oil is first brought to the state of emulsion by 
strongly agitating it with water rendered mucilaginous by gum or starch; the emulsion is 
treated for each part of oil with two parts of wood charcoal, previously well heated and coarsely 
powdered, the finer particles being sifted out; the pasty mass is then completely dried at a 
heat not exceeding 212° F., and exhausted by cold ether in a percolator; finally, the ethereal 
solution, having been allowed to stand, in order that any charcoal present in it may subside, is 
submitted to distillation, so as to separate the ether, and the oil remains colorless in the retort. 
(Journ. de Pharm., Sept. 1858.) M. Berlandt recommends the following method. Shake 
strongly for some minutes 900 parts of the fixed oil with 120 parts of water holding in solution 
3 parts of potassium permanganate, allow the mixture to stand for some hours in a warm place, 
and then filter. The oil becomes colorless. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Oct. 1867.) 
2. OLE A VOLATILIA. \_Olea Destillatai] Volatile Oils. 
These are sometimes called distilled oils, from the mode in which they are usually procured; 
sometimes essential oils, from the circumstance that they possess, in a concentrated state, the 
properties of the plants from which they are derived. They exist in all odoriferous vegetables, 
sometimes pervading the plant, sometimes confined to a single part; in some instances contained 
in distinct cellules, and preserved after desiccation, in others formed upon the surface, as in 
many flowers, and exhaled as soon as formed. Occasionally two or more are found in differ- 
ent parts of the same plant. Thus, the orange-tree produces one oil in its leaves, another in 
its flowers, and a third in the rind of its fruit. In a few instances, when existing in distinct 
cellules, they may be obtained by pressure, as from the rind of the lemon and orange; but 
they are generally procured by distillation with water. (See page 908.) Some volatile oils, as 
those of bitter almond and mustard, are formed, during the process of distillation, out of sub- 
stances of a different nature pre-existing in the plant. 
The volatile oils are usually yellowish, but often brown, red, green, or blue, and occasionally 
colorless. There is reason, however, to believe that in all instances the color depends on for- PART I. 
Olea Volatilia. 
905 
eign matter dissolved in the oils. Septimus Piesse has succeeded, by the fractional distillation 
of certain volatile oils, in separating a blue liquid, which, by repeated rectification, he has ob- 
tained quite pure. In this state it has the sp. gr. 0-910, and a fixed boiling point of 302-3° 
C. (576° F.), and yields a dense blue vapor having peculiar optical properties. He has named 
this principle azulene, and believes that upon it depends the blueness of volatile oils wherever 
existing. The yellowness of the oils he ascribes to the resin resulting from their oxidation, 
the green and brown colors to a mixture of azulene and resin in various proportions. The 
formula of azulene he gives as C16H260. (Chem. News, Nov. 21, 1863, p. 245.) Gladstone 
names this blue coloring constituent coerulein, and says that it contains nitrogen and is colored 
green by acids and alkalies. The volatile oils differ from the fixed oils in not forming glyce- 
rides when treated with alkalies. 
The volatile oils have a strong odor, resembling that of the plants from which they were 
procured, though generally less agreeable. Their taste is hot and pungent, and, when they are 
diluted, is often gratefully aromatic. The greater number are lighter than water; some are 
heavier; and their sp. gr. varies from 0-847 to 1*17. They partially rise in vapor at ordinary 
temperatures, diffusing their peculiar odor, and are completely volatilized by heat. When dis- 
tilled alone, they almost always undergo partial decomposition. Heated in the open air, they 
take fire and burn with a bright flame attended with much smoke. Almost all those hitherto 
examined have the property of very decidedly deviating the plane of polarization of light, 
some in one direction, and some in the other; and advantage may sometimes be taken of this 
property to detect adulterations of one of these oils with another. Exposed at ordinary tem- 
peratures, they absorb oxygen, assume a deeper color, become thicker and less odorous, and are 
ultimately converted into resin* This change takes place most rapidly under the influence of 
light. Before the alteration is complete, the remaining portion of oil may be recovered by 
distillation. Some of them form well-characterized acids by combination with oxygen.f 
The volatile oils are largely hydrocarbons, although mixed with these are alcohol- or ketone- 
like bodies called camphors, and products of oxidation known under the general name of resins, 
and undoubtedly formed from the hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons are generally known as 
terpenes, from oil of turpentine, which is taken as a type.| Wallach, to whom much of our 
recent knowledge on this subject is due, divides them into classes, as follows: 
1. True terpenes, of the formula C10H16, of which we have two main groups : a, the terpane 
group, uniting with two molecules of haloid acid or four atoms of bromine ; this group includes 
limouene, dipentene, sylvestrene, terpinolene, terpinene, and phellandrene, and its members 
boil between 175° and 185° C.; b, the camphane group, uniting with one molecule of haloid 
acid or two atoms of bromine; this group includes pinene, camphene, and fenchene, and its 
members boil between 151° and 161° C. 
2. Ilemiterpenes, of the formula C5H8, such as isoprene. 
3. Polyterpenes, such as cedrene, cubebenev etc., of the formula C16H24; colophene, of the 
formula C20H32; and caoutchouc, of the formula (C10Hie)x. 
In addition to these naturally occurring hydrocarbons, we have a class of artificially pre- 
* Some interesting observations have been made by M. Auguste Houzeau regarding the chemical influence of 
the atmosphere, which go to prove that, in reference at least to the air at Rouen, in France, which was the site of 
these observations, this influence varies in degree with the season, being greatest in the advanced spring or early 
summer (May and June), diminishing sensibly in summer and greatly in autumn, and increasing at the close 
of winter and the beginning of spring. If this be generally true, the change in oils, as well as in all other 
bodies oxidizable in the air, should be greatest at that period of the year when the atmospheric influence is greatest, 
namely, in May and June, and least when this is least, in the winter months. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e ser., 
ii. 212-218.) 
■f Recovery of volatile oils from their resinifed condition. A process for this purpose, employed by M. Curieux, 
is to treat the old resinified oil with a solution of borax and animal charcoal, these being first mixed to form a 
magma, the oil then added, and the mixture shaken for fifteen minutes. The borax unites with the resinous matter, 
and the magma, adhering to the sides of the vessel, leaves the oil clear and possessed of its original properties. (A. J. 
P., Sept. 1858, p. 398.) 
J Olea cetherea sine terpeno is the name proposed by Dr. Sehweissinger for concentrated volatile oils made so by 
the removal of the non-fragrant hydrocarbon, and representing from two to thirty volumes of the ordinary essential 
oils. Thus, one volume of the concentrated oil represents two volumes of the oils of anise, cassia, fennel, ginger- 
grass, mentha crispa, mentha piperita, cloves, sassafras, and star anise; two and one-half volumes of the oils of ber- 
gamot, caraway, and lavender; four volumes of cumin and rosemary ; five volumes of thyme; six volumes of cori- 
ander ; eight volumes of calamus ; ten volumes of absinthe; twenty volumes of juniper; thirty volumes of angelica, 
lemon, and orange. It is asserted that these concentrated oils are more permanent, more soluble in alcohol and in 
water, have a finer odor, and are of constant composition, thus enabling the specific gravity and boiling point to be 
used as tests of purity. They should be kept in the dark. {Pharm. Centralh., 1888, No. 25.) Under the name of 
“ terpeneless volatile oils,” similar products can now (1899) be found in the market; they are undoubtedly superior 
to the ordinary volatile oils both in odor and strength. 906 
Olea Volatilia. 
PART I. 
pared hydrocarbons known as hydroterpenes, such as diliydrodipentene from dipentene, men- 
thene and carvomenthene from menthol and carvon. 
The terpenes in general are practically insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, chlo- 
roform, benzol, petroleum spirit, and the fixed and volatile oils. (Allen, Commercial Organic 
Analysis, 2d ed., vol. ii. p. 418.) 
The volatile oils are very slightly soluble in water. Agitated with this fluid they render it 
milky, but separate upon standing, leaving the water impregnated with their odor and taste. 
This impregnation is more complete when water is distilled with the oils, or from the plants 
containing them. Trituration with magnesia or its carbonate renders them much more solu- 
ble, probably in consequence of their minute division. The intervention of sugar also greatly 
increases their solubility, and aflords a convenient method of preparing them for internal use. 
The oils which contain no oxygen are scarcely soluble in diluted alcohol; and, according to 
De Saussure, their solubility generally in this liquid is proportionate to the oxygen which they 
contain. The volatile oils dissolve sulphur and phosphorus with the aid of heat, and deposit 
them on cooling. By long boiling with sulphur they form brown, unctuous, fetid substances, 
formerly called balsams of sulphur. They absorb chlorine, which converts them into resin and 
then combines with the resin. Iodine produces a similar effect. They are decomposed by the 
strong mineral acids, and unite with several of the acids from the vegetable kingdom. When 
treated with a caustic alkali, some of them are converted into resin, which unites with the alkali 
to form a kind of soap. Several of the metallic oxides, and various salts which easily part with 
oxygen, convert them into resin. The volatile oils dissolve many of the proximate principles 
of plants and animals, such as the fixed oils and fats, resins, camphor, and several of the alka- 
loids. Exposed to air and light, they acquire a decolorizing property, analogous to that of 
chlorine, which is ascribed by Faraday to their combination with the ozonized oxygen of the 
atmosphere. For some interesting observations on this property of the volatile oils, the reader 
is referred to papers by Dr. J. L. Plummer, of Richmond, Indiana, in A. J. P. (xxv.).* 
The volatile oils, like the fixed oils, are mixtures of two or more principles, which differ in 
their point of volatilization or congelation, or in their composition. It is, however, impossible 
to separate them by distillation alone so as to obtain the several principles entirely pure. When, 
as often happens, the constituents congeal at different temperatures, they may be separated by 
compressing the frozen oil between folds of bibulous paper. The solid matter remains within 
the folds, and the fluid is absorbed by the paper, from which it may be separated by distilla- 
tion with water. The name of stearopten has been proposed for the former, that of eleopten 
for the latter. The solid crystalline substances deposited by volatile oils upon standing are 
also called stearoptens. Some of them are denominated camphors, from their resemblance to 
true camphor. Some are isomeric with the oils in which they are formed, others are oxides 
or hydrates, alcohol-like in character. Certain oils, under the influence of water, deposit crys- 
talline hydrates of the respective oils. 
The volatile oils may be conveniently divided into three classes: 1, the non-oxygenated oils, 
consisting exclusively of carbon and hydrogen, as the oils of turpentine and copaiba; 2, the 
oxygenated oils, containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, as oil of cinnamon and most of the 
aromatic oils; and, 3, the sidphuretted oils, containing sulphur, as the oils of horse-radish and 
mustard. The composition of those which are hydrocarbons simply has already been given. 
The volatile oils are often sophisticated. Among the most common adulterations are fixed 
oils, resinous substances, and alcohol. The presence of the fixed oils may be known by the 
permanent greasy stain which they leave on paper, while that occasioned by a pure volatile oil 
disappears entirely when exposed to heat. They may also in general be detected by their com- 
parative insolubility in alcohol. Both the fixed oils and resins are left behind when the adul- 
terated oil is distilled with water. If alcohol be present, the oil will become milky when agitated 
with water in a graduated tube, and after the separation of the liquids the water will occupy 
more space and the oil less than before. The following method of detecting alcohol was proposed 
by M. Beral. Put twelve drops of the suspected oil in a perfectly dry watch-glass, and add a 
piece of potassium about as large as the head of a pin. If the potassium remains for twelve 
or fifteen minutes in the midst of the liquid, there is either no alcohol present, or less than 4 
per cent. If it disappears in five minutes, the oil contains more than 4 per cent, of alcohol; 
if in less than a minute, 25 per cent, or more. M. Borsarelli employs calcium chloride for the 
* See also the same journal (xxviii. 197) for some curious facts in relation to a repulsive influence exerted upon, 
and changes of color produced in, a mixture of potassium chromate and sulphuric acid, by different volatile oils, at 
sensible and sometimes considerable distances from the mixture, effected probably through the vapor of the oils. PART I. 
Olea Volatilia. 
907 
same purpose. This he introduces in small pieces, well dried and perfectly free from powder, 
into a small cylindrical tube, closed at one end, and about two-thirds filled with the oil to be 
examined, and heats the tube to 212° F., occasionally shaking it. If there be considerable pro- 
portion of alcohol, the chloride will be entirely dissolved, forming a solution which sinks to the 
bottom of the tube; if only a very small quantity, the pieces will lose their form, and collect at 
the bottom in a white adhering mass; if none at all, they will remain unchanged. (Joum. de 
Pharm., xxvi. 429.) J. J. Bernoulli proposes as a test dry potassium acetate, which remains 
unaffected in a pure oil, but will be dissolved if alcohol be present, and form a distinct liquid. 
(See A. J. P., xxv. 82.) Mr. George A. Kelly suggests a simple test to detect alcohol: a quan- 
tity of the oil is placed in a capsule, which is put in a dark room, and a lighted match applied 
to it. The alcohol in the oil will burn with its characteristic lambent flame, whilst if no alcohol 
be present the flame will be yellow and smoky. The most dangerous adulterant of volatile 
oils is a liquid sold under some “ fancy name,” found in the markets of London and other 
large cities, and recommended for “ reducing” essential oils; one specimen examined by John 
Barclay (P. J. Tr., 1896, 463) had a delicate odor, and could be mixed with oils of lemon and 
bergamot without being detected by smell or taste. It was believed to be a Isevo-pmene. There 
are good reasons for believing that similar liquids are used to an enormous extent. 
Sometimes volatile oils of little value are mixed with the more costly. The taste and smell 
afford in this case the best means of detecting the fraud. The specific gravity of the oils 
may also serve as a test of purity. When two oils, of which one is lighter and the other 
heavier than water, are mixed, they may be separated by long agitation with this fluid, and 
will take a place corresponding to their respective specific gravities ; but it sometimes happens 
that an unadulterated oil may thus be separated into two portions. The difference of apparent 
effect produced by iodine with the several oils has been proposed as a test; and bromine was 
employed for the same purpose by Prof. John M. Maisch, who used both these tests preferably 
in the state of ethereal solution ; which, as it is liable to spontaneous change by keeping, should 
be prepared when wanted for use. According to Liebig, when iodine is made to act on a vola- 
tile oil, a portion of it combines with the hydrogen of the oil, forming hydriodic acid, while 
another portion takes the place of the lost hydrogen. Oil of turpentine may be detected by 
remaining in part undissolved when the suspected oil is treated with three or four times its 
volume of alcohol of the sp. gr. 0-84; or, according to M. Mero, by causing the suspected oil, 
when agitated with an equal measure of poppy oil, to remain transparent, instead of becoming 
milky, as it would do if pure. The latter test will not apply to the oil of rosemary. (Joum. 
de Pharm., 3e ser., vii. 303.) G. S. Heppe suggests a very delicate test of oil of turpentine 
and most other non-oxygenated oils, when used to adulterate one of the oils containing oxygen. 
A piece of copper nitroprusside, of the size of a pin’s head, is put into a little of the suspected 
oil in a test-tube, and heated until the liquid begins to boil. The boiling must be continued 
only a few seconds. If the oil be pure and oxygenated, the copper nitroprusside will become 
black, brown, or gray; if oil of turpentine or other non-oxygenated oil be present, the deposit 
will be green or bluish green, and the supernatant liquid colorless or yellowish. (Chem. Gaz., 
April 15, 1857, p. 155 ; Proc. A. P. A., 1858, p. 344.) _ 
The different relations of the volatile oils to polarized light may, to a certain extent, be made 
available for the detection of adulterations, especially where the action of the adulterating oil 
is in an opposite direction to that of the oil adulterated. Thus, the oils of juniper, lavender, 
rosemary, rotate the plane of polarization to the left, while American oil of turpentine rotates 
it to the right; and if this should be added to one of the other oils it might in some degree 
neutralize their action, and thus offer one means for its detection. Unfortunately, the French 
oil of turpentine, from the juice of the Pinus maritima, acts strongly in the opposite direction. 
But the very strength of its left-rotatory power might lead to its detection by the abnormal 
increase of this power which it would impart to the oils in question. For a table of the direc- 
tion and degree of the rotating power in several of the oils most employed, see P. J. Tr., Oct. 
1865. Synthetic or artificial 'volatile oils are now (1899) largely manufactured. They vary 
greatly in their resemblance to the natural products. They will be considered under their 
respective titles elsewhere. 
Volatile oils may be preserved without change in small, well-stoppered amber-colored bottles, 
entirely filled with the oil, and secluded from the light. 
Manufacture. Most of the volatile oils may be prepared by the general formula of the 
U. S. P. 1870 : “ Put the substance from which the Oil is to be extracted into a retort or other 
vessel suited for distillation, and add enough water to cover it; then distil by a regulated 908 
Olea Volatilia. 
PAET I. 
heat into a large refrigeratory. Separate the Distilled Oil from the water which comes over 
with it.”* 
Under the general observations on the Aqux, or Waters, will be found remarks upon the use 
of steam in preparing the Distilled Waters, which are to a considerable extent applicable also to 
the volatile oils. 
The substances from which the volatile oils are extracted may be employed in either the 
recent or the dried state. Certain flowers, however, such as orange flowers and roses, must be 
used fresh, or preserved with salt or by means of glycerin, as they afford little or no oil after 
desiccation. Most of the aromatic herbs, also, as peppermint, spearmint, pennyroyal, and 
marjoram, are usually distilled while fresh ; although it is thought by some that when moder- 
ately dried they yield a larger and more grateful product. Dried substances, before being 
submitted to distillation, require to be macerated in water till they are thoroughly penetrated 
by this fluid; and to facilitate the action of the water it is necessary that, when of a hard or 
tough consistence, they should be properly comminuted by slicing, shaving, rasping, bruising, 
or other similar mechanical operation. 
The water which is put with the subject of distillation into the still answers the double 
purpose of preventing the decomposition of the vegetable matter by regulating the tempera- 
ture, and of facilitating the volatilization of the oil, which, though in most instances it readily 
rises with the vapor of boiling water, requires, when distilled alone, a considerably higher 
temperature, and is at the same time liable to be partially decomposed. Some oils, however, 
will not ascend readily with steam at 100° C. (212° F.), and in the distillation of these it is 
customary to use water saturated with common salt, which does not boil under 110° C. (230° 
F.). Recourse may also be had to a bath of strong solution of calcium chloride, or to an oil- 
bath, the temperature of which is regulated by a thermometer, as suggested by the Edinburgh 
College in their general directions, given above. Other oils, again, may be volatilized with 
water at a temperature below the boiling point; and, as heat exercises an injurious influence 
over the oils, it is desirable that the distillation should be effected at as low a temperature as 
possible. To prevent injury from heat, it has been recommended to suspend the substance 
containing the oil in a basket, or to place it upon a perforated shelf, in the upper part of the 
still, so that it may be penetrated by the steam, without being in direct contact with the 
water. Another mode of effecting the same object is to distil it in vacuo. Dr. Duncan stated 
that the most elegant volatile oils he had ever seen were prepared in this manner by Mr. Barry, 
the inventor of the process. The employment of steam heat also prevents injury; and the 
best volatile oils are now prepared in Philadelphia in this way. Steam can be very conve- 
niently applied to this purpose by causing it to pass through a coil of tube, of an inch or three- 
quarters of an inch bore, placed in the bottom of a common still. The end at which the 
steam is admitted enters the still at the upper part, and the other end, at which the steam and 
condensed water escape, passes out laterally below, being furnished with a stopcock, by which 
the pressure of the steam may be regulated, and the water drawn off when necessary. In 
some instances it is desirable to conduct the steam immediately into the still near the bottom, 
by which the contents are kept in a state of brisk ebullition. This method is used in the prep- 
aration of the oil of bitter almond and the oil of mustard. The same method is applicable to 
the preparation of the distilled water. 
The quantity of water added is not a matter of indifference. An excess above what is 
necessary acts injuriously by holding the oil in solution when the mixed vapors are condensed ; 
and if the proportion be very large, it is possible that no oil whatever may be obtained separate. 
On the contrary, if the quantity be too small, the whole of the oil will not be distilled, and there 
will be danger of the substance in the still adhering to the sides of the vessel and thus be- 
coming burnt. (See page 191.) Enough water should always be added to cover the solid 
material and prevent the latter accident. Dried plants require more water than the fresh and 
succulent. The whole amount of material in the still should not exceed three-fourths of its 
capacity, as otherwise there would be danger of the liquid boiling over. The form of the 
still has an influence over the quantity of water distilled, which depends more upon the extent 
of surface than upon the amount of liquid submitted to evaporation. By employing a high 
and rather narrow vessel we may obviate the disadvantage of an excess of water. (See p. 535.) 
Sometimes the proportion of oil in the substance employed is so small that it is wholly dissolved 
* A large proportion of the volatile oils of European commerce is produced in Grasse, a town of France, twenty- 
five miles west of Nice. For an elaborate article on this industry and methods of preparation, see Arch. d. Pharm., 
xxii. 473, abstracted in the P. J. Tr., vol. xv. 468. Olea Volatilia. 
909 
PART I. 
in the water distilled, even though the proportion of the liquid in the still is not greater than 
is absolutely essential. In this case it is necessary to redistil the same water several times 
from fresh portions of the plant, till the quantity of oil exceeds the solvent power of the water. 
This process is called cohobation. 
The more volatile of the oils pass with facility along with the steam into the neck of the 
common still; but some which are less volatile are apt to condense in the head and thus return 
into the still. For the distillation of the latter, a still should he employed with a very low 
head. (See cut on page 535.) As, after the distillation of any one oil, it is necessary that the 
apparatus should he thoroughly cleansed before being used for the preparation of another, it 
is better that the condensing tubes should be straight, rather than spiral as in the ordinary 
still. It should be recollected, moreover, that certain oils, such as those of anise and fennel, 
are rendered solid by a comparatively slight reduction of temperature, and that in the distilla- 
tion of these the water employed for refrigeration should not be below 5-5° C. (42° F.). 
The mixed vapors are condensed into a milky liquid, which is collected in a receiver, and, 
after standing for some time, separates into the oil and a clear solution of it, the former floating 
on the surface, or sinking to the bottom, according as it is lighter or heavier than water. The 
distillation should be continued so long as the fluid coming over has a milky appearance. 
The last step in the process is to separate the oil from the water. For this purpose the 
Florence receiver may be used. This is a conical glass vessel, broad at the bottom and nar- 
row towards the top, and very near its base furnished with a tubulure or opening, to which 
is adapted, by means of a pierced cork, a bent tube so shaped as to rise perpendicularly to 
seven-eighths of the height of the receiver, then to pass off from it at right angles, and near 
the end to bend downward. The condensed liquid being admitted through the opening at the 
top of the receiver, the oil separates, and, rising to the top, occupies the upper narrow part of 
the vessel, while the water remains at the bottom, and enters the tube affixed to the receiver. 
When the surface of the liquid attains in the receiver a higher level than the top of the tube, 
the water will necessarily begin to flow out through the latter, 
and may be received in bottles. The oil thus accumulates as long 
as the process continues; but it is evident that the plan is appli- 
cable only to the oils lighter than water. For the heavier oils, 
cylindrical vessels may be employed, to be renewed as fast as 
they are filled. But, as all the water cannot be removed by 
these plans, it is necessary to resort to some other method of 
effecting a complete separation. An instrument called a separa- 
tory is usually employed for this purpose. It consists of a glass 
funnel, or globular vessel, furnished with a stopper, and pro- 
longed at the bottom into a very narrow tube. The lower open- 
ing being closed, the mixed liquids are introduced and allowed 
to stand till they separate. The orifice at the bottom is then 
opened, and, the stopper at the top being a little loosened, so as to admit the air, the heavier 
liquid slowly flows out, and may be separated to the last drop from the lighter, which floats 
above it. If the oil is heavier than the water, it passes out of the separatory ; if lighter, it 
remains within. According to George Leuchs, all oils obtained by distillation with water, even 
when perfectly clear, contain some water. (A. J. P., 1873, p. 110.) 
The water saturated with oil should be preserved for use in future distillations, as it can dis- 
solve no more of the oil. One or more volatile acids are frequently found in the distilled water, 
as acetic, butyric, or valerianic; and Wunder has detected all three of these acids in the water 
distilled from chamomile flowers. (Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem., lxiv. 499.) For an illustration 
of a cheap apparatus for distilling volatile oils by steam under slight pressure, see Proc. A. P. 
A., 1894, 680. 
According to Overbeck, all the volatile oils may be decolorized by distilling them from an 
equal weight of poppy-seed oil and a saturated solution of common salt. (Archiv d. Pharm., 
lxxxiv. 149.) 
When first procured, the oils have a disagreeable empyreumatic odor, from which they may 
be freed by allowing them to stand for some days in vessels loosely covered with paper. They 
should then be filtered and introduced into small opaque bottles, which should be well stoppered 
so as to exclude the air. When altered by exposure to air, they may sometimes be restored to 
their original appearance and quality by agitation with a little recently heated animal charcoal; 
and the same method may be employed for freeing them from adhering water. 910 
Olea Volatilia.—Oleata. 
The volatile oils have the medical properties of the plants from which they are derived; 
and, as their remedial application has been mentioned under the heads of these plants respec- 
tively, it is unnecessary to treat of it in this place. They may be administered upon a lump 
of sugar; or triturated with at least ten times their weight of sugar, forming oleo-saccharates, 
which are then dissolved in water; or made into emulsions with water, sugar, and gum arabic. 
In making emulsions with volatile oils, it has been recommended first to dissolve them in one 
of the fixed oils, the oil of almond for example, and then to emulsionize the oleaginous solu- 
tion with syrup and gum arabic. Por 100 parts of water, 15 of the almond oil in which the 
volatile oil is to be dissolved, 10 of powdered gum arabic, and 25 of syrup may be taken. 
(Journ. de Pliarm., Juin, 1864, p. 461.) The volatile oils are often kept dissolved in alcohol 
under the name of essences.* The following suggestions on preparing emulsions of the volatile 
oils may be useful. Oil of turpentine and other volatile oils, to be emulsionized in quantity, 
are most successfully treated by rubbing them with the powdered gum, and, when intimately 
mixed, adding at once, with rapid trituration, one and a half times the weight of the gum 
used, of water. By this treatment the volatile oil gets thoroughly divided before contact with 
water, and, if the quantity of water indicated be added at once, the emulsion will have the 
right preliminary consistence, and unite with and emulsionize the volatile oil. If, however, 
but a little water be added, this will seize on the gum, forming a pilular mass, and throwing 
the volatile oil out of union. Such an emulsion is more permanent when a little fixed oil is 
used. 
PART I. 
OLEATA. Oleates. 
016ates, Fr.; Oleate, G. 
The oleates are a class of preparations which were introduced to the medical profession by 
Prof. John Marshall, F.R.S., in 1872. They are usually solutions of certain bases in oleic 
acid, and are made by triturating the solid substance with the oleic acid until it is dissolved. 
Whenever it is possible, the application of heat should be avoided; and it has been observed 
that the freshly precipitated oxides of the metals dissolve more readily than those which are 
old. The title oleate is probably the best that could be devised, although it must be under- 
stood that, as found in the Pharmacopoeias, they are not pure chemical compounds, but merely 
compounds of the oxides or the alkaloids, as the case may be, with oleic acid dissolved in a 
great excess of the latter.f 
Oleates may be made either by direct combination of the ingredients or by double decom- 
position. When made by the latter method, a good quality of oleic acid should be treated 
with the proper quantity of solution of sodium hydrate, to saponify it, any excess of the alkali 
being neutralized with a little tartaric acid. This soap solution is preferably used diluted.J 
(O-LE-A'TA.) 
* Enfleurage. This term is applied by the French to the impregnation of fixed oils and fatty matters with the 
odors of certain sweet-scented plants, such as jasmine, tuberose, and mignonette, the oils of which are so delicate and 
fugitive that they cannot well be separated by distillation. The process consists in exposing the fatty matter, placed 
in layers, in suitable frames, to the exhalations from the flowers, which are absorbed, and give their characteristic 
odor to the fat. Another plan is to expose alternate layers of the flowers, and of cotton impregnated with bland 
fixed oil, to the sun, and afterwards to express the oil from the cotton. (A. J. P., xxix. 551.) The French sometimes 
give to the spirituous solutions made by extracting the odors from fats and oils with alcohol the name of Essences. 
f Dr. L. Wolff has published a process for obtaining oleates, as follows. One part of Castile soap (sodium oleo- 
palmitate) is dissolved in eight parts of water, the solution so obtained is allowed to cool and stand for 24 hours, 
when there will be a considerable deposit of sodium palmitate, while the supernatant liquor, containing mostly sodium 
oleate, is drawn off and then decomposed with a concentrated solution of a metallic salt which, if obtainable, should 
contain no free acid to prevent the formation of free oleo-palmitic acid. The heavy deposit of oleo-palmitate so de- 
rived is drained off, pressed out in the strainer, and the adherent water evaporated in a water-bath; after this it is 
dissolved in about six to eight times its quantity of petroleum benzin, and the insoluble palmitate is left to subside, 
while the solution of oleate decanted therefrom is filtered off. The benzin evaporated will yield an oleate that is en- 
titled to that name, as it is a chemical combination and will remain stable and efficacious. The oleates, so prepared, 
present an amorphous appearance, while the palmitates are of a crystalline character. (A. J. P., 1881, p. 545.) 
J Sulpholeic Acid and Sulpholeates. Sulpholeates, or salts produced by the combination of alkalies with sulph- 
oleic acid, have come into use on account of their ability to dissolve many substances or hold them in suspension as 
emulsifying agents. Sulpholeic acid is prepared as follows. Castor, almond, or other fixed oil is gradually mixed 
with 30 or 40 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, the mixture being cooled, if necessary, with ice, to prevent a rise 
of temperature above 50° C. (122° F.). The reaction, which at first is quite violent, is allowed to go on for from six to 
twelve hours, after which the mixture of acid and glycerin is decanted, the residue mixed with 100 parts of water, and 
this, after stirring, is also decanted. The resulting sulpholeic acid is converted into alkaline snlpholeate by the addi- 
tion of caustic or carbonate of the required alkali. From this combination pure sulpholeic acid is obtained by careful 
decomposition with sulphuric acid, and agitation with benzin or ether, which leaves the acid on evaporation pure 
and anhydrous. (Phann. Rundschau, 1885, p. 154.) According to Dr. A. Mueller Jacobs, when concentrated and in 
as pure a state as possible, the sulpholeates, as well as the free sulpho-acids themselves, mix readily and completely with 
a great variety of organic compounds, for instance with liquid hydrocarbons, particularly those of low boiling point, 
with chlorine, iodine, and bromine derivatives of the same, with ethers and alcohols, with organic sulphur compounds, PAET I. 
Oleata.—Oleatum Hydrargyri. 
911 
Prof. J. M. Good, in making the oleates of the alkaloids, proposes the use of sufficient oleic 
acid to dissolve the alkaloid and then diluting the solution with a bland fixed oil, such as 
almond oil. (Proc. Missouri Pharm. Association, 1891, p. 65.) 
The medical properties of the oleates are, of course, dependent upon the base, so that these 
preparations may be considered the equivalents of the corresponding ointments, over which, 
however, they have certain advantages. They are much cleaner and more elegant in appear- 
ance. They seem to be more irritating than the ointments, and, unless diluted with an equal 
bulk of cotton-seed, olive, or other bland oil, are, when applied with friction, apt to provoke a 
cutaneous eruption or even pustulation. Dr. Marshall recommends that they be applied with 
a brush, or gently spread over the part with one finger. 
OLEATUM HYDRARGYRI. U. S. (Br.) Oleate of Mercury. 
“ Precipitated Mercuric Oleate, formed by the interaction of mercuric chloride and sodium 
oleate.” Br. 
Hydrargyri Oleas, Br., Mercuric Oleate; Oleate de Mercure, Fr.; Oelsaures Quecksilber, G. 
“ Yellow Mercuric Oxide, thoroughly dried, two hundred grammes [or 7 ounces av., 24 grains] ; 
Oleic Acid, eight hundred grammes [or 28 ounces av., 96 grains], To make one thousand grammes 
[or 35 ounces av., 120 grains]. Introduce the Oleic Acid into a capacious mortar, and gradu- 
ally add to it the Yellow Mercuric Oxide by sifting it upon the surface of the Acid, and incor- 
porate it by continuous stirring. Then set the mixture aside in a warm place, at a temperature 
not exceeding 40° C. (104° F.), and stir frequently, until the Oxide is dissolved.” U. S. 
“ Mercuric Chloride, 1 ounce (Imperial) or 32 grammes; Hard Soap, powdered, 2 ounces 
(Imp.) or 64 grammes; Oleic Acid, 1 jl. drachm (Imp. meas.) or 4 cubic centimetres; Dis- 
tilled Water, boiling, a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Mercuric Chloride in ten fluid ounces 
(Imp. meas.) or three hundred and twenty cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water. Triturate 
the Oleic Acid with the Hard Soap, and dissolve the product in eleven fluid ounces (Imp. meas.) 
or three hundred and fifty-two cubic centimetres of the Distilled Water. Mix the solutions; 
boil for ten minutes ; set aside for the mercuric oleate to deposit; decant the supernatant liquid ; 
wash the precipitated oleate with hot Distilled Water until the decanted liquid affords little or 
no reaction for chloride, and then dry it on a water-bath.” Br. It is “ A substance of unctu- 
ous consistence, having a light greyish-yellow color, liable to darken by keeping. It has a 
somewhat saponaceous odor.” Br. 
This preparation was introduced by Prof. John Marshall in 1872. If made from oleic acid 
which has been purified from the usual contaminations (palmitic and stearic acids), it is a 
clear yellowish liquid of a thick consistence and having the peculiar odor of oleic acid. As 
usually seen, however, it is of the consistence and appearance of petrolatum, due to the pres- 
ence of small quantities of mercuric palmitate and stearate. (See Acidum Oleicum, p. 75.) 
The formula of a normal oleate of mercury would be (CiaHg302)2Hg. For its formation we 
should reckon for every 25 parts of mercuric oxide from 65 to 66 parts of oleic acid. Free oleic 
acid is intentionally present in this U. S. preparation, which is known frequently as “ 20 per 
cent, oleate of mercury.” In making this preparation, care must be exercised in the selection 
of the oleic acid, and to avoid exceeding the degree of heat directed in the official process; 
indeed, our experience has been that it keeps better if made by the cold process,—i.e., by sim- 
ply mixing the freshly precipitated yellow oxide with the oleic acid, and allowing them to stand 
(o-le-a'tum hy-dear'^y-r!.) 
such as carbon disulphide, oil of mustard, mercaptane, etc., and with all essential oils. They also dissolve varying 
quantities of sulphur, iodoform, solid hydrocarbons, such as naphtalin, naphtol, anthracine, and paraffin, the ter- 
panes and camphenes. These liquid mixtures of sulpholeates and other bodies have the property of forming emul- 
sions or even clear solutions with water. The limit of miscibility (in form of emulsion) or solubility varies consid- 
erably, and depends both on the degree of concentration of the sulpholeate serving as a menstruum, and on certain 
little understood properties of the substances mixed with it. For instance, 100 parts of pure neutral sodium sulpho- 
ricinoleate yield with 50 parts of ether an almost clear solution; so also with 30 parts of volatile oil of mustard, 30 
parts of petroleum benzin, 100 parts of coal-tar benzol, 40 parts of carbon disulphide, etc. Larger quantities of these 
substances yield permanent milky emulsions, foaming when diluted and shaken with water. 
This peculiar behavior of the sulpholeates, and particularly of the sulpho-ricinoleate of alkalies, towards many 
otherwise insoluble or difficultly soluble substances, as well as their pronounced saponaceous character and the great 
readiness with which they take up and combine with liquids, is said to render them eminently suitable for various 
technical and medical uses. 
The liquid alkaline salt which forms the solvent is termed polysolve by Dr. A. Mueller Jacobs, who believes that 
the sulpholeate mixtures will be found excellent solvents for substances the employment of which in a concentrated 
condition is accompanied by certain untoward effects, or may serve as vehicles in place of vaseline, oils, glycerin, 
etc., in perfumery, soap-making, or pharmacy. (Amer. Druggist, 1884, p. 22.) 912 
Oleatum Veratrinx.—Oleoresinx. 
PART I. 
at ordinary temperatures until the precipitate has dissolved. The British preparation is 
modelled after Shoemaker’s process. The precipitated mercuric oleate is difficult to free from 
water, and is prone to change. In time, even with the best oleic acid that can be procured, 
some decomposition will take place, and metallic mercury will be found at the bottom of the 
containing bottle. The rapidity of the change will be in proportion to the impurities in the 
oleic acid and the degree of heat employed. Beringer’s process, by the double decomposition 
of potassium oleate and mercuric nitrate, is commended by Edel. (See West. Drug., 1894, 85.) 
Medical Properties. This preparation may often be substituted with advantage for 
mercurial ointment, which it closely resembles in its medical properties, except that it is more 
readily absorbed, and therefore more effective. It has been especially commended by Dr. Mar- 
shall in cases of chronically inflamed joints, and in hordeolum, indurations after abscesses, and 
various other forms of superficial local inflammations of a slow type; also in sycosis, tinea, 
psoriasis, eczema, and as a constitutional alterative in hereditary syphilis. For many purposes 
it is much improved by dissolving in every drachm of it one grain of morphine. The alkaloid 
itself must be used in such cases, as its salts are not soluble in oleic acid. 
OLEATUM VERATRINE. U. S. Oleate of Veratrine. 
(O-LE-A'TUM VER-A-TEI'NjE.) 
Oleate de Veratrine, Fr.; Oelsaures Yeratrin, G. 
“ Veratrine, two grammes [or 31 grains] ; Oleic Acid, ninety-eight grammes [or 3 ounces av., 
200 grains], To make one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 231 grains]. Rub the Veratrine 
with a small quantity of Oleic Acid, in a warm mortar, to a smooth paste. Then add the 
remainder of the Oleic Acid, previously warmed, and stir frequently, until the Veratrine is 
dissolved.” IT. S. 
This preparation is simply a solution of the alkaloid in oleic acid. It may be substituted 
for Unguentum Veratrinse, but is exactly half the strength. It is well adapted for obtaining 
all the advantage that can be derived from an application of veratrine by inunction. (See 
Veratrinse.) When the veratrine is to be used as a counter-irritant, the ointment is preferable, 
because less favorable to the absorption of the alkaloid. The Oleate of Morphine is made in 
the same way. 
OLEATUM ZINCI. U. S. Oleate of Zinc. 
(O-LE-A'TUM ZIN'CI.) 
“ Zinc Oxide, fifty grammes [or 1 ounce ay., 334 grains] ; Oleic Acid, nine hundred and fifty 
grammes [or 33 ounces av., 223 grains], To make one thousand grammes [or 35 ounces av., 120 
grains]. Introduce the Oleic Acid into a capacious capsule, and gradually add to it the Zinc 
Oxide by sifting it upon the surface of the Acid, and incorporate it by continuous stirring. 
Set the mixture aside for a few hours, and then heat it on a water-bath, frequently stirring, 
until the Oxide is dissolved.” U. S. 
This oleate will be found for the first time in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1890. It was 
official in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1885. (See Unguentum Zinci Oleatis.') It is intended 
to be mixed with petrolatum or soft paraffin and applied externally. 
OLEORESIN/E. Oleoresins. 
(O-LE-O-EE.J'I-NJE.) 
016o-r6sines, Extraits 6theres, Fr.; Oelharze, Aetherische Extrakte, G. 
The oleoresins, as a class of Preparations, were introduced into the TJ. S. Pharmacopoeia at 
the revision of 1860, having been previously classed with the Fluid Extracts. Their pecu- 
liarity is that they consist of principles which, when extracted by means of ether, retain a 
liquid or semi-liquid state upon the evaporation of the menstruum, and at the same time have 
the property of self-preservation, differing in this respect from the fluid extracts, which re- 
quire the presence of alcohol in order to prevent decomposition. They consist chiefly, as their 
name implies, of oil, either fixed or volatile, holding resin and sometimes other active matter 
in solution. Their preparation is very simple, consisting in the exhaustion of the medicine 
employed with ether, by means of percolation, and the subsequent evaporation of the men- 
struum. In consequence of the great volatility of ether, it may in great measure be recovered 
by distillation, thus very materially diminishing the costliness of the process. It is proper not Oleoresina Aspidii.—Oleoresina Capsid. 
PART I. 
913 
to continue the heat necessary for the distillation till the whole of the ether is driven over, lest, 
towards the close, a portion of the volatile matters also should pass, and the strength of the 
oleoresin be impaired. Hence in every instance the last portions of the menstruum are allowed 
to separate by spontaneous evaporation. Benzin has been proposed as a substitute for ether 
in these preparations, but should not be permitted to supersede it until officially sanctioned. 
OLEORESINA ASPIDII. U. S. (Br.) Oleoresin of Aspidium. 
Extractum Eilicis Liquidum, Br.; Oleoresina Filicis, Pharm. 1870; Liquid Extract of Male Fern, Oil of Fern; 
Extractum Filicis, P. G.j Oleum Filicis Maris; Huile (Extrait ethere) de Fougere mile, Fr.j Wurmfarnextrakt, 
Wurmfarnol, G. 
“ Aspidium, recently reduced to No. 60 powder, Jive hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 279 
grains] ; Ether, a sufficient quantity. Put the Aspidium into a cylindrical glass percolator, 
provided with a stopcock, and arranged with cover and receptacle suitable for volatile liquids. 
Press the drug firmly, and percolate slowly with Ether, added in successive portions, until the 
drug is exhausted. Recover the greater part of the Ether from the percolate by distillation 
on a water-bath, and, having transferred the residue to a capsule, allow the remaining Ether 
to evaporate spontaneously. Keep the Oleoresin in a well-stoppered bottle. Note.—Oleoresin 
of Aspidium usually deposits, on standing, a granular-crystalline substance. This should be 
thoroughly mixed with the liquid portion before use.” U. S. 
“ Exhaust Male Fern Rhizome, in No. 20 powder, with Ether, by percolation ; evaporate 
the Ether from the clear percolate on a water-bath or by distillation, until an oily Extract re- 
mains.” Br. 
This is the only preparation of male fern which should be used; in its making male fern 
which is green in color and recently collected should be employed. It is a thick, dark green 
liquid, usually containing a granular deposit of jilicic acid, which is regarded as the active ingre- 
dient and should not be separated. Wm. G-. Greenewalt found both the liquid and the sedi- 
ment effective taenicides, the sediment being somewhat the more active. It has the odor of fern, 
and a nauseous, bitterish, somewhat acrid taste. According to Hayes, when an absolutely dry 
root and an anhydrous ether (containing but little alcohol) of a specific gravity below 0-728 are 
used, the oleoresin remains clear. Kramer states that a very active extract of male fern may 
be prepared by exhausting with ether the fresh juicy rhizomes collected in May or October freed 
from scales and cut into small pieces. The ethereal tincture should be kept in a cool place 
until wanted, when the necessary quantity should be converted into extract. One dose, two to 
four drachms, of such an extract is said to have always produced satisfactory results. (Pharm. 
Cent., xxv. 578.) Dose, from one-half to one fluidrachm (1-9-3-75 C.c.), administered in gelatin 
capsules. 
(6-LE-6-Rfi§'l-NA AS-PID'I-I.) 
OLEORESINA CAPSICI. U. S. Oleoresin of Capsicum. 
(O-LE-O-EEij'l-NA CXP'SI-CI.) 
Oleoresine (Extrait £there) de Capsique, FrSpanischpfeffer-Oelharz, G. 
“ Capsicum, in No. 60 powder, five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces ay., 279 grains] ; Ether, 
a sufficient quantity. Put the Capsicum into a cylindrical glass percolator, provided with a 
stopcock, and arranged with cover and receptacle suitable for volatile liquids. Press the drug 
firmly, and percolate slowly with Ether, added in successive portions, until the drug is ex- 
hausted. Recover the greater part of the Ether from the percolate by distillation on a water- 
bath, and, having transferred the residue to a capsule, allow the remaining Ether to evaporate 
spontaneously. Then pour off the liquid portion, transfer the remainder to a strainer, and 
when the separated fatty matter (which is to be rejected) has been completely drained, mix 
the liquid portions together. Keep the Oleoresin in a well-stoppered bottle.” TJ. S. 
The active principle of capsicum, called capsicin, is very soluble in ether, and is wholly ex- 
tracted in the process. Its precise nature has not been determined. (See Capsicum.) After 
the concentration of the ethereal solution, a solid fatty matter separates on standing, hut a 
portion of fixed oil probably still remains. The preparation is a very thick liquid, capable, 
however, of being dropped, of a dark reddish-brown color, and, though opaque in mass, yet 
transparent in thin layers. It has not very decidedly the odor of capsicum, but to the taste is 
intensely pungent. W. C. Alpers found a capsicum which yielded 16 per cent, of oleoresin ; 
the statement has been frequently made that 5 per cent, was the usual yield. (Merck's Report, 
1896, 593.) It may he usefully employed to give locally stimulant properties to substances 
administered internally in a pilular form, in cases of gastric insensibility and excessive flatulence. 914 
Oleoresina Cubebae.—Oleoresina Lupulini. 
PART I. 
Dr. H. C. Wood has seen one drop given three times a day produce cystic irritation and 
strangury. The dose is from one-fourth to one minim (0015-(H)6 C.c.). It may be used also 
as a powerful rubefacient, diluted with olive oil or soap liniment. 
OLEORESINA CUBEBAS. U. S. Oleoresin of Cubeb. 
(O-LE-O-REg'I-NA CU-BE'BiE.) 
Extractum Cubebarum, P. G.; Extractum Cubebae ASthereum; OlSorfisine de Cubebe, Fr.; Aetberiscbes Kubeben- 
extrakt, G. 
“ Cubeb, in No. 30 powder, jive hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 279 grains] ; Ether, a 
sufficient quantity. Put the Cubeb into a cylindrical glass percolator, provided with a stopcock, 
and arranged with cover and receptacle suitable for volatile liquids. Press the drug firmly, 
and percolate slowly with Ether, added in successive portions, until the drug is exhausted. 
Recover the greater part of the Ether from the percolate by distillation on a water-bath, and, 
having transferred the residue to a capsule, allow the remaining Ether to evaporate sponta- 
neously. Keep the product in a well-stoppered bottle. Note.—Oleoresin of Cubeb deposits, 
after standing for some time, a waxy and crystalline matter, which should be rejected, only 
the liquid portion being used.” U. S. 
This oleoresin consists mainly of the volatile oil and resin, with a portion of the cubebin and 
waxy matter of the cubeb. The consistence differs according to the character of the cubeb 
employed, its degree of fluidity being proportionate to the amount of volatile oil contained in 
the medicine. The color is usually blackish brown, with more or less of a greenish hue, accord- 
ing to the quantity of chlorophyll present, which varies with the character of the cubeb, and 
with that of the menstruum, pure ether extracting the green coloring matter preferably, 
while ordinary alcoholic ether extracts also the brown. Cubeb yields from one-eighth to one- 
fifth of its weight of the oleoresin. The preparation deposits waxy matter and crystals of 
cubebin on standing, which should be separated; its efficacy is not impaired on this account. 
It was first introduced into use by Prof. Procter. (A. J. P., xviii. 168.) 
From carefully conducted experiments by Mr. F. V. Heydenreich, it would appear that, of 
the various constituents of cubeb contained in the official oleoresin, the cubebin has no per- 
ceptible effect in the dose of the medicine ordinarily given, that the volatile oil is simply 
stimulant and carminative, and, finally, that the soft resin has all the diuretic properties of the 
cubeb. Of the last-mentioned ingredient, twenty grains (1-3 Gm.) given every two hours till 
five doses were taken considerably increased the secretion of urine, producing at the same time 
a slight burning sensation in the passage, which ceased with the diuretic action. Pushed be- 
yond this amount, it occasioned severe irritation of the urinary passages, with some fever. 
(Ibid., Jan. 1868, p. 42.) 
This oleoresin, as it occurs in the market, often has a decided ethereal odor, and is of a thin 
consistence. In one specimen three-eighths of its weight of ether were lost in a short time 
by spontaneous evaporation. As the cubeb is very nearly exhausted by the ether before the 
whole of the latter has passed, there is a considerable expenditure of that liquid for the 
sake of a scarcely appreciable portion of the active matter. In case of excess of ether in 
the oleoresin, it should be allowed to escape by spontaneous evaporation in a capsule. (Ibid., 
May, 1860.) 
The dose of this oleoresin is from five to thirty minims (0-3—1-9 C.c.), which may be given 
suspended in water, or mixed with powdered sugar. 
OLEORESINA LUPULINI. U. S. Oleoresin of Lupulin 
(O-LE-d-Rfej'I-NA LU-PU-LI'NI.) 
Oleoresina Lupulin®, Pharm. 1870; Extractum Lupulini iEthereum; Oleordsine de Lupuline, Fr.; Aetherisohes 
Lupulinextrakt, G. 
“ Lupulin, one hundred grammes [or 3 ounces av., 331 grains] ; Ether, a sufficient quantity. 
Put the Lupulin into a cylindrical glass percolator, provided with a stopcock, and arranged with 
cover and receptacle suitable for volatile liquids. Press the drug very lightly, and percolate 
slowly with Ether, added in successive portions, until the drug is exhausted. Recover the 
greater part of the Ether from the percolate by distillation on a water-bath, and, having trans- 
ferred the residue to a capsule, allow the remaining Ether to evaporate spontaneously. Keep 
the Oleoresin in a well-stoppered bottle.” U. S. 
Lupulin yields its volatile oil and resin, as well as any other active principle it may contain, 
to ether, and the resulting oleoresin constitutes about three-eighths, or somewhat less than one- PART I. 
Oleoresina Pipens.—Oleum Adipis. 
915 
half, of the original drug. It is of a very thick, semi-fluid consistence, so thick, indeed, that 
it cannot be conveniently administered by drops. Its color is almost black in mass, hut a rich 
reddish brown in thin layers. It has the odor and taste of lupulin, and possesses all its medi- 
cal properties. The dose is from two to five grains ((M3—0-33 Gm.), and may be most con- 
veniently administered in the form of pill, made with powdered liquorice root, or other proper 
excipient. 
OLEORESINA PIPERIS. U.S. Oleoresin of Pepper. 
Extraetum Piperis Fluidum, U. S. 1850; Fluid Extract of Black Pepper; O16or6sine de Poivre noir, Fr.; Aethe- 
risches Pfefferextrakt, G. 
“ Pepper, in No. 60 powder, five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 279 grains] ; Ether a 
sufficient quantity. Put the Pepper into a cylindrical glass percolator, provided with a stop- 
cock, and arranged with a cover and receptacle for volatile liquids. Press the drug firmly, and 
percolate slowly with Ether, added in successive portions, until the drug is exhausted. Re- 
cover the greater part of the Ether from the percolate by distillation on a water-bath, and, 
having transferred the residue to a capsule, set this aside until the remaining Ether has evap- 
orated, and the deposition of crystals of piperin has ceased. Lastly, separate the Oleoresin 
from the piperin by expression through a muslin strainer. Keep the Oleoresin in a well-stop- 
pered bottle.” U.S. 
A substance has long been in use under the name of oil of black pepper, consisting mainly 
of the volatile oil, fixed oil, and resin of the pepper, and belonging, therefore, to the oleoresins. 
As usually found, it is almost black, and of a thickish consistence, and is a residue of the 
process for preparing piperin. The official oleoresin has the same general character, but is 
more fluid and of more uniform strength, and should, therefore, be preferred. It contains 
almost all the volatile oil and acrid resin of black pepper, with little of the piperin; and, as 
the last-mentioned principle, when quite pure, is of doubtful efficacy, the extract may be con- 
sidered as representing the virtues of the fruit. The color is greener than that of the common 
oil of black pepper, and not so dark, owing to the fact that ether dissolves the green more 
readily than the brown coloring matter. A pound of black pepper yields about six drachms 
of the oleoresin. Dose, from one-fourth to one minim (0-015-0-06 C.c.), in emulsion or pill. 
(0-LE-0-RE§'l-NA PI'PE-RIS.) 
'OLEORESINA ZINGIBERIS. U.S. Oleoresin of Ginger. 
Extraetum Zingiberis JEthereum; Oleoresine (Piperoide) de Gingembre, Fr.; Aetherisches Ingwerextrakt, G. 
“ Ginger, in No. 60 powder, five hundred grammes [or 17 ounces av., 279 grains] ; Ether, a 
sufficient quantity. Put the Ginger into a cylindrical glass percolator, provided with a stopcock, 
and arranged with cover and receptacle suitable for volatile liquids. Press the drug firmly, 
and percolate slowly with Ether, added in successive portions, until the drug is exhausted. 
Recover the greater part of the Ether from the percolate by distillation on a water-bath, and, 
having transferred the residue to a capsule, allow the remaining Ether to evaporate sponta- 
neously. Keep the Oleoresin in a well-stoppered bottle.” U. S. 
In the U. S. formula of 1870, for this preparation alcohol was used in connection with ether, 
on the score of economy ; it was added in order to displace the ether and thus save an un- 
necessary expenditure of the more costly fluid. A little of the alcohol mixed with the ether 
at their surface of contact. In the present process alcohol is not used, and there is no good 
reason for making an exception to the general formula in this case. The whole of the virtues 
of the root are extracted in this preparation, as the residuary ginger is nearly or quite tasteless, 
The oleoresin constitutes about 5 per cent, of the dried root. It is the piperoid of ginger of 
M. Beral. (Soubeiran's Traite de Pharm., i. 371.) It is a clear, dark-brown liquid, of a thick 
consistence (though capable of being dropped), with the flavor of ginger, and intensely pungent. 
Its dose should not exceed a minim (0-06 C.c.), and should be much diluted. 
(0-LE-0-BE§'l-NA ZIN-qiB'E-KIS.) 
OLEUM ADIPIS. U.S. Lard Oil. 
(o'le-um Xd'i-pis.) 
“ A fixed oil expressed from Lard at a low temperature.” U. S. 
This oil is made in large quantities in this country by exposing lard to low temperatures and 
then subjecting it to very powerful pressure. In this way the stearin of the lard is separated 
from the olein, the latter oozing out from the presses in the form of a yellowish-white oil, whilst 
the stearin is thrown into the market in hard cakes, and is largely used in making soap. (See 916 
Oleum Adipis.— Oleum JEthereum. 
PAET I. 
Adeps.) The exportation of lard from the United States for the year ending June 30, 1897, 
amounted to 476,958,201 pounds, valued at $24,877,044, and that of lard oil to 1,214,997 gal- 
lons, valued at $519,658. (IT. S. Treasury Statistical Reports.) 
Properties. Lard oil is “ a colorless or pale yellow, oily liquid, having a peculiar odor, 
and a bland taste. Specific gravity, 0-910 to 0-920 at 15° C. (59° F.). At a temperature a 
little below 10° C. (50° F.) it usually commences to deposit a white, granular fat, and at or 
near 0° C. (32° F.) it forms a semi-solid, white mass. When it is brought in contact with 
concentrated sulphuric acid, a dark reddish-brown color is instantly produced. If 5 C.c. of 
the oil be thoroughly shaken, in a test-tube, with 5 C.c. of an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate 
(made by dissolving 0-1 Gm. of silver nitrate in 10 C.c. of deodorized alcohol, and adding 2 
drops of nitric acid), and the mixture heated for about five minutes in a water-bath, the Oil 
should remain nearly or quite colorless, not acquiring a reddish or brown color, nor should any 
dark color be produced at the line of contact of the two liquids (absence of more than about 
5 per cent, of cotton seed o?7). If 5 C.c. of the Oil, contained in a small flask, be mixed with 
a solution of 2 Gm. of potassium hydrate in 2 C.c. of water, then 5 C.c. of alcohol added, and 
the mixture heated for about five minutes on a water-bath, with occasional agitation, a perfectly 
clear and complete solution should be formed, which, on dilution with water to the volume of 
50 C.c., should form a transparent, light yellow liquid, without the separation of an oily layer 
(absence of appreciable quantities of paraffin oils')." U. S. It is not pure olein, but contains 
varying proportions of stearin, and is sometimes adulterated with paraffin oil. It has been 
introduced into the Pharmacopoeia for the purpose of using in ointment of mercuric nitrate. 
Medical Properties. Lard Oil is a bland, fatty liquid, destitute of active medical prop- 
erties, and is official solely for pharmaceutical purposes. 
OLEUM jETHEREUM. U. S. Ethereal Oil. 
“ A volatile liquid, consisting of equal volumes of Heavy Oil of Wine and Ether.” U. S. 
Oleum Vini; Heavy Oil of Wine; Huile d’Ether, Huile de Vin pesante, Huile volatile etheree, Fr.j Schweres 
Weinol, G. 
“ Alcohol, one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims] ; Sulphuric Acid, 
one thousand cubic centimeters [or 33 fluidounces, 390 minims] ; Distilled Water, twenty-jive cubic 
centimeters [or 406 minims] ; Ether, a sufficient quantity. Add the Acid slowly to the Alcohol, 
mix them thoroughly, and allow the mixture to stand, in a closed flask, for twenty-four hours, 
or until the liquid is clear; then pour the clear liquid into a tubulated retort of such capacity 
that the mixture shall nearly fill it. Insert a thermometer through the tuhulure, so that the 
bulb shall be deeply immersed in the liquid, and, having connected the retort with a well- 
cooled condenser, and also having connected with the receiver a bent glass tube for conducting 
the uncondensed gases into water, distil, by means of a sand-bath, at a temperature between 
150° and 160° C. (302°—320° F.), until oily drops cease to come over, or until a black froth, 
wdiich forms on the surface, begins to rise in the retort. Separate the yellow, ethereal liquid 
from the distillate, and expose it to the air for twenty-four hours, in a shallow capsule. Then 
transfer it to a wet filter, and, when the watery portion has drained off1, wash the oil which is 
left on the filter with the Distilled Water, which should be as cold as possible. When this 
also has drained off-, transfer the oil to a graduated measure, and add to it an equal volume of 
Ether. Keep the product in small, glass-stoppered vials, in a cool place.” TJ. S. 
In the consolidation of the British Pharmacopoeias this valuable remedy was omitted, partly 
on account of the uncertainty as to its special antispasmodic virtues, partly from its expen- 
siveness when properly made and its liability to spontaneous change, and partly, moreover, 
because not only is it often adulterated, but other compounds are substituted for it. 
The object of allowing the mixture of acid and alcohol to stand is to allow the lead sul- 
phate which is usually present in commercial sulphuric acid to deposit, for, according to Dr. 
Squibb, its presence in the retort causes the mixture to froth over, and this necessitates a sus- 
pension of the process so much sooner as greatly to lessen the amount of product the materials 
are capable of affording. The increase of oil resulting from this simple modification of the 
process is said to be one-third. The temperature has been slightly decreased. By wetting the 
filter, the oil is prevented from passing along with the water. Finally, the oil is now ordered 
to be diluted with an equal measure of stronger ether, as this has been found to contribute 
greatly to its preservation. 
(O'LE-UM iE-THE'RE-UM.) Oleum JEthereum. 
PART I. 
917 
When alcohol is distilled with a large excess of sulphuric acid, there are formed towards 
the close of the distillation sulphurous acid, heavy oil of wine, olefiant gas, and 
naceous matter. The product of the distillation is generally in two layers, one consisting of 
water holding sulphurous acid in solution, and the other, of ether containing the heavy oil of 
wine. According to the experience of Dr. Squibb, the sp. gr. of these two layers is so nearly 
equal that sometimes one and sometimes the other is uppermost: so that the direction in the 
old formula to separate the supernatant liquor is incorrect, and has been superseded by the 
present, to separate the yellow ethereal liquid,—the color and other sensible properties being 
considered sufficiently distinctive. After separation, the liquid is exposed for twenty-four 
hours to the air, in order to dissipate the ether by evaporation ; and the oil which is left is 
washed with water, to deprive it of all traces of sulphurous acid. 
The nature and mode of formation of heavy oil of wine are generally believed to be the 
following. It has been explained in a preceding article that, in the early stage of the distil- 
lation of a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, sulphovinic acid, C2H6HS04, is formed. 
During its progress this is decomposed so as to yield ether. When, however, the alcohol is 
distilled with a large excess of sulphuric acid, the sulphovinic acid is decomposed so as to form a 
small quantity of the heavy oil of wine. This is a mixture of ethyl sulphate, (C2H_)2S04, ethyl 
sulphite, (C2H6)2S03 (the sulphurous acid having been formed by reduction of sulphuric acid, 
as it always is when ethylene is formed from alcohol), with polymeric forms of ethylene, C2H4. 
Two of these forms are known : etherin, a solid fusing at 110° C. and boiling at 260° C., and 
etherol, a liquid. The latter is by some considered to have the formula C16H32 or (C2H4)8, and 
mixed with the former constitutes the light oil of wine, which is produced when the heavy oil 
is heated with water and alkaline solutions. In this case sulphovinic acid is reproduced, and 
the separated etherol floats on the surface as an oily substance. Light oil of wine, as thus ob- 
tained, is a pale-yellow oil. As ordinarily procured in the process for preparing ether, it con- 
tains a portion of that substance, admixed, according to Hartwig (J. Pr. Chem. [2], 23,449), 
with ketones like ethyl-amyl ketone and methyl-hexyl ketone and mixed ethers like ethyl-amyl 
ether. When the pure light oil of wine is kept, it deposits a stearopten (the etherin mentioned 
above) called concrete oil of wine, or oil of wine camphor ; after which the oil is changed, and 
takes the name of etherol. Etherol is a pale-yellow oily liquid, having an aromatic odor. Its 
sp. gr. is 0-921, boiling point 280° C. (536° F.), and freezing point —35° C. (—31° F.). It 
communicates a greasy stain to paper. Concrete oil of wine, or etherin, crystallizes in long, 
transparent, brilliant, tasteless prisms, soluble in alcohol and ether, insoluble in water, and 
having the sp. gr. 0-980. Dr. Squibb takes a different view of the composition of ethereal oil, 
and believes it, instead of a sulphate or a mixture of sulphate and sulphite, to be a sulphovinate 
of a hydrocarbon radical; and for this reason, that it fails, especially when pure and recent, 
to give any of the characteristic reactions of sulphuric acid or the sulphates. (A. J. P., 1861.)* 
Properties. The undiluted ethereal oil (heavy oil of wine) is a yellowish neutral liquid, 
possessing an oleaginous consistence, a penetrating aromatic odor, and a rather sharp and bitter 
taste. It boils at 280° C. (536° F.). Its sp. gr. is, according to the U. S. P. 1850, 1-096; 
according to the London College, after Mr. Hennell’s results, 1-05. The density obtained by 
Dr. Squibb, by following the old formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia exactly, was 1-129. By 
Dumas and Serullas its density is stated to be as high as 1-133, which is probably the more 
correct number for the pure oil. When dropped into water it sinks, assuming the form of 
a globule. It dissolves sparingly in cold water, moderately in hot water, and readily in alco- 
hol and ether. It is devoid of acid reaction, the sulphuric and sulphurous acids present in 
it being in the form of neutral salts. The sulphuric acid present is not precipitated by the 
usual reagents for this acid; because sulphovinic acid is formed, and all the sulphovinates are 
soluble in water. The U. S. ethereal oil of the present Pharmacopoeia is the proper oil diluted 
with an equal volume of stronger ether. This gives it an ethereal odor in addition to that 
characteristic of the pure oil, and considerably reduces its sp. gr., which is now stated at 0-910 
at 15° C. (59° F.). The process by which the official oil of wine is formed yields but a small 
* Valuable papers have been contributed by Mr. C. Lewis Diehl and Prof. John M. Maisch on this official prepa- 
ration,—the former in Proc. A. P. A., 1864, the latter in A. J. P., 1865, p. 160, to which we refer those especially 
interested in its manufacture. In Mr. Diehl’s paper valuable suggestions are made in reference to the mode of re- 
heating so as properly to regulate the temperature. An important practical fact was stated by Prof. Maisch, that the 
ethereal oil, in contact with water, undergoes a decomposition into light oil of wine and sulphovinic acid, rapidly and 
completely if the water is hot or if solution of an alkali or of an alkaline carbonate is used, and more slowly with 
cold water. Hence the inference that the washing of the ethereal oil, directed at the close of the U. S. process, should 
be completed as rapidly as possible. 918 
Oleum JEthereum.—Oleum Amygdalae Amarae. 
PART I. 
product, being, according to the Pharmacopoeia of 1870, only about six fluidrachms, or some- 
what more than a fortieth, by measure, of the alcohol employed. 
In the official ethereal oil, the heavy oil of wine is not only diluted with an equal measure 
of ether, but is mixed also with variable proportions of free light oil of wine. This fact 
accounts for the different densities assigned to the heavy oil. The heavy oil undiluted is liable 
to spontaneous change by time, not only being rendered brown, but also being chemically altered 
so as to separate into two layers. But this tendency is in great measure obviated, in the official 
ethereal oil, by the preservative influence of the ether. It may be kept long without other ap- 
preciable change than the acquisition of a brown hue, which does not interfere with its medical 
virtues. It should not, when tested by dry litmus paper, evince the presence of free acid. 
Medical Properties and Uses. Dr. Hobart A. Hare has found that the heavy oil of 
wine produces in mammals a rise in the arterial pressure and pulse-rate, followed after sufficient 
doses by a fall. The rise in the pressure was the result of a stimulant influence upon the vaso- 
motor centre, whilst the fall of the pressure appeared to be due to a widening out of the blood- 
paths by a direct paralysis of the coats of the vessels. Dr. Hare also found that very large 
doses paralyze the heart by a direct action on the muscle, but he did not determine the exact 
influence of small doses. The toxic properties of the heavy oil of wine were shown to be very 
feeble, and the research seems to prove that the small quantity of the heavy oil of wine con- 
tained in Hoffmann’s anodyne cannot exert a very pronounced influence upon the human system. 
It probably has, however, a slight stimulative, calmative effect, since clinical experience indi- 
cates that compound spirit of ether is a more persistent and powerful antispasmodic and nervous 
stimulant than is an equivalent amount of ether and alcohol. The article sold in commerce as 
heavy oil of wine is too often a mixture of alcohol and ether containing but a trace of the oil. 
It is used only for the preparation of compound spirit of ether, but there can be no justification 
of the action of the chemist in furnishing a fraudulent article. 
OLEUM AMYGDALAE AMAR/E. U. S. Oil of Bitter Almond. 
(O'LE-UM A-MYG'DA-LiE A-MA'R^.) 
“ A volatile oil obtained from Bitter Almond by maceration with water, and subsequent dis- 
tillation. It should be kept in small, well-stoppered bottles, protected from light.” JJ. S. 
Oleum Amygdalarum (Amararum) Alt her cum; Essence d’Amandes ameres, Fr.; Bittermandelol, G. 
When bitter almonds are expressed, they yield a bland fixed oil; and the residuary cake, 
reduced to powder by grinding, and submitted to distillation with water, yields a volatile 
oleaginous product, commonly called oil of bitter almond. This does not pre-exist in the 
almond, but is produced by the reaction of water upon the amygdalin contained in it, through 
the intervention of another constituent, denominated emulsin (see Amygdala Amara), accord- 
ing to the reaction C20H27N011 + 2H20 — C7HeO -f- 2(C6H12Oe) -f- IICN. It is obtained 
also by the distillation of the leaves of the cherry-laurel, and of various products of the genera 
Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus, etc. Mr. Whipple obtained, upon an average, from the ground 
bitter almond cake, 1-35 per cent, of the oil. (P. J. Tr., x. 297.) Pettenkofer has ascertained 
that the product is greater if the cake be macerated in water for forty-eight hours before 
being submitted to distillation. (Joum. de Pharm., Mai, 1862, p. 432.) It is sometimes pro- 
duced in France from peach kernels. 
Oil of bitter almond has a yellowish color, a bitter, acrid, burning taste, and the odor of the 
kernels in a high degree. It is heavier than water, soluble in alcohol and ether, according to 
Fltickiger soluble in 300 parts of hot or cold water, and deposits, upon standing, a white crys- 
talline substance consisting chiefly of benzoic acid. It is officially described as “ a clear, color- 
less or yellowish, thin, and strongly refractive liquid, having a peculiar, aromatic odor, and a 
bitter and burning taste. Specific gravity, 1*060 to 1-070 at 15° C. (59° F.). Boiling point, 
about 180° C. (356° F.). Optically inactive. Soluble in 300 parts of water at 15° C. (59° 
F.), and in alcohol or ether in all proportions; also soluble in nitric acid at ordinary tempera- 
tures without the evolution of nitrous vapors. In the fresh state the Oil is neutral to litmus, 
but when kept for some time it assumes an acid reaction, due to the formation of benzoic acid. 
If 10 drops of the Oil, dissolved in a little alcohol, be shaken with a few drops of a strong 
solution of sodium hydrate, then with a little ferrous sulphate test-solution, and finally mixed 
with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, a blue precipitate will be produced (presence of hy- 
drocyanic acid'). The presence of artificial oil containing chlorinated products may be detected 
in the following manner. Fold a small strip of filter paper in the form of a taper, saturate 
it with the Oil, and lay it into a small porcelain capsule. Set this capsule into a larger one, Oleum Amygdalae Amarae. 
919 
PART I. 
and provide a large beaker to be inverted over the capsule containing the taper. Then, having 
moistened the inner surface of the beaker with distilled water, ignite the taper, immediately 
invert the beaker over the capsule, and allow the products of combustion to be absorbed by 
the water in the beaker. If the beaker be now rinsed with a little distilled water, and the 
liquid filtered, the filtrate should yield no turbidity with silver nitrate test-solution. If 5 C.c. 
of the Oil be vigorously shaken, in a flask, with 50 C.c. of a cold saturated solution of sodium 
bisulphite, and the mixture heated for a few minutes on a water-bath, the odor of the Oil 
should disappear, and a nearly clear solution be formed, without the separation of any oily 
drops on the surface of the liquid (absence of most other volatile oils and of nitrobenzol)." U. S. 
Besides a peculiar volatile oil, it contains also hydrocyanic acid, with a small proportion of 
benzoic acid, and of a concrete principle called benzoin, C14H1202. It may be obtained pure 
by agitating it strongly with calcium hydrate and a solution of ferrous chloride, submitting 
the mixture to distillation, and drying the oil which comes over by digestion with calcium 
chloride. Mr. George Whipple states that if crude oil be redistilled into a solution of silver 
nitrate, and again distilled from a fresh solution of the same salt, it is obtained entirely free 
from hydrocyanic acid, which reacts with the silver and remains behind as silver cyanide. (See 
A. J. P, xxvi. 348.) Thus purified, it is colorless, but still retains its peculiar odor, with a 
burning, aromatic taste, and is destitute of those poisonous properties of the crude oil which 
are dependent on hydrocyanic acid. The odor of the oil of bitter almond has been errone- 
ously ascribed to that acid, which, on examination, will be found to smell differently and more 
feebly. Like most other volatile oils, this may produce deleterious effects if taken very largely. 
Hippuric acid is found in the urine of animals to which it has been given freely. The sp. gr. 
of the crude oil varies from 1*052 to 1-082, and is said to be greater when the oil is distilled from 
salt water than when distilled by the ordinary mode. That of the purified oil is 1-060, and its 
boiling point 180° C. (356° F.). It is benzoic aldehyde, C6H6.C0H, which is produced by the 
action of oxidizing agents upon benzyl alcohol, CeH6.CH20H, and yields itself, when oxidized, 
benzoic acid, C6H6.C00H. The benzoic acid which the oil of bitter almond deposits on stand- 
ing does not pre-exist in it, but results from the absorption of oxygen, as just stated. The 
concrete substance above referred to by the name of benzoin is polymeric with the oil, crystal- 
lizable in colorless shining prisms, without smell or taste, fusible at 248° F., and volatilizable 
unchanged at a higher temperature. It is formed abundantly in the original impure oil by the 
reaction of alkalies, but cannot be produced in it when deprived of hydrocyanic acid.* For 
the volumetric estimation of hydrocyanic acid in bitter almond oil by Kremers and Schreiner, 
see Pharm. Rev., 1896, 196. 
Artificial benzoic aldehyde is now made from toluene, CLHg. By the action of chlorine 
upon'the hot hydrocarbon, benzyl chloride, CeH5CH2Cl, results, and this yields benzoic alde- 
hyde on distillation with lead nitrate and water in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide gas. More 
generally, however, benzal chloride, CeH6CHCl2, is taken, as this, when heated under pressure 
with water or sulphuric acid, readily yields the benzaldehyde. The product is purified by con- 
version into the acid sulphite compound. Lippmann and Hawliczek have made exhaustive re- 
searches on the identity of the artificial with the natural oil of bitter almond, and have found 
the two oils absolutely identical, physically as well as chemically. At the present time (1899) 
benzaldehyde, or synthetic oil of bitter almond, is very largely used, its chief advantages being 
uniformity of composition and absence of hydrocyanic acid. (See Pharm. Rev., 1896, 196.) 
To prevent the formation of benzoic acid in oil of bitter almond, Schimmel & Co. recommend 
the addition of 10 per cent, of alcohol to the oil. 
Zeller mentions, as characteristics of the official oil by which its genuineness and purity may 
be known, its peculiar odor and high specific gravity,f its ready solubility in sulphuric acid, 
with the production of a reddish-brown color, but without visible decomposition, the slow ac- 
tion of nitric acid, the slow and partial solution of iodine without further reaction, the want 
of action of potassium chromate upon it, and the production of crystals when it is dissolved 
in an alcoholic solution of potassa. (See P. J. Tr., ix. 575.) Mr. Redwood states that a very 
small proportion of alcohol may be detected in the oil by the effervescence, with disengage- 
ment of nitrous vapors, which ensues when the oil thus contaminated is mixed with an equal 
volume of nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1-5. With pure oil no other effect is obvious than a slight 
* Nitrobenzol, Nitrobenzene, or Artificial Oil of Bitter Almond. This substance, which was discovered by Mit- 
scherlich, is treated of in Part II. 
•f Schimmel & Co. (Semi-Annual Report, April, 1893) state that an oil of high specific gravity should be carefully 
examined for benzo-nitrile, CgHsCN, which may form by condensation from benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid, and 
afterwards when distilled even in vacuo will decompose into the same components. 920 
Oleum Amygdalae Amarae. 
PART I. 
change of color. (Ibid., xi. 486.) If sulphuric acid produce with the oil a bright-red instead 
of a brownish-red color, the oil has probably been distilled with salt water, in which case it 
is apt, according to Mr. Ferris, to deposit a blood-red matter, occasionally complained of by 
druggists. (Ibid., 565.) 
Mr. Wm. A. Tilden has found that the introduction of a little fused calcium chloride into 
purified oil of bitter almond contributes to its preservation, probably by the absorption of the 
last traces of water contained in it. Of two specimens of the oil, which had been set aside 
for two years, one without addition, the other containing a fragment of the fused chloride, the 
former was found filled with crystals of benzoic acid, and the latter was perfectly free from 
crystalline deposit and quite fluid. (P. J. Tr., 2d ser., viii. 325, Dec. 1866.) 
Prof. J. M. Maisch proposes the following mode of detecting nitrobenzene in adulterated oil 
of bitter almond. Dissolve half a drachm of the suspected oil in two or three drachms of 
alcohol, add fifteen grains of pure fused caustic potassa, heat for a few minutes so as to dis- 
solve the potassa, reduce the liquid to one-third, and then set aside to cool. If the oil be 
pure, it will remain liquid ; while if nitrobenzene be present, there will, after cooling, be a sedi- 
ment of azoxybenzid indicating adulteration. (A. J. P., 1857, 544.) R. Wagner proposes the 
sp. gr. of the two oils as a test,—that of the oil of bitter almond being from 1-060 to 1-070, 
while that of nitrobenzene is from 1-18 to 1-201, and a mixture will have a higher sp. gr. than 
the pure oil. This would lead to the suspicion of the presence of nitrobenzene, which may then 
be separated by agitation with sodium bisulphite. The almond oil will dissolve, while the 
nitrobenzene will float on the surface. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., Mai, 1868, 399.) The 
most reliable test is undoubtedly to add zinc dust and dilute acid, whereby any nitrobenzene 
is reduced to aniline, which can then be detected by the violet color produced when sodium 
hypochlorite or potassium bichromate is added. Dr. H. Hager’s plan is as follows. After the 
addition of 10 drops of the pure oil to 10 C.c. of 45 per cent, alcohol, or to a mixture of 5 C.c. 
of 90 per cent, alcohol and 5 C.c. of water, on closing the test-tube with the finger and turning 
it twice upside down, the oil dissolves to a clear solution. If nitrobenzene, even as little as 1 per 
cent., be present, the oil of bitter almond will dissolve at once, but the nitrobenzene will separate, 
clouding the liquid at first, but soon collecting in very minute but easily recognizable droplets 
which float about in the liquid. After standing for a while, these droplets unite to larger 
drops, when they become still more evident to the eye. The temperature of the alcohol must 
not exceed 16° C. (60-8° F.) ; it is best to keep it between 10° and 15° C. (50° and 59° F.). 
Any sample of oil of bitter almond which dissolves on very gentle agitation at once to a clear 
liquid in 20 times its volume of 45 per cent, alcohol does not contain any nitrobenzene, since 
only traces of the latter are dissolved by that menstruum. Small quantities of nitrobenzene 
present (up to 3 per cent.) disappear after the mixture stands for some time, but they are 
always the cause of the milkiness or cloudiness of the solution at the moment of preparation. 
A short cloudiness even occurs with as small a quantity as £ per cent. Since most other essen- 
tial oils yield a cloudy solution with 45 per cent, alcohol, this test may also indicate the pres- 
ence of foreign essential oils. 
Hager’s test may also be used quantitatively for the estimation of the amount of nitrobenzene 
present. Oil of bitter almond requires for solution 16 to 17 times its volume of 45 per cent, 
alcohol. 2 C.c. of the oil are agitated with 34 C.c. of the 45 per cent, alcohol, and the mix- 
ture set aside. After the lapse of a day, the nitrobenzene (all but a trace which remains in 
solution) will be found collected at the bottom. An important indication of the presence of a 
sophistication is the cloudiness produced at the first moment. (N. R., Oct. 1880.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. The unpurified volatile oil of bitter almond, which is 
the product directed by the Pharmacopoeia, operates upon the system in a manner closely 
analogous to that of hydrocyanic acid. A single drop is sufficient to destroy a bird, and 
four drops have caused the death of a dog of middle size. The case of a man is recorded who 
died in ten minutes after taking two drachms (7-5 C.c.) of the oil. It might be substituted 
with advantage for medicinal hydrocyanic acid, if it always contained a uniform percentage of 
the acid, as the acid contained in the oil is much less liable to decomposition, remaining for 
several years unaltered, if the oil be preserved in well-stopped bottles. According to Schrader, 
100 parts of the oil contain sufficient acid for the production of 22-5 parts of Prussian blue; 
but the proportion is not constant, varying, according to Mr. Groves, from 8 to 12-5 per cent. 
From one-fourth of a drop to a drop (0-016-0-06 C.c.) may be given for a dose, to be cau- 
tiously increased till some effect upon the system is observed. It may be administered in 
emulsion with gum arabic, loaf-sugar, and water. It has been employed externally, dissolved Oleum Amygdalae Expressum. 
PART i. 
921 
in water in the proportion of one drop (0-06 C.c.) to a fluidounce (30 C.c.), in prurigo senilis 
and other cases of troublesome itching. To facilitate the solution in water, the oil may be 
previously dissolved in spirit. Oil of bitter almond is sometimes used to conceal the taste of 
cod-liver oil and of castor oil. 
OLEUM AMYGDALA EXPRESSUM. U. S. (Br.) Expressed Oil of 
Almond. 
(O'LE-UM A-MYG'DA-L.® EX-PKES'SUM.) 
“ A fixed oil expressed from Bitter or Sweet Almond.” U. S. “ The oil expressed from 
the Bitter or Sweet Almond.” Br. 
Oleum Amygdalae, Br.; Almond Oil; Oleum Amygdalae Duleis, U. S. 1860; Oleum Amygdalarum; Huile 
d’Amandes douces, Huile d’Amandes, Fr.; Mandeldl, G.; Olio di Mandorle, It.; Aceite de Almendras, Sp. 
This oil is obtained equally pure from sweet and from bitter almonds. In its preparation, the 
almonds, having been deprived of a reddish-brown powder adhering to their surface, by being 
rubbed together in a piece of coarse linen, are ground in a mill resembling a coffee-mill, or 
bruised in a stone mortar, and then pressed in canvas sacks between plates of iron slightly 
heated. The oil, which is at first turbid, is clarified by rest and filtration. Sometimes the 
almonds are steeped in very hot water, deprived of their cuticle, and dried in a stove, previous 
to expression. The oil is thus obtained free from color, but in no other respect better, while it 
is more apt to become rancid on keeping. Bitter almonds treated in this way impart a smell 
of hydrocyanic acid to the oil. M. Boullay obtained 54 per cent, of oil from sweet almonds, 
Vogel 28 per cent, from bitter almonds. Munch gives 55-4 per cent, as the yield of the former, 
and 52 per cent, as that of the latter. (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim., 4e ser., iii. 400.) These 
figures are not realized, however, in the ordinary expression methods. Schaedler ( Technologic 
der Fette und Oele, 2te Auf., 532) gives 45 per cent, as the average obtained from the sweet 
almonds, and 38 per cent, from the bitter almonds. Though sometimes expressed in this 
country from imported almonds, the oil is generally brought from Europe. 
Oil of almond is “ a clear, pale straw-colored or colorless, oily liquid, almost inodorous, and 
having a mild, nutty taste. Specific gravity, 0-915 to 0-920 at 15° C. (59° F.). Only slightly 
soluble in alcohol; soluble in ether and in chloroform in all proportions. It remains clear at 
—10° C. (14° F.), and does not congeal until cooled to near —20° C. (—4° F.). If 2 C.c. 
of the Oil be vigorously shaken with 1 C.c. of fuming nitric acid and 1 C.c. of water, a whitish, 
not red or brownish, mixture should be formed, which, after standing for some hours at about 
10° C. (50° F.), should separate into a solid, white mass, and a scarcely colored liquid (dis- 
tinction from the fixed oils of apricot and peach kernels, and from sesamum, cotton seed, and 
poppy seed oils'). If 10 C.c. of the oil be mixed with 15 C.c. of a 15 per cent, solution 
of sodium hydrate and 10 C.c. of alcohol, and the mixture allowed to stand at a temper- 
ature of 35° to 40° C. (95° to 104° F.), with occasional agitation, until it becomes clear, and 
then diluted with 100 C.c. of water, the clear solution thus obtained, upon the subsequent 
addition of an excess of hydrochloric acid, will set free a layer of oleic acid. This, when sep- 
arated from the aqueous liquid, washed with warm water, and clarified in a water-bath, will 
remain liquid at 15° C. (59° F.), although sometimes depositing particles of solid matter and 
becoming turbid. One part of this oleic acid, when mixed with 1 volume of alcohol, should 
give a clear solution, which at 15° C. (59° F.) should not deposit any fatty acids, nor become 
turbid on the further addition of 1 volume of alcohol (distinction from olive, arachis, cotton 
seed, sesamum, and other fixed oils')." U. 8. “ Pale yellow, nearly inodorous, with a bland 
nutty taste. Soluble in ether and chloroform in all proportions. Specific gravity 0-915 to 
0-920. It does not congeal until cooled to nearly —4° F. (—20° C.). If 2 cubic centi- 
metres of the Oil be well shaken with 1 cubic centimetre of fuming nitric acid and 1 cubic 
centimetre of water, a whitish, not brownish-red, mixture should be formed, which after stand- 
ing for 6 hours at about 50° F. (10° C.) should separate into a solid white mass and a nearly 
colorless liquid (absence of peach-kernel oil and other fixed oils).” Br. From the statement 
of Braconnot, it appears to contain 76 per cent, of olein and 24 per cent, of a mixture of 
palmitin and stearin. 
According to Dr. H. Hager, the oils expressed from the large sweet and the smaller bitter 
almonds differ considerably, as shown by the elaidin test,—the former oil congealing more 
rapidly, and almost completely, the latter about twelve hours later, and the more imperfectly the 
smaller the bitter almond has been. Only about one-third of the bulk congeals when the oil 
is from the small Oporto almonds. 
Oil of almond is said to be sometimes adulterated with poppy oil, or other drying oils of less 922 
Oleum Amygdalae Expressum.—Oleum Anethi. 
PAET I. 
value. This sophistication may be detected, as suggested by M. Wimmec, by taking advantage 
of the property, belonging to the olein of the non-drying but not to that of the drying oils, of 
being converted into solid elaidic acid by the action of nitric acid. By treating iron filings 
with nitric acid in a flask, nitrous acid is produced, which is to be conducted into water upon 
which the suspected oil is placed. If the almond oil contain even a small quantity of poppy- 
seed oil, or other drying oil, this will remain in the form of drops on the surface, while the 
genuine oil will be converted entirely into crystallized elaidin. (Joum. de Pharm., Dec. 1862, p. 
500.) Colza oil, another not uncommon adulteration, may be detected, according to M. Schnei- 
der, by the action of silver nitrate. Dissolve the oil in twice its volume of ether, add about 30 
drops of a concentrated alcoholic solution of the nitrate, shake the mixture, and allow it to stand 
in the dark. If there be much colza oil, the lower part of the liquid will become first brown 
and then black; if but little, the brown color will not appear for twelve hours; but the dis- 
coloration will always be obvious on the evaporation of the ether. (P. J. Tr., March, 1862.) 
It is said that in the south of France the sweet almond oil is sometimes adulterated with 
a cheaper oil, called oil of apricots. According to M. J. Nickles, this adulteration may be 
detected by means of powdered calcium hydrate, which with the oil of apricots forms an 
emulsion that slowly assumes an unctuous consistence, while it has no such action on the 
almond oil, merely rendering it opaque for a time, and then gradually separating and leaving 
the oil clear. A mixture of the two oils emulsionizes with the lime, and on standing deposits 
the unctuous matter referred to. (See A. J. P., 1866, p. 299.) 
According to Dr. Hager, if equal volumes of the oil and of 25 per cent, nitric acid are 
shaken together in a test-tube, an emulsion-like mixture is produced, which separates on stand- 
ing. All true almond oils yield a white mixture, and the oils remain white for many hours 
after separation, but the oils of peach and apricot seeds turn yellowish at once on being shaken 
with the acid, and the color afterwards deepens, and in half an hour is of a rather deep red- 
yellow. (A. J. P., 1870, p. 408.) J. D. Bieber communicates the following test. Equal 
weights of pure concentrated sulphuric acid, red fuming nitric acid, and water are mixed, and 
the mixture allowed to cool. On mixing five parts of the oil with one part of this acid liquid, 
pure almond oil gives a yellowish-white liquid ; oil of peach kernels assumes the red color of 
peach blossoms, turning to dark orange; henne oil turns pale yellowish red, then dirty orange- 
red ; poppy and walnut oils yield a somewhat whiter liquid than almond oil. This test permits 
the detection of 5 per cent, of peach kernel and benne oil. Mixed with pure nitric acid, sp. gr. 
1-40, almond oil yields a pale-yellowish liquid, peach kernel oil a red, henne oil a yellowish 
green, afterwards reddish, and poppy and walnut oils a white mixture. It was found that the 
oil expressed, cold or warm, from either fresh almonds or from such as had been kept up to 
ten years, gave the same reaction. Most of the commercial oil was found to be adulterated 
with the oil of either peach kernels or benne seed. (A. J. P., Dec. 1877.) 
Oil of almond may be used for the same purposes as is olive oil, and, when suspended in 
water by means of mucilage or the yolk of egg and loaf-sugar, forms a pleasant emulsion, 
useful in pulmonary affections attended with cough. From a fluidrachm to a fluidounce (3-75 
—30 C.c.) may be given at a dose. 
OLEUM ANETHI. Br. Oil of Dill. 
“ The oil distilled from Dill Fruit.” Br. 
Aneth a Odeur forte, Essence d’Aneth, Fr.; Dill, Dillol, G.; Aneto, It.; Eneldo, Sp. 
Oil of dill is of a pale yellow color, with the odor of the fruit, and a hot, sweetish, acrid 
taste. Its sp. gr. varies between 0-895 and 0-915. The fruit yields about 3-5 per cent, of it. 
The oil is a mixture of limonene, phellandrene, and a paraffin hydrocarbon along with carvol, 
C10H140. “ Color pale yellow, odor that of the fruit, taste sweet and aromatic. Specific 
gravity 0-905 to 0-920. It rotates the plane of a ray of polarized light not less than 70° to 
the right, at 60° F. (15-5° C.), in a tube 100 millimetres long.” Br. R. Nietski obtained from 
the fruit of Anethum graveolens a volatile oil, which commenced to boil at 155° C. (311° F.), 
the boiling point rising gradually to 260° C. (500° F.). About 10 per cent, of the oil consists 
of a hydrocarbon, C10Oie, having the boiling point from 155°-160° C., 60 per cent, boiling at 
from 170°—175° C. (338°-347° F.), of the same composition, and 30 per cent, with the boiling 
point from 225°-230° C. (437°-446° F.), composition C10II140, and identical with carvol. The 
odor of the first portion of hydrocarbon is similar to that of turpentine ; that of the second 
portion resembles oil of mace, but when mixed with a little carvol the characteristic dill odor is 
(6'le-um a-ne'th!.) Oleum Anisi.—Oleum Anthemidis. 
PART I. 
923 
at once produced. (A. J. P., 1874.) The oil is sometimes used for preparing dill water. Dose, 
from three to ten drops (0-18-0-6 C.c). 
OLEUM ANISI. U. S., Br. Oil of Anise 
Essence d’Anis, Fr.; Anisol, G. 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Anise. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles protected 
from light, and, if it has separated into a liquid and a solid portion, it should be completely 
liquefied by warming before being dispensed.” TJ. S. “ The oil distilled from Anise Fruit; or 
from the fruit of the star-anise, Illicium verum, Hook, fil.” Br. 
The product of oil from anise is variously stated at from 1-56 to 3-12 per cent. The oil em- 
ployed in this country is imported. It is colorless or yellowish, with the peculiar odor and 
taste of the seed. At 50° F. it crystallizes in flat tables, and it does not melt under 62° F. Its 
sp. gr. increases with age, and is variously given at from 0-9768 to 0-9903. It is soluble in all 
proportions in alcohol of 0-806 ; but alcohol of 0-840 dissolves at 77° only 42 per cent. Ether 
dissolves it in all proportions. (Gmelin.) “ A colorless or pale yellow, thin, and strongly re- 
fractive liquid, having the characteristic odor of anise, and a sweetish, mildly aromatic taste. 
Specific gravity, about 0-980 to 0-990 at 17° C. (62-6° F.), increasing with age. At a low 
temperature, usually between 10° and 15° C. (50°-59° F.), it solidifies to a white, crystalline 
mass. Soluble in an equal volume of alcohol to a clear solution (absence of most fixed oils 
and of oil of turpentine'). This solution is neutral to litmus paper, and should not assume a 
blue or brownish color on the addition of a drop of ferric chloride test-solution (absence of 
some volatile oils containing phenols). When the Oil is dropped into water, without agitation, 
it should not produce a milky turbidity (absence of alcohol).'1' U. S. “ Colorless or pale yellow ; 
with the odor of the fruit, and a mildly aromatic taste. It congeals, when stirred, at tem- 
peratures between 50° and 59° F. (10° to 15° C.), and should not again become liquid below 
59° F. (15° C.). Specific gravity at 68° F. (20° C.) 0-975 to 0-990. It rotates the plane 
of a ray of polarized light slightly to the left.” Br. It consists of a small quantity of a hy- 
drocarbon, C1OH10, but mainly of anethol, C10H120, which is present, however, in two isomeric 
modifications, one solid at ordinary temperatures and heavier than water (solid anethol), the 
other liquid and more volatile (methyl chavicol). Anethol, both in the liquid and in the solid 
form, is present, and is the chief constituent of the oils of anise, star aniseed, and fennel. By 
oxidation, by means of nitric or chromic acid, the different forms of anethol* yield anisic 
acid, C8H80g. Oil of anise absorbs oxygen from the air, and becomes less disposed to con- 
crete. In consequence of its high price, it is frequently adulterated with spermaceti, wax, 
or camphor. The first two may be detected by their insolubility in cold alcohol, the last by 
its odor. In one instance as much as 35 per cent, of spermaceti was found. Schimmel & 
Co. have found fennel stearoptene in commercial oil of anise. (Pharm. Rev., 1897, 94.) 
Prof. Procter met with a parcel, of which not less than five-sixths were alcohol. (A. J. P., 
xxvii. 513.) The dose of the oil is from five to fifteen drops (0-3—0-9 C.c.) Its comparative 
mildness adapts it to infantile cases. Most of the oil of anise of commerce is the oil of star 
aniseed ( Oleum Badiani, or Oleum Illicii). Oil of anise has also been distilled from the sweet 
cicely, Osmorhiza longistylis, of the United States and Canada. (Pharm. Rundschau, July, 1887.) 
For description and analysis of Russian oil of anise, see P. J. Tr., 1896,164, also 243. Anisic 
acid is said to be antiseptic, resembling salicylic acid in its action. 
(O'LE-DH A-Nl'SI.) 
OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS. Br. Oil of Chamomile. 
“ The oil distilled from chamomile flowers.” Br. 
Oleum Chamomillae Romanae; Essence de Camomille romaine, Fr.; Romisch-Kamillenol, G. 
This oil was introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia 1885 with the direction that it 
should be distilled in Britain. No such restriction is found in the Pharmacopoeia of 1898. It 
is seldom prepared in this country. Baume obtained thirteen drachms of the oil from eighty- 
two pounds of the flowers; according to Mr. Brande, the average product of 100 pounds is 
two pounds twelve ounces. It has the peculiar smell of chamomile, with a pungent somewhat 
aromatic taste. When recently distilled it is of a pale sky-blue or greenish-blue color, which 
changes to yellow or brownish on exposure. “ Specific gravity 0-905 to 0-915.” Br. The 
(O'LE-UM AN-THEM'I-DIS.) 
* For an account of the numerous isomers of anethol, see Orndorff. Terrasse, and Morton, Amer. Ghem. Journ., 
19, 845. 924 
Oleum Aurantii Cortids.—Oleum Aurantii Florum. 
PART I. 
oil was thoroughly investigated in Fittig’s laboratory during the years 1878-79. It was 
found to consist of a mixture of angelic and tiglinic esters of isobutyl, isamyl, hexyl, and prob- 
ably one higher one. Angelic acid and tiglinic acid are isomeric, and have the formula 
CgHgOjj. The relative proportions of these two acids varied in different oils. It has sometimes 
been employed in spasm of the stomach, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines. Its chief use, 
however, appears to be as an ingredient of the extract of chamomile of the British Pharma- 
copoeia, to which it is added in order to supply the place of the oil driven off by the heat used 
in its preparation. This oil must not be confounded with that of Matricaria chamomilla, 
employed on the continent of Europe under the name of oil of chamomile. (See Matricaria.) 
The dose is from five to fifteen drops (0-3-0-9 C.c.). 
OLEUM AURANTII CORTICIS. U. S. Oil of Orange Peel. 
(O'LE-UM AU-RAN'TI-I COR'TI-CIS.) 
“ A volatile oil obtained by expression from the fresh peel of either the Bitter Orange, 
Citrus vulgaris, Risso, or the Sweet Orange, Citrus Aurantium, Linnd (nat. ord. Rutaceas). 
It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool place.” U. S. 
Essential Oil of Orange Peel; Huile d’Orange, Fr.; Apfelsinenschalenol, Pomeranzenschalenol, G. 
This oil is used only for flavoring purposes, and has been introduced principally because of 
its employment in elixirs and in Spiritus Aurantii and Spiritus Aurantii Compositum. Oil of 
orange is prepared in Calabria and Sicily in three ways: 1, by scraping off the exterior part 
of the rind and submitting it to expression; 2, by putting the scrapings into hot water, de- 
pressing the pulp beneath, and skimming off the oil as it rises; 3, by distillation. The best 
Sicily orange oil is procured by dexterous compression, within a cask, of the fresh rind by the 
hand, the oil being driven out in jets. It is sometimes absorbed by a sponge. (A. J. P., 1868.) 
It is largely made at Messina, and in the south of France. It is also extracted by the ecuelle 
process,* and partly from the Bigarade and partly from the sweet or Portugal orange, the scarcely 
ripe fruit being in either case employed. The oil made from the former is much more valuable 
than that obtained from the latter, and the two are distinguished in price-currents as Essence 
de Bigarade and Essence de Portugal. 
Properties. Oil of orange peel yields on distillation, besides a resinous product of the 
composition C2qH3o03, a hydrocarbon, hesperidene, C10H13 (Wright and Piesse, Chem. News, 
xxiv. 147), boiling at 178° C. (352-4° F.). The inner thick part of the rind contains also a 
bitter principle, called hesperidin, discovered by Lebreton in 1828, but more fully studied by 
Hoffmann {Ber. Chem. Ges., 1876, pp. 26, 685). It is best prepared from the unripe bitter 
orange. Its formula is C22Hae012, and it is a glucoside, as is shown by the reaction with 
dilute sulphuric acid, whereby it is decomposed into hesperetin, CieH140e, and glucose, 
C6H12°6- 
The U. S. Pharmacopoeia describes the oil as “ a pale yellowish liquid, having the character- 
istic, aromatic odor of orange, and an aromatic and, when obtained from the bitter orange, 
somewhat bitter taste. Specific gravity, about 0-850 at 15° C. (59° F.). Its optical rotation 
should not be less than 95° to the right in a 100 Mm. tube, and at a temperature of about 15° 
to 20° C. (59° to 68° F.). Soluble in about four times its volume of alcohol, this solution being 
neutral to litmus paper; also soluble, in all proportions, in absolute alcohol or in carbon disul- 
phide, and in an equal volume of glacial acetic acid. When kept for some time, the Oil should 
not develop a terebinthinate odor or taste (absence of oil of turpentine or of other oils containing 
pinene).” U. S. This oil is one of the most difficult to preserve. A method for its preservation, 
which we have used for years, is to shake the oil briskly with one-eighth of its volume of dis- 
tilled water, and allow it to separate, then remove the essential oil, filter rapidly if necessary, 
and mix the filtered oil with 95 per cent, alcohol in the proportion of one volume of the oil to 
seven volumes of alcohol. 
OLEUM AURANTII FLORUM. U. S. Oil of Orange Flowers. [Oil of 
Neroli.] 
“ A volatile oil distilled from the fresh flowers of the Bitter Orange, Citrus vulgaris, Risso 
(nat. ord. Rutaceae). It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, protected 
from light.” U. S. 
Huile de Fleurs d’Orange, Essence de N6roli, Fr.; Pomeranzenbliithenol, G. 
(O'LE-UM Au-RAN'TI-I FLO'RUM.) 
* For an illustration of the ecuelle, see Remington’s Practice of Pharmacy, p. 789. PART I. 
Oleum Aurantii Florum.—Oleum Bergamottse. 
925 
This official oil is employed only on account of its pleasant odor and taste, and is largely 
used as an ingredient in Cologne water, perfumes, etc. The best quality of “ oil of neroli,” as 
it is universally called in commerce, comes from Nice, and is derived from the flowers of the 
Citrus aurantium, or sweet orange, by distillation with water; this is called “ neroli petale." 
The next quality is obtained in the same way, but by using the blossoms of the Citrus Biga- 
radia, or bitter orange : this is called “ neroli bigarade whilst an inferior sort, “ essence de petit 
grain," is made by distilling the leaves and unripe fruit. This should not be classed with 
“ neroli,” as it is unworthy of the name. Oil of Petit Grain Citronnier is a fragrant oil, dis- 
tilled from the leaves and twigs of the lemon-tree; it closely resembles the essence de petit 
grain from the orange leaves and fruit. (Cliem. and Drug., 1897, 53.) 
Properties. It is officially described as “ a yellowish or brownish, thin liquid, having a 
very fragrant odor of orange flowers, and an aromatic, somewhat bitter taste. Specific gravity, 
0-875 to 0-890 at 15° C. (59° F.). Soluble in an equal volume of alcohol, the solution being 
neutral to litmus paper. If a little alcohol be poured on the surface of the Oil, and the mix- 
ture gently undulated, a bright, violet fluorescence will usually be observed. In contact with 
a saturated solution of sodium bisulphite it assumes a handsome and permanent purplish-red 
color.” TJ. S. The greater part of the oil is a hydrocarbon, distilling at from 185°—195° C. 
(365°-383° F.), with which is a small amount of a crystalline solid called neroli camphor A 
According to Fliickiger, this is a neutral, inodorous, tasteless substance, fusing at 55° C. 
(131° F.). According to Semmler (Ber. der Chem. Gesell., 26, 2711), the oil contains about 20 
per cent, of limonene, 30 per cent, of linalool, C10H180; 40 per cent, of linaloyl acetate, and 3 
per cent, of geraniol. Schimmel & Co.'s Report, April, 1897 mentions a small amount of a 
paraffin as also present. Noel distinguishes the different volatile oils of the orange tribe by 
shaking five drops of the oil with one C.c. of pure concentrated hydrochloric acid. After one 
minute seven or eight C c. of 90 per cent, alcohol are added, whereby the color is changed, 
and increased or decreased according to the extent of the adulteration. It is obvious that 
to use effectually such a test requires special education. (See Proc. A. P. A., 1887.) 
OLEUM BERGAMOTTE. U. S. Oil of Bergamot. [Oleum Bergamii, 
Pharm. 1880.] 
“ A volatile oil obtained by expression from the rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Berga- 
mia, Bisso et Poiteau (nat. ord. Rutaceae). It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a 
cool place, protected from light.” U. S. 
Oleum Bergamottse, P. G.; Essence de Bergamotte, Huile de Bergamotte, Fr.; Bergamottol, G.; Olio di Berga- 
motta, It. 
Citrus. See Aurantii Cortex. 
Citrus bergamia. Risso & Poiteau. B. & T. 52.— C. limetta. De Cand. Prodrom. i. 539. 
The bergamot-tree has oblong-ovate, dentate, acute, or obtuse leaves, somewhat paler on the 
under than on the upper surface, and with footstalks more or less winged or margined. The 
flowers are white, and usually small; the fruit pyriform or roundish, about three inches in 
diameter, terminated by an obtuse point, with concave receptacles of oil in the rind. The 
pulp of the fruit is sourish, somewhat aromatic, and not disagreeable. The rind is shining, 
and of a pale-yellow color, and abounds in a very grateful volatile oil. This may be obtained 
by expression or distillation. In the former case it preserves the agreeable flavor of the rind, 
but is somewhat turbid; in the latter it is limpid but less sweet. The mode of procuring it 
by expression is exactly the same as that used for oil of lemon. (See Oleum Limonis.') It is 
brought from Italy, the south of France, and Portugal. 
The oil of bergamot, often called essence of bergamot, has a sweet, very agreeable odor, a 
bitter, aromatic, pungent taste, a pale greenish-yellow color, and a slightly acid reaction. Its 
sp. gr. varies from 0-870 to 0-888. (Lewis, Zeller.) “ Specific gravity, 0-880 to 0-885 at 15° 
C. (59° F.). Its optical rotation should not be more than 20° to the right in a 100 Mm. tube, 
and at a temperature of about 15° to 20° C. (59° to 68° F.). Two volumes of the Oil, when 
mixed with 1 volume of alcohol, should give a clear solution of a slightly acid reaction, and 
this solution should not become turbid on the further addition of alcohol (distinction from oil 
(O'LE-UM BER-GA-MOT'TiE.) 
* Under the name of nerolin an artificial product has been placed upon the market in the form of a white crys- 
talline powder, soluble in alcohol and fixed oils and almost insoluble in water. It is used by soap-makers as a sub- 
stitute for oil of neroli, and is said to be ten times as strong. This compound is said to be the ethyl ether of /3-naphtol. 
(Her. der Chetn. Gea., 1893, 2706.) It is also used in the manufacture of eau-de-Cologne with advantage instead 
of neroli oil. (Schimmel & Co., Semi-Annual Report, April, 1893.) 926 
Oleum Bergamottse.— Oleum Cadinum. 
PAET I. 
of orange or oil of lemon). The Oil should also be soluble at 20° C. (68° F.), without the 
separation of oily drops, in 1-5 to 2 volumes of alcohol of 80 per cent, by volume. It is sol- 
uble, in all proportions, in glacial acetic acid. If about 2 Gm. of the Oil be evaporated in a 
small, tared capsule, on a water-bath, until the odor has completely disappeared, a soft, green, 
homogeneous residue should be left, amounting to not more than about 6 per cent, of the 
Oil (absence of fatty oils).” U. S. It contains limonene, dipentene, linalool, a solid greasy 
compound called bergaptene, or bergamot camphor, and linalool acetate, C10H17.C2H302, which 
latter makes up about 40 per cent, of the expressed oil, but is decomposed in large part by the 
process of steam distillation. Bergaptene has been very fully studied by Pomeranz. (Monatsheft 
fiir Chem., 1891, 379.) It melts at 188° C., and has the composition C12H804, being the 
lactone or inner anhydride of bergaptenic acid, C12H1006. By fusion with caustic potash, ber- 
gaptene yields phloroglucin. (See SchimmeTs Report, April, 1893, and 1895, 24; also Proc. 
A. P. A., 1897, 630.) The oil is distinguished from lemon and orange oils by readily dis- 
solving in solution of potassa and forming with it a clear solution. (Zeller.) Though possessed 
of the excitant properties of the volatile oils in general, it is employed chiefly, if not exclu- 
sively, as a perfume. 
OLEUM BETULiE VOLATILE. U. S. Volatile Oil of Betula. 
[Oil of Sweet Birch.] 
“ A volatile oil obtained by distillation from the bark of Betula lenta, Linn6 (Sweet Birch; 
nat. ord. Betulaceae). It is identical with Methyl Salicylate [CH3C7H60„], and nearly iden- 
tical with Oil of Gaultheria. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, protected from 
light.” U.S. 
The Betula lenta, cherry birch, sweet birch, black birch, mountain mahogany, is a large 
American tree resembling in its dark, chestnut-brown bark, the general shape of its leaves, 
and its whole appearance the garden cherry. It grows northward from New England to Ohio 
and southward in the Blue Ridge as far as South Carolina and Georgia. It is especially char- 
acterized by its heart-ovate, pointed, sharply and finely doubly serrate leaves, and short petioles. 
The underneath veins of the leaves are hairy, as are also the elliptical, thick, fruity catkins, 
the lobes of whose venous scales are nearly equal, obtuse, and diverging. 
In commerce the oil of birch is chiefly sold as the oil of wintergreen. It is very largely 
distilled by the mountaineers or small farmers, many of whom put indiscriminately into their 
stills the wintergreen and the bark of the birch, or at least mix the products before selling. 
Whilst in general use under the name of oil of gaultheria, it differs from the latter in not con- 
taining a terpene; its specific gravity is 1-17, whilst, according to Pettigrew, that of oil of 
gaultheria is 10318. For a description of the apparatus used to distil oil of birch, see A. J. 
P., 1882, 49. It does not differ essentially from that described later in connection with oil 
of gaultheria. The so-called “ light oil” of distillers, according to Mr. Kennedy, is simply the 
oil with water and dirt. Oil of sweet birch has the same properties and conforms to the same 
reactions and tests as does methyl salicylate. (See Methyl Salicylas ; also Oleum Gaultherise.) So 
far as our present knowledge goes, oil of birch does not differ in its physiological and remedial 
properties from oil of gaultheria. Dose, from five to thirty minims (0-3-1-8 C.c.). 
(O'LE-UM BfiT'U-LiE VO-LXT'I-LE.) 
OLEUM CADINUM. U. S., Br. Oil of Cade. [Oleum Juniperi Empyreumaticum.] 
“ A product of the dry distillation of the wood of Juniperus Oxycedrus, Linne (nat. ord. 
Conifer®).” U. S. “ An empyreumatic oily liquid obtained by the destructive distillation of 
the woody portions of Juniperus Oxycedrus, Linn., and some other species.” Br. 
Juniper Tar Oil; Huile de Cade, Fr. 
The Juniperus oxycedrus, Linne, prickly cedar, or large brown-fruited juniper, is a common 
tree in the waste places and stony hill-sides of the Mediterranean districts of Northern Africa, 
Spain, Portugal, and France, reaching up in its distribution as high as 3000 feet in the Apen- 
nines. It commonly attains a height of from ten to twelve feet, sometimes much more, with 
long spreading branches and slender drooping branchlets, covered with light-green scattered and 
spreading leaves of medium size, lanceolate or awl-shaped, sharply pointed, having two furrows 
on their upper edge. The fruits are numerous, large (half an inch in diameter), globular, 
shining, reddish or chestnut-brown, and marked on the apex with two white lines. 
From the heart-wood of this tree the oil of cade is prepared by a process of distillation in 
(O'LE-UM CA-DI'NUM.) PART I. 
Oleum Cadinum.—Oleum Cajuputi. 
927 
ovens per descensum, similar to that practised in the making of ordinary tar. It is a brownish 
or dark brown liquid, much more mobile and less thick than tar, having a tar-like but distinct 
odor, and a smoky, acrid, bitterish, disagreeable taste. In mass it is dark and opaque, but in 
very thin layers clear; the oil contains phenols and a sesquiterpene termed cadinene, C16H24, 
the latter boiling at from 274° to 275° C. “ Specific gravity, about 0-990 at 15° C. (59° F.). 
It is almost insoluble in water, but imparts to it an acid reaction. It is only partially soluble 
in alcohol, but is completely soluble in ether, chloroform, or carbon disulphide.” U. S. The 
British Pharmacopoeia describes it as “ A dark reddish-brown or nearly black, more or less 
viscid, oily liquid, with a not unpleasant empyreumatic odor and an aromatic bitter and acrid 
taste. Specific gravity about 0-990. It is soluble in ether and chloroform ; partially soluble 
in cold, almost wholly in hot alcohol (90 per cent.). It is very slightly soluble in water. The 
filtered aqueous solution is almost colorless and possesses an acid reaction.” Yaucher recom- 
mends acetone for disguising the odor of oil of cade, and proposes an oil of cade collodion 
in which acetone is used to dissolve the pyroxylin instead of the usual solvents. (Chem. and 
Drug., 1897, 16.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Oil of cade has been used by the peasantry in the 
treatment of the cutaneous diseases of sheep, horses, and other domestic animals almost from 
time immemorial. More recently it has been largely employed in the treatment of chronic 
eczema, psoriasis, and other skin diseases of man, and has also been found to be an efficient 
parasiticide in psora and favus. It is applied, sometimes of full strength, sometimes diluted 
with a bland oil, well rubbed into the affected parts with the fingers, or with a cloth, and is also 
made into ointments, and especially into soaps * A glycerite is also prepared. 
OLEUM CAJUPUTI. U. S., Br. Oil of Cajuput. 
(O'LE-UM CAJ-y-PU'TI.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from tlie leaves of Melaleuca Leucadendron, Linne (nat. ord. Myr- 
tacern). It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool place.” U. S. “ The oil distilled 
from the leaves of Melaleuca Leucadendron, Linn. (Melaleuca Cajuputi, Roxb.).” Br. 
Oleum Cajeputi, P. G.; Essence de Cajeput, Huile de Cajeput, Fr.; Cajeputol, G.; Olio di Cajeput, It.; Kayu- 
putieh, Mai. 
Gen. Ch. Calyx five-parted, semi-superior. Corolla five-petalled. Stamens about forty-five, 
very long, conjoined in five bodies. Style single. Capsule three-celled. Seeds numerous. 
Roxburgh. 
It was long supposed that the oil of cajuput was derived from Melaleuca leucadendron; but 
from specimens of the plant affording it, sent from the Moluccas and cultivated in the botan- 
ical garden of Calcutta, Roxburgh concluded it to be a distinct species, and gave it the name 
of M. cajuputi. It corresponds with the arbor alba minor of Rumphius, and is a smaller plant 
than the M. leucadendron. Bentham, however, probably with correctness, considers it simply 
a smaller variety of M. leucadendron, a tree of wide-spread habitat, reaching into India, the 
Philippines, and even Australia. It is possible, however, that the oil may be obtained from 
different species of Melaleuca, as M. Stickel, of Jena, succeeded in procuring from the leaves 
of M. hypericifolia, cultivated in the botanical garden of that place, a specimen of oil not dis- 
tinguishable from the cajuput oil of commerce, except by a pale-green color. (Annal. der 
Pharm., xix. 224.) M. viridifolia and M. latifolia, large trees growing abundantly in the island 
of New Caledonia, yield a volatile oil very analogous to the oil of cajuput.f The leaves of 
* In the Edinb. Monthly Journ. for July, 1852 (page 66), it is stated that the soap is made by distilling the tar, in- 
corporating the volatile oil obtained with a fixed oil, and then saponifying this with soda. It is in the form of black 
balls, readily unites with water, and may be applied to the surface like any other soap. The best plan is probably 
to apply it at bedtime and wash it off next morning. 
f It seems to be uncertain how much of the oil of cajuput of commerce is produced by the New Caledonia trees. 
In the Bull. Therap., xcvii., the volatile oil of Melaleuca flaviflora is said to be sent in large quantities, under the 
name of miaouli, from New Caledonia to the East. More recently a pale-yellow oil occurring in French commerce 
under the name of essence de miaouli is reported to be obtained by distillation of the leaves of the Melaleuca viri- 
dijlora, which yield of it about 2-5 per cent. This oil has been carefully studied by G. Bertrand, who describes it as 
having a density of 0"922 and deviating a ray of polarized light 0° 42' to the right. He finds that it contains 
minute quantities of amylic alcohol, but is chiefly composed of a dextro-rotatory terebinthene, CioHig, eucalyptol, a 
hydrocarbon (probably citrene) boiling at 175° F., and a terpinol. This composition is identical with that of the 
terpinol of List (Comptes-Rendus, civ. 996, cvi. 663), obtained by heating with acidulated water the terpene, C10H16,- 
2H2O, resulting from the spontaneous hydration of terpene, C10H16, the natural product being thus readily imitated 
artificially in the laboratory by extremely simple reactions. (Comptes-Rendus, cxvi. 1070.) This oil has been used 
in doses of from ten to fifty centigrammes daily, in capsules, by Dr. Blanc, for the purposes for which oil of cajuput 
is usually employed. (Revue de Thirap., lx.) 928 
Oleum Cajuputi 
PAET I. 
different species of Melaleuca have been used advantageously, in the form of bath, in chronic 
rheumatism. (Annuaire de ThSrap., 1861, p. 67.) An extract of M. paraguayensis has been 
used with alleged advantage in rheumatism and other diseases. (Med. Record, xvi.) 
Melaleuca leucadendron. Linne. Cajuputi. Rumphius, Herbar. Ambomense, tom. ii. tab. 17 ; 
Roxburgh, Trans. Lond. Med. Bot. Soc., 1829 ; Journ. of the Phila. Coll, of Pharm., vol. i. p. 193. 
—M. minor. De Candolle. B. & T. 108. This tree grows with an erect but crooked stem, and 
scattered branches, the slender twigs of which droop like those of the weeping willow. The 
hark is of a whitish ash color, very thick, soft, spongy, and lamellated, throwing off its exterior 
layer from time to time in flakes. The leaves have short footstalks, are alternate, lanceolate, 
when young sericeous, when full-grown smooth, deep green, three- and five-nerved, slightly fal- 
cate, entire, from three to five inches long, from one-half to three-quarters of an inch broad, 
and when bruised exhale a strong aromatic odor. The flowers are small, white, inodorous, 
sessile, and disposed in terminal and axillary downy spikes, with solitary, lanceolate, three- 
flowered bracts. The filaments are three or four times longer than the petals, and both are in- 
serted in the rim of the calyx. The oil is obtained from the leaves by distillation. It is pre- 
pared chiefly in Amboyna and Bouro, and is exported from the East Indies in glass bottles. The 
small proportion yielded by the leaves, and the extensive use made of it in India, render it costly. 
Properties. Cajuput oil is very fluid, transparent, of a fine green color, a lively and pene- 
trating odor analogous to that of camphor and cardamom, and a warm, pungent taste. It is 
very volatile and inflammable, burning without any residue. The sp. gr. varies from 0-914 to 
0-9274. Its composition, according to Blanchet and Sell, is C10II180, and by repeated dis- 
tillation over phosphoric oxide the hydrocarbon, C10II16, called cajuputene, can be obtained. 
The oil is, therefore, said to contain cajuputene hydrate, or cajuputol. The identity of cajuputol 
with cineol and eucalyptol from Eucalyptus globulus in both chemical and physical properties 
has been established by C. Jahns. (A. J. P., 1885, 237.) It boils at 175° C. (347° F.). 
Schimmel & Co.'s Report, April, 1897 states as additional constituents terpineol, terpenyl acetate, 
and probably valeraldehyde, benzaldehyde, and pinene. Oil of cajuput is “a light, thin, bluish- 
green, or, after rectification, colorless liquid, having a peculiar, agreeable, distinctly camphor- 
aceous odor, and an aromatic, bitterish taste. Specific gravity, 0-922 to 0-929 at 15° C. (59° 
F.). With an equal volume of alcohol it affords a clear solution, which either has a slightly 
acid reaction, or, in the case of the rectified Oil, is neutral to litmus paper. On shaking 5 
C.c. of the Oil with 5 C.c. of water containing a drop of diluted hydrochloric acid, the Oil 
loses its green tint and becomes nearly colorless. If to this acid liquid, separated from the 
Oil, a drop of potassium ferrocyanide test solution be added, a reddish brown color will usually 
be produced (presence of traces of copper). If 5 parts of the Oil be heated to 50° C. (122° F.), 
and 1 part of powdered iodine gradually added, with avoidance of any further rise of tem- 
perature, the mixture, on cooling, will deposit a mass of crystals.” U. S. “ Bluish green, with 
an agreeable penetrating camphoraceous odor, and an aromatic bitterish camphoraceous taste. 
Specific gravity from 0-922 to 0 930. It should become semi-solid on being stirred, when 
cold, with a third or half its volume of phosphoric acid of commerce of specific gravity 1-750 
(presence of a due proportion of cineol).” Br. The oil is wholly soluble in alcohol. When it 
is distilled, a light, colorless liquid first comes over, and afterwards a green and denser one. The 
green color has been ascribed to a salt of copper derived from the vessels in which the distillation 
is performed ; and Guibourt obtained two grains and a half of copper oxide from a pound of the 
commercial oil. But neither Brande nor Goertner could detect copper in specimens examined by 
them; and M. Lesson, who witnessed the process for preparing the oil at Bouro, attributes its 
color to chlorophyll or some analogous principle, and states that it is rendered colorless by rectifi- 
cation. Guibourt, moreover, obtained a green oil by distilling the leaves of a Melaleuca culti- 
vated at Paris. A fair inference is that the oil of cajuput is naturally green, but that as found 
in commerce it sometimes contains copper, either accidentally present or added with a view of 
imitating or maintaining the fine color of the oil. The proportion of copper, however, is not so 
great as to forbid the internal use of the oil; and the metal may be separated by distillation 
with water, or by agitation with a solution of potassium ferrocyanide. This statement as to the 
frequent occurrence of copper in the cajuput oil of commerce, though at the same time its 
presence is not essential, has been confirmed by experiments by Mr. Edward Histed, who found 
copper in all of six specimens of the commercial oil, obtained from different sources. When 
redistilled, the oil became perfectly colorless, but after a few days’ exposure to copper filings 
reassumed its green color. (P. J. Tr., 1872, p. 804.) 
The high price of cajuput oil has led to its occasional adulteration. Oil of rosemary, and oil Oleum Cajuputi.— Oleum Cari. 
929 
PART I. 
of turpentine, impregnated with camphor and colored with the resin of milfoil, are said to be 
employed for the purpose. The best test, according to Zeller, is iodine, which, after a moder- 
ately energetic reaction, with little increase of temperature and but a slight development of 
orange vapors, occasions immediate inspissation into a loose coagulum, which soon becomes a 
dry, greenish-brown, brittle mass. 
Medical Properties and Uses. This oil is highly stimulant, producing when swal- 
lowed a sense of heat, with an increased fulness and frequency of pulse, and exciting in some 
instances profuse perspiration. It is much esteemed by the Malays and other people of the 
East, who consider it a panacea. The complaints to which it is best adapted are probably 
chronic rheumatism, and spasmodic affections of the stomach and bowels, unconnected with in- 
flammation. It has been extolled as a remedy in spasmodic cholera, and has been used also as 
a diffusible stimulant in low fevers. It is said to have been used in the collapsed state of cholera, 
with unexpected success, in the dose of from fifteen grains to a drachm (1—3-9 Gm.) in a 
single potion. (Arm. de Therap., 1867, p. 71.) Diluted with an equal proportion of olive oil, 
it is applied externally to relieve gouty and rheumatic pains. Like most other highly stimu- 
lating essential oils, it relieves toothache if introduced into the hollow of the carious tooth. M. 
Delvaux, who has made extensive use of this oil, has found it beneficial, given internally, in 
dyspepsia with flatulence, in the early stages and milder forms of cholera, in verminose affections 
in children, in chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, in chronic catarrh of the bladder, in chronic 
rheumatism of the joints with little or no swelling, and in painful chronic rheumatism of the 
muscles and fibro-muscular tissues, whether external or internal. Externally applied, M. Del- 
vaux has derived great benefit from it in various cutaneous diseases, as pityriasis, psoriasis, and 
especially in that extremely obstinate affection of the face, acne rosacea, which he has often 
succeeded in curing by the simple application of this oil three times a day. (Annuaire de Therap., 
1862, p. 38.) The dose is from five to twenty drops (0-3-1-25 C.c.), given in emulsion, in 
the form of pill, or upon a lump of sugar. 
OLEUM CARI. U. S. (Br.) Oil of Caraway. 
(O'LE-UM CA'RI.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Caraway.” U. S. “ The Oil distilled from caraway fruit.” Br. 
Oleum Carui, Br.; Oleum Carvi, P. G.; Essence de Carvi, Fr.; Kiimmelol, G. 
This oil is prepared to a considerable extent by our distillers. The fresh fruit as cultivated 
in Holland yields nearly 6 per cent, of oil, while the Herman fruit yields about 4 per cent. 
The oil of caraway is somewhat viscid, of a pale-yellow color, becoming brownish by age, with 
the odor of the fruit, and an aromatic acrid taste. Its sp. gr. is differently given at 0-946 
(Baume), 0-931 (Brande), 0-916 (Buignet), and 0-920 ( U S. Pi). It is dextrogyrate in its re- 
lation to polarized light. (Buignet, Journ. de Pharm., Oct. 1861, p. 261.) It consists of two 
liquid oils, of different boiling points, and separable by distillation,—one a hydrocarbon called 
carvene (C10H16), of the sp. gr. 0-849 and boiling point 176° C. (349° F.), now recognized 
as identical with limonene, the other, carvol, C1QH140, of the sp. gr. 0-9638 and boiling point 
224° C. (435° F.). This latter constituent is often extracted from the oil and prepared in a 
pure state by taking advantage of the formation of a crystalline compound of carvol and 
hydrogen sulphide, which can then be decomposed by treatment with alcoholic potash. 
It is officially described as “ a colorless, or pale yellow, thin liquid, having the characteristic, 
aromatic odor of caraway, and a mild, spicy taste. Specific gravity, 0 910 to 0-920 at 15° C. 
(59° F.). Soluble in an equal volume of alcohol, this solution being neutral to litmus paper.” 
U. S. “ Colorless or pale yellow, with the characteristic odor of the fruit, and a spicy taste. 
Specific gravity 0-910 to 0-920.” Br. For additional tests, see Schimmel & Co.'s Report, 
1893, 10 ; also Bull. Pharm., 1894, 257. 
When oil of caraway is distilled over glacial phosphoric acid or powdered caustic soda, the 
distilled liquor being poured back into the retort until it ceases to have the smell of caraway, 
an oily liquid is obtained, having a very disagreeable odor, and a strong taste. This product, 
to which the name of carvacrol has been applied, has been found to give immediate relief to 
toothache, when inserted on cotton into the cavity of a carious tooth. (See Am. Journ. of Med. 
Sci., N. S., xv. 532.) Carvacrol is found to be of the same chemical composition as carvol, 
and is considered to be formed from it by molecular rearrangement merely. Oil of caraway is 
much used to impart flavor to medicines, and to correct their nauseating and griping effects. 
The dose is from one to ten drops (0-06—0-6 C.c.). 930 
Oleum Caryophylli. 
PART I. 
OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI. U. S., Br. Oil of Cloves. 
(o-le-um cXb-y-o-phyl'l!.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Cloves.” V S. “ The Oil distilled from cloves.” Br. 
Oleum Caryophyllorum, P. G.; Essence de Girofles, Fr.; Nelkenol, G. 
This oil is obtained by distilling cloves with water, to which it is customary to add common 
salt, in order to raise the temperature of ebullition ; and the water should be repeatedly dis- 
tilled from the same cloves, in order completely to exhaust them. Professor Scharling has 
found advantage from the application of superheated steam to the distillation of this oil. (P. 
J. Tr., xi. 469.) It is essential also to use the same water over and over again, in order to 
avoid loss by the solution of the oil in the water. The product of good cloves is said to be 
about one-fifth or one-sixth of their weight. The oil was formerly brought from Holland or 
the East Indies ; but since the introduction of the Cayenne cloves into our markets the reduced 
price and superior freshness of the drug have rendered the distillation of oil of cloves profitable 
in this country ; and the best now sold is of domestic extraction. We have been informed that 
from seven to nine pounds of cloves yield to our distillers about one pound of the oil. 
Properties. Oil of cloves, when recently distilled, is very fluid, clear, and colorless, but 
becomes yellowish by exposure, and ultimately reddish brown. It has the odor of cloves, a 
hot, acrid, aromatic taste, and a slightly acid reaction. Its sp. gr. is variously stated at from 
1-034 to 1-061,—the latter being given by Bonastre as the sp. gr. of the rectified oil. “ Specific 
gravity, 1-060 to 1-067 at 15° C. (59° F.). Soluble in an equal volume of alcohol, this solution 
being slightly acid to litmus paper; also soluble in an equal volume of glacial acetic acid. 
When shaken with an equal volume of a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate, or of 
stronger ammonia water, it forms a semi-solid, yellowish mass. If two drops of the Oil be dis- 
solved in 4 C.c. of alcohol, and a drop of ferric chloride test-solution added, a bright green 
color will be produced; and if the same test be made with a drop of dilute ferric chloride test- 
solution, prepared by diluting the test-solution with four times its volume of water, a blue color 
will be produced, which soon changes to yellow. If 1 C.c. of the Oil be mixed with 2 C.c. of 
a mixture of 2 volumes of alcohol and 1 volume of water, it should form a clear and perfect 
solution (absence of petroleum, most fatty oils, oil of turpentine, and similar oils'). If 1 C.c. of 
the Oil be shaken with 20 C.c. of hot water, the water should show a scarcely perceptible acid 
reaction to litmus paper. If, after cooling, the aqueous layer be passed through a wet filter, 
the clear filtrate should yield, with a drop of ferric chloride test-solution, only a transient 
grayish-green, but not a blue or violet color (absence of carbolic acid)." U. S. “ Colorless or 
pale yellow when recent, but gradually becoming reddish-brown, having the strong odor and 
taste of cloves. Specific gravity not below 1 050. An alcoholic solution yields a blue color 
with test-solution of ferric chloride. Shaken with its own volume of strong solution of ammo- 
nia it forms a semi-solid yellowish mass.” Br. It is one of the least volatile of the essential 
oils, and requires for congelation a temperature irom zero of Fahrenheit to —4°. It is com- 
pletely soluble in alcohol, ether, and strong acetic acid. Nitric acid changes its color to a 
deep red, and converts it by the aid of heat into oxalic acid. The same change to red is pro- 
duced by nitric acid on morphine, but in this case the red is followed by yellow, which does 
not happen with the oil of cloves. Besides, if to a solution of morphine with nitric acid 
a solution of chlorinated lime be added, and the mixture be exposed for some hours to the 
light, the solution of morphine will retain a straw color, while if oil of cloves be treated in 
the same manner the color disappears. (Haselden, B. and F. Med.- Chir. Rev., July, 1867, 
265.) When long kept, the oil deposits a crystalline stearopten. It is frequently adulterated 
with fixed oils, and sometimes with oil of pimenta and with copaiba. When pure, it sinks in 
distilled water. According to E. Scherer, these adulterations may sometimes be detected by 
attention to the specific gravity and the boiling point, pure oil of cloves varying in specific 
gravity from 1-03 to 1-06, and boiling at from 240° C. (464° F.) to 255° C. (491° F.). Ac- 
cording to Zeller, its character of congealing entirely into a crystalline mass with the alcoholic 
solution of potassa, losing at the same time its peculiar odor, affords a sufficient criterion of its 
purity. It appears to be indifferent in its rotatory effects on polarized light. (Buignet.) 
Oil of cloves contains small amounts of methyl alcohol and furfurol, but is mainly composed 
of an unsaturated phenol termed eugenol and a sesquiterpene caryophyllene. Eugenol, 
C C3H6 “ 
C10H1202, has been shown to be the methyl ether of allyl-dioxybenzene, CeH3 ) OCH-. One 
(OH 
of its most important reactions is its conversion into vanillin. For this purpose it is boiled PART I. 
Oleum Chenopodii.— Oleum Cinnamomi. 
931 
with acetic anhydride, whereby aceteugenol is formed, which, oxidized in weak acid solution by 
potassium permanganate, yields acetvanillic acid, and this with weak potash solution is changed 
into vanillin, which is then extracted by acidifying and shaking up with ether. (See also Pharm. 
Era, 1887, 444.) For the estimation of eugenol in the form of its crystalline benzoyl com- 
pound, see A. J. P., 1892, 26 and 508 ; also Sehimmel & Co.'s Report, April, 1892, 28. The 
characteristic aromatic odor of oil of cloves is due to methyl-amylketone, (CH3(CH2)4C0.CH3), 
which has been isolated by the chemists of Sehimmel & Co., and found to be present only in 
minute quantity. (Pharm. Rev., 1897, 115.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. The medical effects of the oil are similar to those of 
cloves, and it is used for the same purposes; but its most common employment is as a cor- 
rigent of other medicines. It is a powerful local narcotic, and is often introduced into the 
cavity of a carious aching tooth. The dose is from two to six drops (0-12 to 0-36 C.c.). Eu- 
genol has been given internally in doses of forty-five grains per day dissolved in alcohol and 
diluted in water; it probably resembles carbolic acid in its physiological actions, and has been 
used as an antiseptic and antipyretic. According to the experiments of Dr. Leubuscher ( Wien. 
Med. Blatter, 1889), it is a feeble local anaesthetic. 
OLEUM CHENOPODII. U. S. Oil of Chenopodium. [Oil of American 
Wormseed.] 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Chenopodium.” U. S. 
Essence de Chenopode anthelmintique, Fr.; Amerikanisches Wurmsamenol, G. 
This oil is peculiar to the United States. It is prepared in the vicinity of Baltimore. (See 
page 367.) It is of a light-yellow color when recently distilled, but becomes deeper yellow 
and even brownish by age. Its reaction is neutral. It has in a high degree the peculiar 
flavor of the plant. “ Specific gravity, about 0-970 at 15° C. (59° F.). 1 C.c. of the oil 
should form a perfectly clear solution with 10 C.c. of a mixture of 3 volumes of alcohol and 
1 volume of water.” 17. S. When freshly prepared, it has the sp. gr. 0-908, which, according 
to Mr. S. S. Grarrigues, is increased by time to 0-960. A portion examined by him, which was 
of a brownish-yellow color, had the sp. gr. 0-959 at 61° F., boiled at 374° F., and was freely 
soluble in alcohol and ether. He found it to be composed of two distinct oils, separable by 
distillation : one of these has the formula C1OH10, and reacts with hydrochloric acid in a man- 
ner analogous to oil of turpentine; the other is heavier, and possesses the formula C10HieO. 
(A. J. P., xxvi. 405.) Wormseed oil is used as an anthelmintic, in the dose of from four to 
eight drops (0-24-0-5 C.c.) for a child, repeated morning and evening for three or four days, 
and then followed by a brisk cathartic. The case of a child, six years old, is recorded (Boston 
Med. and Surg. Joum., xlv. 373) in which death is supposed to have resulted from the use of 
overdoses. 
(O'LE-UM jBHEN-0-P5'DI-I.) 
OLEUM CINNAMOMI. U. S., Br. Oil of Cinnamon. [Oil of Cassia.] 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Cassia Cinnamon. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, 
in a cool place, protected from light.” U. S. “ The oil distilled from Cinnamon Bark.” Br. 
Oleum Cinnamomi Zeylanici, P. 0.; Oil of Ceylon Cinnamon, E.; Essence de Cannelle, Huile de Cannelle, Fr.; 
Zimmtol, Zeylonisches Zimmtol, G.; Olio di Cannella, It.; Aceite de Canela, Sp. 
There are two oils of cinnamon in commerce,—one procured from the Ceylon cinnamon, the 
other from the Chinese cinnamon, and often distinguished by the name of oil of cassia. There 
is no essential difference in the two oils; and that of the Chinese cinnamon, as much the 
cheaper and more abundant of the two, will probably continue to be generally employed, not- 
withstanding that the Ceylon product has the finer flavor* 
Oil of cinnamon of Ceylon is prepared in that island from inferior kinds of cinnamon, of 
insufficient value to pay the export duty. The following account of the method of extraction 
is given by Marshall. The bark, having been coarsely powdered, is macerated for two days in 
sea-water, and then submitted to distillation. A light and a heavy oil come over with the 
(O'LE-UM CIN-NA-MO'MI.) 
* Sehimmel & Co. (Semi-Annual Report, April, 1892) have shown that cinnamon-leaf oil (from Cinnamomum zey- 
lanicum), instead of being a thick, viscid oil, as frequently stated, is a bright, limpid oil, and is identical with the oil 
formerly exported from Ceylon in large quantities and thought to be produced from the roots of the cinnamon shrub. 
It has a sp. gr. of 1*05 to 1'06, and contains about 87 per cent, of eugenol and about 0'1 per cent, of cinnamic alde- 
hyde : from this composition the cloves and cinnamon-like odor which it possesses may be understood. Safrol is 
also present in small amounts. Dr. von Roinburgh (Sehimmel & Co., Report, Oct. 1892) has prepared the true cin- 
namon-root oil, and finds it to contain large amounts of camphor, to which its odor is obviously due. 932 
Oleum Cinnamomi. 
PART I. 
water, the former of which separates in a few hours and floats upon the surface, the latter 
falls to the bottom of the receiver, and continues to be deposited for ten or twelve days. In 
future distillations, the saturated cinnamon water is employed with sea-water to macerate the 
cinnamon. Eighty pounds of the freshly prepared bark yield about 2*5 ounces of the lighter 
oil, and 5*5 of the heavier. From the same quantity kept for several years in store, about 
half an ounce less of each oil is obtained. The two kinds are probably united in the oil of 
commerce. The oil is also distilled in Ceylon from the leaves, but the product is said to be 
too small to yield a fair profit. (Chem. and Drug., 1888.) 
Recently prepared oil of Ceylon cinnamon is of a light-yellow color, becoming deeper by age, 
and ultimately red. Pereira states that the London druggists redistil the red oil, and thus 
obtain two pale-yellow oils, one lighter and the other heavier than water, with a loss of about 
10 per cent, in the process. The oil has the flavor of cinnamon, and when undiluted is exces- 
sively hot and pungent. It is said sometimes to have a peppery taste, ascribable to an admix- 
ture of the leaves with the bark in the preparation of the oil. Oil of Ceylon Cinnamon has 
“ a slightly acid reaction. Sp. gr. about 1*040. It is readily soluble in alcohol. When cooled 
to —10° C. (14° F.), it remains clear, but at a lower temperature a solid portion separates 
from it.” U. S. 1880. The British Pharmacopoeia 1898 recognizes oil of Ceylon cinnamon 
only, and gives the following description and tests: “ Yellow when freshly distilled, but grad- 
ually becoming reddish; having the odor and taste of the bark. Specific gravity 1*025 to 
1*035. 1 cubic centimetre dissolved in 5 cubic centimetres of alcohol (90 per cent.), and test- 
solution of ferric chloride added, should afford a pale green, but not a decided blue coloration 
(absence of cinnamon-leaf oil). If 10 cubic centimetres be well shaken with 50 cubic centi- 
metres of a boiling 30 per cent, solution of sodium hydrogen sulphite, an oily layer separates, 
which, when cooled to 60° F. (15*5° C.), should not measure more than 5 cubic centimetres 
(absence of more than 50 per cent, of constituents other than aldehydes).” 
Chinese oil of cinnamon is imported from Canton and Singapore. It is pale yellow, becoming 
red with age. Its flavor is similar to that of the Ceylon oil, though inferior; and it commands 
a much lower price. It is officially described as “ a yellowish or brownish liquid, becoming 
darker and thicker by age and exposure to the air, having the characteristic odor of cinnamon, 
and a sweetish, spicy, and burning taste. Specific gravity, 1*055 to 1*065 at 15° C. (59° F.). 
Soluble in an equal volume of alcohol, the solution being slightly acid to litmus paper; also 
soluble in an equal volume of glacial acetic acid. When shaken with a saturated solution of 
sodium bisulphite, it solidifies to a crystalline mass. If 4 drops of the Oil, contained in a test- 
tube, be cooled to 0° C. (32° F.), and then shaken with 4 drops of fuming nitric acid, crystal- 
line needles or plates will be formed. If a portion of the Oil be shaken with water, and the 
liquid passed through a wet filter, the clear filtrate should give, with a few drops of basic lead 
acetate test-solution, a white turbidity, without a yellow color (absence of oil of cloves'). If 4 
drops of the Oil be dissolved in 10 C.c. of alcohol, the subsequent addition of a drop of ferric 
chloride test-solution should produce a brown, but not a green or blue, color (absence of oil of 
cloves or of carbolic acid'). If 1 C.c. of the Oil be mixed with 3 C.c. of a mixture of 3 vol- 
umes of alcohol and 1 volume of water, a clear solution should result; and if to this solution 
there be gradually added 2 C.c. of a saturated solution of lead acetate in a mixture of 3 vol- 
umes of alcohol and 1 volume of water, no precipitate should be produced (absence of petro- 
leum, or of colophony')." U. S. The researches of Schimmel & Co. seem to show that the 
Chinese cassia oil of commerce is distilled out of the leaves, leaf-stalks, and young twigs of 
the cassia plant,—probably with broken bark and various refuse products from the tree ; also 
that much of the oil is adulterated with rosin and petroleum. (See official tests above.)* Zeller 
states that it is heavier, less liquid, and sooner rendered turbid by cold, and that in the Ceylon 
oil iodine dissolves rapidly, with a considerable increase of heat, and the production of a tough 
residue, like extract, while in oil of cassia the reaction is slow, quiet, and with little heat, and 
the residue is soft or liquid. The following remarks apply to both. 
Alcohol completely dissolves oil of cinnamon; and, as it does not rise in any considerable 
* The value of cassia oil is stated to depend upon the percentage of cinnamic aldehyde which it contains. In a 
series of analyses made by Schimmel <fc Co. of oils having a specific gravity of 1*064 to 1'065, the proportion of 
aldehyde varied from 73*5 to 88 per cent. In the distillation by Schimmel & Co. the various portions of the cassia 
plant obtained from China yielded the following result. 1. Cassia bark, Cassia lignea of commerce: yield of essen- 
tial oil 1*5 per cent.; aldehyde in oil 88*9 per cent.; sp. gr. T035. 2. Cassia buds, Flores Cassice of commerce: 
yield of essential oil T550 per cent..; aldehyde in oil 80*4 per cent.; sp. gr. 1*026. 3. Cassia budsticks : yield of 
essential oil 1*64 per cent.; aldehyde in oil 92 per cent.; sp. gr. 1*046. 4. Cassia Leaves, leaf-stalks, and young 
twigs mixed: yield of essential oil 0*77 per cent.; aldehyde in oil 93 per cent.; sp. gr. 1*055. PART I. 
Oleum Cmnamomi.— Oleum Copaibse. 
933 
quantity at the boiling temperature of that liquid, it may be obtained by forming a tincture 
of cinnamon and distilling off’ the menstruum. When exposed to the air, it absorbs oxygen, 
and is slowly converted into cinnamic acid, two distinct resins, and water. Of the two resins, 
one is soluble both in hot and in cold alcohol; the other readily in the former, but sparingly 
in the latter. Cinnamic acid, C9II802, is colorless, crystalline, sourish, volatilizable, slightly 
soluble in water, readily dissolved by alcohol, and convertible by nitric acid with heat into 
benzoic acid. It is sometimes seen in crystals in oil of cinnamon which has been long kept. 
Like benzoic acid, it is said when swallowed to cause the elimination of hippuric acid by the 
urine. (Journ. de Pharm., 3e ser., iii. 64.) It may be obtained by distilling the balsam of Tolu. 
Oil of cinnamon is almost wholly converted by nitric acid, slowly added, into a crystalline mass, 
thought to be a compound of the oil and the acid. These several facts are explained when it is 
found that oil of cinnamon contains from 75 to 90 per cent, of cinnamic aldehyde, C9II80, 
which by moderate oxidation yields the corresponding cinnamic acid, C9tl802, but by more 
energetic oxidation yields benzoic acid, C7tle02. The oil has been produced artificially by 
Strecker from styrone, a derivative from styrax (see Styrax), and more recently from benzalde- 
hyde and acetaldehyde, a mixture of which is saturated with hydrochloric acid gas, when a 
condensation takes place, as follows: C6H6C0H -f- CH3C0H — CeH6CH = CH.CHO -f- H20. 
Ordinary sodium hydrate will also bring about the reaction between the two aldehydes, and is 
to be preferred to hydrochloric acid for this purpose. The only other constituent of the cassia 
oil is cinnamyl acetate. Ceylon cinnamon oil, on the other hand, is said to contain some euge- 
nol and phellandrene in addition to the cinnamic aldehyde. Kebler recommends the estimation 
of cinnamic aldehyde volumetrically. (See A. J. P., 1896, 193.) 
Oil of cinnamon is said to be frequently adulterated with oil of cloves, which, according to 
Ulex, cannot be detected by the smell or taste. Thus sophisticated, it is stated, on the same 
authority, to evolve a very acrid vapor when a drop is heated on a watch-glass, to swell up and 
evolve red vapors if treated w7ith fuming nitrio acid, to remain liquid with concentrated caustic 
potassa, and to assume an indigo-blue color when ferrous chloride is added to its alcoholic 
solution; none of which reactions occur with pure oil. (Archiv der Pharm., Jan. 1853.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. This oil has the cordial and carminative properties 
of cinnamon, without its astringency, and is much employed as an adjuvant to other medi- 
cines, the taste of which it corrects or conceals, while it conciliates the stomach. As a power- 
ful local stimulant, it is sometimes prescribed in gastrodynia, flatulent colic, and gastric debility. 
The dose is from one to three drops (0-06-0-18 C.c.). Mitscherlich found six drachms to kill a 
moderate-sized dog in five hours, and two drachms one in forty hours. Inflammation and 
corrosion of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane were observed after death. 
OLEUM COPAIBA. U. S., Br. Oil of Copaiba. 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Copaiba.” U. S. “ The oil distilled from copaiba.” Br. 
Oil of Copaiva; Oleum Balsami Copaivae; Essence de Copahu, Fr.; Copaibaol, G. 
The oil constitutes from one-third to one-half or more of the copaiba. From one specimen 
of recent copaiba as much as 80 per cent, has been obtained. (A. J. P., xxii. 289.) It is 
prepared largely in Philadelphia by the application of steam heat. As it first comes over it 
is colorless, but the later product is of a fine greenish hue. By redistillation it may be ren- 
dered wholly colorless. It has the odor and taste of copaiba, a neutral reaction, boils at 252°- 
256° C. (485-6°-492-8° F.), solidifies, partly crystalline, at —15° F. (Gmelin), is soluble in 
ether and in an equal weight of alcohol. Oil of copaiba consists chiefly of caryophyllene, 
Ci5IT24. “ A colorless or pale yellowish liquid, having the characteristic odor of copaiba, and 
an aromatic, bitterish, and pungent taste. Specific gravity, 0 890 to 0-910 at 15° C. (59° F.), 
increasing with age. Soluble in about 10 times its volume of alcohol, forming a slightly turbid 
liquid, which is neutral to litmus paper.” U. S. “ Colorless or pale yellow, with the odor and 
taste of copaiba. Specific gravity 0-900 to 0 910. It turns the plane of a ray of polarized 
light to the left, and is soluble in its own volume of absolute alcohol (distinction from African 
copaiba oil).” Br. From its want of oxygen, it answers even better than naphtha for preserv- 
ing potassium, a fact first observed by Mr. Durand, of Philadelphia. It dissolves sulphur and 
phosphorus. ( Gmelin's Handbook, xiv. 288.) 
Its effects on the system are those of copaiba. From the experiments of C. Mitscherlich, 
it is one of the least injurious of the volatile oils to the animal system, six drachms of it 
having been introduced into the stomach of a rabbit without causing death. Externally it 
(O'LE-UM CO-PA'l-BiE.) 934 
Oleum Coriandri.—Oleum Erigerontis. 
PART I. 
produces much less irritation than does oil of turpentine. It may be used for the same purposes 
as copaiba, in the dose of from ten to fifteen drops (0-6-0-9 C.c.), given in emulsion or dropped 
on sugar. 
OLEUM CORIANDRI. U. S., Br. Oil of Coriander. 
(O'LE-UM CO-RI-XN'DRI.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Coriander.” U. S. “ The oil distilled from coriander fruit.” Br. 
Essence de Coriandre, Fr.; Korianderol, G. 
This is obtained by distillation with water from the bruised seeds in the manner directed in 
the U. S. Pharm. 1870 for the other volatile oils. Forty-two grains of it are stated by Zeller 
to be* derived from a pound of the fruit. It is pale yellow and colorless, and has the charac- 
teristic smell and taste of coriander, and a neutral reaction. Its sp. gr. is from 0-870 to 0-885, 
TJ. S., and its boiling point 302° F. It is an oxygenated oil, consisting chiefly of a compound, 
coriandrol, CIOH180. According to Semmler (Ber. der Chem. Ges., 24, 206), coriandrol boils 
between 194° and 198° C., is optically dextro-rotatory, and has a sp. gr. of 0-8679 at 20° C. 
Coriandrol is now known as linalool. Schimmel & Co. (Report, April, 1892) have also found 
in coriander oil about 5 per cent, of dextro-pinene. “ One C.c. of the Oil forms a perfectly 
clear solution with 3 C.c. of a mixture of 3 volumes of alcohol and 1 volume of water, the 
solution being neutral to litmus paper. The Oil is also soluble in an equal volume of glacial 
acetic acid.” JJ. S. “ Colorless or pale yellow, having the odor and flavor of the fruit. Spe- 
cific gravity 0-870 to 0-885. If 1 cubic centimetre of the Oil be mixed with 3 cubic centimetres 
of alcohol (70 per cent.), a clear solution results (absence of oil of turpentine and added ter- 
penes).” Br. Oil of coriander is extensively adulterated with colorless rectified oil of orange, 
which can be detected by its insolubility in 90 per cent, alcohol, in which pure coriander oil 
dissolves in every proportion ; equal parts of oil of orange and 90 per cent, alcohol make a 
turbid mixture. (A. J. P., Sept. 1878.) The oil has the medical properties of the fruit, and, 
like the aromatic oils generally, may be used to cover the taste or correct the nauseating or 
griping properties of other medicines. It has the great advantage of being more stable and 
retaining its agreeable odor longer than any other oil of its class. 
OLEUM CUBEBS. U. S., Br. Oil of Cubeb. 
(O'LE-UM CU-BE'B/E.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Cubeb.” U. S. “ The oil distilled from Cubebs.” Br. 
Oleum Cubebarum ; Oil of Cubebs; Essence de Cubebes, Fr.; Kubebenol, G. 
The oil is obtained from cubeb by grinding the berries, and then distilling with water. From 
ten pounds Schonwald procured eleven ounces of oil ; and this result very nearly coincides 
with the experiments of Christison, who obtained 7 per cent. When recently distilled from 
the fruit, the oil is somewhat greenish, becoming yellowish by age ; but when carefully re- 
distilled it is colorless. It has the smell of cubeb, a warm, aromatic, camphorous taste, and 
a neutral reaction, is of a consistence approaching that of almond oil, is lighter than water, 
having the sp. gr. 0'920 (0-910-0-930, Br. Ph.), and when exposed to the air is said to thicken 
without losing its odor. It is soluble in an equal weight of alcohol. The oil consists chiefly 
of cadinene, C16H24, with some dipentene. Upon standing, it sometimes deposits rhomboidal 
prismatic crystals of a stearopten. This camphor of cubeb has the formula C16H260, is fusible 
at from 06° to 68° C., and volatilizes without change at from 148° to 150° C. According to 
Schmidt, it does not pre-exist in the cubeb, but is formed by the prolonged action of the air. 
(Journ. de Pharm., Juin, 1875.) The oil has the aromatic properties of cubeb; but it is 
probably not the sole active ingredient, as it is much less pungent than the fluid extract or the 
oleoresin. It may, however, often be advantageously substituted for the powder, in the com- 
mencing dose of ten or twelve drops (0-6 or 0-72 C.c.), to be gradually increased until its effects 
are obtained, or until it proves offensive to the stomach. It may be given suspended in water 
by means of sugar, or in the form of emulsion, or enclosed in capsules of gelatin. 
OLEUM ERIGERONTIS. U. S. Oil of Erigeron. [Oil of Fleabane.] 
(O'liE-UM E-RI<J-E-RON'TIS.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from the fresh, flowering herb of Erigeron Canadense, Linn6 (nat. 
ord. Composite).” U. S. 
Oleum Erigerontis Canadensis, U.S. 1870; Oil of Canada Fleabane. PART I. 
Oleum Erigerontis.— Oleum Eucalypti. 
935 
Oil of erigeron is limpid, of a light straw color, a peculiar aromatic persistent odor, and 
a characteristic taste. By exposure it becomes darker and thicker. Its reaction is neutral. 
Its sp. gr. is about 0-850, increasing with age (0-855 to 0-890, Schimmel & Co.). It consists 
chiefly of dextrogyrate limonene, together with some terpineol. (A. J. P., 1893, 420.) “ Soluble 
in an equal volume of alcohol (distinction from oil of fireweed (derived from Erechthites hieraci- 
folia Rafinesque, nat. ord. Compositse) and from oil of turpentine), this solution being neutral or 
slightly acid to litmus ; also soluble in an equal volume of glacial acetic acid. It distils for 
the most part between 175° and 180° C. (347° and 356° F.).” U. S. When distilled without 
water, it comes over colorless, and a little resinous matter is left behind, probably resulting 
from the oxidation of one or both of the constituent oils. It is readily soluble in alcohol. It 
consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is slowly reddened by potassa, combines with 
iodine without explosion, is instantly decomposed by sulphuric acid, and is acted on by strong 
nitric acid, slowly at ordinary temperatures, but with heat explosively. (Procter, A. J. P., xxvi. 
502.) For an account of the difference in properties between this oil and that from Erechthites 
hieracifolia, see a paper by Albert M. Todd, A. J. P., 1887, p. 302. 
It was first brought into notice by the so-called eclectic physicians, who use it in diarrhoea, 
dysentery, and the hemorrhages ; and certainly it is a very valuable remedy in haemoptysis when 
there is no fever or other marked evidence of constitutional irritation. As long ago as 1854 it 
was commended highly by Dr. E. Wilson in uterine hemorrhage, while Dr. J. W. Moorman 
speaks of it most highly in all forms of hemorrhage, in diarrhoea of debility, in dysentery after 
sufficient evacuation of the stomach and bowels, and especially in hemorrhage from the bowels 
during typhoid fever. (Am. Joum. of Med. Sci., Oct. 1865, p. 396.) It probably acts like the 
oil of turpentine as a haemostatic, but is much less irritant and stimulating. Dose, from ten 
minims to half a fluidrachm (0-6—0-18 C.c.), repeated every hour or two. 
OLEUM EUCALYPTI. U. S., Br. Oil of Eucalyptus 
(O'LE-UM EU-CA-LYP'TI.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, Labillardiere, Euca- 
lyptus oleosa, F. v. Mueller, and some other species of Eucalyptus (nat. ord. Myrtaceae).” U. 8. 
“The oil distilled from the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus Globulus, Labill., and other species 
of Eucalyptus.” Br. 
Essence d’Eucalyptus, Fr.; Eucalyptusol, G. 
Various species of the genus Eucalyptus, grown in Australia and Algeria, yield a volatile oil 
in sufficient quantity to be a commercial product. Probably the most important of these plants 
are the E. amygdalina, whose volatile oil was at one time supposed to be destitute of eucalyp- 
tol, but has been shown by Gildemeister (Pliarm. Zeitung, 1888) to contain that principle, but 
to have phellandrene * for its chief constituent; E. odorata, the oil of which is affirmed to be 
extremely rich in eucalyptol, but to contain no phellandrene; and E. oleosa, the oil of which is 
stated to be so rich in eucalyptol that at a low temperature it becomes pasty. Under these cir- 
cumstances the revisers of the U. S. Pharm. acted very properly in rejecting all those oils which 
contain enough of phellandrene to respond to the sodium nitrite test. Oil of eucalyptus is 
officially described as “ a colorless or faintly yellowish liquid, having a characteristic, aromatic, 
somewhat camphoraceous odor, and a pungent, spicy, and cooling taste. Specific gravity, 0-915 
to 0-925 at 15° C. (59° F.). Soluble, in all proportions, in alcohol, carbon disulphide, or gla- 
cial acetic acid. Its alcoholic solution is neutral, or slightly acid, to litmus paper. If 1 C.c. 
of the Oil be mixed with 2 C.c. of glacial acetic acid, and 1 or 2 C.c. of a saturated aqueous 
solution of sodium nitrite be gradually added, the mixture, when gently stirred, should not 
form a crystalline mass (distinction from oils of Eucalyptus containing a considerable proportion 
of phellandrene)." U. 8. 11 Specific gravity 0-910 to 0-930. It should not rotate the plane of 
a ray of polarized light more than 10° in either direction in a tube 100 millimetres long, and 
it should become semi-solid on being stirred, when cold, with a third or half its volume of 
phosphoric acid of commerce of specific gravity 1-750 (presence of a due proportion of cineol). 
If to 1 cubic centimetre of the Oil there be added 2 cubic centimetres of glacial acetic acid 
and 2 cubic centimetres of a saturated aqueous solution of sodium nitrite, the mixture, when 
gently stirred, should not form a crystalline mass (exclusion of eucalyptus oils containing much 
phellandrene).” Br. Power has modified the test for phellandrene so as to make it more deli- 
cate. According to his directions, 1 C.c. of the oil is mixed with 5 C.c. of petroleum henzin, 
* Phellandrene (see Olea Volatilia, p. 905) is one of two members of the terpane group which forms solid nitrosites 
with nitrous acid, the other being terpinene. 936 
Oleum Foenieuli.— Oleum Gaultheriae. 
PART I. 
1 or 2 C.c. of a concentrated solution of sodium nitrite added, and subsequently glacial acetic 
acid added, a drop or two at a time, with vigorous agitation after each addition. If phellan- 
drene be present in any considerable amount, its crystalline nitrosite, C10H16(NO)N02, will 
separate from the benzin solution. It contains cymene, C10Hpinene, C10H16, and eucalyptol 
(or cineol), C10H180. Schimmel & Co. also state (Bericht, April, 1888) that they have ob- 
tained several of the aldehydes of the fatty series, notably valeraldehyde, and probably butyral- 
deliyde and capronaldehyde, in their distillation of the oil from Eucalyptus globulus. The medi- 
cal value of the oil of eucalyptus has been believed to depend upon the eucalyptol present in it, 
but we have no definite knowledge as to the physiological action of phellandrene, and it may 
well be that the phellandrene oils act similarly to the eucalyptol. As eucalyptol is now official, 
it may be preferred by the practitioner as being of definite strength and character, the percent- 
age of eucalyptol even in the best oils varying considerably. The dose is from ten to fifteen 
minims (0-6-0-9 C.c.) ; best administered in capsules. 
OLEUM FCENICULI. U. S. Oil of Fennel. 
(O'LE-UM FCE-NIC'U-LI.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Fennel. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool 
place, and, if it lias partly or wholly solidified, it should be completely liquefied by warming 
before being dispensed.” U. S. 
Essence de Fenouil, Fr.j Fenchelol, G. 
Fennel seeds yield about 2-5 per cent., or, according to Zeller, from 3-4 to 3-8 per cent., of 
oil. That used in this country is imported. It is colorless or yellowish, with a neutral reac- 
tion, and the odor and taste of the seeds. “ Specific gravity, not less than 0-960 at 15° C. (59° 
F.). Between 5° and 10° C. (41° and 50° F.) it usually solidifies to a crystalline mass, but 
occasionally it remains liquid at a considerably lower temperature. Soluble in an equal volume 
of alcohol, the solution being neutral to litmus paper; also soluble in an equal volume of gla- 
cial acetic acid. The Oil is not colored by the addition of a drop of ferric chloride test solu- 
tion (absence of some foreign oils containing phenols, and of carbolic acid). If the Oil be 
dropped into water, without agitation, it should not produce a milky turbidity (absence of alco- 
hol).” U. S. It congeals below 50° F. into a crystalline mass, separable by pressure into a 
solid and a liquid portion, the former heavier than water, and less volatile than the latter, which 
rises first when the oil is distilled. It containspinene, pheUandrene, dipentene, fenchone, C10HieO, 
and anethol, C10H120, the latter usually in amounts of about 60 per cent. (Power's Catalogue 
of Essential Oils, 1894.) Schimmel's Report for April, 1897, mentions limonene as also at 
times present as a constituent. Umney finds that Japanese oil contains about 75 per cent, of 
anethol and 10 per cent, of fenchone, besides terpenes. (Proc. A. P. A., 1897, 516.) There is 
reason to believe that much of the commercial oil is adulterated with oil from which the anethol 
or crystalline constituent has been separated ; the official solidifying point (from 5° to 10° C.) 
should be required. Fliickiger states (Pliarm. Chem., 2d ed., 1888, 422) that it contains more 
hydrocarbon than oil of anise, and notably that from Nimes, in Southern France, contains much 
less anethol, and hence has a milder and sweeter taste. As found in the shops, therefore, the 
oil of fennel is not uniform ; and a specimen examined by Dr. Montgomery did not congeal at 
22° F. (See Oleum Anisi.) It is slightly dextrogyrate. The dose is from five to fifteen drops 
(0-3-0-9 C.c.). 
OLEUM GAULTHERIA. U. S. Oil of Gaultheria.. [Oil of Wintergreen.] 
(O'LE-UM GAUL-THE'IU-iE.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from the leaves of Gaultheria procumbens, Linne (Wintergreen; 
nat. ord. Ericaceae), consisting almost entirely of Methyl Salicylate [CH3C7H603 = 151-64], 
and nearly identical with Volatile Oil of Betula.” U. S. 
Oil of Teaberry, Oil of Partridge-berry. 
The volatile oil of gaultheria is largely obtained in the United States by distillation of the 
plant. It probably does not exist in the plant, but is formed by a reaction between water and 
a neutral principle analogous to amygdalin, to which Prof. Procter has given the name of 
gaultherin. (A. J. P., xv.) This substance, which was called by Schneegans betvlase, proba- 
bly exists in all the numerous plants which yield methyl salicylate on distillation. The oil 
occurs in various of our native plants, and has been detected in Polygala paucifolia, Spirsea ul- 
maria, Spirsea lobata, and Gaultheria hispidula. T. E. de Vrij found it in considerable proportion 
in the Gaultheria leucocarpa and G. punctata, plants which are abundant in the volcanic regions PART I. 
Oleum Gaultherise. 
937 
of Java (A. J. P., 1879) ; whilst Bourquelot (Comp.-Rend. Soc. d. Biolog., iii. 1896) detected 
it in Monotropa hypopythis, in Polygala senega, and in other species of Polygala. (See also 
A. J. P., 1898, 412.) Much of the commercial oil of wintergreen is obtained from Betula 
lent a. 
Oil of gaultheria when freshly redistilled is nearly colorless, hut as found in commerce has 
a brownish-yellow or reddish color* It is of a sweetish, slightly pungent, peculiar taste, 
a very agreeable characteristic odor, and a slightly acid reaction. It is the heaviest of the 
known essential oils, having the “ specific gravity 1-175 to 1-185 at 15° C. (59° F.). Boiling 
point, 218° to 221° C. (424-4° to 429-8° F.). It deviates polarized light slightly to the left. 
In other respects it has the same properties and conforms to the same reactions and tests as 
Methyl Salicylate (see Methyl Salicylas; also Oleum Betulse Volatile')." IT. S. It is stated to 
have been largely adulterated with chloroform. This and other impurities are to be detected 
by a comparison of the specific gravities and boiling points, or by fractional distillation. It is 
readily soluble in alcohol. When heated to about 80° C. (176° F.), the Oil should not yield 
a colorless distillate having the characteristics of chloroform or of alcohol (A. J. P., 1873, p. 
521). Another distinguishing property is that in aqueous solution it gives a purple color with 
ferric salts. Oil of sassafras may be detected by the separation of a deep-red resinous mass 
on treatment with nitric acid in the cold. Japanese oil of camphor and other light volatile 
oils used as adulterants can be detected by simply dropping the suspected oil in water: if pure, 
it sinks in a few seconds; if adulterated, some minutes are required. Prof. Procter proved 
that oil of gaultheria has acid properties and contains salicylic acid. (See Salix.) M. Cahours 
confirmed this, and showed that one-tenth of the oil consists of a peculiar hydrocarbon, which 
he called gaultherilene, and the remaining nine-tenths of methyl salicylate or the methyl ester 
of salicylic acid, CHa.C7H603. A product having the properties of the latter compound was 
obtained by distilling a mixture of methyl alcohol, salicylic acid, and sulphuric acid. (A. J. P., 
xiv. 211, xv. 241.) Trimble and Schroeter (Ibid., 1889, 398) found that the amount of the 
hydrocarbon gaultherilene was much less than that stated by Cahours,—in fact, only 0-3 per 
cent. By analysis and vapor-density determination they fixed its formula as C15H24, but they 
state that it may consist of a solid and a liquid portion. Power and Kleber (Fritzsche Bros. 
Circ., No. 7) assert that this hydrocarbon belongs to the paraffin series, and state that it is 
probably triacontane, C30II62. They also find in the oil an aldehyde or ketone, an apparently 
secondary alcohol, CgH160, and an ester, C14H2402. Artificial oil of wintergreen is now exten- 
sively manufactured and used instead of the natural oil. For a process by H. T. Thayer, see 
A. J. P., 1895, 244. (See Methyl Salicylas, p. 869.) The oil of gaultheria is very largely used on 
account of its pleasant flavor ; it may, however, be employed as a substitute for salicylic acid with 
excellent results. One hundred and sixty-nine grains of the oil contain one hundred and fifty-two 
grains of methyl salicylate, and are therefore equivalent to one hundred and thirty-eight grains 
of salicylic acid. An elaborate research by Dr. H. C. Wood (Therap. Gaz., vol. ii. p. 76) 
proved that this drug acts physiologically like salicylic acid. When taken in moderate amounts 
it is, like that acid, broken up in the system and eliminated as salicyluric acid, etc. It is capa- 
ble of causing fatal poisoning. Half an ounce produced in a boy severe vomiting, purging, 
epigastric pain, hot skin, frequent pulse, slow and labored respiration, dulness of hearing, and, 
notwithstanding excessive gastric irritability, an uncontrollable desire for food; he finally re- 
* Distillation of Oil of Gaultheria. Mr. Isaac Edward Leonard states that oil of wintergreen, first made in 
Luzerne County, Pa., in 1863, has since been distilled there in great quantities. The entire plant is employed, and 
it gives the greatest yield during the months of July and August. 
The still is generally a wooden box, about eight feet long, four feet wide, four feet high, with a copper bottom and 
stayed with bolts. The head of the still is copper, and connecting with this is a circular worm of the same material 
or of tin, placed in a barrel. The still being filled with wintergreen to within about twelve inches of the top, a suffi- 
cient quantity of water is added, and this is allowed to macerate from ten to twelve hours. The fire being started, 
the distillation commences, and continues for about eight hours; but during the first two or three hours ninety per cent, 
of the oil has passed over. For collecting the distillate, most of the distillers use a wide-mouthed bottle, fitted with 
a large cork having two holes. A small funnel is put into one of the holes, so that the beak is below the shoulder 
of the receiving vessel, and connected with the other hole is a suitable pipe forming an outlet. The oil and the water 
separate, the oil going to the bottom, and the water passes into a larger receptacle, where it is reserved for a subse- 
quent operation (cohobation). 
Occasionally the oil is very highly colored, and the wholesale dealers have three ways of “ cleaning” it,—redistil- 
lation, filtration, and decolorization. The oil to be decolorized is put into a bottle, crystals of citric acid are added, 
and the whole is allowed to stand, agitating occasionally, until the oil is colorless, or nearly so. On experiment- 
ing with nine quarts of wintergreen fruit, the author found it contained one and dne-half drachms of oil. In ex- 
perimental distillation he found that the lower specific gravity is due to the separating of the oil from the water too 
quickly, and that the higher specific gravity is obtained by letting the distillate stand from twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours before separating the oil from the water. (A. J. P., 1884, p. 264.) 938 
Oleum Gossypii Seminis. 
PART I. 
covered. (Medical Examiner, N. S., viii. 347.) A woman survived after having taken half an 
ounce (N. Y Med. Journ., 1875); but the same amount has caused death (Ibid., 1867). 
OLEUM GOSSYPII SEMINIS. U. S. Cotton-Seed Oil. 
“ A fixed oil expressed from the seed of Gossypium herbaceum, Linn6, and of other species 
of Grossypium (nat. ord. Malvaceae), and subsequently purified.” U S. 
This fixed oil has no other medical properties than those of a bland neutral oil, and has been 
introduced especially on account of its use in oflicial liniments. The amount of cotton-seed 
crushed annually now approaches 1,500,000 tons, and the production of crude cotton-seed oil 
amounts to over 59,000,000 gallons, valued at more than $14,000,000. Of this production, 
about one-fourth goes into the manufacture of “ compound lard” and “ cottolene,” a still larger 
amount is exported as cotton-seed oil, and the remainder is used in admixture with drying oils 
and for soap-stock. The oil cake is largely exported to England, where it is used as food for 
cattle, and the oil to France, Italy, and other olive-growing countries of Europe, whence much 
of it returns to us mixed with olive oil. The exportation of cotton-seed oil for 1895 amounted to 
21,187,728 gallons, valued at $6,813,313 ; for 1896 to 19,445,848 gallons, valued at $5,476,510 ; 
and for 1897 to 27,198,882 gallons, valued at $6,897,361. For a description of the process 
of extraction, see A. J. P., 1896, 42 ; also 1898, 497. 
This oil is obtained by expression from the seeds previously deprived of their shells. In 
this state they yield two gallons of oil to the bushel. As first obtained, it is thick and turbid, 
but it deposits a portion of its impurities on standing. Besides this crude oil, there are three 
varieties in commerce, more or less purified, recognized as the clarified, the refined, and the 
vrinter-bleached. The last mentioned is of a pale straw-color, a mild peculiar odor, and a bland 
sweetish taste, not unlike that of almond oil. The oil is used in the preparation of woollen 
cloth and morocco leather, and for oiling machinery. It has been found to be an excellent 
substitute for almond and olive oil in most pharmaceutical preparations in which they are em- 
ployed ; but it does not answer well in the formation of lead plaster. Citrine ointment care- 
fully prepared with it, too great heat being avoided, retains long a rich orange color and proper 
unctuous consistence. It is oflicially described as “ a pale yellow, oily liquid, without odor, 
and having a bland, nut-like taste. Specific gravity, 0-920 to 0-930 at 15° C. (59° F.). Very 
sparingly soluble in alcohol, but readily soluble in ether, chloroform, or carbon disulphide. 
On cooling the oil to a temperature below 12° C. (53-6° F.), particles of solid fat will sepa- 
rate. At about 0° to —5° C. (32° to 23° F.), the Oil solidifies. When the Oil is brought in 
contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, a dark reddish-brown color is instantly produced. If 
6 Gm. of the Oil be thoroughly shaken, in a test-tube, for about two minutes, with a mixture 
of 1-5 Gm. of nitric acid and 0-5 Gm. of water, then heated in a bath of boiling water for not 
more than fifteen minutes, the Oil will assume an orange or reddish-brown color, and, after 
standing for twelve hours at the ordinary temperature, will form a semi-solid mass. If 5 C.c. 
of the Oil be thoroughly shaken, in a test-tube, with 5 C.c. of an alcoholic solution of silver 
nitrate (made by dissolving 0-1 Gm. of silver nitrate in 10 C.c. of deodorized alcohol and add- 
ing 2 drops of nitric acid), and the mixture heated for about five minutes in a water-bath, the 
Oil will assume a red or reddish-brown color.” U. S. 
Cotton-seed oil has been examined by Dr. A. Adriani (Chem. News, Jan. 7, 1865, p. 5). 
The product of the expressed seeds is from 15 to 18 per cent. In its impure state it is dark 
reddish-brown, not quite clear, and contaminated with mucilage and albumen. When boiled 
with an alkaline solution, crude cotton-seed oil is saponified, and the resultant soap rapidly ox- 
idizes on exposure to air, with production of a fine purple or violet-blue coloration* This re- 
action is characteristic of crude cotton-seed oil. The sp. gr. of the crude oil varies from 0-928 
to 0-930 ; that of the refined oil, from 0-922 to 0-926. 
The oil is clarified by first boiling it with water, to separate the mucilage, and then heating it 
with a weak solution of caustic soda, which combines with the coloring matter and saponifies a 
part of the oil. The mixture becomes filled with black flocks, which deposit on standing and 
leave the oil but slightly colored. The loss in refining is usually from 4 to 7$ per cent., but 
(O'LE-UM GOS-SYP'l-f SfiM'l-NIS.) 
* “ Cotton-seed blue” is stated by Kuhlmann to have the composition C17II24O4. It is amorphous, readily de- 
stroyed by oxidizing agents, insoluble in water, diluted acids, and alkalies, soluble in alcohol and ether. The un- 
oxidized coloring matter of cotton-seed oil has also been investigated by J. Longmore, who finds it to be a pungent, 
golden-yellow product, which dyes well and perfectly fast on wool and silk. (Allen, Commercial Orqanic Analysis. 
2d ed., 1887, p. 113.) Oleum Hedeomse.—Oleum Juniperi. 
939 
PART I. 
occasionally amounts to 12 or 15. As this oil is much used for adulterating olive oil, a test 
to distinguish it is very desirable: according to Mr. B. Reynolds, mercuric nitrate will answer 
the purpose. Of this a test-solution may be made by dissolving, without heat, 6 parts of mer- 
cury in 7 5 parts of nitric acid of 1-36. This salt has the effect, when mixed with olive oil, 
of entirely solidifying and hardening it upon standing; while under the same circumstances 
the cotton-seed oil remains fluid. If the two oils are mixed, an intermediate effect is pro- 
duced, the oil, though possibly solidified, remaining soft and pasty, and not becoming hard 
like pure olive oil. (P. J. Tr., 2d ser., vii. 226.) For Bechi’s test see Oleum Olivse. S. S. 
Bradford (A. J. P., 1882, p. 481) states that a reddish color is developed when cotton-seed oil 
is mixed with solution of lead subacetate. 
OLEUM HEDEOMA. U. S. Oil Of Hedeoma. [Oil of Pennyroyal.] 
(O'LE-UM HED-E-O'MJE.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Hedeoma. It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a 
cool place, protected from light.” U. S. 
This oil, though analogous in properties to the oil of European pennyroyal, is derived from a 
distinct plant (Hedeoma pulegioides), peculiar to North America. It has a light-yellow color, 
with the odor and taste of the herb, and a neutral reaction. Its “ specific gravity is 0-930 to 
0-940 at 15° C. (59° F.). The Oil should form a perfectly clear solution with twice its volume 
of a mixture of 3 volumes of alcohol and 1 volume of water, .this solution being neutral or 
slightly acid to litmus paper. It is also readily soluble in carbon disulphide, or in glacial 
acetic acid.” U. S. Its chemical composition has been investigated by E. Kremers (A. J. P., 
1887, p. 535) and F. W. Franz (Ibid., 1888, p. 161). Each of them found a body of the 
composition C10H180, boiling at 217°—218° C. (constituting, according to Franz, about 33 per 
cent, of the oil). For this the name hedeomol is proposed. Franz found also a body of the 
composition C10H170, boiling at 220°-225° C., and constituting 12 per cent, of the oil; like- 
wise a body of the composition CeHiaO, boiling at 165°—170° C., and constituting about 0-7 
per cent, of the oil. Both investigators found formic and acetic acids, and Kremers considers 
isaheptoic acid also to be present. Beckmann and Pleissner (Ann. der Ch. und Pharm., 262, 
p. 1) found in American as well as in Spanish and Algerian pennyroyal oil a ketone, C10HieO, 
to which they gave the name of pulegone. This compound forms with hydroxylamine an 
oxime, C10H16N0H,H20, crystallizing in beautiful needles melting at 157° C., and with hydro- 
gen bromide a crystalline compound melting at 40-5° C. The two compounds of the formula 
CioHigO, discovered by Kremers (Pharm. Rundschau, ix. p. 130), are also ketones and yield 
corresponding oximes. The oil may be used as a remedy in flatulent colic and sick stomachy 
to correct the operation of nauseating or griping medicines. It is also much employed as a 
domestic remedy in amenorrhoea. The dose is from two to ten drops (0-12-0-6 C.c.). 
OLEUM JUNIPERI. U. S., Br. Oil of Juniper 
(O'LE-UM JU-NIP'E-RI.) 
“ A volatile oil distilled from the fruit of Juniperus communis, Linne (nat. ord. Conifer®).” 
U. S. “ The oil distilled from the full-grown unripe green fruit of Juniperus communis, 
Linn.” Br. 
Oleum Fructus (vel Baccae) Juniperi; Essence de Genievre, Fr.; Wachholderbeerol, G. 
The proportion of oil which juniper berries afford is stated very differently by different 
authors. Trommsdorff obtained 1 per cent. The highest quantity given in the table of Re- 
cluz is 2-34, the lowest 0-31 per cent. Zeller gives as the product of the fresh ripe fruit 1-3 
per cent., of that a year old 0-86 per cent. (Centralbl., Marz, 1855, p. 207.) The berries are 
most productive when bruised. The oil of juniper consumed in this country is brought from 
Europe, and is believed to be procured chiefly from the tops of the plant, being sold for a 
price which is altogether incompatible with the idea that it is prepared from the fruit alone. 
It is colorless, or of a light greenish yellow, with terebinthinate odor and hot acrid taste. Oil 
of juniper has a neutral reaction ; sp. gr. from “ 0-850 to 0-890 at 15° C. (59° F.). Soluble 
in about 4 times its volume of alcohol, forming a somewhat turbid liquid, which is neutral or 
slightly acid to litmus paper. Also soluble in an equal volume of carbon disulphide.” U. S. 
“ Specific gravity 0-865 to 0 890. The Oil is soluble, with slight turbidity, in 4 times its own 
volume of a mixture of equal parts of absolute alcohol and alcohol (90 per cent.).” Br. Ac- 
cording to Fliickiger (Pharm. Chem., 2d ed., 1888, 402), it is composed essentially of two 
hydrocarbons, the more abundant of which, boiling at 160° C., has been shown by Wallach 940 
Oleum Lavandulae.— Oleum Lavandulae Florum. 
PART I. 
to bepinene, C1OH10. Above 175° C. another oil is obtained, which seems to be cadinene, 
C16H24. It also contains a small amount of an ester to which the peculiar juniper-like odor 
and taste are due. This has been called juniper camphor. Oil of turpentine is often fraudu- 
lently added, hut may be detected by the specific gravity of the mixture being less than that 
of the unadulterated oil of juniper. 
The oil is stimulant, carminative, and diuretic, and is very useful in combination with other 
remedies in debilitated dropsical cases. To it Holland gin owes its peculiar flavor and diuretic 
power. Sir James Simpson, of Edinburgh, considered it an efficient diuretic when admin- 
istered through the lungs. A teaspoonful of the oil is put into a vessel of hot water, and the 
patient directed to inhale the vapors. (Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ., March 12, 1868, p. 96.) 
The dose is from five to fifteen drops (0-3-0-9 C.c.), and may be considerably increased.* 
OLEUM LAVANDULAE. Br. Oil of Lavender 
“ The oil distilled from the flowers of Lavandula vera.” Br. 
(O'LE-UM LA-VXN'DU-LJE.) 
Essence de Lavande, Fr.; Lavandeldl, G. 
This oil is usually distilled from the flowers and flower-stems conjointly, though of finer quality 
when obtained from the former exclusively. (See the next article, Oleum Lavandulae Florum.') 
Dried lavender flowers are said to yield from 1 to 1-5 per cent, of oil. According to Zeller, the 
fresh flowers yield 1-03, the dried 4-3, the whole fresh herb in flower 0-76 per cent. It is stated1 
that the lavender produced by an acre of ground under cultivation will yield from 10 to 12 pounds 
of the oil. (/*. J. Tr., 1864, p. 257.) The oil is very fluid, of a lemon-yellow color, with the 
fragrance of the flowers, and an aromatic, burning taste. That met with in commerce has the 
sp. gr. 0-898 at 68° F., which is reduced to 0-877 by rectification (Berzelius), or 0-886 (Buignet). 
It is lmvogyrate. According to Brande, the sp. gr. of the oil obtained from the whole herb is 
0-9206. Alcohol of 0-830 dissolves oil of lavender in all proportions; that of 0-877 only 42 
per cent. (Berzelius.) Proust states that when allowed to stand in imperfectly-stopped bottles 
it lets fall a crystalline deposit, which often amounts to one-fourth of its weight. This has 
been found by M. Dumas to have the same point of volatilization and the same composition as 
true camphor, but to differ in the total want of rotatory power. It is said that the portion 
of oil first distilled is most fragrant, and is often kept separate, and sold at a higher price. 
<l Pale yellow or nearly colorless, with the fragrant odor of the flowers, and a pungent bitter 
taste. Specific gravity not below 0-885. It should dissolve in 3 times its volume of alcohol 
(70 per cent.).” Br. The principal constituent is an alcohol, C10H180, identical with the linalool 
discovered by Semmler in linaloe oil. This alcohol boils at from 197°-199° C., and has a sp. 
gr. of 0 869 at 20° C. Besides linalool, lavender oil contains linalool acetate (from 30 to 45 per 
cent, in the oil from French flowers, and from 7 to 10 per cent, in the oil from English flowers), 
geraniol, a very small amount of cineol, and traces of a sesquiterpene. The oil of spike con- 
tains about 30 per cent, of cineol and but small quantities of esters. Fliickiger states (A. J. P., 
1885, p. 132) that from Lavandula vera 80,000 to 100,000 kilogrammes of oil are produced at 
Grasse every year, and from Lavandula spica 20,000 to 25,000 kilogrammes. It is used 
chiefly as a perfume, though possessed of carminative and stimulant properties, and sometimes 
useful in cases of nervous lanquor and headache. The dose is from one to five drops (0 06- 
0-3 C.c.). 
Oil of Spike is procured from the broad-leaved variety of lavender which grows wild in 
Europe, the Lavandula, spica of De Candolle. Its odor is less fragrant than that of common 
oil of lavender, and is somewhat analogous to that of oil of turpentine, with which it is said 
to be.often adulterated. It is used by artists in the preparation of varnishes. 
OLEUM LAVANDULAE FLORUM. U. S. Oil of Lavender Flowers. 
“ A volatile oil distilled from the fresh flowers of Lavandula officinalis, Chaix (nat. ord. 
Labiatse). It should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, in a cool place, protected from light.” 
IT. S. 
(O'LE-UM la-vXn'du-l;e flo'rum.) 
* Antiseptic Catgut. Dr. Kocher, of Berne, states that a very fine antiseptic catgut may be made by first soak- 
ing the catgut for 24 hours in pure oil of juniper, and then immediately transferring it to alcohol of 95 per cent., in 
■which it is preserved under tension, being wound (tightly stretched) upon a flat reel about 10 inches long. If the 
gut be placed for a day in glycerin before it is laid in the alcohol, it will become more pliable. The gut must be cut 
at the point of turning the edges of the reel, and for this reason the latter is chosen of such a size that the cut 
pieces of catgut shall be of the proper length. (New Remedies, September, 1881, p. 270.) PART I. 
Oleum Limonis. 
941 
This superior kind of oil of lavender has been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia because it 
was desirable that an inferior sort should not be used in the preparations into whose composition 
it enters. The properties of the oil are noticed in the preceding article. It is officially described 
as “ a colorless or yellowish liquid, having the fragrant odor of lavender flowers, and a pungent 
and bitterish taste. Specific gravity, 0-885 to 0-897 at 15° C. (59° F.). It is soluble in all pro- 
portions in alcohol (distinction from oil of turpentine), and in 3 times its volume of a mixture of 
3 volumes of alcohol and 1 volume of water (distinction from, and absence of, oil of turpentine') ; 
it is also soluble in glacial acetic acid. With an equal volume of carbon disulphide it forms a 
turbid mixture. The alcoholic solution of the Oil is neutral or slightly acid to litmus paper. 
When heated on a water-bath, in a flask provided with a well-cooled condenser, the Oil should 
yield no distillate having the characters of alcohol." U. S. 
OLEUM LIMONIS. U. S., Br. Oil of Lemon 
(O'LE-UM LI-MO'NIS.) 
“ A volatile oil obtained by expression from fresh Lemon Peel. It should be kept in well- 
stoppered bottles, in a cool place, protected from light.” U. S. “ The oil obtained from fresh 
lemon peel.” Br. 
Oleum Citri, P. G.; Huile de Cedrat, Essence de Citron, Huile de Citron, Fr.; Citronenol, G.; Olio de Limone, 
It.; Aceite de Limon, Sp. 
The exterior rind of the lemon abounds in a volatile oil, which, being contained in distinct 
cells, may be separated by simple expression. The rind is first grated from the fruit, and then sub- 
mitted to pressure in a bag of fine cloth. The oil thus obtained is allowed to stand till it becomes 
clear, when it is decanted, and kept in stoppered bottles. By a similar process, the oil called by 
the French huile de cedrat is procured from the citron. (See Oleum Bergamottse and Limonis 
Succus.') These oils may also be obtained by distillation ; but thus procured, though clearer, and, 
in consequence of the absence of mucilage, less liable to change on keeping, they have less of 
the peculiar flavor of the fruit; and the mode by expression is generally preferred. A third 
method of separating the oil, used in Calabria and Sicily, is to put the grated rind into hot 
water and skim off the oil as it rises to the surface. (A. J. P., 1868, p. 27.) The method em- 
ployed to obtain the finest oil is, however, that known as the ecuelle process. The ecuelle is an 
instrument usually made of tinned copper, bowl-shaped, and armed with concentric rows of 
short spikes. Attached to the bottom of the bowl is a hollow handle, closed at the bottom. 
This acts as a reservoir for the oil as the fruit is rubbed by the workmen over the sharp teeth. 
The oils are brought originally from Italy, Portugal, or the south of France. 
The oils of lemons and oranges, as well as those of the other Aurantiacese, will keep indefi- 
nitely upon admixture with a small proportion of alcohol, say one ounce to a pound of the oil. 
When wanted for use, a quantity of water equal to that of alcohol, added to the mixture, will 
unite with the alcohol, and subside, leaving the oil free of the alcohol for all practical pur- 
poses. (Carl Frith, A.J.P., 1871, 201.) The great extent of the production and export of 
Sicilian and Calabrian essential oils (lemon, orange, bergamot, etc.) may be seen from the Italian 
official statistics, according to which the number of trees producing in 1896 was 17,084,569, 
yielding 3,337,000,000 fruits. Of these 1,897,000,000 were exported, leaving 1,439,555,000 
fruits for home consumption, inclusive of those used in the manufacture of essences. (Schim- 
mel & Co.'s Report, Oct. 1897, 23.) 
Properties. Oil of lemon is a very volatile liquid, having the odor of the fruit, a warm, 
pungent, aromatic taste, and a neutral reaction. As commonly procured, it is yellow, but by 
distillation it is rendered colorless, and, if three-fifths only are distilled, its sp. gr. is reduced 
to 0-847 at 71° F. “ Specific gravity, 0-857 to 0-860 at 15° C. (59° F.). Its optical rotation 
should not be less than 60° to the right in a 100 Mm. tube, and at a temperature of about 15° 
to 20° C. (59° to 68° F.). Soluble in three times its volume of alcohol, the solution being 
neutral or slightly acid to litmus paper ; also soluble, in all proportions, in absolute alcohol, 
carbon disulphide, or glacial acetic acid. When kept for some time, the Oil should not de- 
velop a terebinthinate odor or taste (absence of oil of turpentine or of other oils consisting chiefly 
of pinene)." U. S. “ Specific gravity 0-857 to 0-860. It should rotate the plane of a ray of 
polarized light not less than 59° to the right in a tube 100 millimetres long ; and if 100 vol- 
umes be fractionally distilled, the 10 volumes first collected should not produce a rotation differ- 
ing by more than 2° from that produced by the original Oil.” Br. Oil of lemon contains a 
small amount of pinene, with dextrogyrate limonene, about 7 to 8 per cent, of citral, C10H160, an 
aldehyde yielding geraniol upon reduction, and a small amount of citronellal, C10H180, also an 942 
Oleum Limonis.—Oleum Lini. 
PART I. 
aldehyde. Of these the citral is the constituent to which the oil chiefly owes its aroma and 
value. Umney and Swinton (P.J. Tr., 1898, 196) state that citral, citronellal, and an ester 
of geraniol are all necessary to form the true odor of oil of lemon. Citral boils under normal 
atmospheric pressure at from 228°-229° C. without decomposition if pure, and, like aldehydes, 
forms stable compounds with alkaline bisulphites. Schimmel & Co. now prepare the citral in 
a pure state, and recommend its use for enriching the ordinary oil of lemon. As yet no 
thoroughly reliable method for determining the percentage of citral in a mixture has been 
devised. Garnett’s method ( Chem. and Drug., 48, 599) of reducing the citral to geraniol and 
then acetylizing this and titrating with alcoholic potash does not, according to Schimmel & 
Co., yield reliable results. 
It is often adulterated by the fixed oils and by alcohol; but in this country the most fre- 
quent sophistication is with oil of turpentine, which is difficult of detection from its similar 
composition and specific gravity. Perhaps the best test of the presence of this oil is the tere- 
binthinate smell produced when the adulterated oil is evaporated from heated paper. Oil of 
lemon procured by expression is apt to let fall a deposit and to undergo chemical change. 
Mr. J. S. Cobb has found no method so effectual to obviate this result, and at the same time 
to retain unimpaired the flavor of the oil, as to shake it with a little boiling water and allow 
the mixture to stand. A mucilaginous matter separates, and floats on the surface of the 
water, from which the purified oil may be decanted. (Ann. of Pharm,., ii. 86.) 
Medical Properties and Uses. Oil of lemon has the stimulant properties of the 
aromatics, but is used chiefly to impart flavor to other medicines. 
OLEUM LINI. U. S., Br. Linseed Oil. [Oil of Flaxseed.] 
(O’LB-UM Li'Ni.) 
“ A fixed oil expressed from Linseed without the use of heat.” U. S. “ The oil expressed 
from Linseed at ordinary temperatures.” Br. 
Huile de Lin, Fr.; Leinol, Leinsamenol, G.; Olio di Lino, It.; Aceite de Linaza, Sp. 
This oil is obtained by expression from the seeds of Linum usitatissimum, or common flax, 
which, according to M. Berjot, contain 34 per cent. (Joum. de Pharm., Avril, 1863, p. 277.) 
In its preparation on a large scale, the seeds are usually roasted before being pressed, in order 
to destroy the gummy matter contained in their coating. The oil is thus obtained more free 
from mucilage, but more highly colored and acrid, than when procured by cold expression. 
For medical use, therefore, it should be prepared without heat; and, as it is apt to become 
rancid quickly on exposure, it should be used as soon after expression as possible. It may, 
however, be rendered sweet again by agitation with warm water, rest, and decantation. It is 
said to be obtained purer and in larger proportion by treating the crushed seeds with carbon 
disulphide, than by expression. (See A. J. P., xxvi. 265.) Flaxseed oil is “ a yellowish or 
yellow,* oily liquid, having a slight, peculiar odor, and a bland taste. When exposed to the 
air it gradually thickens, and acquires a strong odor and taste; and if spread, in a thin layer, 
on a glass plate, and allowed to stand in a warm place, it is gradually converted into a hard, 
transparent, resin-like mass (absence of non-drying oils). Specific gravity, 0-930 to 0-940 at 
15° C. (59° F.). It does not congeal above —20° C. (—4° F.). Soluble in about 10 parts 
of absolute alcohol, and, in all proportions, in ether, chloroform, benzin, carbon disulphide, or 
oil of turpentine. It should not more than slightly redden blue litmus paper previously 
moistened with alcohol (limit of free acid). If 2 C.c. of the Oil be shaken with 1 C.c. of 
fuming nitric acid and 1 C.c. of water, it should neither completely nor partially solidify, even 
after standing for one or two days (absence of non-drying oils). If 10 C.c. of the Oil, con- 
tained in a small flask, be mixed with a solution of 3 Gm. of potassium hydrate in 5 C.c. of 
water, then 5 C.c. of alcohol added, and the mixture heated for about five minutes on a water- 
bath, with occasional agitation, a dark-colored but clear and complete solution should be ob- 
tained. If this liquid be diluted with water to the measure of 50 C.c., then cooled, and shaken 
with 50 C.c. of ether, the clear, ethereal layer, after having separated, should not show a bluish 
fluorescence, and, when carefully decanted, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, should 
* The following method of bleaching flaxseed, rapeseed, and poppy-seed oils is recommended by C. Puscher. He 
mixes 100 kilogrammes of the oil with 2 kilogrammes of a mixture of equal weights of sulphuric acid and alcohol 
of 96 per cent. The sulphuric acid mixes uniformly with the oil; the mixture soon assumes a green turbidness, which 
afterwards becomes black: and in 24 or 48 hours the liquid becomes clear by the deposition of a black sediment. 
It is necessary to wash the oil with hot water, to separate the little remaining acid. Linseed oil in bulk shows 
merely a yellowish tint; the other oils mentioned become quite colorless. (A. J. P., 1873, p. 110.) PART I. 
Oleum Lini.— Oleum Menthse Pipentse. 
943 
leave not more than a slight, and not oily, residue (absence of paraffin oils)." U. S. “ Viscid, 
yellow, with a faint but distinct odor, and bland taste. Specific gravity 0*930 to 0*940. It 
is soluble in 10 parts of alcohol (90 per cent.), and in Oil of Turpentine. It gradually thickens 
by exposure to the air, forming, when spread in a thin layer on glass, a hard transparent var- 
nish. It does not congeal above —4° F. (—20° C.).” Br. It has the property of drying or 
becoming solid on exposure to the air, acquiring during the process a strong odor and taste, 
and increasing as much as 12 per cent, of its weight, owing to the formation of linoxyn by at- 
mospheric oxidation. The drying property resides in a constituent which, to distinguish it 
from the olein of the non-drying oils, is named linolein, and is the glyceride of linoleic acid, 
The formula of linoleic acid is not positively accepted as that just given. Hazura 
{Journ. Soc. Chem. Jnd., 1888, 506) states that the liquid fatty acids consist of about 5 per cent, 
of oleic acid, C18H3402, 15 per cent, of linoleic acid, C18H3202, 65 per cent, of isolinoleic acid, 
C18H3202, and 15 per cent, of linolenic acid, C18H3002. Boiled with litharge, red lead, man- 
ganese dioxide, and other so-called “ driers,” it absorbs oxygen still more rapidly, and gains 14 
per cent, in weight. Its acrimony is owing to the presence of a small proportion of an acrid 
oleoresin. From its drying property, it is useful in painting and in making printers’ ink. 
It is said that crude cod-liver oil has been used for the adulteration of the oil of flaxseed, 
especially where the latter is intended for preparing printers’ ink. Mr. Aug. Morell detects the 
adulteration by the following method. Take 10 parts by weight of the suspected oil, mix it 
in a small cylindrical glass tube with 3 parts of crude nitric acid, agitate the mixture well, and 
allow it to rest. If cod-liver oil be present, the oily layer at top will assume a dark-brown to 
blackish-brown color, while the acid at bottom will vary from bright orange to orange or dark 
yellow. So little as 3 per cent, of cod-liver oil may thus be detected. If the flaxseed oil be 
pure, it will become, during the agitation, first sea-green, and afterwards dirty greenish yellow, 
the acid being bright yellow. 
Medical Properties and Uses. The oil is laxative in the dose of a fluidounce (30 
C.c.), but, on account of its disagreeable taste, is seldom given internally. It has, however, 
been highly recommended as a cure for piles, in the dose of two ounces (60 C.c.) of the fresh 
oil morning and evening. It is sometimes added to purgative enemata* 
OLEUM MENTHZE PIPERITA. U. S., Br. Oil of Peppermint. 
“ A volatile oil distilled from Peppermint.” U. S. “ The oil distilled from fresh flowering 
peppermint, Meutha piperita, Sm.” Br. 
Essence de Menthe poivree, Fr.; Pfefferminzol, O. 
Peppermint varies exceedingly in the quantity of oil which it affords. Four pounds of the 
fresh herb yield, according to Baume, from a drachm and a half to three drachms of the oil. 
Zeller gives as the product of the fresh herb from 037 to 0-68 per cent., of the dried 1*14 per 
cent. The yield is generally less than 1 per cent. This oil is largely distilled in the States of 
Michigan, Indiana, and New York. For a valuable account of its method of production in Mich- 
igan, by A. M. Todd, see A. J. P., 1888, 328. The oil is also largely produced in Japan. (See 
illustrated paper, Chem. and Drug., 1896, 601.) It is of a greenish-yellow color or nearly color- 
less, but becomes reddish by age. Its odor is strong and aromatic, its taste warm, camphorous, 
and very pungent, but succeeded, when air is admitted into the mouth, by a sense of coolness. 
Its sp. gr. is stated differently at from 0*902 to 0*920 (0*900-0*920 at 15° C. (59° F.), U. N.f) ; 
its boiling point is 365° F.; its reaction is neutral. “ The Oil does not fulminate with iodine. It 
forms a clear solution with an equal volume of alcohol, becoming turbid when somewhat further 
diluted, and is soluble, in all proportions, in carbon disulphide, and in glacial acetic acid. The 
alcoholic solution of the Oil is neutral to litmus paper. If 5 drops of the Oil be added to 1 
(O'LE-UM MEN'THiE PI-PE-RI'T.E.) 
* Oiled Paper. A substitute for waxed cloth for the dressings of wounds and ulcers, prepared in the following 
manner by M. Gauthier, of Geneva, with flaxseed oil, has been highly recommended. To facilitate its drying, 3 
liters (about 6*4 pints) of the oil are boiled for an hour or two with 30 grains of lead acetate, 30 grains of litharge, 
15 grains of yellow wax, and 15 grains of turpentine. Thus prepared, the oil is spread upon silk-paper by means 
of a brush on both surfaces. On the top of the first sheet another is then placed so as to overlap it at one corner. 
The lower surface of the second sheet thus becomes impregnated with the oil, which now requires to be applied only 
to the upper. Any desired number of sheets may be thus successively superimposed. They are then separated, and 
suspended in a drying apartment, attached to a cord by means of hooks or pins. When dry, they should be sprinkled 
over with chalk, to prevent adhesion, and packed away. (Journ. de Pharm., Mai, 1860, p. 363.) 
•j* The specific gravity of pure American oil of peppermint should not be below 0*907 nor above 0*917. {A. J. P., 
1887, 285.) 944 
Oleum Menthw Piperitse. 
PART I. 
C.c. of glacial acetic acid, and the mixture gently warmed, the liquid will assume a blue color, 
with a red fluorescence. If 2 C.c. of the Oil be mixed with 1 C.c. of glacial acetic acid, and 1 
drop of nitric acid added, the liquid will soon acquire a green, greenish-blue, blue, or violet tint 
with a copper-red fluorescence. If 1 C.c. of the Oil be dissolved in 5 C.c. of alcohol, 0-5 Gm. 
of sugar and 1 C.c. of hydrochloric acid added, and the mixture gently heated, a deep-blue or 
violet color will gradually be produced. If to 5 C.c. of nitric acid 1 drop of the Oil be added, 
and the mixture gently agitated, and allowed to stand for about three hours, it should have a 
yellowish, but not a bright red color (absence of oil of camphor and of oil of sassafras). If 
a portion of the Oil, contained in a test-tube, be placed in a freezing mixture of snow (or 
pounded ice) and salt for fifteen minutes, it should become cloudy and thick, and after the 
addition of a few crystals of menthol, being still exposed to cold, it should soon form a crys- 
talline mass (distinction from dementholized oil). When heated on a water-bath, in a flask 
provided with a well-cooled condenser, the Oil should not yield a distillate having the char- 
acters of alcoholU. S. “ Specific gravity 0-900 to 0-920. It should dissolve in four times 
its volume of alcohol (70 per cent.). If a portion of the Oil be cooled, to 17° F. (—8-3° C.) 
and a few crystals of Menthol be added, a considerable separation of menthol should take 
place.” Br. It is considerably laevogyrate. (Buiguet.) Upon long standing it deposits a 
stearopten. Berzelius states also that at 8° F. below zero the oil deposits small capillary crys- 
tals. These, which are called peppermint camphor or menthol, C10II19OH, melt at 42° C. 
(107-6° F.), boil at 212° C. (413-6° F.), volatilize unchanged, and, when distilled with phos- 
phoric anhydride, yield a peculiar aromatic product, denominated menthene, C10H18. A com- 
plete summary of the composition of American peppermint oil, given in Schimmel & Co.'s 
Report for April, 1897, shows the following constituents: acetaldehyde, isovaleraldehyde, 
dimethyl sulphide, amyl-alcohol, isovaleric acid, pinene, phellandrene, cineol, limonene, men- 
thone, 01oH18O, menthol, the acetate and isovalerate of this latter, lactone, C10H1602, and cadi- 
nene. Menthol, its oxidation product menthone, and the acetic and isovaleric esters of menthol 
have been identified as present in English and French peppermint oils, which probably also con- 
tain most of the other constituents mentioned above. The polariscope has been shown to be an 
uncertain guide in determining the quality of oil of peppermint. (A. B. Stevens, Proc. A. P. 
A., 1888, p. 97.) Professor Fliiekiger has discovered that from 50 to 70 drops of peppermint 
oil, shaken with one drop of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-2, turn faintly yellowish brown, and after an 
hour or two a most beautiful blue violet or greenish blue, by transmitted light, or copper color 
by reflected light. Either a greater amount of acid or heating hastens the reaction. The 
color is very persistent. The presence of 5 per cent, of turpentine does not interfere with the 
reaction. (P. J. Tr., Feb. 1871.) This oil is frequently adulterated with alcohol, and occasion- 
ally, there is reason to believe, with oil of turpentine, and even oil of copaiba. Oil of turpen- 
tine is detected by its odor, by its deficient solubility in cold alcohol, and by its imparting the 
property of exploding with iodine. According to H. Martin, the copaiba is to be detected by 
the mass acquiring the consistence of butter when heated to boiling with concentrated sul- 
phuric acid. (ATeues Repert. fur Pharm., xvii. 635.) It is stated by the Messrs. Hotchkiss 
that in much of the land under culture with peppermint in this country other oil-producing 
plants are carelessly allowed to grow, which, being gathered and distilled with the peppermint, 
contaminate the product. (A. J. P., xxvii. 222.) The plant which has proved most trouble- 
some to the mint-growers is of the Erigeron family, and Vigier and Cloez have given the fol- 
lowing tests to detect oil of erigeron, which will indicate the presence of eight or ten per cent, 
of it. Concentrated caustic potash does not saponify erigeron oil, but colors it orange-red in 
the cold ; on heating, the color deepens till part of the oil separates as a reddish-purple viscid 
mass. This reaction does not show itself with oil freshly distilled at 170° C. Pure mint oils 
do not give this reaction ; in the cold, caustic potash converts them into a white emulsion. On 
heating, the mixture takes a faint, clear, yellow tinge. But, if a few drops of erigeron oil are 
introduced, the orange-red color appears quickly on shaking, and develops instantly if the tube 
is warmed. Mint oil is completely soluble, erigeron oil is completely insoluble, in its own volume 
of 85-per-cent, alcohol at 15° C. (59° F.). If a suspected sample be agitated with an equal 
volume of 85-per-cent, alcohol, a milky fluid will be produced if erigeron oil be present, and 
the insoluble essence will separate in the course of twenty-four hours. The oils of Eucalyptus 
globulus and turpentine behave in much the same way, and the points which would distinguish 
the three substances have not yet been determined. But a specimen of mint oil which rotates 
the polarized ray feebly to the left, makes a turbid mixture with its own volume of 85-per- 
cent. alcohol, and takes an orange-red tint with caustic potash, maybe safely rejected. (i\r. R., Oleum Menthse Pipentse. 
945 
PART I. 
Jan. 1882; from E Union Pharmaceutiquei) Since menthol has been prepared largely from 
American peppermint oil, much of the latter has been put upon the market deprived of its 
menthol. To detect this fraud, Messrs. Fritzsche Brothers recommend that a test-tube partially 
filled with the oil and corked should be placed in a freezing mixture of ice and salt for ten 
or fifteen minutes. At the end of that time, if the oil have not been tampered with, it will 
have become cloudy, thick, or of a jelly-like consistence. If then four or five small crystals 
of menthol be added, and the tube be replaced in the freezing mixture, the oil will in a short 
time form a solid frozen mass of crystals. For another method of testing dementholized oil, 
see a paper by E. C. Federer, Pharm. Era, 1887, 36 ; also Pharm. Era, 1887, 97. Power and 
Kleber first proposed {Pharm. Rund., 1894,157) to estimate the menthol in oil of peppermint 
by acetylizing a sample and saponifying an exactly weighed portion of the acetylized oil after 
washing, drying, and filtering the same. Kebler {A. J. P., 1897, 192) proposed to take in- 
stead a weighed quantity of the oil, acetylize it, and then saponify the product after washing 
and neutralizing it. In Schimmel & Co.'s Report for October, 1897, Kleber criticises Kebler’s 
modification, and claims greater accuracy for the original method. Of course this determina- 
tion gives the total menthol; a determination of the combined menthol is had by titrating 
with alcoholic alkali. Quetting & Co. furnish the following test for detecting the presence of 
oil of pennyroyal: “ Take one drachm chloral hydrate and half a drachm C. P. sulphuric 
acid ; mix them in a glass mortar, add a few drops of alcohol, and stir until it becomes clear. 
Then use this mixture in equal proportions with the suspected oil in a small porcelain dish, and 
mix thoroughly together. The result will be a fine cherry color, if the oil be pure; otherwise, 
if mixed with pennyroyal, it will turn a dark olive-green, more or less according to the extent 
of adulteration.” {N. R., Jan. 1882.) Such impurities may usually be detected by the altered 
odor of the oil. Prof. Fliickiger has found that chloral hydrate develops only a slightly brown 
or yellow color, whilst anhydrous chloral changed some specimens of the oil to brown and 
others to green. He also found great differences in the action of sodium bisulphate, the color- 
ing varying from green to rose-red or violet. {A. J. P., 1874, 274.) According to Trebault, when 
picric acid is added in the cold no change occurs for half an hour, when a green color suddenly 
develops. The green produced has a showy red fluorescence. Sulphuric acid develops a r