*>. *';£'c iMF ■: : P.-'!' . ib. ! Honey 301 250 ' Honey dew 302 ib. Honey-suckle ib. 251 Hoof 303 255 Hoof-boney ib. 256 Hoof-bound ib. 257 Hoof-brittle 304 258 Hoof-casting ib. ib. Hoof-hurt - ib. 259 Hop ib. ib. Horehound, the White 310 260 Horehound, the Black - ib. ib. Horehound the Water ib. 261 Horn ib. 266 Horn-beam 311 ib. Horn-distemper ib. 267 Hornet 312 268 Horse (with a plate) ib. ib. Horse-bread 324 270 Horse-chesnut 325 ib. Horse-fly ib. ib. Horse-Medicines ib. 271 Horse-radish 328 ib. ! Horse-shoe-head 329 270 Horse-tail ib. ib. Hospital 330 273 Hot-bed * ib. 270 Hot-house Oil 279 Hound - flin ib. Hound's-tongue ■ 334 280 1 Hour ... ib. ib. Hour-glass ib. ib. House (with two cuts) ib. CONTENTS. PAGE House-leek - •■ 340 Hunger - - ib. Hunting - - 342 Husbandry - - ib. Hyacinth - - 344 Hydrastis Canadensis ib. Hydrometer - - ib. Hykes - - ib. Hypericum - - 345 Hypochondriac Affection - ib. Hyssop - - 346 Hysterics - - ib. Jack, (with a cut) - 348 Jack-daw - - 349 Jalap - - ib. Japanning - - 350 Jasmine - - ib. Jaundice - - 351 Jaw - - 352 Jay - - 353 Ice - - 354 Jelly - - 359 Jet - - 360 Iliac Passion - - ib. Implements - - 361 Inarching - - ib. Index - - 562 Indigestion - - ib. Indigo - - 363 Industry - - 364 Infancy - - - 365 Infection - - 366 Inflammation - - 367 Inflammatory Fever - 370 Ingrossing - - 371 Jnk - - - 372 Inn - - - 377 Inoculation, in Horticulture ib. ......in Medicine - ib. Insects - - 378 Instinct - - 380 Insurance - - ib. Interest - - 383 Interfering - - ib. Intestines - - ib. Intoxication - 384 John's-wort - - 385 Joint - - ib. Journal - - ib. Joy - - 386 Ipecacuanha. - - ib. Iron - - 387 Irrigation, (with a cut) - 391 Irritability - - 395 Isinglass - Issues Itch Juice Julep Juniper-tree Ivory Ivy - Kale - - % Kalendar, or Calendar Kalmia I Kelp !■ - Kennel Kermes-Mineral Key - »- Kidney-vetch Kidnies - %. k Kilderkin - J- ^ Kiln - ^ • King-fisher - *' -r Kino - - Kitchen, (with ten cuts) Kitchen-garden, (with a cut) Knawell Knee-holly Knife-board Labdanum Laboratory Labour - Laburnum Lac - Lace Lacker ... Lackey moth Lacteals Ladies'-mantle Ladies'-smock Lake Lake, in the Arts - Lamb Lameness Lamp Lamp-black Lampas Lamprey - a Land Land-ditching Language Lanthorn Lapwing Larch-tree Lark Lark-spur PAGE 397 398 399 400 ib. 401 402 403 404 ib. 407 ib. 408 ib. 409 ib. ib. 410 ib. ib. 411 ib. 422 424 ib: ib. 425 ib. ib. 426 ib. 427 ib. 428 ib. ib. ib. ib. 429 429 430 431 433 ib. ib. 434 438 ib. 440 ib. ib. 442 44S CONTENTS. PAGE PAGI Lath ib. Linen 484 Lath-bricks ib. Liniment 486 Lathe 444- Linnet ib. Laudanum ib. Linseed 487 Lavender 445 Lint ib. Lavender-thrift ib. Lips 488 Laughter - - ib. Liquor ib. Laxatives 446 Liquorice 489 Layers ... ib. LiRIODENDRON TuLlPIFERA 490 Lea } -Lead - ^ - 447 Literary Property ib. ib. Litharge 491 Lead-wort - 4 Leaf *§ - 451 Liver ib. ib. Liverwort 492 Leather - Jp Leaven 4 - * ib. Lixivium 496 454 Lizard ib. Leaves - f ib. L.oading of Coods ib. Leech Le£kjf LegJT 455 Loam 497 456 Lobster ib. 457 Lock 498 Lemon-tree, Lenftive-eWctuary Lentii^-»-JI ib. Locking-pole, (with a Cut), 500 458 ib, Locust Log-wood 501 502 Leopard's-bane, the Great, Longevity ib. ib. Looking-glass 503 Leprosy 460 Loom ib. Lethargy ib. Loose-strife, the Creeping 504 Letter 461 Lettuce 462 ib. Level 463 Lottery ib. Lever (with a cut) 464 Lovage 505 Library (with a plate) 465 Love ib. Lientery 466 Love-apple 500 Life ^ ib. Louffer (with acut) ib. Light 469 Louse 507 Lightning 470 Louse-wort 508 Lilac - 472 Lozenge ib. Lily, the Common 473 Lucern 409 .... of the Valley ib. Lungs 511 .... the Water ib. Lungwort 515 Lime 474 Lupine ib. Lime-grass 482 Lute ib. Limes ib. Luxation . - Line 483 Luxury $ PLATES IN THE THIRD VOLUME. * I. Mr. Dearborn's American Fire-Engine, p. 5. II. Cotton Foot Gin, p. 155. III. Anatomy of the Horse, p. 318. IV. Anatomy of Horse's Hoof, p. 328. V. Book-Case, p. 465. # S INDEX ?o the corresponding synonyms, and inversions of terms OCCURRING IN THE THIRD VOLUME. Fire-blast; see Blast. | Hart's-clover ; see Melilot, the Flake-white ; see Colour-making. Common. Flooding of Land; see Irrigation. | Haugh ; see Haw. Fool-stones, the Male ; see Early j Hautboy; see Strawberry the Orchis. Framboise; see Raspberry, Common. French-bread; see Bread. Frog-cheese; see Puff-ball, Common. Frog-hopper ; see Flea-locust. Fuller's-Jeasel ; see Teasel. Fustoc; see Fustic. Galangal, the Common; see Zedo ary. Galingale, the English; see Cyper- Hawn ; see Haulm. the' Hazel-crottels, or Hazel-rag; see Lungwort Liverwort. Heath Polypody ; see Polypody. Hedge-reed; see Reed. Hemlock Water-Dropwort; see Dropwort. Herb Trinity ; see Heart's-ease. Hiccup; see Hiccough. High-taper; see Mullein,the Great White. Hind-berry ; see Raspberry, the grass. Garden-nightshade; see Night- shade, the Woody. Gatteridge-trec; see Spindle-tree. Geneva; see Gin. Gerard, the Herb ; see Gout-weed. German-flute ; see Flute. Glastonbury-thorn ; see Hawthorn. Glimmer, or Glist ; see Mica. Gloucester-cheese ; see Cheese. Goose-tongue ; see Sneezewort Yarrow. Go-to-bed-at-noon; see Goat's- beard, the Yellow. • Grafting; see Engrafting. Gross-poly; see Loose-strife, the Purple. Grayling,; see Umber. Gray-millet; see Gromwell. Green-house-bug ; see Coccus. Grig; see Heath. Ground-pease ; see Ground-nuts. Gmn-elastic; see Caoutchouc. Hxmatites; see Blood-stone. Hairy-tare ; see Vetch, the Corn. Halm ; see Haulm. Hardened Rock-oil ; see Fcssil- pitch. Hare-lip ; see Lip. Common. Hollands ; see Gin. Hore-hound, the Indian ; see Spice. Horse-bane; see Hemlock, the Water. Horse-beech-tree; see Horn-beam. Horse-hoeing; see Hoeinr. Hyson-tea; see Tea-tree. Ice-house ; see Milk-house. Jeffery-ccck ; see Chafer. Jesuit's-bark; see Peruvian-B;.k Indian Horehound ; see Spice. Indian Ink ; see Ink. , Indian Rubber ; s e Caoutchouc. Infirmary ; see H-'.pui'.!. Injections; see Clysters. Ink-powder; see Ink. Iron, blueing of; see Blueir.jy. Irons ; see Quarter-evil. Itch, in Dogs; see Dog. Kilkciiny-coal; see Co .1. King's-yellow; see i'cllow. Kroute ; see Croat. Ladies-fox-glove ; see Mullein, "■ e Great White. Ladies'-thktle ; see Milk-thistle. Lady-grass, or Ladies'-traces ; -- iCanary-ijrass. INDEX. Lark's-heel ; see Lark's-spur. Lavender-spike ; see Lavender, the Common. Laurel-mezereon; see Spurge- Laurel. Leasing ; see Gleaning. Lemon-water ; see Distilling. Life-boat; see Boat. Lincolnshire Cheese; see Cheese. Linden-tree; see Lime-tree. Lint-seed ; see Linseed. Liquorice-cock's-head ; sec Milk- vetch. Live-long; see Orpine, the Com- mon. Locust-tree; see Acacia. Lombardy-poplar ; see Poplar. Looseness; see Diarrhoea. ERRATA. Page 120, column 1, line 5, for 'share' read 'shave'. Page 152, col. 2, line 29, erase 'ceased to be applied to this, or any other,' and read 'been appropriated to the different'. Erase the . at the concluding word genus. Page 195, col. 1, line 9, for 'quality,' read 'quantity.' Page 318, col. 1, line 7, for 'spire' read 'spine.' Page 337, col. lr line 15, from bottom, erase 'by.' THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA; F IR F IR FIRE, is that subtle, invisible cause, which penetrates both solid and liquid matters with extreme facility, and renders them hot to the touch. It is also the chief agent, by which the composition and decomposition of natural bo- dies is generally effected; so that, without fire, the animal and vege- table kingdoms would cease to exist. Various opinions have been maintained concerning the nature and properties of fire ; for an ac- count of which, we are obliged to refer the reader to the works of Boyle, Newton, and Scheele; as we propose to give a few illus- trations connected with this sub- ject, under the article Heat. Though designed to be subservi- ent to the most useful purposes, fire frequently becomes a scourge to mankind; and, unless it be time- ly discovered, lays whole streets and towns in ashes. Hence the securing of houses and other build- ings against this devouringelement, has ever formed an important ob- ject of inquiry, while it has exer- cised the ingenuity of intelligent VOL. III. men : we shall briefly state a few of the most remarkable experi- ments, together with the result or success which has attended them. Dr. Hales first proposed a plan of covering the floors of houses with earth. The thicker the mould is laid on the floors, the greater is the security. He supposes that the depth of an inch will be amply sufficient; though he recommends to lay a deeper coat on the stairs ; because fire, in general, ascends by means of stair-cases with the great- est velocity. A patent was granted in April, 1773, to David Hartley, Esq. of Golden-square, for his method of securing buildings and ships against fire. Lord Mahon has likewise in- vented a very simple and effectual mode of securing every kind of building against all danger of fire : he divides it into three parts, name- ly, under-flooring, extra-lathing, and inter-securing. The first part or method, is either single or double. In single under-flooring, a common strong lath, one quarter of an inch thick, should be nailed B 2 FIR FIR against each side of every joist and main timber, supporting tbe floor which is to be secured. Similar laths are then to be nailed on the whole length of the joists, the ends of which abut against each other. The top of each lath or fillet, ought to be an inch and a half below the top of the joists or timbers, against which they are nailed, so as to form a small ledge on every side. When these fillets are nailed on, they should be laid in a rough plaster, which ought to be spread on the tops of such fillets, so as to leave no vacant space between them and the joists. Short pieces of common laths are next to be nailed closely together, in a direction contrary to that of the joists; the ends of the former are to rest on the fillets, and to be well bedded in rough plaster, but not fastened with nails. They are next to be coated once with the plaster, which is to be spread over them to the tops of the joists. In double-flooring, the fillets and short pieces of laths are applied in the manner already de- scribed; the coatoi rough plaster ought, however, in this method, to *be somewhat more than half as thick as that in single-flooring.... While the rough plaster is laying on, some additional short pieces of laths are to be inserted between the joists upon the first coat, as close- ly to each other as possible, and in the same direction as the first layer of laths. Over this second layer of short laths, another coat of rough plaster should be spread, which ought to be trowelled level with the tops of the joists. ■*As soon as the plaster-work be- tween the joists is perfectly dry, it should be inspected, in order to ascertain whether there be any small cracks, especially next to the joists. Should any occur, it will be requisite to close them, by washing them over with a brush, wetted with mortar-wash, which may be prepared by mixing two measures of quick-lime and one of sand in a pail, and tempering the whole with water, till it acquires the consistence ef a thin jelly. Previously to laying down the flooring-boards, a small quantity of dry common sand should be strew- ed over the plaster-work, and struck smooth with a ho}low rule in the same direction as the joists are laid, so that it may lie roundingbe- tween each pair of joists. Particu- lar attention should be paid to the plaster-work and sand, that they be perfectly dry before the boards are laid, lest the latter become in- fected with the dry-rot. The mode of under-flooring may be success- fully applied to a wooden stair- case ; but no sand is then to be laid upon the plaster-work. The me- thod of extra-lathing may be prac- tised on ceiling-joists, sloping- roofs, and wooden partitions. The third method, namely, inter- securing, is similar to that of under- flooring; but no sand is after- wards to be laid over it. Inter- securing is applicable to the same parts of a building as the method of extra-lathing ; but it is seldom necessary to be employed. Lord Mahon made several experiments, which shew the utility of this in- vention ; but we can only refer the inquisitive reader to the 68th vo- lume of the " Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society," for 1778; where he will find a satis- factory account of the manner of preparing the mortar, as well as the result of numerous trials made F IR F IR S by the inventor....See also Couk- try-housks and FlRr.-PROOF. The most expeditious way of extinguishing fire is a matter of equal importance, as the security of buildings from that destructive agent. Hence various machines, and chemical prepare.'ions, have been invented by ingenious men, in order to promote so useful an object; one of the earliest contri- vances was a barrel, filled with certain ingredients, first proposed by M. Fuchs, a German physi- cian, in the year \7ii; and which effectually answered the purpose for which it was designed....A si- milar invention was introduced in- to this country by a Mr. Zachary Greyl, whose machines were made of wood, and contained o,:iy water; they were exhibited before several of the nobility, but did not meet with encouragement. In the year 1761, Dr. Godfrey produced certain vessels which in every re- spect succeeded. They are sup- posed to have been an improve- ment on Mr. Greyl's, were con- structed with wood, and filled with a chemical liquor, consisting of wa- ter, oil of vitriol, and sal-ammoniac, When thrown into rooms or other places that were purposely set on fire, they burst, and by their ex- plosion completely extinguished the flames : it is to be observed, that they were useless after the roof had fallen in. These contri- vances, however, are evidently more calculated for ships, than to be employed on land ; as they would be of great service for sup- pressing fires in vessels at sea, and might be considered as necessary a part of their cargo as naval stores, or ammunition. In the 23d vol. of " Annals of Agriculture" Mr. William Knox, a merchant of Gothenburg, in Sweden, spates that he has made a variety of experiments for extin- guishing fire by meansof such sub- stances as are cheap and easily procured. He divides them into simple and compound solutions. In the former class, he proposes to add to 75 gallons of water, 9 gal- lons of the strongest solution of wood-ashes; or 6 gallons of the finest pulverized pot-ashes ; or SA gallons of common salt, well driecf, and finely beaten ; or 81 gallons of green vitriol or copperas, thorough- ly dried and finely pulverized ; or 111 gallons of the strongest her- ring-pickle ; or 9 gallons of alum reduced to powder; or 19 gallons of clay, perfectly dried, well beat- en, and carefully sifted. Among the compound solutions, Mr. Knox recommends to mix 75 gallons of water with 10 quarts of clay, 10 quarts of vitriol, and 10 quarts of common salt; or a simi- lar quantity of water, with 18 quarts of the strongest solution of wood-ashes and 18 quarts of fine clay reduced to powder; or the same proportion of water, with 15 quarts of red-ochre, or the resi- duum of aquafortis, and 15 quarts of common salt; or, lastly, to mix 15 quarts of the strongest herring- pickle, and 15 quarts of red-ochre, with 75 gallons of water....All these different solutions, Mr. Knox re- marks, are equally efficacious in extinguishing fire ; but he prefers the compounds, as being the " surest and most powerful for that purpose." Another of the various inven- tions for extinguishing fire by Che- mical means, deserving of notice, is the composition prepared by M. Von Akkn, and which consists of the following ingredients: 4 FIR FIR lbs. Burnt alum....... 30 Green vitriol in powder . 40 Cinabrese, or red-ochre, ? „0 pulverized..... $ Potter's, or other clay, "1 finely powdered and >• 200 sifted........J Water........... 630 With 40 measures of this liquor an artificial fire, which would have required the labour of twenty men, ana 1500 measures of common water, was extinguished under the direction of the inventor, by three persons. The price of this com- pound solution is estimated at one halfpenny per pound. Water Engines for extinguishing fire. These are either forcing or lifting pumps; and as they are made to move with great velocity, their execution principally depends on the length of their levers, and the force with which they are worked. Various engines have been con- trived, from which we have select- ed the following, as they are the most ingenious, and at the same time calculated to produce the greatest effects....In the year 1785, the silver medal and twenty guineas were conferred by the " Society for the Encouragement of Arts," &c. on Mr. Furst, as a reward for his contrivance to increase the effect of engines in extinguishing fires; of which the following is a short description; From a platform rises an upright pole or mast, of such height as may be judged necessary; a gaft slides upon it in an ascend- ing direction, and along both is conveyed the leather hose from the engine. The branch, or nose- pipe of the engine, projects at the extremity of the gaft; towards which an iron frame is fixed, whence two chains are suspended; and from these hang ropes, which serve to give an horizontal direc- tion to the branch ; while other ropes, that run through proper pullies, and are thus conveyed down the mast, serve likewise to communicate a vertical motion to it. By these means, the branch or nose-pipe of the engine is conduct- ed into the window of any room wrhere the fire more immediately rages; and the effect of the water discharged is applied in the most efficacious manner to the extin- guishing of the flames. A patent was granted in January 1790, to Mr. Joseph Bramah, of Piccadilly, and to Mr. Thomas Dickenson, of Bedworth Close, in the county of Warwick, for a new improved engine on a rota- tive principle. The merits of this machine depend on its having two wheels or cylinders of brass, or any other metal; one of which is of a greater, and the other of a smaller diameter, in any proportion re- quired ; both are nearly of equal length, but may be increased or decreased, according to the pur- pose to which the machine is ap- plied. As soon as the larger wheel is fixed, the smaller one is placed within it, and is fastened on an axis, so as to turn in a rotative direction round its centre; the smaller wheel being thus stationed, may be occasionally fixed, and the larger one moved in the same di- rection round the smaller one: the former of these, however, is pre- ferable in all cases. At each end of thelarger wheel there is a statich, to which are screwed two plates, or caps inclosing its ends, and into which the extremities of thesmaller wheel are inserted, so as to render the junction water-tight: through FIR FIR 5 these caps passes the axis of the inner cylinder, in order to com- municate motion from without.... Or the inner wheel may be applied so as to giye motion, by its external end or ends, to any other engine or machine connected with it.... These are the component pails of Messrs. Br amah's and Diciien. son's patent engines; for a more particular account of which, we refer the reader, to the 2d vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manu- factures, where he will find a mi- nute account of the machinery, and the effects it is calculated to produce. A patent was likwise granted in December, 1792, to Mr. Charles Simpkin, of Oxford-street, engine maker, for his improvements in all kinds of machines for extin- guishing fire....This invention con- sists in exploding or. removing the valves both from that part of the cylinder, where the vacuum is made by the piston or fly, and from beneath the air-vessel; and in making use of valves, by the application of certain filtering chambers, with partitions or divi- sions, to preserve the effect of the valves, during the use of any im- proper fluid. These filtering cham- bers are to be placed between the drawing valves, and the strainer in common use, on the suction-pipe. The partitions in the chambers may be of fine wire-work, or of any other substitute, that will act as a first and second filtration in the chamber. The design of this invention is, to render the valves more free of access, and to prevent the neces- sity of opening any other parts of the engine, except the chambers containing the valves; by which means the effect of the machine is increased, and consequently the fire may be more easily extin- guished. To these different contrivances we shall add the American Fire- engine, of which we have given an accurate engraving. It was in- vented by Mr. Benjamin Dear- born, who communicated it to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, from whose Memoirs for 1794, we extract the following par- ticulars: Description of the Plate represent- ing the American fire-engine, on a new construction. Fig. I. A B, and C D, are the edges of two planks, confined to- gether by four bolts....a b, and c d, are two cylindrical barrels, in each of which a piston, with a valve, is fastened to the spear e, and is mov- ed up and down alternately by the motion of the arms E E. Beneath each barrel a hole is made through the plank A B, which is covered with a valve. The arms E E, are suspended on the common centre f: there are also arms parallel to these on the opposite side ; g g are the ends of handles which are fast- ened across the ends of the arms. At h, a bolt goes across, from arm to arm, to which the piece i, k, is affixed, a-n! on which it plays; the lower end of this piece is fastened to the top of the spear e....G, l,f, iS a standard for the purpose of sup- porting the arms, to which there is a correspondent one on the oppo» site side; both are notched into the edges of the planks, where they are secured by a bolt, which passes through them at /, and has a nut or fore-lock on the opposite side. H I, H I, are square braces, an- swering the purpose of ducts, through which the water ascends from the barrels, passing through 6 FIR the plank at ;w....K L, K L, are irons in the form of a staple, in or- der to confine the braces: the lower ends of these irons meet, and are secured by a bolt, passing through them, and M N, n o, which is a piece that goes up through a mortice in the centre of the planks. This piece is square from the lower end, till it reaches the top of the braces; whence they become cy- lindrical to the top, the upper end being perforated sufficiently low down, in order to communicate with the brace?. O, P, is an iron ling, that surrounds the tube, and has two shanks which ascend through the head, wit.ii screws on the top at p, q:....;-, s, is a ferule nailed round the tub . Fig. 2. is the same engine; the arms and standards being taken off, in order to delineate more clearly the mode cf securing the braces; an object which is completely ef- fected by a wedge driven into the mortice a: beneath the upper plank b, is a hole for admitting a passage to the bolt, which secures the standards. In this figure, a side view of the head is given, with the pipe in a perpendicular direction. The machine is confined within a box, set on Avheels, as in the .common fire-engines-. The whoie is made of wood, excepting the Wpears of the pumps, and u few bolts, kc. The advantages of this machine are, that A can be made in any place where common pumps are manufactured; the interior work will not exceed one-four!h of the price of those which are constructed on the uaaal plan; and that they are incomparably more easy to work than the common onr.i; circumstances which strong- ly recommend the American fire- engine to the attention of the public. FIR FIRE-ARMS, are those which are charged with powder and ball; such as musquets,carbines, pistols, cannons, Sec. In December, 1780, a patent was granted to Mr. John Aitkin, of Edinburgh, surgeon, for his inven- tion of a new method of loading fire-arms, of whatever dimensions or forms, with two or more charges of powder and bail, and of dis- charging them in succession, by fire communicated through, cor- respondent perforations, or touch- holes. This consists in lodging several charges of powder and shot in the fire-arms, whether cylindri- cal, conical, chambered, or other- wise; the hindmost c.y/..*emity, or breech, being closed, while the an- terior one, or muzzie, is open. The extension of the fire, in a posterior direction from the charge next the muzzle that is first inflamed, is in- tercepted by intermedia placed be- tween the several charges, which are firmly rammed about or above the shot; and which are formed of any substance that possesses suffi- cient resistance, is compact, in- combustible, and properly shaped. In the smaller fire-arms, namely, pistols, musquets, blunderbusses, kc. the patentee chiefly employs leather, or other thick stuffs. In the larger ones, such as cannons, mortars, kc. he makes use of va- rious pastes, as being more com- modious, and more easily procured. The charges are ignited through touch-holes, by the lock, or match, as occasion may demand, accord- ing to the size and condition of the tula. A patent was likewise granted to James Wilson, Esq. of St. Marliu's in the Fields, for his im- provement in the construction of tire-arms, by which the powder FIR will be effectually screened against the-influenceoftheweather,ataless expence than by any other method. His invention consists chiefly in fixing a semi-circular piece of brass or iron, about one line in breadth, over the touch-hole, and which rises upwards with a bevil from the side that joins the barrel. Thus the wet or moisture, which in com- mon fire-arms insinuates itself be- tween the barrel and the hammer or upper pan, where the powder is most exposed, is effectually pre- vented, and carried on on either side of the arch, or semi-circular piece of metal, by the channel, which is formed by the bevil when in contact with the barrel. This improvement is also applicable to old pans. [FIRE-BALLS. A very inte- resting paper on these meteors, by Prof. Gmeli::, of Gottingen, may be found in Til loch's Phil. Mag. vol. 3d. FIRE-BUCKETS. It is a gene- ral complaint at the extinguishing of fires, that the water, as it is handed-along from the pump to the engine, is continually spilling out of the buckets; to the great annoyance of the persons employed in this service ; and what is of more consequence, the great waste of water: so that by the time the bucket arrives at the engine, it is frequently not more than halt full. The form of the buckets, as they are most commonly made, no doubt contributes to this inconve- nience ; and if they were made of cylindrical form, or no wider at the mouth than at the bottom, the evil would, in some measure, be remedied, but would still, however, exist in a considerable degree. The following simple appendage which has been proposed by a cor- FIR 7 respondent in the Weekly Mag. Phi- ladelphia, J79S, to be added to any bucket, at a very trifling expence, will be found an effectual remedy, and without in the least impeding either the filling or the emptyipg of the bucket :....l"cr this purpose. v provide a thin circular board of • cedar, or other light wood, of the size of the bottom of the bucket inside. This board maybe strength- ened by tacking on, across the wood, one or two small strips or battens. Let a piece of strong twine be made fast to the centre of this board, and also to the centre of the bottom of the bucket, inside ; and of such a length as to suffer the board to rise within about an inch of the mouth of the bucket. When the bucket is empty, this board will be on the bottom, and can, therefore, be no obstruction in filling it at the pump; and when filled, it will float on the surface of the w aler, and in no measure impede its being emp- tied into the engine, or even dis- charged by hand against the fire. The effect of such a float-board, in preventing the evil above stated, will be too easily conceived to need any further explanation.] FIRE-COCKS, are contrivances for admitting water into pipes or reservoirs: churchwardens in Lon- don, and within the bills of mor- tality, are enjoined to fix them at proper distances in streets, toge- ther with painted characters on the opposite wall, pointing out such distance. They are also ordered to deposit in every house thus mark- ed, an instrument or key for open- ing a plug, and likewise a large en- gine, and an hand-engine, under ths penalty of 10/. FIRE-ESCAPE, a c maivancQ for the: purpose of rescuing persons in imminent danger from fire. 8 FIR FIR In the Annual Register for 1775, an account is given of a machine for saving persons and effects from the flames. It consists, 1. Of a pole of fir, which may be of any conveni- ent length, being about 5 inches in diameter at the bottom, and at the top or smaller end, about three inches. At the distance of three feet from the top, is a mortice through the pole, to which a pulley is fixed, that is nearly of the same diameter as that part of the pole. 2. A rope about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and twice the length of the pole, at one end of which is a spring-hook, to pass through the handle of the basket, when used; it is put through the mortice over the pulley, and drawn tight on each side, nearly to the bottom of the pole, where it is se- cured till wanted. 3. A basket, which ought to be of strong wicker- work, three and a half feet long, two and a half feet wide, rounded off at the corners; and four feet deep, rounding every way at the bottom. To the top of the basket is fixed a strong iron curve, or han- dle, with an eye or ring in the middle: a small cord about the length of the pole, is likewise fas- tened to one side of the basket, near the top....These being the principal parts, there are also se- veral straps, Sec. for securing the poles from sliding; of which the reader will find a minute account in the volume before quoted. This contrivance can be raised, and two or more persons may be taken out of the upper windows of a house, and let down safely in the street, within the space of thirty five se- conds, or in little more than half a minute. A machine for this purpose has lately been invented by the Rev. Dr. Nicholas Collin, of Phila- delphia, the following description of which we have abridged from the 4th vol. of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. A strong wooden case is erected near the end of a rectangular stage of solid planks, mounted on four wheels (with locks to secure the latter when the machine is em- ployed), for the reception of an upright round shaft. This shaft is moveable in the case, by means of two ropes fastened to its foot; which, after passing over two pul- lies or sheaves in the top of the case (one being on each side), are fastened to two windlasses, by wind- ing or unwinding which/the round shaft is raised or lowered. On the top of this upright moveable shaft, is an iron fork with a trans- verse pin, on which rolls a lever with unequal arms. The longest arm is directed towards the fore- end of the stage, which it ought not to exceed in length, unless the hinder-end be proportionably loaded. The shortest arm is low- ered or raised by a rope fastened to its extremity, which reaches to the posterior end of the stage, and may be pulled either by men or by a windlass : or, a compound pul- ley may be substituted for the rope. To the fore-end of the longest arm of the lever, a basket is suspend- ed, by three iron rods, for the re- ception of persons or goods in danger, and which, by loosening the hinder rope, is thus lowered. As, however, in great elevations, the basket cannot reach the ground, a rope is fastened to it, by which persons or goods may descend.... Dr. Collin mentions a larger and a smaller kind of this machine, by the former of which twelve per- sons may be let down, and by the FIR latter four. As he has not specifi- ed any dimensions, we suppose that they are to be proportioned to the height, at which houses and other buildings are in general erect- ed, and to the number of persons the machine is intended to rescue. We cannot, on this occasion, omit to point out the great utility ofthose fringed ropes which should be fas- tened to the foot of a bedstead, and extend to a sufficient length, to de- scend by them, in case of fire, thro' a window : they are sold by several rope manufacturers in town, gen- erally at two shillings per yard. [The following description of a Fire esc ape, was drawn up for the editor, by Mr. B. Dearborn, of Boston, (inventor of the machine) already mentioned under the ar- ticles Balance,andFiRE Engine. The contrivance of Mr. D. is cer- tainly the best, that has ever come to our knowledge, and ought to be generally adopted. It consists of a ladder, plat-form, and receiver; the ladder is made with two par- rallel sides, each of which has two straight and plain surfaces ; on the two outsides a groove runs from one end to the other; in these grooves two ledges slide, which being nailed to the bottom of the receiver, keep it from slipping off; the bottom of the receiver is made of boards, somewhat longer than the breadth of the ladder, which are confined together by the ledges ; the two sides, and one end of the receiver are guarded with an iron frame and net-work : the receiver is drawn up the ladder by two ropes, which pass over pullies near the top of the ladder; the pullies are fixed in separate pieces, which are nailed on the inner surface of each side of the ladder, a little below its upper edge, so that the ropes may pass between the steps of the vol. m. FIR 9 ladder and the bottom of the re- ceiver ; the ropes are made fast un- der the bottom of the receiver; then passing upward over the steps of the ladder, they go over the pullies, and their ends go down under the steps of the ladder to the platform ; the platform is made of boards, nailed to two long hinges, by which it is attached to the lad- der near the bottom ; the extremi- ty of each hinge is made sharp, and is turned downward, to enter the ground and assist in keeping the ladder steady ; the feet of the ladder are also guarded with iron points. The men who draw up and let down the receiver, stand on the platform, whereby they have a clear stage for themselves and the ropes, and their weight keeps the ladder firm. When the receiver is hea- vily loaded, it will be necessary to pass the ropes under one of the steps of the ladder, that their fric- tion may increase the power of sustaining the weight. When the ladder is to be removed, the plat- form is to be turned up and but- toned to the under side, and the receiver is to be made fast, a little above the foot of the ladder, by a pin passing through both ; then the ropes can be used in taking down the ladder, and in raising it again when necessary, which it may be best to do thus: let the ladder be laid bottom upward on the ground, the receiver being underneath, and the ropes, uppermost; then the weight of one or more persons on the foot of the ladder, will assist in raising it to a greater or less angle, as the receiver may be near- er or further off from its extremis ty; then with the assistance of thq ropes, it may be raised perpendi- cular, and directed to its situation.' The annexed cut will convey ^ full idea of the machine, C 10 FIR FIR After all, perhaps, the best fire- either flat, as is usual, or hollow escapes, are stone stairs, with t ood like a spoon. The materials may roomy landing places, and a thin be either entirely iron, or those wall to support the off ends of the parts which are not intended to steps, the other ends being built come in contact with the fire, may into substantial side walls.] be of silver, plated work, or any FIRE-IRONS, are those instru- other metal. With respect to the ments which are employed in the poker and shovel, the ends may, management of a fire, namely, po- for the same reason, be in separate ker, shovel, and the different kinds pieces from the stems ; but as that of tongs. As the manufacture of of the poker is frequently exposed these articles is acknowledged to to the fire, it becomes necessary to be very unwieldly, Mr. Samuel make it, if tubular, much thicker Bentham, of Queen-square Place, than the stem....The chief object in Middlesex, obtained a patent in of this contrivance is simplicity and the month of April, 1793, for a new lightness; but we doubt whether method of making fire-irons. His it is calculated for general use. invention consists informingthose FIRE-PLACE, a contrivance for instruments tubular; the cylinders communicating heat to rooms, and being closed at the ends, as well also for answering various purposes for strength as for keeping out of art and manufacture...With res- dust ; hence they acquire a degree pect to the latter kind, we propose of lightness, which the patentee af- to treat under the articles of Fur- firms cannot be given them by any nace and Stove. other means, with the same degree In the construction of fire-places of strength. The joint of the tongs for domestic purposes, the chief may be made in a manner similar object is the saving of fuel : with to common ones, or with a spring- this intention, several ingenious ar- joint resembling that of sugar- tists have invented different kinds tongs. The two legs are joined of grates, more or less adapted to together by a flat, broad, semi-cir- that useful end. cular plate, hardened so as to ac- The fire-places in general use, quire a proper degree of elasticity, are, 1. The large open ones, which The ends of the tongs may be were commonly adopted in former F I R FIR 11 times, and are still retained in the country, and in kitchens: they re- quire a wide funnel, consume a great quantity of fuel, and gene- rally smoke, unless the dour, or a window, be left open. 2. The modern fire-places ge- ne J ly adopted in towns, are con- structed with low breasts and hearths, narrowed by jambs..... These being more contracted than the antiquated chimnies,easily keep the room free from smoke; but the funnel necessarily occasions a con- siderable draught of a^ which rushing in at every crevice, ren- ders the situation of those who are exposed to it very uncomfortable, and even dangerous: for it is un- questionable, that most of the dis- eases that proceed from colds, may be justly attributed to the strong draught of chimnies, by which, in severe weather, persons are scorch- ed before, while they are freezing behind. Such fire-places, therefore, are of little service in heating rooms, as the surrounding air, which is warmed by the direct rays of the fire, does not remain in the apartment, but is continually col- lected in the chimney, by the cur- rent of cold air which surrounds it, and by Avhich it is in a short time carried off*. Nor is this the only inconvenience attendant on such improper contrivances, for the greatest part of the fire is lost, in consequence of its being absorb- ed by the back, jambs, and hearth, which are dark and obscure, and reflect very little, so that the heat flies directly up the chimney. 3. To remedy this inconveni- ence, an ingenious Frenchman, named Gauger, in the year 1709, proposed seven different con- structions of a new kind of chim- nies, in which there are hollow ca- vities, formed by means of iron plates inserted in the back, jambs, and hearth : through these the heat passes and warms the air in those cavities, which is thus continually communicated to the room. Al- though many advantages arise from this arrangement, yet the expence necessarily incurred, must ever be an insuperable obstacle to its ge- neral adoption. 4. Another kind of fire-place is the Holland iron-stove, which has a flue proceeding from the top, and a small iron door that opens into the apartment. They serve to warm a room, lessen the consump- tion of fuel, and to produce a con- stant change of air; but, as the fire is too much confined, it is nei- ther sufficiently chearful, nor cal- culated for culinary purposes, and is therefore employed chiefly to work-shops. 5. The German stove consists of five iron plates, which are screwed closely together in such a manner, that the fuel may be put into it from another room, and even from the outside of the house. This stove warms rooms with little fuel, and is not attended with any dan- ger from the irruption of cold air; but it admits of no change or draught of air in the rcom, and the fire is likewise concealed. [Dr. Willich recommends the Franklin stoves in preference to the chimnies as constructed upon the plan of Count Rumford ; but as we have had a full experience of both, in this country, the gene- ral decision of Americans in favour of the latter is acceded to by the editor. Besides the common ob- jections made to open stoves, that they give out a heat very unplea- sant to the feelings; and that it is regulated with difficulty ; another important objection against them has been ur^ed, viz. that when 12 FIR heated, they consume the wood. As an open fire-place, properly con- structed, so as to burn the wood with no more rapidity than is re- quisite to carry up the smoke, an- swers ail the purposes of common warmth, we have, no hesitation in giving a decided preference to Count Rumfosb's improvements. For thi'i reason, an abridged and condensed account of his observa- tions on chimnies, and of his direc- tions for laying out the work shall now be presented :....These direc- tions are taken from the Count's first and third vol. of essays. The great fault of all the open fire-places, or chimnies, for burn- ing wood or coals in an open fire, now in common use, is, that they are much too large ; or rather it is the throat of the chimney, or the lower part of its open canal, in the neighbourhood of the mantle, and immediately over the fire, which is too large. This opening has hitherto been left larger than other- wise it probably would have been made, in order to give a passage to the chimney-sweeper ; but I shall shew hereafter, how a pas- sage for the chimney-sweeper may be contrived without leaving the throat of the chimney of such enor- mous dimensions as to swallow up and devour all the warm air of the room, instead of merely giving passage to the smoke and heated vapour which arise from the fire, for which last purpose alone it ought to be destined. As the immoderate size of the throats of the chimnies is the great fault of their construction, it is the fault which ought always to be first attended to in every attempt to improve them; for, however perfect the construction of a fire- place may be in other respects, if the opening for the passage of the FIR smoke is -larger than is necessary for that purpose, nothing can pre- vent the warm air of the room from escaping through it; and whenever this happens, there is net only an unnecessary loss of heat, but the warm air which leaves' the room to go up the chim- ney being replaced by cold air from without, the draught of cold air so open mentioned, cannot fail to be produced in the room, to the great annoyance of those who in- habit it. But, although both these evils may be effectually remedied, by reducing the throat of the chim- ney to a proper size, yet in doing this, several precautions will be ne- cessary. And first of all, the throat of the chimney should be in its proper place; that is to say, in that place in which it ought to be, in order that the ascent of the smoke may be most facilitated; for every means which can be em- ployed for facilitating the ascent of the smoke in the chimney must naturally tend to prevent the chim- ney from smoking; now as the smoke and hot vapour which rise from the fire naturally tend upwards, the proper place for the throat of the chimney is evidently perpendi cularly over the fire. The nearer the throat of a chimney is to the fire, the stronger will be what is com- monly called its draught, and the less danger there will be of its smoking. But on the other hand, when the draught of a chimney is very strong, and particularly when this strong draught is occasioned by the throat of the chimney being very near the fire, it may so hap- pen that the draught of air into the fire may become so strong, as to cause the fuel to be consumed too rapidly. In introducing the improvements proposed in chimnies already FIR built, there can be no question in regard to the height of the throat of a chimney, for its place will be determined by the height of the mantle. It can hardly be made lower than the mantle; and it ought always to be brought down as nearly upon a level with the bottom of it as possible. If the chimney is apt to smoke, it will sometimes be necessary either to lower the man- tle, or to diminish the height of the opening of the fire-place, by throw- ing over a flat arch, or putting in a straight piece of stone from one side of it to the other; or, which will be still more simple and easy in practice, building a wpll of bricks, supported by a flat bar of iron immediately under the mantle. Nothing is so effectual to prevent chimnies from smoking, as diminish- ing the Opening of the fire-place in the manner here described, and low- ering and diminishing the throat of the chimney; and I have always found, except in * single instance, that a perfect cure may be effected by these means alone, even in the most desperate cases. It is true, that when the construction of the chimney is very bad indeed, or its situation very unfavourable to the ascent of the smoke, and especially when both these disadvantages ex- ist at the same time, it may some- times be necessary to diminish the opening of the fire-place, and par- ticularly to lower it, and also to lower the throat of the chimney more than might be wished. The position of the throat of a chimney being determined, the next points to be ascertained are its size and form, and the manner in which it ought to be connected with the fire-place below, and with the open canal of the chimney above. That these inquiries may be FIR 13 pursued with due method, and that the conclusions drawn from them may be clear and satisfactory, it will be necessary to consider; first, what the objects are, which ought principally to be had in view in the construction of a fire-place; and secondly, to see how these objects can best be attained. Now the design of a chimney fire being simply to warm a room, it is necessary first of all, to con- trive matters so, that the room shall be actually warmed ; second- ly, that it be warmed with the smallest expence of fuel possible; and, thirdly, that in warming it, the air of the room be preserved perfectly pure, and fit for respira- tion, and free from smoke and all disagreeable smells. When fuel is burnt in fire-places upon this simple construction, when the smoke escapes immedi- ately by the open canal of the chimney, it is quite evident, that all the combined heat must of ne- cessity be lost; and as it is the radiant heat alone which can be employed in heating a room, it" becomes an object of much im- portance to determine how the greatest quantity of it may be ge- nerated in the combustion of the fuel, and how the greatest propor- tion of that generated may be brought into the room. Now the quantity of radiant heat generated in the combustion of a given quantity of any kind of fuel depends very much upon the ma- nagement of the fire, or upon the manner in which the fuel is con- sumed. When the fire burns bright, much radiant heat will be sent off from it; but when it i» smothered up, very little will be ge- nerated; and indeed very little combined heat, that can be employ- ed to any useful purpose : most of 14 FIR FIR the heat produced will be immedi- ately expended in giving elasticity to a thick dense vapour or smoke, which will be seen rising homthe fire ;....and the combustion being very incomplete, a great part of the inflammable matter of the fuel being merely rarefied and driven up the chinmey without being in- flamed, the ir.el will be wasted to little purpose. And hence it ap- pears of how much importance it is, whether it be considered with a view to economy, or to cleanli- ness, comfort and elegance, to pay due attention to the management of a chimney-fire. So many coals should never be put on the tire at once as to prevent the free passage of the flame be- tween them. In short, a fire should never be smothered; and when proper attention is paid to the quantity of coals put on, there will be very little use for the poker; and this circumstance will contri- bute very much to cleanliness, and to the preservation of furniture. For bringing as much radiant heat as possible into the room, we must cause as many as possible of the rays, as they are sent off from Fis the fire in straight lines, to come directiy into the room; which can only hi effected by bringing the fire as far forward as possible, and leaving the opening of the fire-place as wide and as high as can be dor e without inconvenience ; and se- condly, by making the sides and back of the fire-place of such form, and constructing them of such ma- terials, as to cause the direct rays from the lire, which strike against them, to be sent into the room by refltcdon in the greatest abundance. Now it will be found upon exa- mination, that the best form for the vertical sides of a fire-place, or the coving,,; (as they are called), is that of an \ipright plane, making an angle with the plane of the back of the fire-place of about 135 degrees.... According to the present construction of chimnies, this angle is 90 degrees, or forms a right-an- gle; but as in this case the two sides or covings of the fire-place, (A C, B D, Fig-. 1.) are parallel to each other, it is evident that they are very badly contrived for throwing into the room, by reflec- tion, the rays from the fire which fail on them. In regard to the materials which it will be most advantageous to employ in the construction of fire- places, I flatter mys'-If, that no great difficulty will attend the de- termination of that pohm As the object in vi ,\v is, to bring radiant heat into the room, it is clear, that that material is best for the con- struction of a fire-place which re- flects the most, or which absorb* the It u.-it of it; for that heat which FIR FIR 15 is absorbed cannot be reflected.... Now, as bodies which absorb ra- diant heat, are necessarily heated in consequence of that absorption, to discover which of the various materials that can be employed for constructing fire-places are best adapted for that purpose, we have only to find out by an experiment, very easy to be made, what bodies acquire least heat when exposed to the direct rays of a clear fire ; for those which are least heated, evi- dently absorb the least, and conse- quently reflect the most radiant heat. And hence it appears that iron, and, in general, metals of all kinds, which are well known to grow very hot when exposed to the rays projected by burning fuel, are to be reckoned amongst the very worst materials that it is pos- sible to employ in the construction of lire-places. [The impropriety of the fashiona- ble iron jambs, is rendered evident from this just theory.] The best materials I have hither- to been able to discover, are fire stone, and common bricks and mortar. Both these materials are, fortunately, very cheap ; and as to their comparative merits, I hardly know to which of them the pre- ference ought to be given. When bricks are used, they should be covered with a thin coating of plaster, which, when it is become perfectly dry, should be white-washed. The fire-stone should likewise be white-washed, when that is used ; and every part of the fire-place which is not ex- posed to being soiled and made black by the smoke, should be kept as white and clean as possible. As white reflects more heat, as well as more light, than any other co- lour, it ought always to be prefer- red for the inside of a chimney-fire- place, and black, which reflects neither light nor heat, should be most avoided. Register-stoves have often been found to be of use, but it is because the grejat fault of all fire-places constructed upon the common prin- ciples, being the enormous dimen- sions of the throat of the chimney, this fault has been in some mea- sure corrected by them; but I will venture to affirm, that there never was a fire-place so corrected, that would not have been much more improved, and with infinitely less expence, by the alterations here recommended, and which shall be now more particularly explained. Practical directions designed for the use of workmen; shewing how they are to ppjeced in ?naking the al- terations necessary to improve chimney -firt -place*, and effectually to cure smoking chimnies. By the throat of a chimney, I mean the lower extremity of its canal, where it unites with the up- per part of its open fire-place.... This throat is commonly found about a foot above the level of the lower part of the mantle, and it is sometimes contracted to a smaller size than the rest of the canal of the chimney, and sometimes not. The breast of a chimney is that part of it which is immediately be- hind the mantle....It is the wall which forms the entrance from below into the throat of the chim- ney in front, or towards the room. It is opposite to the upper extre- mity of the back of the open fire- place, and parallel to it ;....in short, it may be said to be the back part of the mantle itself. The width of the throat of the chimney is taken from the breast of the chimney to the back, and its length is taken at right-angles 16 FIR FIR to its width, or in a line parallel to the mantle. Before I proceed to give parti- cular directions respecting the ex- act forms and dimensions of the different parts of a fire-place, it may be useful to make such gene- ral and practical observations upon the subject, as can be clearly un- derstood, without the assistance of drawings ; for the more complete the knowledge of any subject is which can be acquired without drawings, the more easy will it be to understand the drawings, when it becomes necessary to have re- course to them. The bringing forward of the fire into the room, or rather bringing it nearer to the front of the opening of the fire-place ;....and the dimi- nishing of the throat of the chim- ney, being two objects principally had in view in the alterations of fire-places here recommended, it is evident that both these may be attained merely by bringing for- ward the back of the chimney. The only question, therefore, is, how far it should be brought forward? The answer is short and easy to be understood:....bring it forward as far as possible without diminishing too much the passage which must be left for the smoke. Now as this passage, which, in its narrowest part, I have called the throat of the cFh.iv.eij, ought, for reasons which have been fully explained, to be immediately, or perpendicularly over the fire, it is evident that the lack of the chimney must alwaysbe built perfectly upright. To deter- mine, therefore, the place for the new back, or how- far precisely it oight to bebrought forward, nothing more is necessary than to ascertain how wide the throat of the chim- ney ought to be left, between the top of the breast of the chimney. where the upright canal of the chimney begins, and the new back of the fire-place carried up perpen- dicularly to that height. In the course of my numerous experiments upon chimnies, I have taken much pains to determine the width proper to be given to this passage, and I have found, that, when the back of a fire-place is of a proper width, the best width for the throat of the chimney, when the chimney and the fire-place are at the usual form and size, is four inches....Thrte inches might some- times answer, especially when the fire-place is very small, and the chimney good and well situated: but as it is always of much import- ance to prevent those accidental puffs of smoking which are some- limes thrown into rooms by the carelessness of servants in putting on suddenly too many coals at once upon the fire ; and as I found these accidents sometimes happened, when the throats of chimnies were made very narrow, I found that, upon the whole, all circumstances being well considered, and advanta- ges and disadvantages compared and balanced, four inches is the best width that can be given to the throat of a chimney ; and this, whe- ther the fire-place be destined to burn wood, coals, turf, or any other fuel commonly used for heating rooms by an open fire. And this leads us to consider another important point respecting open fire-places, and that is, the width which it will, in each case, be proper to give to the back....In fire-places as they are now com- monly constructed, the back is of equal width with the opening of the fire-place in front ,....but this construction is faulty on two ac- counts. First, in a fire-place so construct- FIR FIR 17 ed, the sides of the fire-place, or c.vings, as they are called, are pa- rallel to each other, and conse- quently ill contrived to throw out into the room the heat they receive from the fire in the form of rays ; and secondly, the large open cor- ners which are formed by making the back as wide as the opening in front of the fire-place, occasion ed- dies of wind, which frequently dis- turb the fire and embarrass the smoke in its ascent, in such a man- ner as often to bring it into the room. Both these defects may be entirely remedied, by diminishing the width-of the back of the fire- place....The width, which, in most cases, it will be best to give it, is one-third of the width of the opening of the fire place in front....But it is not absolutely necessary^o conform rigorously to this decision, nor will it always be possible....It will fre- quently happen, that the back of a chimney must be made wider, than, according to the rule here given, it ought to be....This may be, either to accommodate the fire-place to a stove, which being already on hand, must, to avoid the purchasing of a new one, be employed ; or for other reasons.... and any small deviation from the general rule will be attended with no considerable inconvenience.... It will always be best, however, to conform to it as far as chcum- stances will allow. Where a chimney is designedfor warming a room of a middie size, and w here the thickness of the wall of the chimney in front, measured from the front of the mantle to the breast of the chimney, is 9 inches, I should set c!i four inches more for the width of the throat of the chimney, which, supposing the back of the chimney to be built vci. in. upright, as it always ought to be, will give thirteen inches for the depth of the fire-place, measured upon the hearth, from the opening of the fire-place in front, to the back....In this case, thirteen inches would be a good size for the width of the back; and three times thir- teen inches, or thirty-nine inches, for the width of the opening of the fire-place in front; ami the angle made by the back of the fire-place and the sides of it, or covings, would be just 135 degrees, which is the best position they can have for throwing heat into the room. But I will suppose, that in alter- ing such a chimney it is found ne- cessary, in order to accommodate the fire-place to a grate or stove already on hand, to make the fire- place sixteeen inches wide. In that case, I should merely increase the widthof the back, to the dimensions required, without altering the depth of the chimney, or increasing theopeningof the chimney in front. The covings, it is true, would be somewhat reduced in their width, by this alteration ; and their po- sition with respect to the plane of the back of the chimney would be a little changed ; but these altera- tions would produce no bad effects of any considerable consequence, and would be much less likely to injure the fire-place, than an at- tempt to bring the proportions of its parts nearer to the standard, by increasing the depth of the chim- ney, and the width of its opening in front; or than an attempt to preserve that particular obliquity of the covings, which is recom- mended as the best,(\F degrees), bv increasing the width of the opening of the fire-place, without increasing its depth. I:; order to illustrate tills subject D 18 FIR FIR more fully, we will suppose one case more.... We will suppose that in the chimney which is to be al- tered, the width of the fire-place in front is either wider or narrower than it ought to be, in order that the different parts of the fire-place, after it is altered, may be of the proper dimensions. In this case, I should determine the depth of the fire-place and the width of the back of it, without any regard to the width ofthe openingofthe fire-place in front; when this is done, if the opening ofthe fire-place should be only two or three inches too wide, that is to say, enly two or three inches wider than is necessary, in order that the covings may be brought into their proper position with respect to the back, I should not alter the width of the opening, but should accommodate the cov- ings to this width, by increasing their breadth, and increasing the angle they make with the back of the fire-place....but if the opening of the fire-pl; ce should be more than three inches too wide, I should reduce it to its proper width by slips of stone, or by bricks and mortar. When the width of the opening of the fire-place, in front, is very great, compared with the depth of the fire-place, and with the width of the back, the covings in that case being very wide, and consequently very oblique, and the fire-place ve- ry shallow, any sudden motion of the air in front of the fire-place, (that motion, for instance, which would be occasioned by the clothes of a woman passing hastily before the fire, and very near it), would be apt to cause eddies in the air, within theopeniug ofthe fire-place, by which puffs of smoke might easily be brought into the room. Should the opening of the chim- ney be too narrow, which, how- ever, will very seldom be found to be the case, it will in general be advisable to let it remain as it is, and to accommodate the covings to it, rather than to attempt to in- * crease its width, which would be attended with a good deal of trou- ble, and probably a considerable cxpence. But it is time that I should men- tion another matter....Provision must be made for the passage of the chimney-sweeper up the chim- ney....This may easily be done in the following manner...In build- ing up the new back of the fire- place ; when this wall, (which need never be more than the width of a single brick in thickness), is brought up so high, that there re- mains no more than about ten or eleven inches between what is then the top of it, and the inside of the mantle, or lower extremity of the breast of the chimney, an opening, or door way, eleven or twelve inches wide, must be begun in the middle of the back, and continue quite to the top of it, which, accord- ing to the height to which it will commonly be necessary to carry up the back, will make the open- ing about twelve or fourteen inches high; which will be quite suffi- cient to allow the chimney-sweep- er to pass. When the fire-place is finished, this door-way is to be closed by a few bricks, by a tile, or a fit piece of stone, placed in it, dry, or without mortar, and con- fined in its place by means of a rabbit made for that purpose in the brick-work....As often as the chim- ney is swept, the chimney-sweeper takes down this temporary wall, which is very easily done ; and when he has finished his work, he puts FIR it again into its place....The cut No. 2, will give a clear idea of this contrivance; and the experience I have had of it has proved, that it answers perfectly well the purpose for which it is designed. I observed above, that the new back, which it will always be found necessary to build, in order to bring the fire sufficiently forward, in altering a chimney constructed upon the common principles, need never be thicker than the width of a common brick....I may say the same of the thickness necessary to be given to the new sides, or cov- ings, ofthe chimney ; or if the new back and covings are constructed of stone, one inch and three-quar- ters, or two inches in thickness will be sufficient....Care should betaken in building these new walls to unite the back to the covings in a solid manner. Whether the new back and cov- ings are constructed of stone, or built of bricks, the space between them, and the old back and covings of the chimney ought to be filled up, to give greater solidity to the structure....This may be done with loose rubbish, or pieces of broken bricks or stones, provided the work be strengthened by a few layers or courses of bricks, laid in mortar, [charcoal in powder, mixed with ashes, both of which are bad con- ductors of heat, were used by the Editor] ; but it will be indispensibly necessary to finish the work, where these new walls end, that is to say, at the top ofthe throat ofthe chim- ney, where it ends as rapidly in the open canal of the chimney, by a horizontal course of bricks, well se- cured with mortar....This course of bricks will be upon a level with the top of the door-way left for the chimney-sweeper. FIR 19 From these descriptions, it is clear, that where the throat of the chimney has an end, that is to say, where it enters into the lower part of the open canal of the chimney, there the three walls which form the two covings and the back of the fire-place all end abruptly....It is of much importance, that they should end in this manner; for, were they to be sloped outward, and raised in such a manner as to swell out the upper extremity of the throat of the chimney in the form of a trumpet, and increased by degrees to the size of the canai of the chimney, this manner of uniting the lower extremity of the canal of the chimney with the throat, would tend to assist the winds which may attempt to blow- down the chimney, in forcing their way through the throat, and throw- ing the smoke backward into the room ; but when the throat of the chimney ends abruptly, and the ends of the new walls form a flat horizontal surface, it will be much more difficult for any wind from above to find and force its way through the narrow passage of the throat of the chimney. For the same reason, that is to say, to prevent eddies, and to per- mit the current of air, which pass- es under the mantle into the chim- ney, to bend its course upwards, and unite quietly w ith Ihe ascend- ing current of smoke ; the breast of the chimney, which forms that side of the throat that is in front, or nearest to the room, should be neatly cleaned off, and its surface made quite regular and smooth. This is of great consequence, and may he easily dene, by covering it with a coat of plaster, which may be made th idler or thinner in dif- ferent parts, as may be necessary. 20 F IR FIR in order to bring the breast of the chimney to be of the proper form. I have hitherto given no precise directions, in regard to the height to which the new back and covings ought to be carried : this will de- pend, not only on the height of the mantle, but also, and more espe- cially, on the height of the breast of the chimney, when the breast ends, and the upright canal begins. The back and covings must rise a few inches, five or six, for instance, higher than this part. I mentioned above, that the space between the walls which form the new back and covings, and the old back and sides of the fire-place, should be filled up ; but this must not be understood to apply to the wall of dry bricks, or the tile which closes the passage for the chimney sweeper, and the old back of the chimney; for that space must be left void,otherwise, though this tile (which at most will not be more than two inches in thickness) were taken away, there would not be room sufficient for him to pass. In forming this door-way, the best method of proceeding is, to place the tile, or flat piece of stone destined for closing it, in its pro- per place, and to build round it, or rather by the sides of it; taking care not to bring any mortar near it, in order that it may be easily re- moved when the door-way is finish- ed. With regard to the rabbet which should be made in the door- way to receive it and fix it more firmly in its place ; this may either be formed at the same time, when the door-way is built, or it may be made after it is finished, by attach- ing to its bottom and sides, with strong mortar, pieces of thin roof- tiles : such as are about half an inch in thickness, will be best for this use ; if they are thicker, they will diminish too much the open- ing of the door-way, and likew ise, be more liable to be torn away by the chimney sweeper, in passing up and down the chimney. In placing a grate, the thing principally to be attended to, is, to make the back of it coincide with the hack of the fire-place ; but, as many of the grates now in com- mon use, will be found to be too large, when the fire-places are al- tered and improved, it will be ne- cessary to diminish their capaci- ties, by filling them up at the back and sides with pieces of fire-stones: when this is done, it is the front of the flat piece of fire-stone, which is to form a new back to the grate, which must be made to coincide with, and make part of the back, of the fire-place. But in diminish- ing the capacities of grates with pie- ces of fire-stone, care must be tak- en, not to make them too narrow. It frequently happens, that the iron backs of grates, are not verti- cal, or upright, but inclined hack- wards. When these grates are so much too wide, as to render it ne- cessary to fill them up behind with fire-stone, the inclination of the back will be of little consequence ; for, by making the piece of stone with which the width of the grate is to be diminished, in the form of a wedge, or thicker above than be- low, the front of this stone, which in fact, will become the back ofthe grate, may be made perfectly ver- tical; and the iron back of the grate being hid in the solid work of the back of the fire-place, will produce no effect whatever, but if the grate be already so narrow, as not to admit of any diminution of its width, in that case, it will be best to take away the iron-back of F IR FIR 21 the grate entirely, and fixing the grate firmly in the brick work, cause the back of the fire-place to serve as a back to the grate. This I have very frequently done, and have al- ways found it to answer perfectly well. Where it is necessary, that the fire in a grate should be very small, it will be best in reducing the grate with fire-stone, to bring its cavity destined for containing the fuel, to the form of one half of a hollow hemisphere ; the two semi-circu- lar openings, being one above to receive the coals, and the other in front, or towards the bars of the grate ; for wrhen the coals are burnt in such a confined space, and sur- rounded on all sides, except in the front, and above, by fire-stone, (a substance peculiarly well adapted for confining heat), the heat of the fire will be concentrated, and the cold air of the atmosphere being- kept at a distance, a much smaller quantity of coal will burn, than could possibly be made to burn in a grate, where they would be more t.aposed to be cooled by the sur- rounding air, or to have the r heat carried off by being in contact with iron, or with any other substance, through which heat passes with greater facility, than through fire- stone. Where grates, which are de- signed for rooms of a middling size, are longer than 14 or 15 inches, it will ahvavs be best, not merely to diminish their lengths, by filling them up at their two ends with fire-stone, but, forming the back of the chimney of a proper width, without paying any regard to the length of the grate, to carry the covings through the two ends of the grate in such a manner, as to conceal them, or at least, to con- ceal the back corners of them, in the walls of the coving. Directions for laymg out the work. If there be a grate in the chim- ney which is to be altered, it will always be best to take it away ; and when this is done, the rubbish must be removed, and the hearth swept perfectly clean. Suppose the prefixed figure,No. 1, to represent the ground plan of such a fire-place; A, B, being the opening of it in front, A, ,C, a»d B, D, the two sides, or covings, and C; D, the back. First, draw a straight line, with chalk, or with a lead pencil, upon the hearth, from one jamb to the other, even with the front of the jambs. The dotted line, a, b, may represent this line. Fig. 1. 22 F I R FIR From the middle c, of this line, (o, b), another line, c, d, is to be drawn perpendicular to it, across the hearth, to the middle d, of the back of the chimney. A person must now stand up- right in the chimney, with his back to the back of the chimney, and hold a plumb-line, exactly to tlie middle of the upper part of the breast ofthe chimney, (d, Fig. 2), or, where the canal of the chimney begins to rise perpendicularly ; tak- ing care to place the line above, in such a manner, that the plumb may fall on the line c, d, Fig. 1, drawn on the hearth from the mid- dle of the opening of the chimney in the front, to the middle of the back, and an assistant must mark the precise place e, on that line where the plumb falls. This being done, and the person in the chimney having quitted his station, four inches are to be set off on the line c, d, from e, towards d; and the point f, where these four inches end, (which must be marked with chalk, or with a pen- cil), will shew, how far the new back is to be brought forward. Through f, draw the line g, h, parallel to the line A, B, and this line g, h, will shew the direction of the new back, or the ground line upon which it is to be built. The line c,f, will shew the depth of the new fire-place; and if it should happen, that c, f, is equal to about one third of the line A, B; and if the grate can be accommo- dated to the fire-place, instead of its being necessary to accommo- date the fire-place to the grate ; in that case, half the length of the line c, /, is to be set off from /, on the line g, /, h, on one side, to k, and on the other, to i; and the line /, k, will shew the ground line of the fore part of the back of the chimney. In all cases, where the width of the opening of the fire-place in front, (A, B), happens to be not greater, or not more than two or three inches greater, than three times the width of the new back of the chimney (i, k), this opening may be left, and the lines drawn from i, to A, and from k, to B, will shew the width and position£of the front of the new covings ; but when the opening of the fire-place in front, is still wider, it must be reduced, which is to be done in the following manner: From c, the middle of the line A, B, c, a, and c, b, must be set off equal to the width of the back 2410�6 FIR FIR 23 (i, k), added to half its width, (/, i), and lines drawn from i, to a, and from k, to b, will shew the ground- plan ofthe front of the new covings. When this is done, nothingmore will be necessary, than to build up the back and covings; and if the fire-place is designed for burning coals, to fix the grate in its proper place, according to the directions already given. When the width of the fire-place is reduced, the edg- ings of the covings a, A, ends b, B, are to make a finish with the front of the jambs. And, in general, it will be best, not only for the sake of the appearance of the chimney, but for other reasons, also, to lower the height of the opening of the fire-place, whenever its width in front is diminished. Whether a chimney be designed for burning wood upon the hearth, or wood, or coals in a grate, the form of the fire-place is, in my opinion, most perfect, when the width of the back, is equal to the depth of the fire-place, and the opening of the fire-place in front, equal to three times the width of the hack, or, which is the same thing, to three times the depth of the fire-place. But if the chimney be designed for burning wood upon the hearth, upon hand-irons, or dogs, as they are called, it will sometimes be neces- sary to accommodate the width of the back to the length of the wood,; and when this is the case, the cov- ings must be accommodated to the width of the back, and the open- ing of the chimney in front. When the wall of the chimney in front, measured from the upper- part of the breast of the chimney, to the, front ofthe mantle, is very thin ; it may happen, and especial- ly in chimnies designed for burning wood upon the hearth, or upon dogs, that the depth of the chim- ney, determining according to the directions here given, may be too small. Thus, -for example, supposing the wall of the chimney in front, from the upper part of the breast ofthe chimney, to the front of the mantle, to be only four inches, (which is sometimes the case, par- ticularly in rooms situated near the top of a house); in this case, if we take four inches for the width of the throat, this will give eight inches only for the depth of the fire-place, which would be too little, even were coals to be burnt instead of wood....In this case, I should increase the depth of the fire-place at the hearth, to 12 or 13 inches, and should build the back perpen- dicular to the height of the top of the burning fuel, (whether it be wood burnt upon the hearth, or coals in a grate), and then sloping the back by a gentle inclination forwards, bring it to its proper place, that is to say, pefpendicularlu under the back part of the threat of the chimney. This slope, (which wiil bring the back forward four or five inches, or just as much as the depth of the fire-place is in- creased), though it ought cot to be too abrupt, yet it ought to be quite finished at the height of eight or ten inches above the fire, other- wise, it may cause the chimney to smoke; but when it is very near the fire, the heat of tlie fire will enable the current of rising smoke to overcome the obstacle which this slope will oppose to its ascent, which it could not do so easily, were the slope situated at a greater distance from the burning fuel. 24 FIR FIR way for the chimney sweeper, clos- ed by a piece of fire stone, and f, the new wall under the mantle, oy which the height of the openmg of the fire-place in front, is dimi- nished. The wall of the chimney in front, at a, is only four inches thick, four inches more added to it, for the width of throat would have left the depth of the fire-place measured upon the hearth b, c, only eight inches, which would have been too little; a niche c, and e, was therefore made in the new back of the fire-place, for receiving the grate, which niche was six in- ches deep in the centre of it, below 13 inches, (or equal in width to the grate), and 23 inches high ; finishing above, with a semi-circu- lar arch, which, in its highest part, rose seven inches above the upper part of the grate. The door-way for the chimney sweeper, which begins just above the top of the niche, may be seen distinctly in Fig. 4. The space marked g, Fig. 4, behind this door-way, may either be filled with loose bricks, or may be left void. The manner in which the piece of stone/, Fig. 4, which is put under the mantle of the chimney, to reduce the height of the opening of the fire-place, is rounded off on the inside, in or- Fig. 3, represents the ground- plan of a chimney fire-place, in which the grate is piaced in a niche, and in which, the original width A, B, of the fire-place is considerably diminished. a, b, is the opening of the fire- place in front, after it has been al- tered, and d, is the back of the nicne, in which the grate is placed. Fig. 4. 'p<*Wp™Ff'' 4 ^FW$mPf-'' Fig. 4, shews a section of the same fire-place, c, d, e, being a section of the niche, g, the door- F I R FIR 25 dcr to give a fair run to the column of smoke in its ascent through the throat of the chimney, is clearly expressed in this figure. I have added the drawing, Fig. 5, merely to shew how afaultvery com- monly committed is to be avoided. In chimnies like that represented in this figure, where the jambs A and B, project far into the room, and where the front edge of the mar- ble slab o, which forms the coving, does not come so far forward, as the front of the jambs: the work- men in constructing the new cov- ings, are very apt to place them, not in the line c A, which they ought to do, but in the line c o, which is a great fault. The cov- ings should never range behind the front of the jambs, however those jambs may project into the room ; but it is not necessary that the cov- ings should make & finish with the internal front corners of the jambs, or, that they should be continu- ed from the back c, quite to the front of the jambs A. They may finish in the front at a, and b, and small corners, A, o, a, may be left, for placing the shovel and tongs. Fig. 5. If the under surface of the man- tle is flat and wide, it will be im- possible to round off the breast pro- perly ; and that circumstance ren- ders it necessary in those cases to , alter the mantle at c, by running under it a thinner piece of stone, or a thin wall of bricks, supported on an iron bar, or a piece of stone, in order that the breast of the chim- ney may be brought to be of the proper form, and the throat of the chimney may be brought into its proper situation....See Fig. 6. d, shews the top of the breast of the chimney, to be brought down, by means of a wall h, placed under the mantle, and a coating of plaster,: which is represented by the part marked by dots. E Fig. 6. vm . 11T. 26 FIR FIR To set off an angle of any certain number of degree.-. Lrpon a board about 18 inches wide, and 4 feet long, or, upon the floor or a table, draw three equal squares, A, B, C, Fig. 7, of about 12 or 14 inches each side, placed in a straight line, and touch- ing each other. From the back corner of the centre square B, draw a diagonal line across the square A, to its outward front cor- ner /, and the adjoining angle, formed by the lines d c, and c f, will be equal to 135 degrees; the angle which the plane of the back of the chimney fire-place ought to make with the plane of its covings. And a bevel m n, being made to this angle, with thin slips of hard wood ; this little instrument will be found to be very useful in mark- ing out on the hearth, with chalk, the plan of the walls which are to form the covings of fire-places. Fig. 7. When doors or windows are fit- ted to their frames with so much nicety, as not to give a sufficient passage to air from without, to get into the room to supply the current up the chimney, which must always exist when a fire is burning in the room, Count Rum- ford mentions the following re- medy : " In building a house, an air ca- nal, about 12 or 15 inches square, in the clear, and open at both ends, may be constructed in, or near the centre of each stack of chimnies, and two branches from this air ca- nal, both furnished with registers, may open into each of the adjoin- ing rooms ; one of these branches opening into the fire-places, just under the grate, and the other over the fire-pla anu Phc top of the room, or just und*.. the ceiling....Each of these branches should be about four inches square, in the clear; and, to prevent the un- couth appearance ofthe open mouth of that which opens into the room over the fire-place, it may be mask- ed by a medallion, a picture, or any other piece of ornamental fur- niture proper for that use, placed before it, at the distance of one or two inches from the side or wall of the room. ., The bottom of this air tube should reach the ground, where it should communicate with the open air of the atmosphere, but it should not rise quite so high as the chimney, (or canals for conveying off* the smoke) are carried up, but should FIR FIR 27 end, (by lateral openings commu- nicating with the air of the atmos- phere) immediately above the roof of the house. If this air tube be situated in the middle of a building, a horizontal canal, or tube, must be carried from its lower orifice to some open place without the building, in order to establish a free circulation of fresh air, both upwards and down- wards, into the air tube." If brick be used, the best kind to build a fire-place with, are fire- brick, which are made of the clay on the banks of the Delaware, be- low Bordenton, and the ising-glass sand found near Gray's ferry, on Schuylkill. The common soap- stone of the United States is used for fire-stone, with great advantage. But care must be taken in cutting the stone for the jambs, to cut the edge of the block, and to expose it to the fire : if the sides of the stone are next to the fire, it will peel off" in large flakes. The advantage of the edge exposure, is not gene- rally known, though of great im- portance. The soap-stone jambs are much preferable to bricks, as they furnish an uniform surface, and when properly cut, do not break like tlie bricks. Great quan- tities of soap-stone are found on the river Schuylkill. Mr. C. W. Peale and son Ra- phaelle, have described in the 5th vol. of Amer. Phil. Tram;, cer- tain improvements in fire-places, which consist, 1. Of a sliding man- tle of iron or copper, balanced by weights moving behind the frame, composing the frontice-picce ofthe chimney; 2. A valve of sheet-iron, placed about 12 inches above the opening of j.hc fire-place, in the -iirpat of the chimney, and fii-ted to shut close on the top of the brick-work, which should be left flat. The conveniences of this fire- place, are, 1. That the fire may be kindled quickly, and after it burns freely, the valve and damper being lowered, leaving an opening of one or two inches, to carry up the smoke ; the fire burns slow ly, and but little heat will escape up the chimney. 2. Safety from fire....The valve being closely shut, and the sliding mantle lowered to join the hearth, the fire will be smothered. Mr. Peale, sen. has a chimney alter- ed agreeably to his plan, at the mu- seum, which may be seen at any time. The above improvements, are secured by patent. In the second vol. of the Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. may be seen a paper, by Dr. Franklin, contain- ing some excellent observations on fire-places and chimnies. The editor has been minute upon the subject of fire-places, because we have much to learn upon it in the United States; and because he believes with the immortal Frank- lin, that " more of the prosperi- ty of a winter country depends on the plenty and cheapness of fuel, than is generally imagined," and that the comfort and economy of our citizens will greatly be pro- moted by an attention to the direc- tions given. Under the article Kitchen, shall be given a full account of the ad- mirable economical plans and ma. chines of Count Rum ford.] FIRE-PROOF, a term which expresses the effect of certain apr plications to combustible substan- ces, especially in buildings, with a, \ie\v to prevent them from being 23 FIR FIR reduced to ashes. This important object may also be attained by means of erecting whole houses with a mixture of earth and clay, well beaten together, as devised by M. Cointereau, in his " School of Architecture," (3vo. Hilburg- hausen, 1793, in German); an in- genious work that, we believe, was originally published in the French language. Although we are per- suaded that such a method of rais- ing edifices is not only durable and economical, but the buildings also are thus effectually secured from fire, yet it will be of great import- ance to afford security to combus- tible dwellings already erected.... For this useful purpose, M. Bou- lakd, architect, at Lyons, has late- ly discovered a very simple reme- dy, attended with little expence or trouble, and admirably calculated to defend wooden materials from being consumed by flames, though exposed to their influence for two hours. After many tedious experi- ments, he found that a solution of pot-ash is the most efficacious liquid for resisting the action of fire, lon- ger than any other fluid. This observation induced him to apply that substance in a kind of paint or coating on wood, which was com- pletely rendered fire-proof, in the following easy manner: Dissolve such a quantity of pot-ash in cold water as that fluid is capable of holding in solution, wash or daub with it all the boards, wainscoat- ing, shingles, &c. which are in- tended to be prepared. Then di- lute the same liquor with a little water; add to it such a portion of fine yellow clay as will make the mixture of the consistence of the pommon paint employed on wood; ?.nd lastly, stir into it a small quan- tity of flour-paste, in order to com- bine both substances intimately. With this mixture, all wooden ma- terials ought to be coated three or four times, similar to painted work. Thus, wood will be secured from the action of fire, though exposed to it for a time exceeding two hours ; but the greatest advantage of this excellent preparation consists in the circumstance, that it prevents the wood from ever bursting into flames.....M. Boulard remarks, that 20lbs. of sifted yellow clay, 1 ■!/.'>. of flour for making the paste, and lib. of pot-ash, are sufficient to prepare a square rood (French measure and weight) of deal boards; so that the expences, when com- pared with the importance of the object, are indeed trifling. It is further deserving of notice, that even furniture made of wood, such as chairs, tables, Etc. and particu- larly the stair-cases, and flooring of dwelling-houses, may be so far enabled to resist the ravages of the fire, that they are only reduced to coals, or embers, without spread- ing the conflagration by additional flames: meanwhile, there are gain- ed, at least, two hours, during which, all valuable effects may be removed to a place of safety, and the lives of the family at the same time rescued from all danger....See House. FIRING-IRON, in farriery, is an instrument resembling the blade of a knife ; which, being made red- hot, is applied to the hams, or to such other partsof the horse as may require it, for the purpose of cau- terising and discussing preterna- tural swellings, such as farcy, knots, 8cc....This operation is call- ed firing. FIRKIN, an English measure FIS FIS 29 for liquids, which is the fourth part of a barrel; it contains eight gal- Ions of ale, soap, or herrings, and nine gallons of beer....Two firkins make a kilderkin. FISH, in natural history, an ani- mal that lives in the water as its proper element....See Animal Kingdom. The most general, or popular division of these creatures, is into fresh and salt water fish. It has, however, been conjectured that they all naturally inhabit the ocean, and have only migrated into rivers. According to Linnaeus, there are about 400 species of this ani- mal, with which naturalists are ac- quainted ; but those yet unknown are supposed to be still more nu- merous, and as they are believed to live at great depths in the ocean, remote from the shores, many spe- cies will probably for ever remain undiscovered. Having already treated of the different methods of angling for fish, under their respective heads ofthe alphabet, we shall at present confine ourselves to a few general observations. Blowing of fish is a practice si- milar to that of blowing flesh, poultry, pigs, &c. and is adopted for the same fraudulent purpose. This operation is performed, espe- cially on cod and whitings, by in- troducing the end of a quill or to- bacco-pipe at the vent, and blowing through a hole made with a pin under the fin which is next the gill; thus making the fish appear to the eye large and full, though, when dressed, it will be flabby, and little more than skin and bones. Such imposition, however, may soon be discovered, by placing the finger find thumb on each side ofthe vent, and squeezing it considerably ; the expulsion of the wind will be per- ceptible, the skin will collapse, and the fish appear lank and of little value. In the Gentleman's Magazine for 1752, we meet with the follow- ing curious account of a method of carrying fish alive to a great dis- tance: Take an ounce of white sugar-candy; saltpetre about the size of a walnut; and a similar quantity of wheaten flour; incor- porate these ingredients till they become of the consistence of pow- der. This quantity is sufficient for a pail of water : having provided a convenient vessel to carry the fish, crumble into it some white bread ; and when the water begins to grow warm, and the fish put up their heads to the top, add a small quan-> tity of this powder, which cools the reservoir, and preserves the fish. The water, if possible, should be changed every four or five miles, and the powder added, as occasion may require. By these means, trout may be carried above forty miles alive, and in good health. [Cit. Noel has written an inte- resting paper on the means to be employed for multiplying fish: and observes that there are many in- stances offish being conveyed from one river to.another, or from a ri- ver to a lake, and vice vena. This method has been employed with success in Germany in regard to shad, with which ponds, and pieces of stagnant, but clear water, with a bottom of sand and gravel, pre- ferred by the shad to all others, have been peopled. Perch were conveyed from the river Leven, and deposited in Loch Long. The carp, a fish of warm climates, has been successfully introduced into 30 FIS the rivers and ponds of Prussia, Denmark and England. The Chi- nese dorado, that small fish, the brilliant gold and silver colours of which all admire, was brought to j mrope from the Northern parts of China. This fish now thrives at Lisbon; and it is believed near London. Fish originally produced in salt water, have voluntarily established themselves in fresh.... Several lakes of Scotland possess salmon, and herrings abound in the rivers of the United States.] The same fish,according toTwiss, is caught in the fresh water lakes cf Ireland. Dr. Franklin having observed in N. England, that the >! wrings ascended from the sea into one river of that country, while a single individual was never seen in another river, separated from the former by a narrow tongue of land, and which communicated alsc with the sea, this philosopher loo'i the leaves of some plants on which the herrings had deposited their ova, already fecundated, and conveyed them to the river which was deprived of the annual visit of these fish. The success of this ex- periment surpassed his expecta- tion ; the ova were completely pro- ductive, and the following year the river was filled with a numerous shoal of herrings, which, since that time, have continued to frequent it. Dr. Mitchell, of New-\ork, ir,forms us, that he transported two dozen and ten yellow perch from Rochpnkoma pond, in Suf- folk county, Long-Island, to Suc- cess pond, in the town of North- Ilampstead, a distance of 40 miles. In two years these few fishes mul- tii iied so fast, that they might be caught with a hook in any part of t'ne wat.r, which is about a mile in ciicjmfeivnce! " Planting" FIS oysters," as it is termed, is a com- mon practice on the Delaware coast....See Herring.] Feeding off s//....When they are kept in large pools or ponds, either boiled mait, or fresh grains, is a very proper food; thus, carp may be reared and fed like capons, and tench will also prosper. If reared in a stew, any sort of corn, or le- guminous fruit boiled, especially peas and malt coarsely ground, are equally fattening. Fish, in general, are less nou- rishing than other animal food, though they are not difficult of di- gestion, while in a fresh state ; but, when salted, they partake of the stimulating and pernicious pro- perties of beef,or pork, accordingly as they are lean or fat. Although V;e rancid and putrescent tendency offish may, in a great measure, be counteracted by acid sauces and pickles, yet they should never be eaten by febrile patients and con- valescents, in whose stomachs their fat is insoiable, and almost indiges- tible. On the whole, we are con- vinced from experience, that salt- water fish are lighter and more wholesome, and that among these, what are commonly called white fish, are the most easy of digestion. Such as are fed in muddy ponds, or other stagnant waters, are, of all aquatic animals,the least conducive to health....With respect to the most proper method of curing and dressing fish, there can be no doubt that such as are dried in the open air, and afterwards quickly boiled, afford the most salubrious nutri- ment. But we cannot approve of either/hVJor broiled fish, especial- ly when butter is used for these culinary processes: hence, we think it our duty to reprobate these lmmricus customs, as being highly FIS pernicious to health; and to con- tradict, in the most solemn man- ner, the suggestions of a recent compiler, who has not hesitated, indirectly, to countenance the use of that hurtful animal oil. For, though liberally availing himself ofthe industry'and talents of others, he has not even acknowledged the sources which supplied him with the principal part of a volume. FISHING, the art of catching fish, whether by means of nets and spears, or of lines and hooks. The former are used in fresh and salt waters, for the taking of huge fish, which go in shoals ; tlie latter are employed for catching single ones, such as bream, carp, Sec. to which we refer....See also Ang- ling. The most important point in fishing, is the proper season, toge- ther with the place, bait, and mode of application....In March, April, and September, the warmest days are the most successful for this sport, when the bait should be deep; for during those cool months the fish lie near the bottom. For fly- fishing, the most proper seasons are the months of April, May, or June, after a gentle shower of rain has beaten the insects down upon the water, without rendering it turbid; and the most promising hours are about nine or ten in the morning, and three or four o'clock in the af- ternoon ; in still, warm evenings, however, fish will readily bite, till night approaches; because at those seasons gnats are flying in great numbers. In the hot days of Midsummer, when the earth isjparched up: little success can be expected in any .wa- ter. Nor will fish bite during cold weather, unless the evenings be warm and serene. The north and FIS 51 east winds are particularly unfa- vourable to fishing, as well as tempestuous weather in general; but, if a gentle breeze prevail, it will considerably facilitate the ope- rations of the angler. For farther particulars relative to the proper seasons, baits, lines, hooks, Sec. for taking fish, we refer the reader to Isaac Walton's Complete An- gler, 8vo. 1784, where he will find ample instructions, blended with considerable amusement. Fishing-net, a contrivance of a leticulartexture,thus denominated, as it is appropriated solely to the taking of fish. These nets are in general made by the hand; but, as that method is> necessarily tedious, and inade- quate to supply the demand in po« pulous fishing ports, Mr. J. V.*. Boswell, of Barnstaple, Devon, in the year 1795, invented a ma- chine for the purpose of weaving nets, for which the Society for the F.ncouragement of Arts, F.c. in 1796, conferred on him a premium of fifty guineas. His loom is cal- culated to make 68 meshes at the same time, and by the same mo- tion, with a perfectly fast knot, which does not differ from those employed by fishermen....nets thus manufactured have a complete sel- vedge, and are not liable to decay from the knots becoming loose, a circumstance of considerable im- portance to those employed in the fisheries. We regret that Mr. Boswell's ingenious machine is too complicated to give the reader a competent idea of its mechanism, without illustrating it by an engrav- ing ; and, as few persons in domes- tic life will attempt to make their own fishing-nets, we refer the cu- rious reader to the 14th vol. ofthe Tramaclions ofthe Pa'.rFjiic Society 32 FIS FIS above mentioned, where he will find an ample description, together with a plate explaining the whole of the machinery. FISH-PONDS, are those reser- voirs made for the breeding and rearing of fish. They are consi- dered to be no small improvement of watery and boggy lands, many of which can be appropriated to no other purpose. In making a pond, its head should be at the lowest part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate, or sluice, having a good fall, may, when necessary, speedily discharge the water. The best method of securing the work, is to drive in two or three rows of stakes, at least six feet long, at a distance of about four feet, extend- ing to the whole length ofthe pond- head, the first row of which should be rammed not less than four feet deep. If the bottom be false, the foundation may be laid with quick- lime; which, slaking, will make it as hard as a stone. Some persons place a layer of lime, and another ofearth dug out ofthe pond, among the piles and stakes; and, when these are well covered, drive in others as occasion may require, and ram in the earth as before, till the pond-head be of the height de- signed. The dam should be made sloping on each side, and a waste left to carry off the superabundant water in case of floods or rains ; the depth of the pond need not exceed six feet, rising gradually in shoals towards the sides, in order to allow the fish to sun themselves, and de- posit their spawn. Gravelly and sandy bottoms, especially the lat- ter, are well calculated to promote the breeding of these animals: and a fat soil, with a white rich water, mch as the washings of hills, com- mons, streets, sinks, &c. is said to be the most proper for fattening all sorts of fish. For storing a pond, carp is to be preferred, on account of its deli- cacy, quick groAvth, and prolific nature, as it breeds five or six times a year. This fish delights in ponds that have marl or clay bot- toms, with plenty of weeds and grass, on which it chiefly subsists during the hot months. In a late publication, we meet with the following singular method of furnishing a fish-pond with a variety of fish : About the latter end of April, or the beginning of May, take the root of a willow that stands near the water side, and is full of fibres; wash off the earth which adheres to it, then fasten it to a spike, and drive it into a river or pond well stored with fish : they will speedily be induced to deposit their spawn or roe in the fibres of the root. After a few days, (in cool weather, perhaps, weeks), remove the spike, with the willow root, from the pond, and convey it to that which you design to store, driving it to the depth of four or six inches under the surface of the water ; and, in about a fortnight, a great number of young fish will appear. The root, however, should not be left too long in the first pond or river, lest the heat of the sun animate the spawn, and disen- gage it from the root. Ponds should be drained every three or four years, and the fish sorted. In those which are kept for breeding fish, the smaller kind should be taken out, for storing other ponds ; but a good stock of females, at least eight or nine years old, ought to remain, as they never breed before that age. FISTULA, in general, denotes FIS nny ulcerated and sinuous cavity, with callous and elevated edges, which extends to a carious bone. This formidable disease is, ac- cording to the parts which it at- tacks, called either fistula lachry- malis, that is, a sinuous ulcer ofthe lachrymal sac or duct, beginning with a tumor between the inner cornea of the eye, and the side of the nose; or a fistula in perinao, namely, an ulcer communicating with the urinary canal, but some- times opening into the bladder; or fistula in ano, when the ulcer is in the vicinity of the rectum or straight-gut....Tlie first generally appears in ricketty children, or such as are subject to glandular obstructions; the second may arise from wounds in the bladder and of the urethra, from external vio- lence, &c. but is most frequently occasioned by certain diseases with which voluptuaries are punished ; and the last is produced by what- ever tends to form mutter about the anus, by piles, soft tumors, hardened feces, or in consequence of irritation and inflammation, ter- minating in suppuration. It would be needless to enlarge upon the treatment of this com- plaint, the cure of which cannot be entrusted to unskillful hands ; nay, medical and surgical advice are often inadequate to relieve the unhappy sufferer, especially from the last species of fistula, after an i operation has been ineffectually performed. Indeed, the frequent unsuccessful attempts of the most experienced operators, have encou- raged a degree of quackery in this malignant disease, which ought never to be submitted to dabblers ; as the delay of proper advice can- not fail to be attended with fatal effects. Hence we think it ueces- >C'L. III. FIX 33 sary to caution the unwary against the insidious attempts of those eccentric impostors (particularly in the west end of the metropolis) who extort large sums of money from the unhappy patients, under the specious promise of curing a fistula, without cutting. After the disorder has been suf- fered to prey upon the internal parts, and the bones in the vicinity have become affected, or carious, we venture to pronounce that it is incurable. But, if the patient be of a sound constitution, and has not neglected himself at the commence- ment of the malady, he may doubt- less be cured by professional treat- ment, an appropriate diet, consist- ing of light and nutritive food, and abandoning every kind of stimulat- ing and heating aliment, both in a liquid and solid slate. Hence game, pork, wine, spirits, coffee, and spices, are here equally improper. Lastly, we are inclined to believe, that the external use of living snails, or at least the expressed juice of them frequently applied to fistulous ulcers at their commencement, (especially after completely laying open the sinus), will have an excel- lent effect in stopping the progress of the disease ; and, by sufficient perseverance, probably accomplish a cure. There are several well-at- tested cases, that this simple reme- dy has recently been found of ex- cellent service in removing scrophu- lous ulcers, which had resisted every other mode of treatment. Fits. See Convulsions; Epi- lepsy; Hysterics; and Spasms. FIXED-AIR, an aerial fluid, which is disengaged frcm all sub- stances liable to undergo the vinous fermentation, as weil as by mixing alkaline salts and earths with acids. It is, strictlv speaking,a^'cw which F 34 FIX is essentially different in its proper- ties from atmospheric air, as the former is unfit to support either the respiration of animals, or the burn- ing of a candle; being likewise specifically heavier than the com- mon air we' breathe. From its acid properties, it has been variously denominated aerial acid, cretacious acid, or carbdnic acid: and, from its noxious qualities, it has receiv- ed the name of mephitic gas'. The appellation of fixed air has been ap- plied to it from its readily losing its elastic property, and fixing it- self in various bodies, especially those which are of a calcareous na- ture. Fixed air was first discovered by Dr. Black, who, in consequence of various experiments, found that chaik, and the other earths reduci- ble to quick-lime by calcination, consist of an alkaline earth, which is soluble by itself in water; but which, when combined with a large quantity of fixed air, becomes in- soluble ; losing the properties of quick-lime, and assuming the ap- pearance those earths naturally have, when not reduced to a cal- careous state. Dr. Black observed the same phenomenon in white magnesia, and in alkalis both fixed and vola- tile. Their effervescence with acids, and their mildness, depend on the fixed air which these bodies contain ; because alkalis and cal- careous earths become in a high degree caustic, when divested of that gas. He farther remarked, KhoX. fixed air had different degrees of affinity with various suhsiar.ces ; being stronger with calcareous earth than with fixed alkali; with *he latter than with magnesia; and with tins than with volatile alkali. FIX This new gas was introduced in- to the catalogue of medicines, by its strongly antiseptic properties: it cannot, however, on account of its fatal effects, be inspired in large quantities, though in small portions it may be inhaled without danger. Dr. Percival first administered it on a large scale, and directed his patients, in more than thirty cases of pulmonary consumption, to in- spire the steam of effervescing mix- tures of chalk and vinegar through the spout of a coffee-pot. By this treatment, the hectic fever was, in several cases, considerably abated, and the matter expectorated be- came less offensive, and better di- gested. Although Dr. Percival was pot so fortunate as to effect a cure in any one instance, yet the late Dr. Withering met with better success; as one of three pa- tients was thus restored to perfect health; another received great be- nefit, and was much relieved ; and the third was kept alive by inhaling this gas for more than two months. Fixed air, however, can only be employed with advantage in those stages of pulmonary consumption, when a purulent expectoration, or a rupture and discharge of an ab- scess in the lungs, have taken place : in such cases, this remedy affords a powerful palliative. Farther, it is equally useful when applied to foul ulcers; and instances have occurred, in which the sanies, or corrupt matter issuing from can- cers, has been sweetened, the pain alleviated, and a better suppura- tion produced, even after the car- rot-poultice had failed. But, though fixed-air evidently checks the pro- gress of a cancer, there is reason to apprehend that it never will ef- fect a cure. Considerable benefit, has aha FIX FLA 35 been received in ulcerated sore- throats, from inhaling the vapours arising from effervescing mixtures. This remedy ought, however, by- no means to exclude the use of other antiseptic applications. In that dreadful disorder, the malignant fever, wines strongly impregnated with fixed air may be administered, with a view to check the septic ferment, and to neutralize the putrid matter in the stomach and intestines. If the patient's common drink were thus prepared, it might be attended with beneficial effects....As the latter stages of malignant fevers are generally ac- companied with putrid diarrhoeas, this evacuation ought not to be re- strained by the use of astringent medicines; because the retention of putrid matter in the body will aggravate the delirium, and increase the vehemence of the fever. And if the disorder be suffered to take its usual course, death is the inevi- table consequence....In cases of this dangerous nature, mephitic or fix- ed air, produced from a mixture of chalk and oil of vitriol, has been injected into the intestines, by means of the instrument employed for tobacco clysters; by which ap- plication the violence of the diar- rhoea was quickly abated; the heat and fetor of the stools corrected; and every alarming and dangerous symptom in a short time removed. The last disorder in which the use of fixed air has been attended with success, is the calculus, or stone, of which it is said to be an excellent solvent; but, as the ex- periments made »i this subject have not hitherto accurately deter- mined its efficacy, we cannot speak of it with any degree of confide::'.-.:. ....See Stone. Flag: Sec Flowfr-de-Lvce. [Flag, Sweet. See Acorus.] FLANNEL, a kind of light, porous, woollen stuff, woven on a loom with two treddles, in a man- ner similar to baize. This is unquestionably one of the most useful articles of wearing apparel; and it is much to be re- gretted, that it is not more gene- rally worn, as we are fully per- suaded, that it would be the means of preventing many diseases. The principal objection to the wearing of flannel appears to be, that it irritates the skin, and occa- sions disagreeable sensations:.... these, however, continue only for a few days, and the subsequent ad- vantages, thence resulting, amply compensate for such temporary uneasiness. Both young and aged would derive from it equal advan- tages....We do not, however, mean to insinuate, that flannel next the skin should be universally and in- discriminately worn by infants and •young persons; though it is an ill- founded assertion of its adversaries, that it has a tendency to produce eruptions; as it evidently opens the pores, promotes perspiration, and thus removes the principal cause of cutaneous diseases that originate from an obstructed and irregular state of the skin. There are, however,certain cases in -whichfiannel cannot, with strict propriety, be used as an under- dress. In order to enable the reader to ascertain whether its constant use be advisable or not, we shall point out the leading circumstances which may, in this respect, influ- ence his determination: it is a sa- lutary dress to all those, in gene- ral, who have passed the meridian of life, or the 35th year of their age; though they should not have been accustomed to it from their 36 FLA infancv; to persons of a cold and phlegmatic habit, or leading a se- dentary life; to such as are subject to fits of the gout, rheumatism, frequent colds and catarrhs ; to in- dividuals very susceptible of im- pressions connected with the vicis- situdes of air, weather, and climate; as well as to nervous patients, and those who have recently recovered from severe chronical diseases.... On the contrary, the wearing of flannel next the skin may be ivju- ri,p: to constitutions so organized that they are liable to profuse per- spiration, on taking even moderate exercise; or to those who are al- ready afflicted with scorbutic or ether eruptions of the skin ; or, lastly, to all- such irritable and whimsical persons as possess nei- ther bodily nor mental vigour suf- ficient to overcome the first uneasy sensations which it occasions. But we are fully warranted to assert, from daily experience, that the ha- bitual use of this beneficent texture, has essentially contributed to the recovery of numberless ricketty children, not less than to the sav- ing of others who were born of feeble and enervated parents. In short, there is every reason to be- lieve, that a more general adoption of this salutiferous cloth might prevent many fatal inflammations of the throat, breast, lungs, Sec. to which the poorer class of people a-e remarkably liable ; and thus preserve the lives of multitudes who now become a prey to our damp and variable climate. FLATULENCY, a very com- mon disorder, arising from vapours generated in the stomach and in- testines. It occasions distensions, disagreeable sensations, and fre- quent'} a considerable degree of pain. FLA Sedentary persons, and those who are of a delicate constitution, especially women, arc very liable to attacks of this complaint, which is generally induced by the eating of peas, beans, and other legumi- nous food. Animal fats, especially those of mutton and veal, if immo- derately used, with large draughts of liquor immediately after eating them, are apt to turn rancid on the stomach, and to be accompanied with flatulency. The drinking of turbid or feculent liquors, whe- ther new oi4old, as well as excessive potations of hot tea, produce a si- milar effect. Tdie habit of the pa- tient likewise contributes towards the generation of these causes; so that in phlegmatic constitutions, where the bowels are of a dry and costive disposition, this complaint is most frequent and painful. The general method of treating flatulency consists in administer- ing hot arom-atics, which, however, ought to be taken with great cau- tion, as they often irritate rather than relieve the parts affected.... The poorer class, who are subject to flatulency, usually have recourse to drains, low wines, or punch.... remedies which are extremely im- proper; and, though they afford a temporary relief, eventually impair the appetite and constitution. The safest mode of treatment is, to keep the bowels gently open by means old ;sters, prepared of half a pint of mutton-broth, in which half an ounce of caraway-seeds has been boiled, adding two spoonfuls of sweet-oil, and one of soft sugar; which should be repeated three or four times in twenty-four hours. During the intermediate days, gen- tle laxatives, consisting of single drams of vitriolated tartar, dissolv- ed in one ounce of cinnamon' wa- FLA FLA 37 %cr, may be taken every three hours, till they produce the desired effect, in order to attenuate the viscous matter in the bowels....See also Colic. But if the paroxysms of flatu- lency be violent, and accompanied with vomiting and other distressing, symptoms, so that neither absorb- ents nor carminatives relieve the patient, we are informed by Dr. Reich, that great and immediate benefit has been derived from his method of extracting the air from the bowels, by means of a common clystering. syringe ; or, still more effectually,by the machine of which. we have given a short account un- der the article Air. This useful in- strument, we -understand, is ma- nufactured by George Goring, an ingenious turner of Furth, a town in Franconia, who sells it at a price of from 1 OS. to 18s. FLAX, or Linum, L. an indi- genous plant, consisting of four species, of which the following are the principal : 1. The usitatis&imum, or Com- mon Flax, which grows in corn- fields, and sandy pastures, and flowers in the month of July.... This valuable plant thrives most luxuriantly on ground newly br6ken up ; which it ameliorates, if it be sown only every sixth year. The best preparatory crops for flax are those of hemp and potatoes. In the fens of Lincolnshire, hemp is yown the first year, on a good free open loam, that has been well till- ed, the soil being properly manured with pigeon's dung ; the second year again hemp is cultivated with- out any manure ; and, in the suc- ceeding year followed by flax. With respect to the quality of linseed, from which fax is propa- gated, that imported from Riga is generally supposed to be the best, and is sown broad-cast with clo- ver, in the proportion of 2, or 2 \ bushels per acre. Experience how- ever, has evinced, that any other seed would be equally successful, if it were properly kept for six or seven years before it is sown ; for the merchants of Riga frequently import linseed from Germany and other countries, which, after seve- ral years, they again furnish with the same seed, but-at an advanced price. It would farther be an use- ful practice, to exchange linseed among farmers living at some dis- tance , as it has been observed that it improves, when cultivated in a different soil and climate....See also Linseed. In order to prevent the depre- dations of birds on this valuable seed, circumspect farmers sow it after sun-set on land well pulveriz- ed, and harrow it in early the next morning, before the sun rises.... Thus the seed, being moistened by the night's dew, is easily enveloped with earth, and rendered invisible to birds.... Another great enemy to the prosperity of the flax-plant, is the parasitical weed called the Greater Dodder (which see), or CusculaFuropoa:, L....Bechstein communicates the following reme- dy, by which it may be easily and completely extirpated :....To every bushel of linseed, take two drams of camphor reduced to powder, hv adding fifieen drops of spirit of wine ; and mix it well with the seed on the evening when it is to be sown. As soon as the crop attains th- height of four inches, it will be re- quisi e to weed-it; an operation which ought to be performed with the greatest care, that the flax mav not be trodden down. If it be al- 38 FLA FLA lowed to grow longer, the stalks will be so much bent and broken, that they never regain their former straightness. When the weeds are carefully eradicated, they should be carried off the field, and on no ac- count be suffered to. lie in the fur- rows, because they often strike root again, and thus injure the growth of the flax. This plant becomes ripe when it is in full blossom; but, if it be in- tended to stand for seed, it will not attain to maturity till the milky juice which it affords is dried up ; at which time it is to be,pulled, in order to be prepared for the manu- facturer. The first process which flax un- dergoes, is that of rating, or steep- ing it in water, to loosen and sepa- rate the rind from the stalk. The -early flax is generally watered by laying it in bundles, in a pond or reservoir of soft water, where it is pressed down by stones, or other heavy bodies. In the course of a week, the rind will be sufficiently loosened, when the flax ought to be removed from the water, spread out in the air, and dried. Great skill and precaution are necessary in this part of the operation; for should the flax be left too long in the water, the filaments or threads will become rotten and useless : it will therefore be preferable to take it out rather at an earlier period, than to leave if too long in the pits. Another process is that of dcw- ripeitip.g; which is performed by spreading the flax on the grass, so that the joint action of the rain and dew produces an effect simiEr to that of rating. In some parts of Go.many, it is never steeped in water, but only exposed for several weeks to the air, rain, and sun ; by which it is said to become fine? and softer than by any other me- thod.' To these operations may be add- ed that of rippling, namely, the separating of the seed from the stalk, by passing the flax through a kind of comb before it is rated or watered. These combs are made of iron, the teeth of which are so closely set together, that the head* cannot pass through, and conse- quently are pulled off. Some cultivators, however, beat the seed out in the field where it grew, instead of rippling, by means of a heavy piece of wood fastened to a bundle ; after which it is sifted clean into a large sheet. In this state the flax is ready to be manufactured into Linen ; for a short account of which process, we refer the reader to that article. [Dr. Logan informed the Phila- delphia Society for promoting Agri- culture, that he cultivated flax and potatoes in the same field: each crop had an equal quantity of ma- nure; on gathering an excellent crop of flax in July, the ground was immediately ploughed and sowed v ith turnips ; and produced one hundred bushels of good tur- nips per acre: on removing the crop of potatoes and turnips, about the middle of October, the ground was put into wheat; the wheat, on the flax and turnip ground was fully equal, if not superior, to the wheat on the potatoe ground. Flax, he says, requires a rich loam or clay ; rots best in August, and was informed by experienced farmers, that the injury which flax is said to receive by the heat ofthe mid-summer sun, is by no means equal to the benefit it receives by being quickly maturated. The fol- lowing directions for cultivating FLA FLA 39 flaxare given by Mr. DEANE,inhis New-England Farmer. " Flax requires more care and nicer culture than any that we are concerned with. It should never be sown on a soil that is not rich, and well wrought. Sandy and gravelly soils are by no means suitable for flax. It is not a plant that requires much heat; therefore it answers well in cold latitudes. The cooler kinds of soil, such as clay and loam, and the black earth of drained lands are suitable for it. But they should be well pul- verized and manured. In wet sea- sons it commonly does better than in dry ones: So that though it may sometimes do well upon high land, it is best not to run the risk of it, but rather choose a soil that is na- turally low and moist. If it be too wet, some little trenches may be made, thirty or forty feet asunder, to drain off, the water. The land must be in good heart, either na- turally, or by the help of manures. But new dung should not be laid on it at the time of sowing; nor any thing else that will make weeds in- crease; for in no crop are weeds more pernicious than in flax. It is often found that they entirely kill most of the plants; and the remaining ones will be bushy and mishapen, and have a weak coat on them, being too much deprived of the rays of the sun. The manure for flax ground should rather abound with oils than otherwise, and be rather cooling than hot. ' The old rotten dung of black cattle and swine is most suita- ble, or a compost in which these dungs are the principal parts. A top-dressing of sea-weeds, after the flax is come up, is greatly recom- mended. But I rather choose to enrich the ground a year before, than when the flax is sowed. A crop of potatoes is good to precede one of flax. I plough up green sward, and dung it well with such manures as are suitable for flax, and plant it with potatoes. This crop does not abate the strength of the soil, but rather increases it. It makes the ground mellow, and does not encourage weeds: It is therefore in fine order for flax th« year following. Green sward will sometimes do well the first year; but it must be a fat deep soil, such as some inter- vales are, and should have a dress- ing of old dung, well pulverized, and mixed with the soil by har- rowing : For if it be not well mix- ed, the crop will be of various lengths, which is inconvenient, and occasions loss. In England they sow two bushels of imported seed on an acre. When they sow seed of their own growing, they allow more. In this country some afford bdt one bushel. The best quantity may be about six or seven pecks, or a little more or less, according to the strength of the soil. For it is not with this crop as some say it is with grain. Of grain, rich land requires, they say, less seed ; because what is wanting in seed, is made up in stooling. But however this may be, it is most certain that the stooling of flax will be hurtful. That is the best flax, where a root bears but one spire, or stalk. It will be straighter and taller, as well as more soft and pliant. The ground should be ploughed in the fall, and again in the spring, the clods broken, and the stones taken out. Flax should be sowed early, un- less the soil be too wet. A small degree of frost, happening after it is up, will not kill it. That which 40 FLA FLA is sowed early, has the strongest coat, as it is slower in its growth. A calm time should be taken to sow the seeds: Otherwise it cannot be sowed even, it being more diffi- cult to sow than most other seeds. Flax-seed should be changed once in two or three years, or it will so degenerate, as to be unfit for sowing. It is worth while to change it every year. It is certain, that seed from less than a hundred miles distance, has been known to make a crop more than double. It has done so in this country. After the seed is sown, it should be co- vered, either by bush-harrowing or by roiling, or both. When flax comes to be about four inches high, if weeds appear among it, they should be pulled up by careful hands: And to prevent wounding the flax, the i weeders should be bare-footed* If they should tread it down at this age, it will soon rise up again. The weed commonly known by the name of false flax, is not in blossom till the flax is nine inches, or a foot high. At this time the weed is easily found by its blossoms; and what escaped at the first weeding, should at this time be carefully eradicated. The next operation in the cul- ture of flax, is pulling it: In doing which, care should be taken not to mix long and short together in the same hands, but to keep all of the same length by itself. The reason of which caution is so obvious, that I need not mention it. The time of pulling flax depends uppn its growth and ripeness, and upon the proposed method of man- aging it afterwards. That which is to be watered, should be pulled as soon as the blos- soms are generally fallen off. Some think tlie harl is stronger at this time than afterwards, as none of the oily particles are yet passed up into the seed. It is undoubtedly better for the "soil, that it be pulled at this time, than when the seed is ripe. The longer it stands to rip- en, the more oily particles it will draw from the earth. Being pulled, and tied up in hands, the flax should be put into the water without delay. A pond is preferable to running water, both as it is warmer, and not so apt to deprive the flax of its oily and glu- tinous substance. In four or five days, according to the warmth of the water, it will be time to take it out. ' But that the true time may not be missed, it must be carefully watched, and trials made by drying and breaking a little of it, that so the harl may not get too much weakened. After it is taken out, and has lain dripping a few hours, it "must be spread on a grassy spot, and dried. If it should happen to be not wa- tered enough, the want may b© made up by letting it fie in the dews for a few nights ; and if a gen- tle rain happen to fall on it, it will be the whiter and cleaner. The flax that goes to seed should not stand till it appears brown, nor till the seed be quite ripe. It is not necessary on account of the seed; because it will ripen after pulling. When the leaves are falling from the stalks, and the stalks begin to have a bright yellow colour, the bolls just beginning to have a brownish cast, is the right time for pulling. The rind is to be loosened from the stalks, not by watering, lest it be too harsh, but by spreading it on the grass to receive the nightly dews. When it is done enough, the rind will appear separated from FLA FLA 41 the stalk at the slender branching parts near the top ends. When it is almost done enough, it should be turned over once or twice. It was formerly the practice, af- ter drying the flax in the field, to house it till some time in Septem- ber; and then to beat off the seed and spread the flax. But this often interfered with fall feeding: And it was necessary it should lie the longer, the weather being cool.... Sometimes it has been overtaken by snows. I prefer the method I have lately gone into, as it saves labour; which is to spread the flax as soon as it is pulled. I do it on a spot where the grass is not very, short, which prevents sun-burning. As the weather is hot, it will be done in about ten days or a fortnight. I then bundle and beat the seed off, and lay it up in a dry place till winter. While it lies, most of the seed will shell out. In the most frosty weather it will dress easily without warming be- fore a fire, or baking it in an oven. The Complete Farmer describes and represents machines for breaking and scutching flax. To prevent the ill effect of so severe a crop as flax is to the soil, it should be ploughed without de- lay after the crop is taken off. As flax is pulled early, the ground thus gets a kind of summer fallow, which will do much towards re- cruiting it, and weeds are prevent- ed from going to seed." Mr. Chancellor Livingston found that a piece of flax sown by a tenant upon a dry sandy declivity, (about half an acre), looked ex- tremely sickly, was recovered in a surprising manner by strewing 3 bushels of gypsum on the surface in the morning, while the dew was vol. m. on the ground. It stood a very dry season, and yielded abundantly. An acre of flax, raised in 1788, by Mr. A. Roberts, produced 300lbs. of flax, which sold for 8rf. per lb. . . . L. 10 0 0 9 ^ bushels of seed at 3*. lid. . 1 17 24 L. 11 17 2» Expences ... 7 16 6 Neat profit . . X. 4 0 8-£ Amer. Mus. vol. 9. p. 201.] Many attempts have been made by ingenious persons, to improve flax, or to render it finer, softer, and equal to silk in spinning. In Ireland, this object has, in a great measure, been attained by boiling it for several hours in sea-water, with the addition of a ley made of unslacked lime, and two or three parts of pot-ashes : thus we have seen the coarsest part of flax, or tow, considerably changed in its texture, so as to resemble the finest lint....ln the 69th Report of the Economical Society ofLiepzig,-pY\nt- ed in 1797 (in German), we meet with the following process of con- verting flax into a silky substance, communicated by CountHARRscH, director of the mines in Russia.... Take pure combed flax, tie it up into rollers covered with white buckram, fasten them with pack- thread, and deposit them for a fortnight in a damp cellar. Then open the flax, and place it under the cylinders of a common mangle, where it should be rolled over five or six times, in a manner similar to that pursued with linen. Next, the flax should be passed through a fine brass comb. This process of mangling and combing must be repeated a second and third time, but the combs ought to be pro- G 42 FLA FLA gressively finer. By such treatment (the Count informs the Society) a very fine, tender, and glossy flax, may be obtained, scarcely inferior to China silk ; and, though it loses more than one-third of its sub- stance, yet the refuse, or tow, is uncommonly fine, and still useful for the manufacture of ordinary linen. He farther observes, that, after each combing,particularly the first, the filaments appear flat and com- pressed, but that they recover their roundness by the subsequent ope- ration. Fiax thus prepared, cannot, by mere contact, or the sense of feeling, be distinguished from silk, and is fit to be manufactured into the finest cambric, and Brabant lace. Of the utility of fiax or linseed, in fattening cattle, we have already treated in vol. i. Beside these various purposes, flax may also be considered as a manure: for the land on which it is spread, in order to prepare it for housing, is thus in a considerable degree ameliorated; and, if rated flax be laid on a coarse, sour pas- ture, the nature ofthe herbage will be totally changed ; and the sweet- est grasses will in future grow on such indifferent soil....The water, too, in which the flax is immersed, if properly sprinkled on land, by means of watering carts, will pro- duce a very fertilizing effect, and increase its value ten or fifteen shillings per acre. But this water is of so poisonous a nature to cattle, that the practice of macerating or steeping flax, in any pond or run- ning stream, is, by the 33d Hen- ry VIII. c. 17, prohibited under very severe penalties. 2. The caiharticum, or Purg- ing Fl:.x, or Mill-mountain, is an annual plant, growing in dry mea- dows and pastures, and flowering from June to August. It is eaten by horses, sheep, and goats....Am infusion of two drams of the dried plant is an excellent laxative, and has been given with advantage in obstinate rheumatisms. FLAX, TOAD, the Common Yellow, or Antirrhinum Linaria, L. an indigenous perennial plant, which grows in barren meadows, pastures, and road sides, and is in flower from July to September* Cows, horses, and swine, refuse this noxious, and, according to Bechstein, poisonous weed; nor is it relished by sheep and goats.... An infusion of the leaves, however, has been used as a diuretic, and purgative ; a decoction of the flow- ers is said to be very efficacious in cutaneous disorders. An ointment prepared from the leaves, is reputed to afford considerable relief in that painful malady, the piles~~In dye- ing, Suckow and Dambournet remark, that the fresh herb, while in blossom, imparted an olive co- lour to woollen cloth and silk.... Bohmkr thus obtained only a weak yellow liquor, of a greenish shade. [This detestable weed, which is known in Pennsylvania by the name of Ransted, is said by our botanists not to be a native of the United States. Did the im- porter of it know the injury he has done by its introduction, he could not fail to regret the pains he took on the occasion. Ransted abounds in an acrid oil. The juice mixed with milk is a poison to flies. The distilled water or juice of the plants, used as a cataplasm, is an approved remedy for the piles, according to Ray, Haller, and Curtis. It is highly injurious to our grass. FLE F L E 43 lands, and is now said to have pass- ed the mountains. It is extremely difficult to eradicate.] FLEA, or Pulex, L. in zoology, a genus of insects requiring no par- ticular description. Want of cleanliness remarkably contributes to the generation of fleas ; as the females deposit their eggs, each from twenty to thirty, in damp and filthy places, within the crevices of boards, on rubbish, &c. whence they emerge in the course of six or eight days, in the form of greasy whitish maggots. When a ibrtnight old, they enve- lope themselves in a small chrysa- lis, from which they sally forth, after ten days existence, in the form of fleas. In the winter, these dif- ferent transformations require a period of six weeks, but in summer only a month. They probably do not live longer than one year; though it is said, that fleas have been kept on little golden chains for six years. As they are able to draw a weight eighty times greater than -that of their own bodies, some frivolous persons have occa- sionally kept them harnessed to miniature carriages, &c. Leaping also is a singular proof of their muscular strength ; as, by pressing the belly downwards, expanding their legs, and then suddenly con- tracting them, these creatures dart forward to a distance of 10 or 12 inches. Children and females are re • markably liable to the attacks of this little enemy ; a circumstance which must be attributed to their more tender skin, their purer blood, longer clothes, and, in some indi- viduals, perhaps to a peculiar state of perspiration....Cleanliness, and frequent sprinkling of the room with a simple decoction of worm- wood, will soon extirpate the whole breed of these troublesome vermin; and the best remedy to expel them from bed-clothes, is a bag filled with dry moss, the odour of which is to them extremely of- fensive....Others cover the floors of the rooms where fleas abound, with the leaves of the alder tree, while the dew is on the foliage, to which these insects fondly adhere, and thus may be easily destroyed.... Mercurial ointment, sulphur, and fumigation with the leaves of pen- ny-royal, or the fresh-gathered fo- liage of that plant, sewed up in a bag, and laid in the bed, are also remedies pointed out for the ex- pulsion of fleas. Dogs and cats may be effectual- ly secured from the persecutions of these vermin, by occasionally anointing their skin with sweet oil. FLEA-BANE, the Great, or Plowman's Spikenard, Conyza squarrosa, L. an indigenous bien- nial plant, growing in mountainous meadows and pastures, in a cal- careous soil, and producing yellow flowers in the months of July and August. This plant possesses the odour of musk; the smoke, occasioned by burning it, was formerly much employed for the destruction of fleas, gnats, and other insects. It was also recommended in cutane- ous disorders, but is at present ex- ploded from the shops....In a simi- lar manner has the Canada Flea- bane, or Erigeron Canadetn.e, L. lost its reputation, both for banish- ing fleas, and answering other su- perstitious incantations; for which it was celebrated in former times. FLESH-MEAT, or the flesh of animals prepared for food, is an Uupoitant object of domestic eco- 44 F L E nomy....In this place, however, we shall communicate only the most proper and effectual ways of pre- serving such meat in a fresh state, especially in the hot days of sum- mer, as we treat of its relative sa- lubrity and influence on health, under the distinct heads of Beef, Mutton, Pork, Veal, &c. as well as under the general head of Food. In a work entitled " Miscellanea Curiosa," by Mr. Jones, we find an easy method of preparing flesh- meat, without spices, and with very little salt; yet so as to keep good, and always ready for eating, for two or three years, and in the warmest climates. He gives us this account of the Moorish Elcholle, made of beef, mutton, or camel's flesh, but chiefly of beef; which is uniformly cut in long slices, well salted, and suffered to lie twenty- four hours in the pickle. It is then removed from those tubs or jars, into others filled with fresh water; and, when it has lain a night, it is taken out, put on ropes in the sun, and air to dry. When thoroughly dried and hard, it is cut into pieces of two or three inches long, and thrown into a pan, or cauldron, which is kept ready with boiling oil and suet sufficient to cover it; thus it is boiled, till it be very clear and red on cutting it; when it is again taken out and set to drain. After having undergone this pro- cess, it stands to cool, while jars are prepared for storing it; at the same time pouring upon it the li- quor in which it was fried ; and, as soon as it is thoroughly cold, the vessels are closely stopped. Pre- served in this manner, it will re- main hard, and keep two years : indeed, the hardest is considered as the best and most palatable. Thus FLE it is brought to table by the Moors, who sometimes fry it with eggs and garlic, sometimes stew it, and squeeze on it the juice of lemon. It is affirmed to be a very good dish, either hot or cold. Another method of preserving flesh-meat, especially veal and lamb, is practised in Germany, and consists simply in immersing them in skimmed milk, so as to cover the whole joint. In warm weather, the milk should be changed twice the first day, and once in twenty-four hours ; but, in a cool temperature, it is sufficient to renew it every two or three days. Thus, the meat may be kept in a sweet state for several weeks; but it ought to be washed in spring water before it is dressed....Game and beef, how- ever, cannot be preserved in the same manner, and therefore should be wrapped in a clean linen cloth, and buried in a box filled with dry sand, where it will remain sweet for three weeks, if deposited in an airy, dry, and cool chamber. One of the cheapest means of preventing putrefaction in flesh- meat, would be that of covering it with charcoal powder ; but experi- ments are still wanting to ascertain its effects on animal substances of different kinds. We think, how- ever, there can be little doubt en- tertained of the successful result.... With respect to the best method of pickling meat, we refer to the ar- ticles Beef and Pickle. [Under the article Beef, in the first vol. ample directions were giv» en for salting beef. The following additional account of the result of a successful trial to preserve beef, killed in very hot weather, in Au- gust, is communicated by Mr. Cooper, of Northumberland: The animal fasted a night and FLE day before being killed. About nine o'clock in the evening he was kill- ed, and cut up immediately. Persons stood by to keep off the flies and insects, every piece was coarsely and quickly wiped, and then rubbed with finely pounded salt, and instantly put into a barrel in a cool cellar. The next night the pieces were taken out, drained for half a minute, put into another barrel, and the following pickle was poured on them boiling hot : To every two gallons of water were added 2lbs. of salt, and 2 oz. of saltpetre. This was poured on boiling hot, 1st. to kill the egg of any fly-blows : 2dly, to corrugate the external fibres of the meat where it is first apt to taint. N. B. The meat was deprived of all the large bones. In about a week the meat was taken out of pickle; the pickle boiled and scummed, and again poured on hot. The meat kept perfectly well. The pickle of meat should be often examined, and once a fort- night boiled and scummed.] FLEUK-WORM, or Flewk- worm, Fascicla hepatica, L. an in- sect, of the size and shape of a child's finger-nail: it creeps up the gall-ducts from the intestines, and, preying upon the livers of sheep, occasionscoughs and consumptions in those animals. Sheep,pasturing in moist grounds, are frequently attacked by this in- sect which Dr. Darwin conjec- tures to arise from the bile be- coming too much diluted, in con- sequence of their watery food ; so that it does not possess sufficient acrimony to prevent the depreda- tions of flewk-worms. The remedy in general pre- tir.ribed, is to dissolve one ounce of F LI 45 salt in water; but Dr. Darwin suggests, that the salt may be used with greater advantage, if hay were moistened with the solution, w^hich would thus supply more whole- some nourishment, than is usually given to sheep troubled with these vermin. FLINT, or Silex, L. a kind of opaque stone, which is, in gene- ral, of a roundish form, covered with a white crust, of a smooth uniform texture, and so hard, as to emit fire, when stricken against steel. It is chiefly used in the ma- nufacture of glass....For this pur- pose, the hardest flints are selected, such as will resist the file, and be- come white when calcined. They are first cleansed from the white crust adhering to them; then burnt in a strong fire, and thrown, while red-hot, into cold water. After cleaning them of the ashes, the flints are finely pulverized in an iron mortar, and passed through a sieve. Weak aqua-fortis is next poured on the powder, with a view to dissolve any particles of iron, perhaps acquired from the mortar. This mixture is to be repeatedly stirred, and then left to subside, after which the liquor is to be poured off, the powder washed se- veral times with hot water, and, lastly, dried. In this state it is fit to be converted into glass. In the year 1742, an oil was prepared from flints by Messrs. Betton and Willington, of Shrewbury, for which they ob- tained a patent. It may be made of 4o z. of flints calcined, pulve- rized, and mixed with 12 oz. of salt of tartar. These ingredients are next to be melted together in a crucible over a strong fire, and run into an open glass, which strongly attracts moisture from the air, and 46 FLO FLO is completely soluble in water, ex- cepting a small portion of earthy matter. This glass is then to be pulverized, and set in a cellar where it will spontaneously liquefy into an oil ; which the patentees have affirmed to be efficacious in curing obstinate rheumatisms.... We doubt, however, the utility of this medicine, as there are other local remedies, more proper and efficacious in the painful com- plaint....See Rheumatism. Flizweed. See Cress. Floating Land. See Irri- gation. FLOOR, in architecture, the area, or lower part of a room, which is in general covered with boards. The best wood that can be se- lected for this purpose, is yellow deal, thoroughly seasoned ; which, if well laid, will for a long time retain its colour ; whereas the white sort, by frequent washing, becomes black, and presents a dis- agreeable appearance. The joints of the boards are usually made plain, so as barely to touch each other ; but, as the materials are not always perfectly dry, the boards not unfrequently shrink, and the water runs through them every time they are washed, by which the ceiling underneath is injured. To remedy this incon- venience, they should always be made either with edges, so as to fold over each other about half an inch, or with what is called dove- tails : in the latter case, the lower edge is nailed down, and the next driven into it, so that the nails are effectually concealed. In the habitations of the labour- ing classes, the floors are generally made of loam. The best materials for this purpose are two-thirds of lime, one of coal-ashes, and a small portion of clay. The whole of these ingredients is to be well tem- pered with water, and left to sub- side for a week or ten days, when it is to be worked up again. This operation should be repeated in the course of three or four days, till the mixture become smooth and glu- tinous, when it will be fit for use. After the ground is made perfectly level, the composition is to be laid on the depth of two and a half, or three inches, and carefully smooth- ed with a trowel. The hottest sea- son of the year is the most proper for applying this mixture, which, when completely dried, will make a most durable floor, especially for malt-houses....See Country-Hou- ses. FLOUNDER, or Pleuronectes fiesus, L. a fish which abounds in all parts of the British sea, and is also found in rivers, at a considerable distance from the shore. It may be easily distinguished from plaise, or any other fish belonging to the genus, by a row of small, but sharp spines, which surround its sides, and are placed at that part where the fins are united to the body : a similar row marks the side-line, and extends half way down the back. The upper part of the body is of a pale brown, which is some- times marked with a few spots of greasy yellow. Flounders seldom grow to any size in the rivers, few exceeding the weight of five or six pounds'; they are, however, preferred to those which are caught in the sea ; being much sweeter, and at the same time having a more delicate flavour. FLOUR, the meal of wheat, rye, fcc. finely ground and sifted. WTe have already stated, that FLO FLO 47 torn is the prey of a variety of in- sects : when converted into flour, it is subject to the depredations of another race of destroyers, which multiply in it so rapidly, that in a very short time they wholly con,- sume its substance. These insects are of an oblong, slender form ; their heads are provided with a kind of proboscis or snout, with which they take in their food ; their body is composed of several rings. They do incalculable damage to the flour deposited in magazines for armies or other public uses ; and after they have insinuated them- selves into any parcel, the only me- thod that can be adopted for saving the whole quantity is, to convert it immediately into bread. In order to prevent such noxious vermin from breeding in flour, this valuable commodity should be kept thoroughly dry, as well as the barrels into which it is packed : with such precautions, if the flour be placed in a cool and airy room, it will be effectually preserved.... Sometimes, however, it happens, that though every attention be be- stowed on it, flour becomes sprit, or damaged, and thus acquires an unpleasant flavour. This may be remedied by mixing a quantity of ground rice (in the proportion of one pound to ten of flour) with the usual quantity of yeast and water ; keeping the mixture before the fire 'for the 'space of two hours; at the expiration of which time, the whole may be wrought into bread, in the common manner: thus it will be totally divested of its disagreeable flavour....See also Baking. The proportion of flour, which a bushel of grain affords, greatly varies. A bushel of Essex wheat, Winchester measure, weighs upon an average about 60lbs. which, when ground, will yield (exclusive of the loss incurred by the grind- ing and drying) 4541bs of the flour called seconds, which alone is used for baking throughout the greater part of England, and which affords the most wholesome, though not the whitest bread. Beside the seconds, such a bushel of wheat yields 131bs. of pollard and bran: the total loss in grinding seldom exceeds one pound and a half. A correspondent of the Editors of the Encyclopadia Britannica (Art. Bread,) states, that he weighed two bushels, Winchester measure, of white and red wheat, the whole of which amounted to 1221bs. This wheat was ground under his own inspection, and yielded 121|lbs. of meal, so that the waste or loss in grinding the two bushels, amounted only to half a pound. The meal, was also dressed in his presence, and pro- duced 93Ilbs. of seconds, and 25Albs. of pollard and bran, so that the whole loss in the two bushels, both by grinding and dressing, did not exceed two pounds and a half. The bran and pollard were also dressed in a bolting mill, und pro- duced lbs. oz. Sharps - - - 6 0 Fine Pollard - 5 8 Coarse ditto - 7 8 Broad Bran - 5 3 • • 24 8 One pound only was thus lost in the bolting, and if the sharps had been sifted, they would have afforded three pounds of good flour. We are inclined to think, from these and similar data, if the price of wheat were given, that of flour 48 FLO FLO might be easily ascertained, and those frauds which are now prac- tised with impunity, could be ef- fectually prevented. [It has been stated by the Lon- don bakers when examined a few years since before the House of Commons, that the American flour went further in making bread than that of England. This is a proud fact for the American farmers, and cannot fail of being gratify- ing to every patriotic friend.] Many valuable substitutes for fiour have already been mention- ed under the head of Bread. In this place, therefore, we shall only observe, that the most plen- tiful and the cheapest of these ar- ticles, in times of great scarcity, would doubtless be the Chesnut (of which we have given an ac- count in its alphabetical order). FLOWER, or Flos, the most beautiful part of the plants and trees, which contains the organs of fruc- tification. See Botany. From their frequent utility as medicinal drugs, as well as their external beauty, the preservation of flowers becomes an object of some importance. For this pur- pose, various methods have been devised, from which we select the following, originally suggested by Sir John Hill: Let a sufficient quantity of fine sand be washed, so as completely to separate all ex- traneous matter. It is next to be dried, and sifted in order to cleanse it from the gross impurities that would not rise in washing. The flower or plant intended to be pre- served, should then be gathered with a convenient portion of the stalk, and deposited in an earthen vessel adapted to its size. A small quantity of the sand, prepared as above directed, is next to be heat- ed, and laid on the bottom of the vessel, so as to cover it equally, and the plant or flower placed on such sand, so as to touch no part of the vessel. More sand is then to be sifted over, that the leaves may gradually expand, without receiv- ing any injury, till the plant or flower is covered to the depth of two inches. The vessel is now to be placed in a stove, or hot-house, heated by gradations to the 50th degree of Reaumur, or about 144 deg. of Fahrenheit), where it should stand for one, two, or more days, in proportion to the thickness or succulence of such plant, or flower. At the end of that time, the sand may be gently shaken off on a sheet of paper, and the plant carefully taken out, when it will be found in all its beauty; its shape being as elegant, and its colours as vivid, as when it was growing in a natural state. There are some flowers, especi- ally tulips, which require certain little operations, in order to pre- serve the adherence of their petals. With respect to these, it will be necessary to cut the triangular fruit that rises in the middle of the flower, previously to covering it with sand; for the petal will then remain more firmly attached to the stalk. This method may be applied to such plants and flowers as are em- ployed in medicine : for, though it be not always necessary to pre- serve their original colour and form, yet the less change they undergo, the better will they re- tain their natural properties. Far- ther, the preservation of beautiful leaves and flowers in their original shape and colour, by placing them in such a situation that they may suffer no subsequent alteration, ex- FLO FLO 49 ctpt that from length of time or accident, is surely an object that merits the attention of every lover of Nature. See Herbal. Besides this mode of preserving flowers, they may be prepared so as to retain their beauty during the winter, and even to blow at any period required. In order to suc- ceed in this attempt, the most perfect buds of the flowers, should be selected at the time when they are about to open. These should be cut off* with a pair of scissars, Laving to each a piece of the stem about three inchts in length ; the end of which is immediately to be covered with Spanish wax. As soon i,s the buds are somewhat shrunk and wrinkled, they are to be folded up, separately, in a piece of clean dry paper, ano deposited in a dry box or drawer, where they will keep without decaying.... In the winter, or whenever the flowers are \required to blow, the wax is to be cut off the buds, and these should in the evening be im- mersed into water, in which a little nitre, or common salt, has been dissolved: if exposed to the rays of the sun, on the succeeding day, they will expand with all their original fragrance and beauty. There are a few general remarks made by eminent botanists, on the growth, enlargement, colours, and duplication of powers; the sub- stance of which Ave shall commu- nicate under the following heads: 1. It is an established fact, that flowers as well as fruits grow larg- er in the shade, and ripen and decay soonest, when exposed to the sun. Hence, likewise,, the foliage or biids of plants requires more moisture for its rigorous growth • than their flowers," or or- gans of fructification. Farther, ob- VOL. III. serves Dr. Darwin, the frequent rains of our climate, are apt not only to wash off the farina from the bursting anthers, aid thus to prevent the impregnation of the pistil, but also to delay the ripen- ing of the fruit or seeds, from the want of a due evaporation of their perspirable matter, as well as from the deficiency of solar light in cloudy ^seasons. In another place of his admirable " Phytologia," this philosopher remarks that, as a superfluous supply of water is more friendly to the growth of leaf- buds, than to the generation of flower-buds, the production of seeds may be forwarded by supplying their roots with less water than usual. But when the blossoms ap- pear, an addition of water promotes their growth, by affording nourish- ment, which should again be les- sened, when the fruit has acquired its full size, both to promote its maturity and improve its' flavour; as the saccharine matter and essen- tial oil will thus be in a less diluted state....Although the fruit may be- come sweeter and larger, when the green as well as the floral leaves continue on the tree, yet the corols with the stamens, stigmas, and nectaries (the succeeding fruit not considered) suffer, in the opinion of Dr. Darwin, no injury when both kind of leaves are removed, as by the depredations of insects. Nay, some florists assert, that the flowers thus become stronger, pro- ducing no bulbs, as is the case with tulips and hyacinths. 2d. The variegated colours of the petals of flowers are so beauti- ful, and afford such delight to the eye of the contemplative natural- ist, as to deserve some investiga- tion. It is probable that varieties in the colours of single flowers H 50 FLO FLO raised from seeds, may be general- ly obtained by sowing those which already possess different shades, contiguous to others of the same species ; or, by bending the flowers of one colour and shaking the an- ther-dust over those of another. Thus Dr. Darwin supposes the beds of the corn blue-bottle, cen- taur ea cyanus, acquire those beau- tiful shades of blue, purple, and white. As some animals change their natural colours, when trans- planted in different situations of soil, a similar effect may be pro- duced by sowing flowers in facti- tious composts, which considerably differ from each other >"ith respect to vegetable nutriment, and per- haps also in their colour. Experi- ments on this subject, as well as on the variegation of the leaves of shrubs and trees, are however wanting to confirm this conjecture ; though the latter probably origi- nates from soil or situation, and may be communicated by ingraft- ing....The origin of new colours in flowers, and of variegated foliage, is imagined to arise from the want of nourishment ofthe soil on which they grow, compared to that as- signed to them by Nature; or from a defect of moisture and of heat; a supposition countenanced by the dwarfish size of such plants, in general, and especially by the reduced stature of tulips, when their petals acquire various colours. The immediate cause of the va- rious colours presented by some flowers, such as poppies, has not hitherto been distinctly ascertain- ed; but Dr. Darwin conjectures that, as they are not variable by the obliquity with which they are seen, like those of mother-pearl, card-fish, fee. they do not de- pend on the thinness of their pellicle, and may, therefore, arise from the greater facility which some parts of vegetables, more than others, possess in parting with their oxygen > (which see) when exposed to the sun's light; for all flowers are more or less blanched before they fi.st open. 3. The origin of double flowers is believed to result from the luxu- riant growth of the plant, in con- sequence of excessive nourish- ment, moisture, and warmth: they arise from the increase of some parts of the flower, aiicl the consequent exclusion of others. As they present a greater blaze of co- lour in a small space, and conti- nue in bloom for some weeks lon- ger than single flowers, the me- thod of producing them from seeds is a matter of importance. Botan- ists very properly term such multi- plied flowers vegetable monsters, because they possess no stamens or pistils, and therefore can pro- duce no seeds....Nevertheless they are frequently raised from seeds ; because flowers cultivated with more manure, moisture, and warmth than is congenial to them, not only grow larger and more vigorously, but likewise shew a tendency to become double, by having one or two supernumerary pestals in each flower, such as the stock July flower, cheiranthus, and anemone. It is still more re- markable, that this duplicature is communicated to those individual blossoms: hence florists tie a thread round such flowers, to mark them, and to collect their seeds separately, from which dou- ble or full flowers are said to be uniformly produced, if they be cul- tivated with additional manure, moistftrei and warmth, as has been already dbserved....There subsists FLO FLO 51 a. curious analogy, concludes Dr. Darwin, between these vegetable monsters and those of the animal world ; for a duplicature of limbs frequently attends the latter, as chickens and turkeys with four legs and four wings, and calves with two heads. In mules, also, the most important organs become de- ficient, so that they cannot propa- it gate their species ; exactly analo- gous to these full flowers which, from the same cause, produce no seed. With respect to botanic systems, it may be observed from these vegetables of exuberant growth, that the stamens and pis- tils are less liable to change than the corols and nectaries; conse- quently, that they are more proper parts for arranging plants into classes; and that on this idea Linnaeus constructed his unrival- led system. Lastly, the calyx, or perianth, being seldom found in a double or multiplied state, is the next part of a tiower that is liable to the least changes; and may, therefore, on accurate inspection, serve to detect the genera of many double flowers. With respect to the colours which may be extracted from flowers, we refer the reader to the article Colouring Matter, and to the different flowers as they occur in their alphabetical or- der. FLOWER-DE-LUCE,orFLAG, Iris, L. a genus of plants consist- » ing of 54 species, the following three of which are natives of Bri- tain : 1. The pseudasorous, Water Flow er-de-Luce, or Yellow flag ; which is perennial, grows on the banks of rivers, in marshes and wet meadows, and produces large yellow flowers in the month of July. The leaves of this plant, when fresh, are eaten by goats, and when in a dry state, by cows, but they are refused by horses and hogs.... On account of its poisonous nature to all cattle, except sheep, this ve- getable ought to be carefully extir- pated from the meadow-grounds, and their contiguous ditches. The juice of the fresh root is very acrid, and has been found to produce plentiful evacuations from the bowels, after other powerful re- medies had failed: by continuing its use, it cured an obstinate drop- sy. For this purpose, it has been taken in doses of 80 drops, every second or third hour ; but the de- gree of its acrimony is so uncer- tain, that it can never be generally used....With more advantage and safety we may recommend the whole of this strongly astringent plant to the tanner; and its flow- ers to the dyer, for extracting a beautiful yellow; but the root, in particular, as a substitute for galls in preparing a black dye, or ink, with vitriol of iron....Lastly, the roots of this species are stated to be an antidote to the bite of a mad- dog ; and, after having been mix- ed with the food of some hogs that had been bitten, they escap- ed the disease, while others, in- jured by the same dog, died rav- ing mad. 2. Thtfoetida, Stinking Flow- er-de-Luce, Gladwyn, or Flag, wdiich is found on hedge-banks, and sloping grounds, particularly in the south-western counties of England : it is perennial, and pro- duces flowers of a purplish ash- colour, which lose their smell dur- ing the night, and blow in the months of June and July....This plant is refused by horses, sheep, and goats; its leaves are very 52 FLO FLU fetid, and, when bruised, smell like rancid bacon. The juice of the roots of this, as well as the preceding species, have occasion- ally been used to excite sneezing ; which is a dangerous practice, and has sometimes been attended with violent convulsions. It may, there- fore, be more usefully employed for the destruction of bugs and other vermin. 3. The Xiphium, or Bulbous- HOOTEDFLOWER-DE-LuCE,OrFlag, which has long ben cultivated in our gardens, on account of its beau- ts ' ty. It has lately been found wild in the county of Worcester, and produces generally purplish-blue flowers....M. Schulze informs us, in his " Locial Farratirves" (in German), that he made the follow- ing experiments with the azure- blue flowers of this neglected plant: He first bruised the flower-leaves in a marble mortar, expressed their juice, collected it in a shal- low glass vessel, and, after add- ing a small portion of finely-pul- verized alum, he suffered it to dry under shade, in the open air: thus, he obtained a very beautiful green pigment. The flowers, however, should be gathered in dry weather, their white parts carefully sepa- rated from the coloured leaves, and the pounded alum gradually mixed with the juice, till the desired co- lour becomes perceptible. With this preparation, both linen and silk were dyed of a remarkably fine and permanent green colour. ....Prof. Gmelin, in his German " Technical Chemistry," gives the following recipe for preparing a lively green water-colour :....Take equal quantities of the expressed juice of the bulbous-rooted flag and rue, and add such a proportion of a strong solution of alum, as is re- quired to produce the colour. Flowering Fern : See Os- mund-Royal. FLUELLIN,the Sharp-point- ed, or Antirrhinum Elatine, L. is an indigenous annual plant* grow- ing in corn-fields, and flowering from July to September....The ex- pressed juice of this plant has been highly recommended as an ape- rient, resolvent, and vulnerary; which properties an infusion of it possesses, though in an inferior degree....An ointment is prepared from this juice, which was formerly in great repute as a remedy in leprous, scrophulous, and cancer- ous cases. It is at present em- ployed only by empirics, both male and female, who pretend to cure with it cancers of every descrip- tion. FLUMMERY, a kind of jelly made of oatmeal, in the following manner: Steep three large table- spoonfuls of finely ground oatmeal for 24 hours in two quarts of pure water, then pour off the clear fluid, and replace it by three pints of fresh water; strain it through a fine hai» sieve, add to it two spoonfuls of orange flower-water, and one of sugar; boil the whole to the con- sistence of a hasty pudding, stir- ring it continually while boiling, till it become perfectly smooth. This preparation affords a grateful and nutritive breakfast to persons liable to costiveness, in consequence of a sedentary life. FLUTE, The German,a musi- cal instrument of a well known con- struction. Although playing the flute is on the Continent more generally prac- tised than in Britain, yet we think it useful to observe, that this ex- FLU err.ise is by no means compatible with either young or weak lungs. Indeed, all wind-instruments are in many respects objectionable, be- cause, after blowing forcibly, a large portion of air is suddenly in- haled, and afterwards partially ex- pelled from the lungs, so that they are by this debilitating action con- tinually expanded and relaxed, in a manner very different from that which Nature pursues in the pro- cess of respiration....See farther Wind-instruments. FLUX, a disorder to which sheep are subject, when those use- ful animals, after having been kept on too short an allowance, sud- denly come to their full feed. It is also sometimes occasioned by their eating the Fetid Chamomile, or May-weed, Anthemis cotula, L.... This disease, however, is not at- tended with any dangerous conse- quences, and generally disappears in the course of a few days, espe- cially in dry weather. But, if it continue longer than a week, some sweet and well dryed hay should be given them, and a decoction of clover-flowers, with the addition of a little barley-meal; and neither allowing them any salt, nor to feed upon saline plants near the coast, during their convalescent state. ■ FLUX, or Sap-flow, Fluxus umbilicalis, a disease frequently oc- curring in plants and trees, when the alburnum, or sap-wood, is wounded during the spring; and which consists of a saccharine, mu- cilaginous 'fluid, resembling ho- ney-dew. This affection occasions great trouble, especially when vines in hot-houses are pruned too late in the season; for the whole branch is liable to bleed to death, in con- sequence of the loss of the sap, which ought to supp'y the young FLY 55 buds with nutriment, and expand their foliage. There are some perennial plants, such as the cow-parsley, or Hera- clcum sphondylium, L. the roots of which, if the stems be severely wounded, or entirely cut off, when they have attained a certain height, are liable to decay in consequence of this flux, or loss of the umbili- cal fluid....Hence Dr. Darwin observes, it has been recommended to mow down, early in the spring, thistles, and such other "noxious weeds as are troublesome, on ac- count of their rapid increase; be- cause many of them will perish, and the rest will be considerably weakened by the great discharge of sap that flows from their wounds at that season. With respect to trees, there is another period of sap-flow, that occurs when the new buds are forming, after Midsummer. It is therefore very injurious to wound trees at that period ; and, as their vegetation is thus endangered, dif- ferent applications have been re- commended by gardeners. Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that a bit of sponge, if bound upon the end of the cut branch, or upon the wound, by means of some elastic bandage, will be the most certain remedy to save them; or, a wire may be substituted for the sponge, if twisted so tightly round the end ofthe maimed branch, as to check the circulation of the juices, and consequently to»destroy the part above the ligature. FLY, or Musca, L. an order of insects divided into several genera, of which we shall notice only those species that are more immediately connected with agriculture and do- mestic eonomy. 1. The Dolphin, or Bean-fly. 54 FLY 2. The Corn, or Hessian-fly, a native ofthe Landgravate of Hesse, whence it has received its name. This insect is particularly destruc- tive to wheat-corn, in which it de- posits its eggs close to the ground, while growing....When the young vermin are hatched, they continue for some time in a worm-state, feeding on the tender part of the stalk, the growth of which is thus effectually checked. The Hessian- fly committed great depredations in the Eastern counties of England, several years since , and, in the year 1787, did incalculable damage in the provinces of Pennsylvania and Maryland, in America. The only efficacious remedy hitherto discovered, consists in facilitating the vigorous growth of the plants, by properly manuring and cultivat- ing the soil; which practice, as it will admit of late sowing, will greatly retard their progress. [Common opinion has ascribed the introduction of the Hessian-fly into America, to the troops from Hesse Cassel, which came over with the British troops, during the revolutionary war in the United States. But there is great reason to believe this opinion erroneous. Sir Joseth Banks informs Dr. Mitch- ell, that he has no reason to be- lieve its existence in any part of Germany. Count Gfnanin of Ra- venna has not mentioned the fly in his splendid work upon the dis- eases to which wheat is subject in its growing state, though fifty dif- ferent insects are described. Agreeably to the interesting ob- servations of the late Hon. J. Ha- vens of Long-Island, inserted in the 1st vol. ofthe Transactions of the Agricidtural Society of Netv- York, the maggot of the fly gene- rally proves more destructive to FLY wheat in the autumn of the year than in the spring; and before cold weather it is transformed into a chrysalis, in which state it is pre- pared to remain during the winter, and in the spring will again be transformed into a fly, which com- pletes two generations of the insect in one year. Mr. Havens says, the bearded wheat resists the fly most, though we know from the experience of Mr. Cooper, (below stated) and of others, that it is not always able to resist the sting of the fly. As the fly is not to be found in any other state than that of chry- salis, in the time of harvest, and it remains in that state in the stubble for some time afterwards, Mr. H. recommends to burn the stubble of grain after the harvest, and to turn the ground over with the plough soon after, every year for several years, and has little doubt of its proving an effectual mean of de- stroying the whole species ; for the insect would not long be continu- ed on rye, which may be sown much later than wheat without in- jury from the winter. The following directions to avoid the ravages of the fly are by Judge Peters, of Philadelphia: "After a crop of oats cut this sea- son, [1802,] I ploughed in the stub- ble. The shed oats vegetated, and threw up plants generally through the field, which I am dressing with compost and stirring in, prepa- ratory to a crop of wheat. The fly is now plentifully impregnating the oat plants. " I am satisfied of the efficacy of the practice of lightly sowing fallows with oats, that the fly may deposit its brood in the oat plants, before the wheat is sown, or when it is young. The oat plants FLY F L Y 55 continuing to increase even with the young wheat, which it over- grows, afford a more inviting, be- cause a more prominent object to this destructive but stupid insect, which does not discriminate be- tween one plant and another. I mention oats, because it is a cheap and quick growing grain; and may (in this stage of its growth) occupy the fallows with the least injury. I know by repeated and careful ob- servations, that the fly has no in- stinctive predilection for any parti- cular plant. They light on all plants and shrubs indiscriminately. Some afford a better shelter, and protect their progeny, while on others they perish. Some plants are in- jured by them, and others are un- hurt : in the wheat they do the most injury. It being our staple, andamong the most valuable of our products, their progress in mis- chief is the most observed. " I have had frequent opportunities of being convinced of the utility of the plan I now advise. I saw, among other instances, a remarka- bly clean and fair crop of wheat cut by one of my neighbours, last year, saved by this method from the fly, which either injured or de- stroyed the crops of most others. " As my field will be in high order, end well manured, I intend to sow late. I expect the oats will continue to produce plants, on which the successive flights of flies will ex- haust themselves. The wheat plants may escape their ravages. I communicate this to invite other farmers to investigate the fact, and pursue a similar plan, by which many have informed me they have much benefited ; some in a greater degree than others. " I recommend sowing none but the fairest and best grains for seed. These produce vigorous plants, most capable of resisting the inju- ries from the fly. I do not believe in the magical power ascribed to steeps. I use steeps occasionally, that I may skim off the light, and cure the infected grain. They give an impetus and vigour to the.first shoots of the plant, and so far are beneficial. But the crop requires other supplies in its progress.... Steeps of various sorts have been recommended as specifics against the fly. But these are not exclu- sively to be depended on." The following observations on this destructive insect, were com- municated to the Editor by Josnan Cooper, Esq. of New-Jersey, to whom this work is indebted for several important articles : " I first heard, a few years since, of the fly being in some wheat of a neighbour sown with turnips, which induced me to examine some wheat growing among buckwheat that had been sown in w heat stub- ble, and found the insect in great plenty. This caused me to suspend sowing wheat that year until the lattcrpart of September: the wheat thus late sown appeared promising through the winter, but in the fol- low ing month of April I discover- ed many plants of a darker green, the blades shorter, and more in clusters than the others, and the mid- dle blades dead, or in a declininng state ; and, on examination, I found all having the above appearances, abounding with the insect. I pull- ed up many such plants, and putting them in glasses, covered them with perforated paper. In two or three weeks the fly came out: I then went into the field where I disco- vered similar flies in great num. bers, but the crop was still promis- ing, although the plants which were 56 FLY FLY much filled with the insect early in the spring had perished: the promising appearance continued until the grain was nearly filled, when a great part of it fell, and the crop was nearly half lost. I observ- ed some late plants that were green at harvest almost as full of the in- sect as a piece of tainted meat with fly-blows. Seeing none after the beginning of September, and the weather having been very dry, and a rain coming on near the middle of that month, I wastempted to sow most of my wheat as soon as possible. The consequence was, although I sowed the yellow bearded wheat, that a lot of five acres which produced three hundred bushels of shelled Indian corn the year be- fore, produced but six bushels of wheat. This deficiency I attributed solely to the ravages of the flies. The same year I sowed a piece of land of inferior quality, with the same kind of wheat, but two weeks later, and about two hundred yards from the other, which produced a good crop, and apparently not in- jured by the fly. In the same or following year a friend, who was attached to early sowing, had prepared a piece of excellent ground, manured it high- ly, and sowed it about the latter end of August, which, after making a promising appearance, was totally destroyed. In the beginning of October he sowed an adjoining lot with wheat, in which he had raised pumpkins; the grain came up well, and made a fine appearance after the first snow that covered the ground, which fell the latter end of October, but was totally destroyed before winter. These experiments convinced me that sowing winter grain early is a mean of raising a brood of flies to deposit their eggs in, and thereby destroy the late sown grain in its vicinity. I had been informed of both wheat and rye sown in the spring, having been greatly damaged by the fly, but not sowing these grains, had not witnessed the fact until about three or four years ago, when I sowed some wheat and barley from La Plata, in April, in good land, well prepared : both made a promising appearance until the ears began to shoot, when the insects appeared on both, and were so numerous, that the barley was greatly injured, and the wheat nearly all destroyed. At the same time I had a lot less than 30 feet distant in wheat ofthe early Virginia kind, which had been sown the last week in October: it produced an excellent crop, and I did not perceive a single plant in- jured by the fly. The La Plata bar- ley and wheat were sowed the next spring very early ; the wheat being a later vegetable, was destroyed by the fly, but the barley came for- ward so fast as to be proof against it, and has been sown every spring- since, at the same early period, with- out receiving the smallest injury from the fly. / am convinced, from the above and other experiments, that if the farmers all through a neighbour- hood would prevent as much as pos- sible such grain as is nutritive to the Ht ssian fly from vegetating in the period between harvest and the lat- ter end of September ; have their land in a good state of cultivation, and sow about the beginni?ig of Oc- tober, or even later ; and of the kind of grain which comes forward most rapidly in the spring, they would receive little injury from the wheat fly: and as the early Virginia wheat was produced from a plant selected by an observant farmer FLY from his other wheat, there is no doubt that other sorts of grain might be improved by a selection of such particular plants as ripen earliest and are superior in other respects." In a conversation with the editor, Mr. C. urged strongly the im- portance of sowing the early Vir- ginia wheat as late in the autumn as can be done with safety : but at the same time observed, that no advantage would be derived from the practice, unless all the farmers in a neighbourhood agreed to pur- sue the same plan ; for if an ad- joining field be sown early, the flies which have been living on the grain of that field, will after de- stroying it, deposit their eggs in the stalks of that which is late sown, and destroy it either in the autumn or succeeding spring. The necessity of this general agreement among neighbours, up- on a point equally interesting to all, being mentioned, affords an opportunity of enforcing the great advantages that would arise from a weekly or half monthly meeting of the farmers at a private house, or county town-house. At these meetings the general result of dif- ferent modes of cultivating the same article, the success attending accidental or intended rotations of crops, and the means of guarding against destructive insects might be communicated; useful hints might be dropped in the course of conversation which others might improve, and harmony greatly pro- moted. A library might be kept at the place of meeting, and the township business also transacted.] 3. The TunFtp-pu, which not only infests turnips, hut also cabbages, flax, and other useful vegetables. In order to prevent the depreda- VOL. II. FLY 57 tions of this insect, it has been re- commended to mix three pounds of turnip-seed with one ounce of flour of sulphur in a glazed ear- then pot, which should be close- ly co\ered: after standing twenty- four hours, another ounce of sul- phur should be added, and the same quantity after forty eight hours, so as toemploy three ounces of this powder to three pounds of the seed, carefully stirring the whole every time the vessel is opened, with a smooth piece of wood or ladle, that the seed may be thoroughly impregnated with the sulphur. It is then to be sown on an acre of ground, in tlie usual manner, where it will effec- tually keep off the insect till the third or fourth seeding-leaf is form- ed, which will acquire a bitterish taste, and thus be secured from the depredations of the fly....Ano- ther remedy is, to strew tobacco- dust over the land; and in some counties the seeds are steeped in soot and water for several hours previously to being sown, by which they acquire such a degree of bit- terness, as to screen them com- pletely against the ravages of this noxious insect. There is a kind of fly which in- fests orchards, perforating the leaves of the trees, especially quinces ; and which, though the foliage is afterwards renewed, oc- casions irreparable injury to the fruit. With a view to prevent these depredations, it has bewi re- commended to mix a small quan- tity of diluted honey with some arsenic, which composition attracts the insects, and consequently de- stroys them. This remedy may, with, due precaution, also be em- ployed in houses where flies abound ; and as flies are liable to I 58 F L Y FLY great thirst, if a weak solution of arsenic with a little sugar be pla- ced on a plate, in windows or on chimney-pieces, they will drink it eagerly, and thus meet with almost immediate destruction. As, however, arsenical remedies are liable to produce dangerous ac- cidents, we shall communicate other means which are less ha- zardous, and equally efficacious, for exterminating flies. If a room be swarming with these noisome insects, the most easy mode of ex- pelling them is, simply by fumi- gatingthe apartmentwith the dried leaves of the gourd {Cucurbita, L.) the smoke of which instantly ex- pels them, if the window be opened, or suffocates them in a close room; but, in the latter case, no person should remain within doors, as these narcotic fumes are apt to oc- casion the head-ach. In situations where this expedient cannot be conveniently adopted, Professor Tromsdorf has furnished us with an excellent remedy, that neither endangers the lives of children, nor is attended with much expence or trouble. Take two drams of the extract of quassia, dissolve it in half a pint of boiling water, add a little syrup of sugar, and pour the mix- ture on plates: to this enticing food flies are extremely partial; and it is to them not less fatal than solutions of arsenic. FLY-BLOWN, a term expres- sive of that corruption of flesh- meat, or any animal food, which is occasioned by flies depositing their eggs on its surface, where they are subsequently bred into maggots....In the warm days of summer, meat is very liable to be thus tainted and rendered unfit for use, especially if it be kept in a close or damp place, which is hot sufficiently ventilated. The easiest method of preventing such damage, is that of suspending the joints in a meat-safe, or a wooden frame surrounded by close wires, so that the flies may be completely excluded, and the air still allowed to perflate the whole apparatus. An open and cool situation, how- ever, ought to be chosen for this repository....Those families which are not provided with this useful domestic contrivance, may occasi- onally preserve joints of meat for several days, even in summer, by wrapping them in clean linen cloths, previously moistened with good white-wine vinegar, placing them in an earthen pan, and chang- ing the cloth once or twice a day in warm weather........See also Flesh-meat. FLY, the Catch, or Campion, Silene, L. a numerous genus of plants amounting to 63 species, eleven of which are indigenous. None of these have hitherto been employed to any other useful pur- pose than that of serving as pas- turage for cattle. There is how- ever, one remarkable species of this plant, namely, the nutans, or Nottingham Catch-Fly, that grows on dry or hilly pastures and walls, produces root-leaves on short leaf-stalks, forming a close turf; and bears white flowers in June or July, which are eagerly visited by bees, and might, therefore, be cul- tivated with advantage, in situati- ons where these industrious crea- tures are reared. FLY, the Spanish, usually call- ed by the plural name of cantha- rides, but properly speaking, is a chafer of a shining green colour, a blueish shade, and emitting an un- pleasant narcotic odour. This in- sect is the Meloe vcsicatorius, L. FLY F OD 59 which preys on the leaves of the common lilac, Syringa vulgaris, L. privet, IAgustrum vulgare, L. com- common ash, Fraxinus excelsior, L. and other trees, though it sel- dom appears in our climate....IIav- ing already stated various substi- tutes for this foreign drug, under the head of Blister," and cau- tioned the reader against its indiscriminate application, we shall only add, that the internal use of this medicine, even in very small doses, is extremely precarious, and ought, therefore, to be abandoned. ....Externally, the tincture of Spa- nish fly has often been employed with advantage as a rubefacient, by merely rubbing indolent swel- lings ; or, the powder, as an ingre- dient in plasters, which ought, however, to contain but a very small portion of this powerful sti- mulant. [Four species of meloe that blis- ter are found in the United States. The first was brought into notice by Dr. Isaac Chapman, of Bucks county, Pennsylvania. The species described by Dr. Chapman feeds chiefly upon the potatoe ; another upon the Clematis Crispa, a third {Meloe Penns. Lin.)' yx^onprunella vulgaris or self heal, and ambrosia trifida, or stick weed. The meloe majalis has not yet been used to blister, though the attention of phy- sicians was some years since direct- ed to it by Dr. Shoepf. From fre- quent trials the Editor is convinc- ed that the powers of Dr. Chap- man's blistering fly are equal, if not superior, to those of Europe. See Wheat.] FLY-STRUCK, a disorder pe- culiar to sheep, Avhich is occasion- ed by a fly that settles and deposits its eggs on them, and very mate- rially injuresthe quality ofthefleece. In order to remove this malady, it has been recommended to cut off the wool, as far as it is infected, and to pour a few drops of the fol- lowing mixture in a circle round the maggots, produced from the flies, to prevent their escape... Dissolve half an ounce of corrosive sublimate in 2 quarts of rain-water, to which a gill (-j of a pint) of spirits of turpentine should be add- ed. When this compound is pour- ed on the back of the diseased ani- mal, in the manner above directed, the shepherd ought to drop a little among the maggots, and rub them about ^with his finger: in conse- quence of which, they will be im- mediately destroyed....Another re- medy, after clipping the wool, is to rub the parts infected with fine- ly powdered lime, or wood-ashes, and afterwards to anoint them with currier's oil, which will heal the wounds, and secure • the animal* from being stricken again. FOAL, or Colt and Filly, the young of a horse. See Colt. FODDER, denotes any kind of dry food provided for horses, or other cattle : it is more particular- ly applied to hay and straw. Having already specified those vegetables which may be employ- ed with the greatest advantage in the feeding of oxen, cows, bulls, Sec. we shall here offer only a few observations supplementary to those stated under the article Cattle. The saving of expence in ob- taining manure, is an object of great importance to farmers; but there are few, comparatively speak- ing, who pay a due regard to this circumstance; and, by disposing of their hard straw (such as that of barley, rye, Sec.) for the pur- pose of thatching, they are under the necessity of purchasing dung, 60 F O D which expence might be complete- ly obViated, by employing such straw in feeding their oxen and other dry cattle....See Straw- Cutter. Considerable advantages might likewise be derived from the use of compressed fodder, invented by Mr. Lawson, of Rotherhithe- street, London. This consists of the haulms of peas, beans, pota- toes, and the tops of carrots, which, after being cut off and dried, are mixed with certain por- tions of bruised com, hay, fir-tops, bran, and broken oil-cake, and then formed into a stack, with clover, either in layers, or intermingled with that plant. To these articles, Mr. Lawson directs a quantity of straw to be added, in order to pre- vent the compressed food from be- coming mouldy, together with a small portion of common salt, which will both preserve and im- prove the fodder. The saving that might arise from the use of such provender, Mr. Lawson estimates at not less than one-eighth part of the corn and herbage now con- sumed in racks, and given in an unbroken state, by which means the greater part of its most nu- tritious properties is, to many kinds of cattle, totally lost: whereas, by breaking the com and other ingre- dients, no part can possibly remain in an undigested state, such as is frequently evident in horses fed with whole com, which they void with their dung, being as perfect and entire as when it was first taken from the bin. Facts, like these, require no farther exposi- tion, and we earnestly recommend them to the attention of every in- telligent farmer and grazier. [Alternate layers of second crop clover newly cut, and straw stack- FOG ed, have been found by a grazing friend, an excellent food. The su- perabundant moisture of the clover is absorbed by the straw, which thus impregnated is eaten greedi- ly by cattle and horses, and the clover being dried, is prevented from heating.] FOG, or Mist, a meteor con- sisting of gross vapours floating near the surface of the earth. Fogs have a considerable influ- ence on the winter. In the sum- mer of 1783, an uncommon fog prevailed all over Europe, and great part of North America. It was dry, of a permanent nature, and the rays of the sun had but little effect in dissipating it, which they easily do in moist fogs aris- ing from water. The effect of the rays in heating the earth was ex- ceedingly diminished: hence its surface was frozen early, the first snows remained on it undissolved, and received continual additions; the air was more chilled, and in- tensely cold, and the winter of 1783 and 1784 was exceedingly severe. The spring fogs are most detri- mental to such young fruit, and other trees, as are planted in low situations; because they moisten the young shoots, and thus render them more liable to the injuries of the frosty nights succeeding them, but which they escape when placed in more elevated situations....These fogs are converted into rime during the night, which thus falls on the trees, and is in some circumstan- ces believed to shelter the vegeta- bles by the heat it emits at the moment of its freezing: hence black frosts, which are not accom- panied with rime, are said to be more prejudicial. But Dr. Dar- win remarks, that where dew or FOM F O O 61 mist descends on vegetables, be- fore the act of freezing commen- ces, artel is partly absorbed by them, they become more succu- lent, and are thus destroyed by their fluids being converted into ice. To obviate this inconvenience, he proposes to make temporary sheds in the walls of gardens, pro- jecting eight inches from the walls, and to be held by hooks that may be easily removed, when no more frosts are to be apprehended. Dr. Darwin successfully tried this expedient with an apricot-tree, which was preserved uninjured, either by the fog, or the frosts that followed it, during the vernal nights. FOMENTATION, in the heal- ing art, signifies the external ap- plication of a fluid in cases of swell- ings, &c. as warm as the patient can bear it, and in the following manner: Two pieces of flannel are dipt into the heated liquor, one of which is expeditiously wrung dry, and thus immediately applied to the part affected. As soon as it begins to grow coo!, the first is removed, and the other instantly substituted, in order to keep those parts constantly suppli- ed with the warm flannels. This operation is continued for 15 or 20 minutes, and is repeated two or three times in the course of the day, as circumstances may re- quire. The design of fomentations may be fully answered, by the applica- tion of warm water alone, unless discutients or antiseptics are re- quired ; in which cases, such in- gredients must be employed as are calculated to effect that purpose. The degree of heat should on no account exceed that of produc- ing an agreeable sensation; for too great heat is attended with effects, very different from those which are expected from the use of fomentations. FOOD, generally speaking, de- notes those alimentary substances which are taken into the stomach, whether fluid or solid ; but it is usually confined to the latter kind : ....of the former we have already spoken in the article Drink. In the early ages of the world, mankind were supported by acorns, berries, wild roots, and such other vegetables as the earth spontane- ously produces. In succeeding centuries, as civilization advanced, luxury also made rapid progress ; men had recourse to animals, as well as to vegetables artificially raised for- their sustenance; and, in still later ages, the art of pre- paring food has been brought per- haps to the highest degree of per- fection, of which it is susceptible. Though originally designed to be a blessing to mankind, as well as their support, food may, in many cases, be justly considered as a curse : for we do not hesitate to affirm, that the injudicious con- duct of parents and nurses, during infancy, and the early years of childhood, lays the foundation of those numerous diseases, which, at a maturer age arise from indi- gestion, and have, in many families, become hereditary. The aliment of children ought to be adapted to their age, and the strength of their digestive powers. Hence they ought by no means to be led immoderately, and promis- cuously, with every kind of food: as, by this indulgence, the first passages are distended, and their stomachs gradually acquire an un- natural craving for victuals, be- fore the preceding meal is proper- 62 F O O F OO ly assimulated. Such conduct is office for their children : but, in particularly injurious during the such case, it is requisite that the first year of their age: for, when parent be in a complete state of their stomachs become more vigor- health, that she be provided with ous, they may be enabled, by sound teeth, and rinse her mouth slow degrees, to digest different previously with pure water. Un- kinds of victuals, the nature and der these circumstances, she may properties of which are extremely venture to perform mastication, opposite ; though excess in quan- though it would be more advisable tity is always hurtful. No food to relinquish this practice, and to whatever, that has been prepared give infants such food only as they for many hours, should be given are able to chew and digest. to children, especially after being Having already treated on the warmed up, as it generates flatu- food of adults, under the article lence,. heart-burn, costiveness, and Diet, and on different modes of a variety of disorders which are preparing it, under that of Cook- equally painful and difficult to re- ing, we have but a few remarks move. Sudden changes from liquid to add for the information of the to solid food are equally dangerous: reader. one kind of aliment only, should be Vegetables are, with a few ex- given at each meal, in moderate ceptfbns, more difficult of diges- portions ; and not a multiplicity of* tion than animal food; but a due incongruous mixtures, in immedi- proportion of both, with the addi- ate succession, such as broth or tion of acids, during the summer soup, meat boiled or roasted, after months, is alike grateful and con- taking milk, fruit, Sec. ducive to health. On the whole, All stimulating dishes, prepared the flesh of young quadrupeds is for adults, as well as beer, wine, less nutritive than after they have spices, coffee, and other heating attained a proper age ; though it liquors, should be carefully with- will, in general, be more easily held from children ; as they often converted into alimentary matter. occasion the most afflictive com- In a salted state, meat not only plaints, for instance, eructions, loses a considerable part of its ge- vomiting, spasms, and convulsions, latinous and spirituous particles, especially during dentition ; and, but it likewise becomes oppressive if the hapless victims of indulgence to the digestive organ, and im- survive that period, they become parts a degree of acrimony to the liable to other tormenting diseases, human fluids, which has a remark- the most frequent of which are the able tendency to generate putrid scurvy, scrophula, and consump- diseases, such as the scurvv of tion- . mariners....Hence it would be a There is another abuse in the desirable object to ascertain, by feeding of children, which cannot accurate 'experiments, whether betoo seriously reprehended, name- beef, pork, 6cc might not be "kept ly, to introduce chewed victuals fresh at sea for many months into their mouth, a practice equally merely by burying it in charcoal- disgusting and unwholesome.... powder, of which it could be easi- Young and healthy mothers, it has ly divested by proper ablution. been said, may safely perform this Such is our decided opinion, and FOO F OO 63 we venture to recommend this im- portant subject to the farther re- searches of patriotic inquirers. With respect to the quantity of food, there is one general rule, which ought never to be disregard- ed ; namely, to cease eating, when the first cravings of appetite are satisfied, so as to renovate the waste which the body has appa- rently sustained. By a strict ad- herence to this principle, many of those distressing complaints arising from intemperance, might be effec- tually obviated; and our fashiona- ble watering-places would not be so frequently crowded by the victims of luxury. Food of Plants, an expression in agriculture and gardening, by which is understood whatever tends to increase the growth, or affords nourishment to vegetable produc- tions. The proper choice and distribu- tion of this food, in such manner as to ensure the greatest advantage to vegetation, is an object deserv- ing the most attentive exertion of every skilful husbandman.....The component parts of the nourish- ment of plants are supposed to be air, heat, water, earth, and nitre; but it is by no means ascertained, which of these ingredients princi- •pally contributes to their growth and reproduction. Varihus opinions have been held respecting the existence of an aerial acid spirit; but, from the late dis- coveries in chemistry, this invisible agent appears to be no other than what is now termed oxygen gas, or the acidifying principle, by the powerful influence of which even iron is oxvdated, pr converted into rust: and, as this vital gas is an essential constituent of the atmos- phere, all plants necessarily par- take of its animating properties. Thus nitre is said to nourish them ; because it contains a large portion of oxygen; though it is certain that saltpetre only prepares other sub- stances to effect that purpose: thus, if nitre, in a solid or liquid state, be applied to the coot of a plant, it will destroy it; . bot if it be placed at a distance, it attenu- ates, and decomposes the viscous and naturally pernicious matters contained in the earth, so as to render them fit for supplying vege- tables with nutriment. Water contributes to the growth of plants in a very material degree: hence arose the art of floating land in dry seasons, without which ve- getables would perish for want of moisture....See Irrigation. Air, on account of its elasticity, is absolutely necessary to the in- crement of vegetables ; warmth is of equal importance, because no plant can thrive without some de- gree of heat. But, doubtless, the chief article is earth ; which, being prepared by the nitrous, and other volatile salts, such as are generated in dung, not less than by water and air, is assimilated to the nature of plants; constitutes a part of them ; and is inseparable from them: but, if water, air, and heat, be taken away, the plant will still exist; though, from the want of those elements, it has ceased to vegetate. The excess of nitre, air, water, and heat, however, is a proof that these articles do not constitute the proper, or only food of plants.... Thus, too great a proportion of ni- tre, or other salts, corrodes, and deprives them of vegetable life ; too much water drowns them; too great a degree of air dries their roots; and too much heat shrivels and burns them; but there cannot 64 F O O F OO be too large a proportion of earth, unless the plant be too deeply bu- ried under it, so as to exclude the salutary influence of the other ele- ments ; in which case it must ne- cessarily perish. Many experiments have lately been made with factitious gases, in order ' to ascertain whether the growth of plants might be forward- ed by such artificial agents; but, though some of these elastic airs, such as oxygen, have been found remarkably to promote vegetation, yet the expence and trouble, which these applications would occasion in the great wray, will ever be in- superable objections to their gene- ral introduction....From recent at- tempts to fertilize and stimulate the soil itself, as the growing me- dium, with chemical solutions, it appears that water very slightly impregnated with camphor, or, ac- cording to others, with the phospho- ric acid, (which see), has produced uncommon effects on the earth of vegetables, and accelerated their rapid growth in a very evident manner. Farther experiments, however, will decide how far such means are practicable, and whe- ther the nature of plants thus forced, is materially changed or af- fected. In a select collection of " Me- moirs," lately published by the Free Society of Agriculture, Arts and Commerce, in the Department of Ardenne, the following vegetative liquor is recommended for pro- moting the growth, as well as the flowering, of bulbous roots in apart- ments, during the winter:....Take 3 oz. of nitre; 1 oz. of sea-salt; half an oz. of salt of tartar; half an oz. of sugar; and one pint of rain water. Let the salts be gra- dually dissolved in a glazed earthen vessel; and, when the solution is completed, add the sugar, and filter the whole. About eight drops of this liquid must be poured into every 'flower-glass filled with rain or river water: these vessels should be kept constantly full, and the wa- ter be renewed every tenth or twelfth day; a similar portion of the vegetative liquor being added each time. In order to ensure suc- cess, the glasses oughtto be placed on the corner of a chimney-piece, where a fire is regularly kept in cold seasons. FOOLS-PARSLEY, or Lesser Hemlock, Aethusa cynapium, L. an indigenous plant, growing in corn-fields and kitchen-gardens, and flowering in the months of Au- gust and September. This noxious weed greatly re- sembles the common parsley, for which it is sometimes mistaken; but may be easily distinguished by its glossy surface, and total want of odour : when eaten among other plants, it occasions vomiting, vio- lent colic, and other painful symp- toms....Such accidents, however, might be easily avoided, by culti- vating only the curled-leaved pars- ley, Apium graveolens, L. in our gardens....The fools-parsley is eat- en by horses, cows, sheep, and goats ; but is pernicious to sheep. FOOT, that part of the body on which animals stand and walk. The principal cause ofthe lame- ness and distortion observable among many children, especially of the poorer class, is owing to an improper management of them, during their infancy. Instead of being carried on their nurses' arms, in a posture which contracts and palsies the lower extremities, they ought to be supported in such a di- rection that the legs and feet may F OO F O O 65 be at liberty. Nor should they be confined too early in narrow shoes, with a view to render their feet small and taper: those necessary parts of our dress ought to be wide enough to allow sufficient room for motion, and might be fastened with strings, which are preferable to buckles. It will also be proper to adapt the shoes to the form of each foot, by means of separate lasts ; in the same manner as those ofthe fashionable classes are made at present. A kind of half-boots, how- ever, such as may be laced above the ancles, are superior to shoes, as they not only have the advan- tage of fitting the leg, but are like- wise not easily trodden down at the heels; besides,children are enabled to walk more firmly in them than in shoes. With respect to the feetofadults, we would recommend always to adapt the shoe to their size and shape, and utterly to disregard the prevalence of an absurd fashion, which is often attended with in- convenience. Hence arise those painful excrescences, corns, con- cerning the cure of which we have already treated. To the same cause must be ascribed the growing of the nails into the flesh, which is attended with excruciating pains. Bathing the feet and legs, over the knees, in warm water, is of great service, especially after re- turning from a long journey.... When employed as an assistant to medicine, in certain diseases, it is of considerable advantage : and, if it be of a proper temperature, not exceeding 98°, it may be consider- ed as a safe cordial, by which the circulation of the fluids can be ex- cited, or a gentle and salutary fe- ver induced. Bathing of the feet, therefore, is incomparably safer VOL. III. than the generality of cordials and sudorifics, as its effects may be suspended at pleasure. Blistered feet, or vesicles con- taining water, may be prevented in the hot days of summer, by anoint- ing the soles of the feet with veni- son tallow, and wearing worsted socks. We know an instance of a man, who at the age of eighty years travelled on foot, in warm weather, from the vicinity of Dur- ham to the west of Scotland, a dis- tance of 200 miles, in five days, without experiencing any incon- venience : on inquiry, he declared that he made use of no other expe- dient than that of rubbing the feet of clean woollen stockings, every evening, with spirit or oil of tur- pentine ; suffering the moisture to evaporate during the night, and wearing them on the following clay. We believe, however, that vitriolic aether, though more ex- pensive, would be better adapted to the purpose. But, when the feet are once blistered, it is advisable to open the vesicles without delay, by the point of a lancet, or needle ; to express the water ; and rub the parts with the fat of venison, or mutton-suet taken from the kid- neys. Those parents whose children are afflicted with club feet, or other deformities of the lower parts, we would recommend to peruse Mr. Sheldrake's " Practical Essay on the Club-foot," Sec. (8vo. pp. 214. 7s. Murray and Co. 1798); where they will find much information perspicuously arranged, and illus- trated by engravings....See Chil- blain and Shoe. [The many melancholy instances of persons walking with inverted feet, which we daily see, cannot fail of causing regret among medi- K 66 F O O FOO cal men in particular, from the cir- cumstance of their knowing with what ease many of those cases might have been relieved by an early attention. In England great attention has been paid to cases of malconformation of the feet, and few cases are said to occur in which much of the deformity cannot be removed ; but trials ought to be made before the age of two years. Mr. Sheldrake, of London, and Mr. Watt, of Paysley, in Scot- land, have taken the lead in these complaints. Aplate of Mr. Watt's machines may be seen in the Me- dical and Physical Journal of Lon- don, vol. 4.] FOOT-HALT, a disorder pecu- liar to sheep, and which is occa- sioned by an insect resembling a worm, two, three, and sometimes four inches in length. The first appearance of this malady is mani- fest by the lameness ofthe animal; a symptom which increases to so high a degree, as to prevent it from grazing. In consequence of pain, and want of food, the sheep lingers till at length it falls a victim to the disease, unless the worm be timely extracted ; an operation that may be easily performed. As soon as the animal begins to limp, the lame foot should be exa- mined between the close of the claws, where the skin will be found perforated with a hole, through which the insect has worked itself a passage upwards, between the ex- ternal membranes and the bone. In order to extract the worm, the claws should be moved in contrary directions, for a considerable time, till the insect gradually makes its way to the surface. This simple operation will be fully efficient, without any other application ; and it is certainly preferable to drawing the worm out, as in the latter case there is always danger of its break- ing off, and rotting in the sheep's leg, which would materially injure the animal. The foot-halt occurs more fre- quently in wet than in dry seasons; generally in the spring and autumn, but seldom in the summer and win- ter. Sheep that are pastured in high, healthy grounds, are less lia- ble to be attacked by this insect, than those which graze in low mea- dows, or marshy soils. FOOT-ROT, a disease to which sheep are subject, and which is said to be contagious. \ The first symptom of the disor- der is manifest, when the animal affected begins to limp ; though no injury will be perceptible on exa- mining the foot, which is extreme- ly hot. The second stage of the distem- per is a yellowish-white spot, that appears in the cleft of the hoof, spreads gradually, and becomes livid; destroying the hair, Avhich in sound animals covers the foot. At this period, the diseased part acquires a disagreeable smell, and the lameness increases. In the third stage, the malady sinks into the frog of the foot; the shell of the hoof loosens, and the frog is filled with fetid matter, that oozes out when pressed by the hand: a small tumor sometimes breaks out in the front of the leg, about one inch above the hoof, which, however, is easily dis- persed. In the last stage, the foot is so completely mortified by the can- cerous humour corroding every part of it, as to become incurable ; in which case, the skin is the only va- luable part ofthe anim, !. Through these different periods, FOO FOR 67 the sheep affected retain their ap- petite, and feed apparently as well as when in health; but they very soon fall away, and continue to de- cline, till they have lost all their fat....Notwithstanding their rapid decay, at the end ofthe second and the commencement of the third stage, they are so eager for food, that they even crawl on their knees for sustenance. For the cure of this infectious disorder, different remedies have been prescribed ; from which we select the following : the first was invented by the late Mr. Bake- well, the other by Mr. George Culley of Fenton, Northumber- land. 1. Take 3 oz. of verdigrease; of vitriol, and common alum, 4 oz. each; white mercury 1 1 oz. and white copperas 1 oz. The whole is to be finely pulverized, and dis- solved in a quart of white-wine vinegar. 2. Let 4 or., of the best honey ; 2 oz. of burnt aemn reduced to powder, and Alb. of pulverized Armenian bole, be mixed in as mucti train or fish oil as will con- vert these ingredients into the con- sistence of salve: the honey ought first to be gradually dissolved, when the Armenian bole should be pro- perly stirred in, after which the alum and train oil are to be added. The parts affected may be rub- bed with either of these composi- tions; unless the distemper has become incurable ; but in the opi- nion of Mr. Arthur Young (from the 21st vol. of whose Annals we have abstracted these recipes), the red salve of Mr. Culley, is more efficacious than Mr. Bakewell's liquid, having cured one or two diseased feet, where the latter had failed : yet Mr. Y. always employ i the liquid, previous to anointing the animals with the salve. This malady, in general, arises from long grass in wet seasons; but, if sheep be suffered to lie upon their own dung, a fermenta- tion will take place, and occasion either the foot-rot, or the foot-halt: to prevent which fatal disorders, those animals should be well lit- tered, and kept with a strict atten- tion to cleanliness. [This disease was mentioned under the article Cattle.] FORCING, in horticulture, is the art of producing ripe fruits from trees, before their natural season. Although by no means inclined to encourage this artificial practice, as fruit thus raised is neither sa- voury nor wholesome, yet we shall insert the method generally adopt- ed to effect that purpose, for the gratification of the curious, more than for its real utility. A wall should be erected ten feet in height; a border marked out on its south-side, about four feet wide ; and stakes fastened in- to the ground along the edge of the border, at the distance of four inches. These are intended for the support ofthe glass lights (or, with lesb expence, frames covered with oiled paper), which are to be placed in a sloping direction towards the wall, to shelter the fruit, as occa- sion may require : at each end, a door is to be so constructed that it may be opened either way, accord- ing to the course ofthe wind. The frame ought to be moveable; be- cause after a tree has been covered one year, the former should be re- moved to another ; observing that each.fruit-tree be forced only once 68 FOR FOR in three years : by this arrange- ment, they will be more durable and productive. Previously to applying the dung to the wall, it should be thrown to- gether in a heap, for five or six days, that it may thoroughly fer- ment ; thus prepared, it ought to be laid four feet thick at the base of the wall; and continued up- wards in a sloping direction, till it is about two feet in thickness, with- in a few inches from the top of the wall ; but, as it sinks, more dung should be added, for the first heat will only swell the blossom-buds. The proper season for laying it, is about the latter end of November; and, for ripening cherries, three changes of dung will be sufficient to produce very fine fruit in the month of February....This method of forcing, however, being often very expensive and troublesome, tanner's waste is now almost uni- versally employed for producing artificial heat, by enclosing it to the depth of three or four feet, within the walls of a hot-house. Early and late ripening fruits should never be placed together ; because the requisite degree of heat for forcing the latter, would be very prejudicial to the former, after they have produced fruit. Glass, or oiled paper frames, are of considerable service for covering trees ; but they should occasionally be removed, to admit the benefit of gentle showers ; and the doors at the ends may, in warm weather;- either be left entirely open, or one of them only closed. A mat should be suspended before the doors, to protect the trees from night fronts. The fruit-trees most proper for this management are, the avant, ©r small white nutmeg, the Albe- marle, the early Newington, and the brown nutmeg-peaches ; Mr. Fairchilds's early, the elrugo, and Newington nectarines ; the masculine apricot; and the May- duke and May-cherry....With res- pect to vines, the white and black sweet-water grapes will thrive most favourably : for early goose- berries, the Dutch-white, the Dutch early green, and the walnut goose- berry, are the best sorts ; and for currants, the large Dutch-white, as well as the red currants are equal- ly prosperous....See Hot-houses. Forcing of Wine. See Clari- fication. FOREST, generally speaking, signifies a large tract of land, cov- ered with trees. The principal forests in this country are those of Sherwood, Windsor, the New Forest, that of Dean, on the north of the river Severn, and Epping-forest, in the county of Essex. There are, be- sides, several smaller forests, the total extent of which, together w7ith those just enumerated, a- mounts to about 300,000 acres. The utility of forests, to a com- mercial nation, is very great; as, by the quantity of timber, they af- ford, a considerable expence may be saved, which must otherwise be incurred by the importation of ma- terials for ship building. Independently of these consider- ations,' forests of a moderate ex- tent are a national ornament, espe- cially if they do not occupy such lands as could be more usefully employed in agriculture. For- merly, England abounded with woods, and was celebrated for its lofty and majestic oak, which, how- ever, of late years has become scarce. On the contrary, various large tracts of uncultivated ground FOR FOS 69 might now be advantageously planted with larch fir, and other trees; but, as these expensive undertakings are beyond the ability of private individuals, it is to be hoped that the commis- sioners of the Land Revenue will be able speedily to carry so patri- otic a measure into effect....See Plantation. FORE-STALLING is the buy- ing of, or bargaining for, corn, cat- tle, or other merchandize, in its passage to fairs, or markets, for sale, with an intent to dispose of them again at an advanced price. The punishment for this offence, on conviction by two or more wit- nesses, is, for the first, time, two months imprisonment, and forfei- ture of the goods, or their value ; for the second, the offender incurs an imprisonment of six months, and loses double the value of the articles ; and, for the third offence, he is liable to imprisonment dur- ing the King's pleasure ; to a for- feiture of all his property ; and is to be sentenced to stand in the pil- lory. Severe, however, as these regu- lations appear, they have hitherto not been attended with the desired effect. Notwithstanding all the arguments and invectives that have been employed against this grow- ing evil, in printed works, and in the courts of justice, we are per- suaded that it will never be crush- ed, till national councils adopt pro- per and effectual measures for preventing this iniquitous practice. Nay, others assert, that the root of the mischief is intimately con- nected with the landed interest, as well as with the numerous paper bunks which infest both town and Country. Such of our readers as have lei- sure, or inclination, to peruse a few late tracts on this important sub- ject, we shall refer to Mr. Gird- ler's " Observations on the perni- cious consequences of RegruFrg, Forestalling, and Ingrossing, Sec. (8vo. 6s. Seeley, 1800,) where they will find considerable infor- mation, blended with reflections animated by benevolence and pub- lic spirit. Itisbut justice to observe, that the same author has published an abridgment of his work in 12mc. price 2s....Mr. Morris's " Short Inquiry into the Fature of Monopoly and Forestalling,"t(8\o. li. Cadeii, 1800,) contains a temperate dis- cussion of this interesting topic... To these we shall add Mr. Illing- worth's "Inquiry into the Lawe, ancient and modern, respecting Forestalling, Re grating, and Ingros- sing," Sec. (8vo. 7s. Brooke, 1S00,) which comprehends a full inves- tigation of the subject, according to the laws of this country ; and is alike calculated to inform the law- yer, the antiquary, and those who are in search of truth. FOSSIL-ALKALI, is thus cal- led to distinguish it from the vege- table alkali ; as the former is found in a pure state, in the bowels of the earth ; whereas the latter is prepared from various plants. Fossil, or mineral, alkali abounds chiefly in Egypt, Tripoli in Barba- ry, Hungary, several Russian Pro- vinces, and some parts of Asia; but it has seldom been found in the western countries of Europe, except in the vicinity of volcanoes, or in mineral waters ; and in these il exists only in very small por- tions. The chief source of this alkali is the water of the ocean. It forms the basis of sea-salt; and, as it is an article of the greatest utility, 70 F O S FOS different methods of extracting it have lately been invented. It. August, 1781, a patent was granted to Mr. Alex. Fordyce, for his new processes, by which the alkali contained in sea-salt, rock-salt, salt springs, salt-cake, Glauber's-salt, and variolated tar- tar, may be separated from the marine or vitriolic acids....He first converts salt-water, Sec. into Glau- ber's salt, by the application of vi- triolic acid, or of any substance containing the latter. This salt is then to be mixed with a double quantity of iime, chalk, or any other calcareous earth, Or iron, or with any substance containing that metal. The whole is to be placed together in a vault, or other reser- voir, secured from the rain, till it is completely decomposed, when the alkali is to be extracted by dis- sohing it in water, and evaporating it to dryness. Or, the patentee employs 60lbs. of Glauber's salt, or vitriolated tartar ; lOlbs. of char- coal, or any other substance capa- ble of bearing heat, and containing the inflammable principle; and lOlbs. of iron: these ingredients are pounded together, and thrown into forty gallons of water ; where they are suffered to digest for twenty-four hours. The clear so- lution is then to be separated ; and, by evaporating, filtering, and crystalizingit is rendered fit for use. Another patent was granted in March, 1789, to Mr. Anthony Bourboulon de Boneuil, of Li- verpool, for his invention of an ap- paratus on a new construction, and certain new processes for the mak- ing of fossil alkali, which is said to be equal to that extracted from the best barilla.....\s, however, his spe- cification is so complex, that it could not be understood without the aid of an engraving; and, as the patent is not expired, we refer the reader to the 4th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures." The last process which merits our attention, is that of the Earl of Dundonald, for obtaining mi- neral or fossil, and vegetable alkali, from neutral salts composed of those alkalies and an acid; or from the solutions of those salts, whence several articles are disen- gaged or formed, that may be col- lected and applied to various useful purposes. For these different in- ventions, his Lordship obtained a patent in 1795. 1. The most important of the new processes, is that of making Glauber's salt, or sulphat of soda, which is one of those neutral salts, consisting of an alkali and an acid, from which an alkaline salt is to be procured. Thus, several other articles, such as spirit of salt, sal ammoniac, and an iron earth mix- ed with clay, as a pigment, are formed, or disengaged, and may be collected : 2. Glauber's salt is decomposed, forming mineral alka- li, or soda, either in a mild or caus- tic state: 3. Vitriolated tartar is prepared by decomposing the mu- riat of pot-ash; and 4. This pre- paration is converted into either a vegetable alkaline hepar, or mild or caustic vegetable alkali. The salts and other substances result- ing from these chemical opera- tions, may be applied to various purposes, particularly for decom- posing soda from Glauber's salt. As the principal article for which Lord Dundonald has established manufactories, appears to be the Soda now generally sold in the shops, we shall, in the alphabetical series, describe its manifold uses, FOS and content ourselves at present with giving a summary of the in- ventions claimed by the noble pa- tentee : namely, that sea-salt is decomposed by alum, by vitriol of iron, and Epsom-salt, with the acid of heat, when a due proportion of clay, or a clayey iron earth is mix- ed with the salts submitted to the operation ;....that sea-salt is also decomposed by Epsom-salt with the aid of heat, and without -the intervention of clay ;....lastly, that it may likewise be reduced by sulphat of lime, or gypsum, with the aid of heat, when a due pro- portion of clay, containing much iron, is mixed with the sea-salt and gypsum. FObSlL-COAL, a species of pit-coal found in various parts of England....See Coal. In December 1792, a patent was grantedtoMr. John Barber,ofAt- tleborough, Warwickshire, for a method of smelting and purifying fossil-coal, iron-stone, iron ore, Sec. by steam, air, and fire, and for im- pregnating the same with inflam- mable air, by which he produced a tough metal. The patentee directs any portion of iron-stone, or ore, together with a quantity of fossil-coal, to be put into a furnace, into which fire is to be admitted, and steam conveyed from a boiler, by means of pipes, through an aperture made in the hearth. These pipes are not to project into the furnace, but only to extend so far as to permit the steam to convey along with it a quantity of atmospheric air ; and thus a calx sufficiently pure will be produced. The process of purifi- cation' may be facilitated, by plac- ing a vessel of water at the bottom of the furnace, or building, for *ic reception of the hot calx while it FOS 71 Calls, or is disengaged. And if sometimes a proper proportion of sal-ammoniac, or other men- struum, be thrown in among the coals, Sec. while purifying, that operation will be, in a considerable degree, facilitated. When the calces are thus pre- pared, a portion of them, and also a quantity of fossil-coal, or purified coals, are to be put into a smelting furnace, beneath which a fire is to bekindled. Apertures are alsotobe made for the introduction of in- flammable air, from one or more retorts, by means of pipes, either singly or conjointly with air-blast. Limestone, charcoal, and other substances abounding with inflam- mable air, may be added in due proportions, and will have an ef- fect similar to that produced by the inflammable air alone, for which it may be occasionally substituted. The patentee observes, that the proportionate quantities of the va- rious materials employed, can only be ascertained by experience ; and the result of this process will be the production of a tough metal, capable of being applied to several useful purpose.,. FOSSIL-PITCH, or Harden- ed Rock-oil, Petroleum indura- tum ; a bituminous production (see Bitumens,) which consists of two varieties. 1. The Asphaltum, or pure fos- sil-pitch, which is found 'in the shores of the Dead and Red Seas ; and in various parts of Europe. It is a hard, smooth, brittle substance, destitute of smell, and externally of a black or brown colour, but when exposed to the rays of light, appears of a deep red....It is chief- ly used by watch-dial makers, who mix it with lamp-black, and oil of turpentine. The preparation F 72 F OU this compound is said to be kept secret by certain persons at Stras- burgh, in Alsatia. 2. The Fix montana impura, or Tisasphaltum, which is found in Sweden, Italy, and other parts of Europe. It coheres like slag, or the dregs of iron, and is ofthe co- lour of black-lead ; but, if subject- ed to strong heat, it is soon volati- lized ; and, if left in the retort, a liquid substance distils into the re- ceiver, resembling rock oil....This mineral oil is never used in Eng- land as a medicine ; but in France the common people give it in drops for hysteric complaints, and also to their children, with a view to expel worms. FOUL, a disorder in cattle, which proceeds from a peculiar state of the blood, and a watery rheum that descends into the legs, and occasions swellings. To re- move this malady, it has been ad- vised to throw the diseased quad- ruped on its back, and to tie its legs together, when the skin is to be slit with a sharp knife, in a straight direction above the heel. After this operation, a plaster con- sisting of nettles, garlic, and salt, should be applied to the wound, for a clay or two : thus, it is said, the animal will be effectually re- covered. The appellation foul, is also given to a swelling between the clefts, or claws of cloven-footed cattle: it is produced by a worm, and gradually increases till it breaks, at the same time causing the affected creature to halt. To expedite the cure of this complaint, the tumour is directed to be lanc- ed, before it is thoroughly ripe, and as soon as the matter is dis- charged, the wound should be anointed with a mixture of tar and FOU grease. By these applications, to- gether with keeping the feet clean, the disorder may be easily remov- ed....We confess, however, we have had no experience in either cases of this veterinary prac- tice. FOUNDERED, a disease in the feet, to which horses are subject. It is occasioned by hard riding, se- vere labour, great heats, sudden colds, Sec. that inflame the blood, and, as the farriers express it, melt the grease, which descends into the feet; where it settles and causes such a numbness and pricking in the hoof, as in some instances to render the animal affected unable to stand. The general methods of remov- ing this disorder are, first, bleed- ing, which operation, if oppor- tunely performed, is calculated to afford immediate relief....The rapid and irregular circulation of the blood is then to be diminished, by giving the horse cooling salts in- ternally, clysters, an opening diet, and plenty of diluting liquor four or five times every day, together with emollient poultices; which ought to be applied warm round the hoofs, in order to soften them, and to promote a free and equal perspiration. But the sole or frog of the foot affected, should on no pretence be pared to that excess, which is too frequently done by ignorant far- liers. It will be sufficient to clear away the hardened surface of the sole, that the poultice may pro- perly open the pores. All greasy and oily applications should like- wise be avoided, being ill calcu- lated to accelerate the cure. Fowl : See Poultry. Fowl-grass. See Roughish Meadow-grass. FOX FOX 73 FOX, or Canis vulpis, L. an animal of the canine race, well known for his cunning, and the depredations he commits in farm- yards among poultry, and in war- rens among rabbits. Foxes produce but once a year, and the litter generally consists of four or five, but seldom six or eight, and never less than three. The time of gestation is in the winter, and young cubs are found in the month of April. These, like dogs, are brought forth blind ; they continue to grow fifteen months or longer, and live to the age of fourteen years. It is remarkable, that on its long hairy tail the fox has a small bunch of hair which emits an agreeable odour, not unlike that of violets: this proceeds from a gland secreting a viscous humour, which is supposed to serve him as a bal- sam in healing wounds, or as a cordial. His woolly tail is dexter- ously employed for catching lob- sters from the hollows of brooks and rivulets, as well as for blind- ing his persecutors, the dogs, Sec. when it is moistened with urine. But the greatest proof that be- speaks his wonderful ingenuity, is displayed by the manner he rids himself in summer of fleas, his most troublesome enemies. He first seizes with his mouth a par- cel of moss, then gradually, but with retrogade steps, immerses himself in water to the point of his mouth ; and, when these ver- min have retreated to the moss, he suddenly drops his cargo. The fox is not easily, and never completely tamed : when deprived of liberty, he languishes; and if kept too long in a domestic state, he dies of chagrin. His skin is furnished either with a white, grey, VOL. III. blueish, or black fur, which, on account of its softness and warmth, is in many parts of Europe em- ployed for making muffs, and lin- ing clothes. The fur of the black fox caught in the North, is some- times sold at the excessive price of 200 guineas. Various methods are practised for exterminating these predatory animals: they are hunted with dogs ; iron traps are frequently set at their holes, which are also occa- sionally smoaked to expel them, so that they may the more readily fall into the snares laid for their destruction. The most common mode of taking foxes, is by means of gins : these being baited, and a train made by drawing raw flesh across his usual paths, or haum-, to the trap, he is frequently de- coyed....We conceive, howe\er, that the most easy method of re- ducing him to captivity, would be in imitation of that practised in the immense woods of Poland, for catching wolves alive. It simply consists in digging circular holes of sufficient depth, depositing fetid carcases in them as an allurement, and covering them with boards and moss, provided with*a trap-door level with the ground. In this manner, all the foxes in the Unit- ed Kingdom might be exterminat- ed in one season, and much injury prevented, which is every year suf- fered by the husbandman, chiefly for the sake of perpetuating a gra- tuitous chace. FOX-GLOVE, the Common, or Purple, Digitalis purpurea, L. an indigenous biennial plant, growing in meadows, on hedge-banks, and the sides of hills ; in dry, gravelly, or sandy soils, but seldom on flat grounds, unless in very dry situa- tions : for, though the seeds vege- L • 74 FOX tate, the roots decay in the winter, and the plant consequently perishes. It abounds in the Midland, but is rarely seen in the Eastern coun- ties, and produces purple flowers, which blow in the months of June and July. The leaves of the fox-glove have a bitter nauseous taste, but do not possess any peculiar smell: they have long been used with consider- able advantage, in the preparation of an ointment for sores and scro- phulous tumors. If taken inter- nally, this plant is a violent purga- tive and emetic :....in the country, a decoction of it, with the poly- pody of the oak, is frequently given in epileptic fits. An infusion of two drams of the leaf, in a pint of water, given in doses of half an ounce, till it be- gin to operate, is recommended for the dropsy, especially that of the breast; in which disorder it has proved of the greatest utility : the plentiful use of diluents is or- dered during its operation. It has likewise been taken in substance, at bed-time, in doses of one, two, or three grains of the leaves pul- verized ; and often operates as a very powerful diuretic, without producing any other evacuation. Sometimes, however, this dose excites severe and unexpected vomiting ; it has also the remark- able property of rendering the pulse slower ; frequently occasions distressing giddiness, and affects the power of vision. The Digitalis has, within a few years, been advantageously em- ployed in pulmonary consumptions, and other disorders, where the fre- quency of the pulse requires to be abated, with a view to repress the irregular action of the arterial sys- tem, and arrest the progress of disease: and though we doubt FOX whether any thing like medicine, or factitious air, will ever be dis- covered for the cure of that mer- ciless disorder, yet we entertain a very high opinion of the powers of the fox-glove, if timely administer- ed ; but we think it our duty to add, that it is one of those active and virulent plants which cannot safely be entrusted to inexperienced persons, or empirics. As every part of fox-glove has a very bitter and acrid taste, by which it is apt to corrode the mouth, throat, and stomach, chil- dren ought to be warned against its poisonous properties....Sweet butter-milk, or oil and vinegar, in large draughts, will be the most effectual antidotes. [The digitalis as was stated under the head consumption, has un- questionably done good, in that and other diseases. But it cannot be concealed, that it has frequently failed, and that much mischief also has been occasioned by its exhibi- tion. The causes of the failure of this medicine have been amply de- tailed by the Editor in a paper in- serted in the Few-York Medical Repository, vol. l.p. 153. To this paper the reader must be referred for a particular notice on each head, all of which it may be well here to state generally. 1. The season of collecting the plant. 2. The part of the plant used. 3. The mode of curing it. 4. The adulteration of the plant. 5. The manner of exhibiting it. 6. The condition of the system at the time of use. The most common effects ob- served from full closes, are vertigo, pain or throbbing of the forehead, or eye'?, imperfect vision, nausea, vomiting, reduction in the force and frequency of the pulse, or extreme FOX irregularity in it. Whether the medicine be given therefore in dropsy or consumption, the great- est certainty ought to exist, that inflammatory action is prevalent in the system: otherwise much harm may be expected from the medicine. As a general rule, it may be observed that great cau- tion is requisite in its use, though perfectly safe, when judiciously ad- ministered. Dr. MkCLEANinthe Medical and Physical Journal of London, vol. ii. p. 113, has pub- lished an admirable paper on the medical use of this plant, and ad- vises the following form of its exhi- bition. Leaves of the flesh plant 4oz. Spirit of wine 5oz. digest during seven clays with a gentie heat and strain. Of this medicine thirty drops or less may be given to an adult thrice a day.... Physicians should cultivate this plant for their own use, as it never can be depended upon when bought at the shops.] FOX-TAIL-GRASS, or Alope- turus, L. a genus of plants con- sisting of 18 species, of which Dr. Smith enumerates four, and Dr. Withering six, to be natives of England : the principal of these are the following: 1. The pratensis, or Meadow Fox-tail-grass, which is, perennial, grows in meadows and pastures, and flowers in the month of May or June. This plant thrives natu- rally in moist soils only ; it affords the best grass that can be sown on low meadows, or in boggy places which have been newly drained. Its seeds ripen early, and are easily collected. Although sheep pastur- ing on it, are said to acquire a coarser fleece, yet it furnishes a most grateful food to cattle ; but, ks the larvae of a species of flies F R A 75 devour the seeds, to so great an ex- tent, that in many spikes scarcely one will be found perfect*, its cul- tivation is rather precarious. These insects are very minute, of an orange colour, and are the prey of the Cimcx campestris, or Field-bug, whose mouth is peculiarly formed for searching the husks of grasses. 2. The bulbosus, or Bulbous Fox-tail-grass, which is perennial, grows in moist marshy situations, and flowers in the months of June and July. This species is particu- larly adapted for consolidating the surface of fenny situations. Hence it deserves to be more generally cultivated in such soils, in order to prevent them from being peached by the feet of cattle. 3. The agrestis, or Slender Fox- tail-grass, which is likewise peren- nial, grows in corn-fields or on road sides, and flowers in the month of July. This plant is pro- vincially called black-bent; and, though a very troublesome weed, when growing among wheat, it might be sown with advantage as a meadow-grass; for, in its green state, it is much relished by cattle ; and Bechstein asserts, that cows fed with it, give an unusual quan- tity of milk. FRACTURES of Bones, are ac- cidents which generally arise from external injury. They are either simple, when the skin and other integuments remain sound; or double, when splinters are pro- jecting, and the fracture commu- nicates with a wound. If, after a severe fall, or blow, the patient feels pain, accompanied with swelling, and tension of the contiguous muscles ; when a grat- ing noise,' distortion, and a loss of muscular power a»'e perceived on handling the injured part/there i* every reason to apprmead t!;.i.t iiu* 76 F &E bones are broken. No time should then be lost in applying to a skil- ful surgeon; as fuactures and con- tusions, especially those of the ribs, are generally attended with febrile symptoms, which require the immediate use of the lancet. Meanwhile, the limb should be placed in the easiest posture, and the body kept quiet, cool, and open, by emollient clysters. As'soon as the size and situa- tion of the fractured bone is ascer- tained, two or moie splints made of leather or pasteboard, exactly fitting the injured limb, should be procured, and moistened previous to their application; thus, thty will soon accommodate themselves to the shape of the parts, and serve to retain the limb steady with a very slight bandage; for which purpose, that of 12 or 18 tails is preferable, as being more easily applied and removed than the usual rollers.0.Fractures of the ribs require adhesive plasters ; the patient must always lie straight and easy, without being exposed to opportunities of sneezing, laugh- ing, coughing, or distending his stomach by hard food. Hence the lightest provisions, and frequent weak or diluent drink, are neces- sary....The most proper external application in fractures, is a mix- ture of equal parts of vinegar, oil and water, with which the com- presses and bandages should be repeatedly moistened. The greatest care should be taken to retain the bones, after they are replaced, in their situation, by proper compresses, or bandages, which, however, should not be too tightly applied. Much depends on the age and habit of the pati- ent, with respect to the time ne- cessary for performing a cure; though, in middle-aged persons,and FRE under favourable circumstances, a fracture of the leg or thigh bone may be healed in two months; of the arm, in six weeks; of the ribs, clavicles, and bones of the hand, in three weeks. But in old age, a much longer time is gene- rally required than during infancy. Fragrance: See Odour. FRECKLES, are spots of a yel- lowish colour, about the size of a lentile-seed, frequently appearing on the face, neck, and hands.... These discolourations are either constitutional in the individual, or arise in consequence of the jaun- dice, or the action of the sun upon the part. Heat, or a sudden change of the weather, often causes the skin to assume a darker colour than natural, and thus produces what is called, tan, sun-burn, and morphew, which differ only in de- gree, and usually disappear in winter. Persons of a delicate complex- ion, and particularly such as have naturally red hair, are most sub- '1 ject to freckles in the face, and other parts exposed to the air. For the gratification of those who consider the removal of such little blemishes an object worthy of their attention, we shall communicate the following remedies: According to Romberg, one of the best applications for dispers- ing freckles, is a mixture of bul- lock's gall with a solution of alum, which, after the latter has sub- sided, must be digested in the sun for three or four months in a close phial....Anotherpreparationismade by taking 4 oz. of lemon-juice, and mixing with it 2 drams of sugar, and one of borax, finely powdered ; and, after these ingredients have stood a week or fortnight in a glass bottle, the liquor will be fit for use....As, however, freckles gene- FRI FRO 77 rally vanish during the winter, and have been observed to re-appear in early spring, the sharp morning- air of which, though salubrious, is said to be uncommonly favourable to their re-production, perhaps the most easy method of preventing them, would be a careful attention to this circumstance. FRENCH-MERCURY, orMer- curialis annua, L. an indigenous plant, growing on waste places, and dunghills, in the vicinity of towns; and flowering in the months of August and September. The whole of this vegetable is mucila- ginous : when cultivated in gar- dens, it is dressed like spinach, to which it is said to be greatly supe- rior ; but, if eaten in a large quan- tity, it is aperient....In France, ac- cording to Tournefort, a syrup is prepared from the juice of the mercury, 2 oz. of which are given at one dose as a laxative : it is also used in clysters, and pessaries, in the proportion of one part of honey and two of the juice....In England, this plant was formerly in great repute as an emollient, but is at present disregarded....As an article of diet, it may be useful to per- sons liable to costiveness. French-Wheat ; See Buck- wheat. FRICTION, in medicine, is the act.of rubbing a diseased part with oils, unguents, and other matters, in order to ease, relieve, and cure it. Friction is also performed with a flesh-brush, a linen-cloth, or with flannel; which last is the most eligible. It is a kind of exercise that remarkably contributes to the health of sedentary persons ; for it excites and kindles the natural warmth ; diverts defluxions ; pro- motes perspiration; opens the pores , and lends to dissipate stag- nant humours. This operation is particularly be- neficial to the nervous, debilitated, and studious ; being an useful sub- stitute for other exercises. Hence we recommend to such individuals to spend half an hour every morn- ing and evening in rubbing their whole body, especially their limbs, with a clean piece of flannel. It ought, however, to be observed, that this practice will be of the greatest service when the stomach • and bowels are empty. Lastly, we venture to affirm, that the most important purposes to which friction may be rendered subservient in the animal economy, have hitherto belsn almost entirely neglected: we are, however, con- vinced from experience, that medi- cated frictions, or the introduction of the most active medicines into the human system, by rubbing them in properly on the surface, might be attended with the most happy effects, especially in all chronical diseases. Common sense appears to have long since pointed out this excellent method of ad- ministering medicines, even to the Indian savages, though it is little practised in enlightened Europe, where the stomach is doomed to be the field of battle, for deciding commotions and irregularities in our complicated frame. But who is hardy enough to maintain, that the digestive organ was by Na- ture destined to be the exclusive vehicle of drugs, and to serve as their common laboratory ? FROG, or Rana, L. a genus of amphibious reptiles, consisting of 17 species, the most remarkable of which are; 1. The temporaria, or Common Frog, which is an animal so well known as to render any description unnecessary....Some of its proper- ties, however, are very singular: 78 FRO its power of leaping is extraordi- nary, and it swims better than any other quadruped. Its body is naked, and without any tail: the fore limbs are very lightly made, while the hind legs and thighs are remarkably long, and furnished with strong muscles. As soon as the spawn is vivified, the future frog becomes a tadpole, in which state it is wholly a water-animal; but as soon as it is changed into a frog, and attains its proper shape, it immediately migrates to the shore. These animals adhere closely to the backs of their own species, as well as to those of fishes. It has been remarked that they will even destroy pike ; and it is certain that they materially injure carp, by fix- ing their hind-legs to the back of those fish, while their fore-legs are fastened to the corner of each eye; so that the carp become much ex- hausted, and frequently sink under the weight of so disagreeable a companion....See Fumitory. 2. The esculent a, or Eatable Frog, differs from the former spe- cies, only in having an high pro- tuberance in the middle of the back, which forms an acute angle. Its colours likewise are more vivid, and its marks more distinct, the ground colour being a pale or yel- lowish green, marked with rows of black spots from the head to the rump....Both this and the preceding species are, according to Mr. Pen- dant, used as food, though rarely in this country. 1 ROST, is that state of the at- mosphere, which causes water and other liquids to congeal, or freeze. Frost is supposed to descend from the upper parts of bodies ; but no experiments have hitherto ascertained to what depth it will FRO extend either in earth or water, as its effects vary, according to the degree of coldness in the air, the longer or shorter duration of the frost, the texture of the earth, the nature of the juices with which it is impregnated, Sec. In cold countries, the frost fre- quently proves fatal to mankind, not only producing mortification, but even death itself. The hands of those unfortunate persons, who die in consequence of intense cold, are first seized, till they lose the sense of feeling; next a drowsi- ness prevades the whole body, which, if indulged in, is attended with imperceptible dissolution. If animation is suspended from severe frost, the following will be the external symptoms : rigidity of the whole body ; and inflexibility of the limbs, which continue in the same posture as the frozen person had adopted during the unfortunate accident; the teeth* are closed ; froth sometimes issues from the mouth ; there is a total insensi- ^ bility to all stimulants, and the extremities are partly mortified, and, in some instances, spontane- ously separate. Notwithstanding these unfavour- able appearances, every exertion ought to be instantly made to re- store life, if possible, by strictly adhering to the following direc- tions ; because there is a greater probability of recovering such per- sons, than those deprived of life, in consequence of drowning or sus- pension by the cord. No external warmth of any kind * must be applied to frozen persons, till the internal or vital heat, be ex- cited ; when the former also should be carefully and very gradually adapted to the manifest degree of the latter. Hence the whole process should be performed either FRO FRO 79 in the open air, or in a cold room; the body cautiously carried in a posture somewhat erect, to the nearest dwelling; the head turned gently towards the right side ; and the clothes carefully taken oft", without injuring the skin, or bend- ing the limbs. These precautions are necessary, as a rough treat- ment may easily occasion disloca- tions ot the joints, or fractures of the bones. Next, the whole raked frame, excepting the face, should be covered with a bed of snow from twelve to eighteen inches in thickness; or, if this cannot be pro- cured, cold water and ice may be substituted, and cloths successive- 1} dipped in it may be spread over the w hole body, especially the head and breast. After continuing these allusions, gentle frictions with flan- nel or soft brushes, likewise im- mersed into cold fluids, should be commenced; alternately making use of the shower-bath, and perse- vering in these attempts for an hour at least, when the body ought to be left undisturbed for some minutes. If no signs of life appear, clysters of cold water, with oil and vinegar, or six ounces of brandy, are to be given, and the former process again and again repeated ; so that five or six hours sometimes elapse, be- fore any symptoms of animation are perceptible. As soon, however, as there is the least prospect of re- covery, warm fomentations must be resorted to ; the degree of fric- tion cautiously increased; or the patient placed in bed between two robust persons ; emollient clysters prepared; and, when he is able to swallow, a cup of tea with a little vinegar, wine, or brandy, may be allowed. In many desperate in- stances, however, it will perhaps be proper to perform venesection, to introduce air into the lungs by means of common bellows, or those described in p. 391, volume ii« or to have recourse to the electri- fying machine, or the earth bath, Sec. but such cases must be sub- mitted to the judgment of the pro- fession. [Mr. Eton, in his account ofthe Turkish Empire, relates the suc- cess which attended the Russian application of goose-grease to frozen limbs after the battle of Ochakof, even when the parts were perfectly black. The parts were kept constantly covered with tlie grease. The fat of common fowls is a domestic remedy in the United States for the same complaint. The simplicity of these remedies ought not to prevent our using them.] The power of cold on vegetables is well known ; and, though the frosts of severe winters are on the whole more injurious to vegetation than those of the spring, yet, as the former very seldom occur in this climate, the latter are produc- tive of more extensive damage, be- cause their effects are evident al- most every year....Frosts act most powerfully on ground newly culti- vated, on account of the vapours continually ascending from such soil. Trees recently cut, also, suf- fer more than others from the springfrosts; a circumstance which must be attributed to their shoot- ing forth with greater luxuriance. Hence, likewise, light and sandy soils are thus more frequently da- maged than firm and tough land, though both may be equally dry. As the blossoms of fruit-trees are more paiticularly affected by early frosts, we shall communicate the following easy and simple me- thods of securing them: J. A rope is to be interwoven 80 FRO FRO among the branches of the tree, and one end of it immersed in a pail of water. This rope, it is said, will act as a conductor, and convey the effects of the frost from the tree to the water. [This method has been men- tioned in foreign publications upon the authority of the Chevalier Bienenberg of Prague, by whom a straw rope was used with success. Dr. Anderson also quotes it, Re- creations, vol. l.p. 26. A compa- rative experiment might easily be made of the effects of ropes com- posed of both materials, and it is to be wished, that the result may be published. It seldom happens that a period of three years occurs without a late frost in the spring. Much injury was suffered in the month of April 1302 ; and the snow that fell on the eighth day of May in the pre- sent year in Philadelphia, and the frost on the two succeeding nights, will long be remembered.] 2. According to M. Mallet, the early hoar-frost may be ren- dered harmless in its effects, by pouring fresh spring-water on the trees and vines thus covered, be- fore the sun rises.... When mist or dew attends a frosty night, but has not preceded it, Dr. Darwin sup- poses that a hoar-frost may be less injurious than a black-frost; be- cause the case of ice on the buds of trees, or on young grass, being instantly produced, covers them with a bad conductor of heat, and prevents them from being exposed to so great cold as is occasioned by the continuance of a black frost, without hoar or rime. [Means of preserving trees from Frost. To explain the phenomena of the frost on vegetables, it is requi- site to set forth a few physical prin- ciples. Water occupies more space in a state of ice than when a fluid; whereas the fat and oil of vegeta- bles occupy less in a state of con- gelation than in that of fluidity. The trees, especially those whose leaves drop off in autumn, imbibe during the summer a considerable quantity of humidity, and evaporate in proportion. Accordingto the experience ofthe celebrated and Rev. Mr. Hales, a tree clothed with leaves imbibes from the atmosphere thirty times more water than one which is d^ prived of leaves. The vessels of the young suckers are larger in propor- tion than those of the trunk, and consequently they contain a greater quantity of humidity. Trees which retain their leaves winter and summer imbibe but little water; the juice having in these trees a very slow motion, be- comes more glutinous, and keeps in a certain though slow motion during the winter : this is also the reason why those trees do not shed their leaves during the winter. Those principles are applicable to the trees that lose 4ieir leaves in autumn ; and which, having re- tained them late, have imbibed during the summer a great quanti- ty of moisture ; should they be sur- prised by the frost in the winter, before their juices are changed into a glutinous nature, that does not so easily freeze or expand, those aqueous juices will congeal and oc- cupy more space, and by their di- latation burst the vessels of the young branches; the juice extra- vasates, especially in young suckers, and occasions thereby, as it does FRO FRO 81 likewise in animals, the death of the tree, by a kind of hemorrhage, which nothing can stop. Experience proves the truth of these facts. The trees of a warm country which are transferred to a colder climate, in the beginning of the spring, before the sap is in mo- tion, bear hard winters without in- jury; but if they are planted when the sap has begun to rise, or too early in autumn, when the sap is still in motion, the trees being in the winter replete with that aqueous moisture, and which has not had time for conversion into a gluti- nous juice, perish through the 'causes which we have just now set forth. In England, in the winters of 1708 and 1709, almost all the trees pe- rished, the mulberry tree excepted, whose leaves had been plucked off before the winter, for the nourish- ment or food of silk-worms. Those trees having been deprived of their leaves betimes, were no longer re- plete with that aqueous juice which the leaves imbibe in abundance.... Here then we perceive the wise disposition of Nature, which re- quires the trees to shed their leaves before the winter, because they are as injurious to them in that season as they are favourable to them in another. As the trees that come from the southern countries contain more aqueous juice than those that grow in the north, those trees trans- planted in this latter climate are more liable to perish by frosts ; but Nature herself presents to us the remedy to preserve those trees from the frost; tl is is, to pull oh' the leaves before they f.!l of them- selves ; observing nevertheless the footsteps of Nature, that is to say, not to perform this in one day, but vol. in. by degrees, so that by the begin- ning of winter, the trees should be almost quite bare. Great attention must be paid not to pluck off the buds at the same time. Through this method, trees that are some- what delicate are preserved, be- cause the juices of such trees, be- coming thicker before the winter, and being likewise less abundant, the tree is no longer liable to the same inconveniences. Before you act upon a large scale, an experiment may be easily made upon the small branches of the tops of trees, which most com- monly are frost-bitten : by divest- ing them of their leaves betimes, their freezing will be prevented. They should first begin early to disrobe the most aqueous trees, as well as the exotics, and those recently planted, rather than those that have been a long while in the country. One may in general judge that the trees whose leaves grow first in the spring, are the most aqueous, and indeed, Nature, al ways regular in her performances, deprives them of their leaves first, in autumn. The above mode of pre-ertinp" the effects of frost on fruit trees, was first noticed by Mr. Stromer, Professor in the mm ;rshy of Up- sal, a translation ol whose paper is inserted in a collection of " Stlec: Essays on Corp.nv rce, . 'gricul'urc," Sec. London, 1751, 8vo. These essays are said to have been trans- lated from the Journal Economise, published at Paris. The same prin- ciples were again published in a late French work, emi.led the k- Din. d'Industrie," in which the Editor first saw them, and from the supplement published by Dr. Willich, it appears a shnilar ar- ticle is inserted in the " Giorv-P' M 82 FRO Mntycloptedico of Vicenza, by M. De San Martino, as an original pa- per. Mr. Blanchet attributes the bursting of trees in winter, to the extrication of the air from ice : and observes that the air, a perma- nently elastic fluid being compress- ed, and forced to give way to the particles of water, which cold, or the attractive power of the atoms of bodies, draws violently together, it follows that the ice into which the water is converted, must break asunder, in order to afford a pas- sage to this aeriform substance, Which cold can neither condense nor make solid, and by separating the ice into irregular masses, must rend or shiver, with a cracking noise, the vessels no longer able to hold it....See Med. Repository.'] In order to recover and preserve such trees from total decay, as have erideutiy been injured by severe winter-frost, a correspondent has favoured us with the following easy and expeditious remedy ; for the success of which he appeals to his repeated experience : When a tree appears to have suffered from iff- tense cold, he advises to make lon- gitudinal incisions in the bark, ex- tending to the whole length of the trunk, on the north, west, and east sides ; but never in a southern di- rection. As the east-winds are dry and piercing, very few and super- ficial slits only should be made on that side. This operation ought to be performed in the month of March, before the first sap rises ; and repeated in June, while the second sap ascends; but always so managed, that only the upper- most bark, or epidermis, be divided; as too deep an incision, though harmless in the spring, might be attended with fatal consequences FRO in the heat of summer. In trees, however, which are thoroughly frozen, it will be useful to make deeper cuts; thus to give vent to the stagnant fluids, and promote their circulation. These cuts shouldbe di- rected against the centre ofthe tree, drawn in a straightline downwards; for, in the contrary case, the bark is apt to separate in chinks, afford shelter to vermin, and eventually frustrate the attempt. By a strict adherence to these rules, it will be found that apple-trees, in particu- lar, when slit in every direction, (except the south side), retain all their bark ; others, which had un- dergone one-half of the operation, were but partially preserved ; and such as had received only two cuts, retained only the intermediate por- tion of the bark, from which they produced new shoots. This simple method is farther attended with the additional benefit that, while con- tributing to the growth of the tree thus affected, it tends to prevent the decay of those which have in the preceding year been injured by the depredations of caterpillars, and the subsequent stagnation of their fluids. Although it has been generally believed, that frost meliorates the soil, and especially clay-lands, yet as ice contains no nitrous particles, such improvements can only be of a transitory nature, by ehlarging the bulk of some moist soils, and leaving them more porous for some time after the thaw; but, when the water has exhaled, the ground becomes as hard as before, being compressed by the incumbent weight of the air....See also Clay. Nor is the salutary influence of frosty seasons, on the health of mankind, in the least confirmed by the annual bills of mortality ; a3 FRO FRU 83 many old and debilitated persons, whose vital heat is insufficient to excite into action their vessels, al- ready too unsusceptible of irrita- tion, die in consequence of long frosts, during severe winters. Birds, and other wild animals, as well as tender vegetables, perish benumbed from the same cause.... It deserves, however, to be remark- ed, that a sharp dry frost does not affect the human skin with that sensation of chilly and piercing- cold which we experience, when the air is loaded with moisture, the temperature of which is near the freezing point. This remarkable difference arises from the intense degree of cold produced by the evaporation of fluids, which conti- nually takes place on the surface of living bodies, where it naturally produces a more perceptible effect, than the simple contact of dry air would occasion, when it is but a few degrees below freezing. To the young and robust, therefore, frost is more pleasing than moist air ; as, in the former, they are able to keep themselves warm by increased exercise ; which, in the latter, only tends to promote and render the evaporation more se- verely felt on the skin. For the same reason, Dr. Darwin ob- serves, severe and continued frosts " destroy the children ofthe poor, who want both food, fire, and clothing in this harsh climate." To preserve vegetable roots, •as well as fruit, from the effect of cold, the following directions will be sufficient: Dry sand, and cut straw, are eminently adapted to that purpose. Potatoes, turnips, onions, Sec. should be loosely plac- ed on sand, either under or above ground, and slightly co\ered with cut straw or chaff; but carrots and parsnips, we are informed, may be kept during the whole winter, by placing them in rows or heaps, so that their tops project at the sides, being the reverse of the method followed with turnips when packed in carts....See also Apples, vol. i. If, notwithstanding these pre- cautions, vegetables should be in- jured by the frost, it will be advi- sable, especially with frozen pota- toes, to immerse them in cold wa- ter for a short time, on the ap- proach of a thaw. By this expe- dient, the frosty particles are gra- dually extracted, and the vegetat- ing principle is preserved, after the severest season. On the other hand an intense degree of cold is also attended with some good effects. Thus, aroma- tic spirits possess a weaker flavour when newly distilled, than alter they have been kept six or seven months, especially during the win- ter season. Experience has evin- ced, that this favourable change was produced only by the influenc,c of cold; and M. Baume found, that by immersing quart-bottles filled with liquors, into a mixture of pounded ice and sea-salt, fcrsix or eight hours, the spirit proves as grateful to the palate as that which had been kept for several years....Geoefroy remarks, that simple waters also acquire a more agreeable flavour, after having been for some time exposed to the effects of cold....See likewise Vi- nega.;. FRUIT-TREES, are such as bear fruit, namely, Apple,Che';. - ry, Pear-trees, S:c. for* the par- ticular culture of which we refer to those articles. At present, w* 84 F RU F R U shall confine ourselves to remarks equally applicable to orchards, and to single tr^es. V. ime young, no tree should be suffered to bear a large quantity of fruit : and, if they abound with blossoms, the fruit should be ga- thered as soon as it is formed ; leaving only half a dozen ofthe produce, to ascertain its size and quality. By this measure, the trees will not only produce larger and finer fruit, but, by being kept clear, the leading and collateral branches will every year become more vi- gorous. Nor ought any young plant, or newly-engrafted tree, to be permitted to run mop-headed, as it will make no progress, till each branch has acquired a determined leader : for, if the growth of a tree be prevented, it will be extremely difficult to throw such energy into the system, as to enable it to grow freely. As long as fruit-trees continue in the nursery, it will be requisite to cut down the head, in order to give strength and symmetry to the stem: it will also be useful to shorten most of the grafts, lest they should be blown out by the wind: these operations likewise contribute to swell the buds. The ingenious Mr. Bucknall particularly recommends, not to place the. rows of trees in a situa- tion either directly north or south, but rather inclining to the east, as the sun will then shine upon them in the early part, of the day during the spring, and thus dissipate the vapours collected in the night ; which, if suffered to condense, will stint the fruit in the earlier stages of its growth. He farther ob- . serves, that if the sf.aws (or shades) be properly attended to, the trees being placed in this position, will be enabled to withstand the power of the winds ; nor will they be af- fected by blight. The shaw will also protect the fruit from the au- tumnal winds, by which half the crop of fruit is not unfrequently blown down, before it is ripe : and, as the heads are at that season of the year laden with fruit and leaves, many trees are torn up from the ground, or so lacerated as to be completely spoiled ; a misfortune that might be effectually prevented by a proper disposition of the shades. In the Transactions of the Eco- nomical Society of Leipzig, we meet with a communication from the Rev. Mr. GERMERSHAUsEir, on the means of promoting the growth of young fruit-trees, espe- cially in grass land. This method simply consists in spreading fiax- shows, or the refuse of flax, after it has been combed, on the soil contiguous to the trunks of the trees, as far as the roots extend ; by which means their size as well as their fertility is remarkably increased. He mentions an in- stance, where an old plum-tree which, being in a languishing state, in a grass-field, was treated in the manner above directed, and thus not only acquired a new bark, but produced larger, and better tasted fruit: the young shoots also, which formerly grew up around the stem, were prevented from sprouting forth, because the refuse of the flax excluded the ac- cess of air to the trunk, and im- parted additional nutriment to the roots. The leaves falling from the trees in autumn, may be sub- stituted for the fiax-shows, if these cannot be easily procured; but it will be necessary to dig a small trench for the reception of the FRU FRU 85 decayed leaves, and also to cover them with tiles, flat stones, or a log of wood, to prevent their dis- persion by the wind. This pre- caution, however, is not required with the refuse of flax, which ad- heres so closely to the soil, as to withstand the most violent storm. Although gardeners bestow the strictest attention on orchards, it sometimes happens that the bark of trees is stripped off by sheep, or by other accidents. In this case, it has been recommended by Mr. W. Fairman, of Miller's House, Lynsted, Kent, to take off the arms of such trees as are damaged; to cut slips of the rind, about two or three inches in width, and to place four or five of them perpendicularly round the naked part. The damaged rind is previously to be cleared away, the sound bark somewhat raised, and the slips inserted beneath it, to promote the circulation of the sap. These dressings are next to be bound very tight with rope-yarn ; and a composition of loam and cow dung, together with a small pro- portion of drift sand, should be ap- plied, over which some old sack- ing, or similar stuff, ought to be fastened. Mr. Fairman adds, that he made an experiment with this mode of treatment, in the spring of 1794, on some trees which had been much damaged by sheep, and that it completely succeeded, the slips adhering close- ly, and being full of sap. Fruit-trees, like the rest of the vegetable creation, are the prey of a variety of insects, of which few are more destructive than those infesting apple, pear, cherry, oak, white-thorn, and similar trees.... They deposit their black eggs in clusters, resembling withered leaves, and which are twisted by a cobweb round the uppermost branches. These notorious in- sects are hatched in the spring, when they assume the form of very diminutive caterpillars, which destroy every thing before them, and rapidly propagate in the most unfavourable weather. They da- mage oaks very materially; de- vour the white-thorn, and kill the plant: apples and pears, likewise, receive great injur}'....The only re- medy hitherto known of extermi- nating such noxious vermin, is to cut off all the twigs or shoots of every tree on which these nests of insects appear ; to collect them in a heap, and burn them as soon as the weather will permit; for where this necessary operation is deferred till the summer approach- es, the insects increase prodigious- ly, and commit irreparable da- mage....See Caterpillar and Insects. The disorders to which fruit- trees are subject, are various ; the most fatal are Blight, Canker, Mildew, Moss, ike. to which we refer....See also Diseases of Plants. The effects of frosts are like- wise often fatal, especially to the more tender fiuii-tree ;. With a view to obviate such damage, dif- ferent methods have been suggest- ed ; the most practicable of which we have noticed in the preceding article. We shall, however, add a few additional hints, in order that the reader may select such as are the most simple and least ex- pensive. In a communication from a Swedish agriculturist to a respect- able periodical work, published on the Continent, the following expe- dient is stated to have been sue- 86 FRU FRU cessfully employed, to protect fruit- trees from the vernal frosts. As soon as the weather begins to grow cold in autumn, large quantities of water are to be poured on the trunks of such trees, so that they may receive an early impression of the cold. In the spring, snow is to be accumulated round their stems ; which retards vegetation, and prevents them from blossom- ing too early. In consequence of this irrigation, the buds shoot forth at a period, when no apprehension need be entertained from the at- tacks of the frost that frequently happens during the nights of spring....Such practice of watering the borders of trees, is said to in- crease the heat in them, by acce- leratingthe motion of their juices, if the soil of such border has been properly opened and prepared. [According to Tilloch {Phil. Mag.) vol. 3d, Colerus a German writer recommends " to dig a trench around the root of a tree, and to fill it with water, or to keep the roots moist until it has blossomed." A tree thus backened in its vege- tation will not probably be attacked by the late frosts of our variable climate.] It is farther recommend- ed, to add one ounce of common salt to every gallon of water, where those borders are old, and have been impoverished by pro- ducing many successive crops ; or if they have been manured with dung not sufficiently putrified. \_Means of preventing the flow- ers and fruit from falling off, and of retarding their openire;. " The means proposed to retard the opening of flowers, consists in making, in the autumn, a ligature on the stems of the young trees: that compression slackens the mo- tion of the saps rising, and the tree blossoms the later. Fruits are also likely to fall off as well as flowers. We see trees, which after having had a great abundance of flowers, are covered with young fruit, that promises the most plentiful crop : but it some- times happens, that they almost all drop off. This accident is but too frequent with apple and pear trees. The way to remedy this incon- venience is to sprinkle the root or foot of the trees when they are in blossom with five or six buckets of water; and, to preserve the humidity, the bottom must be co- vered with straw, which prevents too hasty an evaporation of the wa- ter:....by these means, the flow- ers and buds are preserved from falling off. The slight frosts which overcome unfolded flowers, cause the weak 'and tender ones to perish. We read in M. L'Abbe Rosier's Journal for the ysar 1772, that Mons. Mustel, having for two suc- cessive years cut off the petals of pear blossoms or flowers, observed that the fruits were more success- ful than when they were left on ; but that care should be taken to cut the stamina: so that in 1772, a year in which the pear trees bore but little fruit, a number of those whose plants had been cut off, were loaded with beautiful fruit." Diet, d' Industrie.'] There is a method of making fruit grow, during winter: and though we are no advocates for premature productions, we have abstracted the following process for the satisfaction of the curious, from the 9th vol. of the Annual Register for 1763: Let the trees be taken up by the roots in the FRU spring, at the time they are about to bud; carefully preserving some of their own soil among the roots. These are to be placed upright in a cellar till Michaelmas, when they are to be put into vessels with the addition of fresh earth, and de- posited in a stove or hot-house, being regularly moistened every morning with rain-water, in which sal-ammoniac has been dissolved, in the proportion of one ounce to a quart. Thus, in the month of February, the fruit will appear.... The same method is applicable to rose-trees, and flowers; which last, when sown in pots at or be- fore Michaelmas, and watered in a similar manner, will blow towards the end of December. In order to ascertain when fruits, for instance, apples and pears, are sufficiently ripe to be gathered, it is requisite to attend to the colour of the skin inclosing the seeds. During their infant state, there is no cavity round the kernels, but they are in contact with the seed- vessel. In a subsequent period, when the fruit has exhausted the nutritious matter, the cells con- taining the seeds become hollow, and the latter assume a dark colour. This, Dr. Darwin observes, is the proper criterion by which to judge when such fruits should be gather- ed; as it indicates that they will not continue to increase in size, but waste and become hollow, by absorbing the mucilaginous parti- cles from the centre. One of the most easy methods of preserving 'fruit, is that of de- positing it in ice-houses, where it may remain in a frozen state for a considerable time. And, if the fruit be afterwards gradually thaw- ing, by covering it with melted ice, or immersing it in cold-spring- F R U 87 water, it will lose but little of its flavour, provided it be consumed on the same day. Fruit may also be preserved, by keeping it in pits dug in a dry soil, or in dry cel- lars, or even in barns, if the tem- perature be between 32 and 48 deg. of Fahrenheit's thermome- ter; that is, such as will neither induce frost, nor vegetation. These pits or magazines, however, ought to be covered with such materials as are calculated to repel heat, and to absorb any accidental pu- trid exhalations, and thus retard the progress of putrefaction. Hence Dr. Darwix recommends the fruit to be covered first with pulverized charcoal, one or two inches thick, over which is to be laid a stratum of saw-dust, and over the latter, a thick, impene- trable thatch of straw : thus, seeds and fruits may be stored up for ages, without vegetating or decay- ing. He likewise mentions ano- ther mode of preserving fruit, by heat. As fermentation will not commence in the heat of boiling water, or 212 deg. and, as that degree of temperature can be easi- ly procured by steam, or by the vicinity of vessels contajning boil- ing water, he is of opinion, that such fruits as are used for culinary purposes throughout the year, mav be kept in a fresh state, by put- ting them into bottles, and e\p;>s- ing them to the wasted steam cf engines ; or, by immersing them in the hotl /water that flows from such steam when condensed; or, by placing the bottles near the boilers which are fixed beside kitchen fires. Before we conclude this article, we shall briefly observe, 1. That the cutting and pruning of yorng- fruit-trees retard their bearing; though such necessary operations 88 FRU FRU • contribute to the richness and fla- vour of the fruit, as well as to the beauty of the tree. 2. That those plants which produce kernels, yield fruit later, but in greater abun- dance than stone-fruit trees: the time for bearing required by the former being upon an average five years. 3. That stone-fruit, figs, and grapes, generally yield abun- dantly at the expiration of three or four years; bear full crops in the fifth and sixth years; and, if judiciously managed, will continue to produce for several seasons. 4. That the fruit of wall-trees, in general, attains to maturity sooner than that growing on standards ; and the fruit on the latter, earlier than that produced by dwarfs. 5. That the produce of all wall-trees, which are planted in the south and east quarters, ripens generally about the same period; though that growing in a southern expo- sure is often earlier than the fruit in the east; while that towards the west is later than either of the for- mer, by eight or ten days ; and that exposed to the north, by fif- teen or twenty days. Lastly, as the freezing winds of this country proceed from the north-east, we shall, under the head of Or- chards, give more particular di- rections relative to the most proper situation of fruit-trees, and illus- trate this interesting branch of husbandry by an appropriate en- graving....See also Engrafting, Plantation, Prunii^,;, Sec. The following directions for picking, preserving, and packing fruit for carriage, we insert on the authority of Mr. Forsyth. w All apples, pears, Sec. ought to be carefully gathered by hand, and laid in baskets containing dried grass, to prevent them from be- ing bruised; and, if they fall spon- taneously, some dry barley-straw or pease-haulm, should be prepar- ed for their reception on the ground: in the lalter instance, the fruit ought to be separated from, and sent to the table before that which is collected by hand ; and such, as may be accidentally bruised, ought to be reserved for culinary purposes; because it can- not be long kept in a sound state. When all the fruit is collected, it should be conveyed to the store- room ; laid gently in small heaps, on dried grass; and their tops be covered with short grass, in order to sweat. Here it may remain for about a fortnight; during which time each apple, pear, Sec. must be occasionally wiped with a dry woollen cloth, and those exposed on the surface should be placed to- wards the middle of the heap. At the end of this period, all watery ingredients that may have been imbibed during a wet season, will be evaporated: the heaps should then be uncovered, and each arti- cle carefully wiped; separating those which mav be injured, or unfit for keeping....During this process of sweating, the windows of the store-room, excepting in wet or foggy weather, ought to be continually open, in order to dis- charge the moisture perspiring from the fruit. The usual method of storing apples, pears, Sec. consists in lay- ing them on clean wheaten straw ; but, in this case, it will be neces- sary to examine them frequently, and to remove such as begin to decay ; because the straw, by ab- sorbing moisture, will become so tainted, as to communicate an un- pleasant flavour. Another mode of preserving FRU FRU 89 fruit, is that of depositing it on shelves made of well-seasoned white deal, and covered with coarse thin canvass, on which the articles are to be laid, after being wiped perfectly dry : a piece of linen clo'.ii, or thin flannel, or whitish- brown paper, must then be placed on the top, with a view to exclude the air, and to guard against the injurious effects of frost. Farther, it should be turned several times during the winter; because the more tender and delicate kinds are apt to decay on the lower side, if they remain long in a quiescent state; even though they may have been completely sound, when first selected for that purpose. In the vicinity of the metropolis, where fruit is kept in, store-houses for supplying the markets, it is generally packed in soft paper, disposed at the bottoms and around the edges of baskets or hampers : a layer of fruit is then put in, and covered with sheets of paper; af- ter which successive strata of fruit and paper are placed regularly, till the vessel be full. The top is then provided with three or four double folds of paper, both to ex- clude the air and frost. Every sort is arranged in distinct bas- kets, to which labels are affixed, containing the name of the fruit, and the period when it will be fit for use. The best mode of preserving fruit, however, in the opinion of Mr. Forsyth, is that of packing it in glazed earthen jars, which onght to be kept in dry apartments. For this purpose, apples and pears are to be wrapped separately in soft paper, and laid at the bottom of the vessel on a thin stratum of well-dried bran : alternate layers of bran and fruit are then to fol- VOL. III. low, till the jar be filled; when it should be gently shaken, in order to settle its contents. Every va- cancy must now be supplied with bran, covered with paper, and the whole secured from air and mois- ture by a piece of bladder, over which the cover of the vessel must be carefully fitted. With respect to the packing of fruit, which is to be conveyed to a considerable distance, there cannot be taken too great precaution. Boxes should, therefore, be made of strong deal, and of various sizes, in proportion to the quan- tity they are designed to contain: these will be proper for melons wrapped simply in paper; and also for pears, peaches, nectarines, plums, and grapes, being envelop- ed first in vine-leaves, and then in paper; but for cheries, and cur- rants, flat tin boxes will be re- quired....If the fruits last men- tioned are to be carried, succes- sive layers of fine long moss, and cherries, ought to be arranged, till the box be full; so that, when the lid is closed, they may be in no danger of being injured by fric- tion. For transporting melons, Sec. similar strata of dried moss, and short, soft, dry grass are to be formed, in which the fruit is to be stored according to the man- ner above directed ; being selected as nearly of the same size as possible : care also must be taken to place the largest at the bottom, and to fill up every interstice.... For the sake of farther security, each box ought to be provided with a strong lock and two keys ; so that the persons packing and unpacking the fruit, may be re- spective!}' in the possession of one. The moss and grass should ; 1- w;ivs be returned in the boxes : ' N JO F R U and, with a little addition, they will serve the whole season, pro- vided such materials be shaken up, and well aired, after each jour- ney ; in order that they may re- main sweet. Lastly, it will be necessary to cord these boxes firmly, with a view to prevent any accidents that may arise during their conveyance. If this method be carefully pursued, it will cer- tainly be attended with success ; for, Mr. Forsyth observes, that fruit thus managed, may be sent with perfect safety, either by coaches or waggons, to the re- motest part of the kingdom. Among the various distinct publications which have appeared on this subject, the following are allowed to possess considerable merit: " A Treatise on Fruit- trees," Sec. by Thomas Hitt ; 8vo. 2d edit. 5s.] 3d. Robinson, 1798 ;....and « The British Fruit Gardener, and Art of Pruning" Sec. by Thomas Abercrombie ; 8vo. 4i. bound, 1779. [We shall now present the read- er with an abridgment of the ad- mirable observations of Dr. Dar- win, on the means of increasing the number of fruit buds, and of en- larging and perfecting fruit....See also article Bud. 1. To increase the number of Fruit- Buds. " The terms strength and weak- ness, in their usual acceptation, when applied to the vegetation of trees,are metaphorical expressions, or denote the effect of consequence, rather than the cause, of their bearing leaf-buds or flower-buds, asspoken of in Phytologia,Szct. IX. 2. 7. For the production of leaf- buds, or flower-buds, though it may be said to accompany the greater FRU or less vigour of a tree, depends on the facility or difficulty, with which the long caudexes of the new buds, which constitute the filaments of the bark, can be generated. " Thus the new vegetable pro- duction formed in the axilla of a leaf about Midsummer, which is called a leaf-bud, consists of many em- bryon buds, perhaps twenty or thir- ty, which are to form the next year's shoot; and each of these must be fin nished at the same time with a long caudex in miniature, extending from the leaf or summit to its radicle or base ; which con- sists of umbilical vessels for its ver- nal nutriment, and of a continua- tion of other absorbent vessels, and of arteries and veins, as de- scribed in Phytologia, Sect. VII. 1. 7. which passes along the branches and trunk, from the apex or leaf of the bud in the air, to its base or ra- dicle in the ground; and which thus forms the new bark, and con- tributes to thicken and strengthen the trunk and branches of the tree ; because each new leaf-bud with its summit, caudex, and radicle, con- tinues afterwards to adhere to the parent tree. " But the production in the ax- illa of a leaf, which is called a flower-bud, or fruit-bud, consists only of an individual vegetable with the rudiments of a number of flowers, with one caudex for its growth and nutriment; for as the seed falls from the tree, when ripe, no new apparatus of caudexes in miniature for each individual seed, as for each individual embryon- bud, is required to pass down the trunk into the ground to form a new bark; and thus to thicken and strengthen the trunk and branches. " Add to this, that not only the FRU FRU 91 seeds require no new caudexes to pass down the trunk, but that pro- bably the stamina and coral of each flower strike their roots only into the blood vessels, which communi- cate with the bractes, like mosses or fungusses, which grow on trees, or like cuscuta, (dodder,) viscum, misletoe, and tillanusia, and epi- dendrum; and therefore require no caudexes and radicles to pass down into the ground. "Whence it appears, that by ren- dering it more difficult for new buds to acquire new caudexes along the branches or trunk from the summit into the ground, the tree will be necessitated to produce flower-buds in preference to leaf- buds ; a theory, which was first delivered in the Botanic Garden, vol. i. canto 4. 1. 470, note, and explains the whole art of the ma- nagement of fruit-trees. " Vegetables therefore in respect to their mode of propagation are either viviparous or oviparous.... The live progeny of vegetables consists of the buds, which rise on their branches in the bosom of each leaf, or on its long caudex extend- ing down the bark of trees; or which arise on the bulbs, knobs, wires, or scions, from the broad caudex on the roots of herbaceous plants. The egg-progeny of vege- tables consists in their seeds, with the previous apparatus ofthe flower, and concomitant nutriment in the fruit and cotyledons. And as plants, or parts of plants are said to be in greater vigour, when the viviparous progeny is prevalent; as the caudexes of this adherent offspring form a new bark, and thence thicken and strengthen the trunk and branches; and to be in less vigour when the oviparous progeny is prevalent; as the seeds fall from the tree, and consequent- ly require no caudexes to form a new bark, and thence to thicken and strengthen the tree. We shall generally use the word viviparous instead of vigorous, when applied to vegetables, which generate leaf- buds principally ; and oviparous in- stead of weak, when applied to ve- getables, which generate flower- buds principally ; for the words vi- gorous or weak may properly ex- press the greater or less health of vegetables in both these situations. " The following methods will contribute to prevent the young buds from so readily acquiring new caudexes on the trunk of the tree ; and v ill therefore retard the generation of leaf-buds, and con- sequently assist the generation of fruit-buds; and should be executed about Midsummer, or soon after, as at that time the new buds are formed. " 1. The first method consists in bending the viviparous branches to the horizon, which converts them into oviparous ones, for by the cur- vature of such branches the bark will be compressed on the under side, and extended on the upper side of the curve, and its vessels on both sides will be contracted in their diameters, and thus the dif- ficulty of producing new caudexes for the generation of embryon leaf- buds will be increased, in whatever state of miniature they may be con- ceived to exist. " A curious fact seems to be established by the experiments of Dr. Walker in the first volume of the Edinburgh Transactions, which shews, that the bending of a branch even below its insertion into the trunk does not impede the ascent, or derivation of the vernal sap-juice into it; but on the con- 92 FRU FRU trary, that it rather appears to as- sist it. resembling in some mea- sure a capillary syphon, as men- tioned in PhytJzgia, Sect. III. 2. 4. which may be owing to the ver- nal sap-juice ascending principally, or entirely, in the sap-wood, as appears by the new leaves expand- ing to a certain degree on decorti- cated oak-trees, as shewn in Sect. IX. 2. 8. And as the vessels of this alburnum are more rigid, they may be less liable to contraction or coarctation by bending down the branch, than the bark-vessels, as well as from their being placed within the latter, and therefore less liable to compression beneath the curvature, and to elongation above it. " Whence it appears, that the bending down a branch of a fruit- tree below the horizon does not diminish the nutriment ofthe fruit- buds, but rather increases it; as Dr. Walker observed these buds to grow sooner and larger at the extremities of the bended branches than on other parts of equal height. " It was asserted by Mr. Law- rence, that the more the branches of any tree are carried horizontally, the more apt that tree is to bear fruit ; and that the more uprmht Or perpendicular the branches are led, the more disposed is that tree to increase in wood; winch he ascribes to the bending down of the branches impeding the cir- culation ofthe sap... Art ffGvd-p.- ing. Mr. Hitt in his Treads: on Fruit 'Frets, affirms, that if a vi- gorous branch of a waii-tree be bent down to the horizon or be- neath it. it loses its vigour, and be- comes a bearing branch; and there- fore recommends his method of nailing the branches of wall-trees, and of tying those of espaliers, in a horizontal direction or still lower; as in this constrained situation there must occur greater difficul- ty, I suppose, in tne production of the new caudexes, necesruv for the embryon progeny of buds, up- wards or horizontally along the bended branch, contrary to their natural habits, as well as from the compression of the bark beneath the curvature of the branch, and its extension above it; whence more flower-shoots are product d, which do not require new caudexes to pass along the bended branch ; but which permit their progeny, the seeds, to fall upon the earth, and penetrate it wi'.h their new roots. " In Lord Stafford's gv.ro>ns at Trentham, I remembe- to have seen many \ ears ago some stand- ard dwarf apple-trees with ail their branches bent aown, and fixe.; on a slight frarm-work about a fmt from the ground ; which seem d to be uncommonly prmihe, as a circle ot write and purple iiowe.s, twenty feei in diameter on branr nes radian, d from i ceivic- ■i.peaved to a distant eye like a hm ; baio, or a carpet of rich •.mbroidcry. " The grea.er p-od mt;on of fruit-buds on branch is bended to the horizon must contribute, I should suppose, to the proiific ef- fect of training nectarine am. peach trees on tiles laid on the ground, or on the gentle declivity of a bank of earth lacing the south, which has lately been recommended by some one, whose name 1 do not recollect, who gained a patent for his discovery. And it is indeed probable, that both these moms of training fruit-trees, one of which may be called an horizontal wall- tree, and the other an horizontal espalier, would repay the labour of FRU FRU 93 the horticultor; as they would be exposed to a more vertical sun in summer, which might more cer- tainly ripen their fruit; and would be kept somewhat backwarder in the early spring, by the greater obliquity of the sun-beams, and might be therefore less liable to injury from the vernal frost; and when in blossom might easily be covered in the night, when neces- sary, by mats thrown oyer them supported by stakes with horizontal poles on them. " 2. Secondly. The twisting a wire, or tying a waxed string round the viviparous branches of a tree, inducts them to become oviparous, as observed by Mr. Whitmill, who bound not only the viviparous shoots of various wall-trees with strong wire, but also some of their large roots, and thus increased the product of his fruit....Bradley on Gardening, vol. ii. p. 155. And M. Buffon produced the same effect by a tight cord round the branches, which previously produced leaf- buds instead of flower-buds. Act. Paris, ann. 1783. " M. Buffon concludes from the above experiments, that an engrafted branch bears fruit more copiously, and more certainly, from its vessels being compressed by the callus around the ingrafted junction, which may have this ef- fect, and at the same time contri- bute, by p-eventing the luxuriant growth of its leaf shoots to render the tree of more dwarfish stature. I am informed, that many dwarf apple-trees, which are now plant- ed in garden pots both in France and England, bear much fruit, and are elegantly placed in the centre of a desert at luxurious tables; and that the principal art of producing. them consists in ingrafting them three or four times, scion on scion; so that the stem is compressed by the callus of three* or four ingraft- ments before the branches are per- mitted to divaricate; and the trees are thus rendered beautiful dwarfs. " The effect of thus compress- ing the bark by a wire, or a cord, or by the callus round the junc- tures of the ingrafted scions, is un- doubtedly accomplished by the in- creased difficulty opposed to the production of the caudexes, for each new embryon leaf-bud, as above explained, and the conse- quent generation of flower-buds in- stead of them. " 3. Thirdly. The wounding, or breaking a viviparous branch, or cutting away a ring ofthe bark, as of pear-trees, or a semi-cylinder of the bark of other fruit-trees, induces them to become oviparous. " WThere young trees discover too great vigour, Mr. Lawrence advises to cut the most vigorous shoots two parts in three through, leaving a large notch, that the wound may not heal too soon; which he adds will both render them fruitful, make them more readily conform to the wall or espalier, and preserve such as are dwarfs from too much aspiring in very strong branches, especially of pears; he recommends two or more such incisions to be made in the same branch. '• Another method he proposes, is to break the too vigorous branches half through with the hand, which he has practised with success in apricots and peaches, when the branches were formed directly for- ward from the wall, and these branches have continued several years to bear fruit, though some have occasionally died by effusing gum ; and though these incisions 94 FRU FRU and breaking the branches may be performed at any time of the year, he prefers the spring on account of the wet or frost of winter. Art of Gardening. " A complete cylinder of the bark about an inch in height was cut off from the branch of a pear- tree against a wall in "Mr. How- ard's garden at Litchfield, about five years ago; the circumcised part is now not above half the diameter of the branch above and below it, yet this branch has been full of fruit every year since, when the other branches ofthe tree bore only sparingly. I lately observed, that the leaves of this wounded branch were smaller and paler, and the fruit less in size, and ripened sooner than in any other parts of the tree ; and another branch has the bark taken off not quite all round with much the same effect. r. k' The theory of this curious vege- table fact receives great light from the foregoing account of the in- dividuality of buds. A flower-bud dies when it has perfected its seed, like an annual plant, and hence re- quires no place on the bark for new caudexes to pass downwards ; but on the contrary leaf-buds, as they advance into shoots, form new buds in the axilla of every leaf; which new buds require new caudexes to pass down the bark, and thus thicken as well as elongate the branch. Now if a cylinder of the bark be destroyed, many of these new caudexes cannot be pro- duced ; and thence more of the buds will be converted into flower- buds. " In this curious circumstance, the caudexes of the buds of the tree above the decorticated part seem to have emitted short radicles into the alburnum ; the vessels of which must thus have acted a3 capillary tubes between the upper and lower caudexes of those buds; as capillary tubes will raise water by the attraction of their internal surfaces nearly to their summits, when they are not too high in pro- portion to their diameter; but water will in no case flow over their summits, but will always stand with a concave surface be- low the uppermost rim of the tube, in which situation it may readily < be absorbed by vegetable radicles ; and may be supplied from beneath, by the sap-juice raised by the vege- table action ofthe absorbent vessels of the caudexes, Avhose radicles terminate in the earth. " It is customary to debark oak trees in the spring, which are in- tended to be felled in the ensuing autumn; because the bark comes off easier at this season; and the sap-wood, or alburnum, is believed to become harder, and more dura- ble, if the tree remains till the end of summer. The trees thus strip- ped of their bark put forth shoots as usual with acorns on the sixth, seventh, and eighth joints, like vines; but in the branches I ex- amined, the joints of the debarked trees were much shorter than those of other oak-trees, the acorns were more numerous, and no new buds were produced above the joints, which bore acorns. From hence it appears, that the branches of de- corticated oak-trees produce fewer leaf-buds, and more flower-buds.... And secondly that the new buds of debarked oak-trees continue to ob- tain moisture from the alburnum after the season of the ascent of the sap in other vegetables ceases ; which in this unnatural state ofthe debarked tree may act as capillary tubes, like the alburnum of the FRU FRU 95 small debarked cylinder of a pear- tree above mentioned ; or as the vessels of the alburnum may not yet have lost their vegetable life, they may continue to absorb sap- juice or water from their radicles, and carry it to the buds at the sum- mits by their spiral contractions as in the bleeding season. " The parts of a tree immedi- ately below a decorticated or a strangulated branch or root will generally become viviparous, and will thence be said to be increased in vigour; that is, it will produce new leaf-buds, and those of a lux- uriant appearance ; because the in- jury of the bark of the branch or root will prevent the parts above from receiving so much of the nu- tritive sap-juice, as in their sound state ; and consequently the parts beneath will possess more of it; and also because these new buds are generated from a lower part of the caudex, and will thence be a few years before they will acquire that maturity, or puberty, which is necessary for the generation of flower-buds, or the production of a sexual or seminal progeny ; whence by strangulating or decorticating the alternate branches of a peer- tree they will bear for six or eight years ; and the other alternate ones will become in the same time strong and vigorous, ready to un- dergo a similar operation, when the former cease to be of other use ; but the fruit will become smaller in size, though in greater number and ripen earlier in the season. " In the same manner new root- scions are said to be produced by strangulating a branch of a root near the surface with a tight string, or by slitting a root near the trunk, Evelyn's Sylva; as in these cases the ascent of the sap-juice is im- peded, and the part below becomes viviparous, or produces new leaf- buds for the reasons mentioned in the last paragraph; as is frequently seen where the end of a branch is lopped, or beneath the scar of the junction of an ingrafted scion.... On the same account it is not un- common to ingraft with success on roots taken out of the ground, and afterwards replanted; as the ro- binia on the root-of acacia, and any other apples on the roots of the suckers of bur-apple, or codling. See Phytologia, Sect. IX. 3. 5. For the same reason the roots of some plants, which are other- wise not easily propagated, will shoot up buds; if a part of them next the stem of the plant be half cut through, or raised out of the ground, and exposed to the air ; as in pyramidal campanula, and gera- nium lobatum. And for the same reason the lateral branches of nu- merous shrubs, as well as of her- baceous plants, will put forth roots, when they are bent down into the ground, if they are previously wounded to prevent the free sup- ply of the vegetable nutriment in its usual course, as in laying car- nations, dianthus. " A method of converting the viviparous branches of pear and apple trees into oviparous branches is described by Mr. Fitzgerald in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. hi. and seems to be superior to the exsection of a cylinder of the bark above mentioned ; as the alburnum is not left naked after the operation. In the month of Au- gust, he made a circular incision round the principal branches of se- veral pear-trees, apple-trees,plumb- trees, and cherry-trees, near the stems of each, through the bark. 96 FRU FRU About 3 or 4 inches higher he then made another incision round the bark, and then a perpendicular one,joining these two circular ones, and separated the cylinder of bark nicely from the wood, covering it, and the bare part of the wood from the air, for about a quarter of an hour, when the wound began to bleed. He then replaced the bark with great exactness, and bound it round rather tightly with bass, so as to cover the wound entirely, and half an inch above and below the circumcisions. " In about a month the bark began to swell above and below the bandages, he then unbound them, and found the parts quite healed. He rebound them slightly with bass, and let them remain so till the beginning of the next summer, when he again took off the bandages and found them all healthy, and every one of them bore plentifully that season, though it was in ge- neral reckoned a scarce fruit year. " He treated two young pear- trees in this manner, which never had yet had any bloom ; on one of them he operated on the main arms, and on several of the less branches from those main arms ; and on only one of the main arms of the other. The first, he says, bore a surprising quantity of fruit in the next summer; and the cir- cumcised arm of the other bore a moderate < mmtily ; though no other part of the tree had any ap- pearance of bloom. " Mr. Fitzgerald afterwards too'; a cylinder of the bark from the branches of two young apple- trees about the same size, as ex- actly as he could, by measure ; and changing them, bound them each on the other tree. The bark of one had a leaf-bud and two apples growing on it; the barks of both of them healed perfectly, the leaf- bud put forth leaves, and the ap- ples remained on and ripened; and both the branches bore so plenti- fully, that one broke with its load, and it was necessary to prop the other. " Mr. Fitzgerald further ob- serves, that he changed cylinders of the bark with equal success of nectarine and peach-trees; and that the branches thus operated upon were retarded in their gene- ral growth ; which coincides with the idea of repeatedly grafting one scion above another on the apple- trees designed for dwarfs to be set in garden pots, as described in No. 2. 2. of this section. " 4. The transplanting a vivipa- rous fruit-tree, or destrouing some of its roots before Midsummer, or the confining its roots in a garden pot, or on a floor of bricks beneath the soil, will induce it to become ovi- parous. " Mr. Knight, in his treatise on the culture of the apple and pear, p. 83, has the following pas- sage : " In tlie garden culture of the apple, where the trees are re- tained as dwarfs or espaliers, the more vigorously growing kinds are often rendered unproductive by the excessive, though necessary, use of the pruning knife. I have always succeeded in making trees of this kind fruitful by digging them up, and replacing them with some fresh mould in the same si- tuation. The too great luxuriance of growth is checked, and a dis- position to bear is in consequence brought on." The same observa- tion was made by Mr. Lawrence, who took up trees which were too vigorous ; that is, w hich produced viviparous buds instead of oripa- FRU FRU 97 tous ones, and replanted them to render them fruitful. Art of Gar- dening. Lond. 1723. " In transplanting trees for any purpose, it may be observed, that they should not be rtplantcd deep in the soil, since the most nu- tritive or salubrious parts of the earth are those within tiie reach ofthe sun's warmth, ofthe descend- ing moisture, and of the oxygen of the atmosphere. And as the root-fibres of trees, like those of seeds, always grow towards the moistest part of the soil, as the young shoots and leaves giow to- wards the purest air and brightest light; it follows, that the root-fi- bres seldom rise higher in the ground than they were originally set, and seldom elongate them- selves even perfectly horizontal!v ; so that when a fruit-tree is planted too deep in the earth, it seldom grows with healthy vigour, either in respect to its leaf-buds or its flower-buds. " This curious effect cannot be produced by generally debilitating the tree from its want of due nou- rishment ; because it is said to suc- ceed best in very good soil, or by the addition of new garden mould, as before directed ; but by render- ing more difficult the production of radicles from the caudexes of the cmbryon leaf-buds; which descend to the finest ramifications ofthe old roots, and elongate themselves be- yond the extremities of their ulti- mate fibrils ; a great number of which roots being torn off*by trans- plantation, or compressed in a gar- den pot, the production or progress of many of the new radicles must be impeded or prevented ; and the numerous caudexes of new leaf- buds be in consequence formed with greater difficulty, whence an TOL. III. increased tendency to generate flower-buds. " For the same reason if beans, vicia faba, which are but a few inches high, be transplanted; they do not become so tall, but they flowerand ripen their seeds sooner; because they cannot so easily ge- nerate new leaf-buds. The same occurs in frequently transplanting brocoli. brassica; the plant does not grow so tall, but has earlier flowers, and in greater number; and it is hence better to pluck them up, than to dig them up, for the purpose of replanting them ; as by that means more of the root-fibres are torn off, and the plants become almost totally oviparous. " It is well known, that the ves- sels of animal bodies are less liable to bleed, when they are torn asun- der, than when they are cut with a sharp instrument; as their dia- meters are contracted, or their in- ternal surfaces brought into con- tact with each other, in the act of extending them, till they break.... Thus if the navel-string of new born animals are cut instead of torn, they are liable to bleed to death; and there is a remarkable case of a miller's servant,* who had his arm and shoulder bone, or scapula, torn off in a windmill without much loss of blood. This is mentioned to shew, that it may also be better to tear up roots, which are transplanted for this purpose, than to dig them up ; as they may thence effuse less vege- table blood, and in consequence be less weakened by the operation. " In transplanting strawberries, many of the roots being torn off, fewer leaf-buds, and consequent wires, are produced from the diffi- • See Cheselden's Anatomy. o 98 FRU FRU culty, which their embryon cau- dexes find in producing new radi- cles over the old ones to supply nutriment to the wires, till they bend down and protrude roots into the ground at their other extremi- ties, whence a greater number of flower-buds are generated; on this account the roots of strawberries should generally be transplanted, or new ones from the wires should be cultivated, every third or fourth year, to prevent the too luxuriant growth of their wires,; or a simi- lar difficulty of producing wires or leaf-buds may be effected by crowd- ing the roots of strawberries toge- ther, as some gardeners recom- mend ; but I suppose by these means the fruit may become small- er from scarcity of nutriment, though more numerous. " A floor of bricks, or of stone, extended about two feet deep be- neath the roots of wall-trees, has been practised in some gardens from an idea, that the roots shot themselves too deep into some un- wholesome stratum of earth ; and it has been observed, that the trees became better fruit-bearers. In some situations it is possible, this might be the cause of the new prolific property of the trees ; but I suspect it has occurred generally from the difficulty opposed to the number and elongation ofthe root- fibres, and consequently to the ge- neration of the new caudexes of the embryon leaf-buds; whence a greater production of flower-buds ensued. " 5. If the central viviparous branches of a plant be cut away or shortened, the lateral ones will sooner or more completely become oviparous. 1. There are many very small buds on the lower parts of large branches, which do not seem to grow to maturity, and in conse- quence produce neither new leaf- buds nor new flower-buds. There are other lateral shoots on many trees, which only push out a few inches, and are called spurs, and which bear fruit the succeeding summer at their extremities. In many other plants the lateral branches are oviparous, except at the extremity, which is terminated with a viviparous bud ; while the central branches continue long to generate only a viviparous proge- ny, as in vines and melons. " The first of these, or the un- prolific existence of the buds at the bottom of larger branches, may be owing in part to their feeble efforts of pullulation from the want of sufficient sunshine and ventilation ; and also in part, like the spurs, and other lateral branches, to the dif- ficulty they encounter in producing the embryon caudexes of new leaf-buds along the trunk ; which is already occupied by those of the more vigorous vegetation of the central branches, which possess a great share of sunshine and venti- lation. u But the principal cause, yfhich renders the spurs and lateral branches oviparous, results from the resistance the embryon cau- dexes of leaf-buds experience by the curvature of the lateral branch, where it joins the trunk, and the consequent coarctation of its ves- sels, added to the difficulty every lateral bud has to encounter from its own curvature at its exit from the parent twig ; on which last ac- count the central bud at the extre- mity of an oviparous branch is ge- nerally viviparous, because it has not any curvature at its exit. All this corresponds with the fact above described, that when the viviparous FRU arms of wall-trees are bent down to the horizon, they become ovi- parous. " 2. What then happens in all these situations when the central parts are cut away or shortened ? First the dwarf-buds at the bottom of these large viviparous branches, which are in part cut away, will find more room to push down the embryon caudexes of new leaf- buds ; and will produce a viviparous progeny; and those at the bottom of oviparous branches, which are shortened by cutting off their vivi- parous extremities, will also now pullulate, and produce flower-buds for the succeeding year, owing to the derivation of some of that nourishment to them, which would otherwise have been expended on the summit-bud. Secondly, the spurs will generate an oviparous progeny, but will require more nutriment, because all the vessels of plants inosculate, and will thence produce larger fruit, and more certainly ripen it. Thirdly, the other lateral branches will receive more nourishment, and become more vertical, and will thence find less opposition to the production of the caudexes, both ofthe flower- budsand leaf-buds; either of which may become stronger or more nu- merous according to the greater or less inclination of the branches to the horizon ; and both of them may be more vigorous properly speaking; that is, they may be- come larger leaf-buds, or larger flower-buds, than others of the same tree. " 3. Thus in the management of melons, which would grow into branches much too extensive for the artificial glass-frames of our climate, and would not have time to ripen their later fruit in our FRU 99 short summers; it is necessary first to check the vigour, properly so speaking, oi the whole plant.... This is clone by washing the seed from the ripe fruit, which should naturally contribute to nourish it; and keeping the seed four or five years, that the mucilaginous nu- triment deposited in the cotyledons may also be in some degree im- paired ; it is also probable, that confining the roots of melons and cucumbers in garden pots, if they were well supplied with nutriment, warmth, and water, might be ad- vantageous for this purpose. " Secondly, as soon as the leaf appears an inch in diameter, ex- perienced gardeners pick out the central bud, which causes an ovi- parous, though a more vigorous, lateral shoot; which therefore sooner bears fruit, and that of a larger kind; as it acquires more nourishment from the destruction of the central one. " And as these lateral branches are liable to produce other vivipa- rous shoots at their extremities, after they have generated lateral flower-buds, it again becomes ne- cessary to pinch off the viviparous extremities of them, not only to accommodate them to the size of the glass-frame, but also to supply them with more nutriment, which would otherwise have been ex- pended on the viviparous summit. " The central bud, or summit, of the lateral branches, is generally viviparous, as well as of the central branches; because the embryon caudexes of its new offspring are opposed in the production along the bark by only one curvature at the insertion of the branch into the trunk; whereas the lateral buds of the lateral branches have the pro- gress of the embryon caudexes of 100 FRU FRU their new buds opposed by two cur- vatures, one of the bud to the branch, and another from the branch to the trunk. -' The lateral branches of many mature trees, though they bear flower-buds on their sides, are ge- nerally terminated with a leaf-bud, as above explained ; but it happens in some of them, and particularly to vines, that after two or three flower-buds are produced on a lateral branch, that it shall proceed to grow in length, and tu produce leaf-buds at every joint above the flo\*pr-buds, as well as at the sum- mit; which may be thus perhaps satisfactorily explained. After the third, and fourth, and fifth joints of a new lateral shoot hive gene- rated flowers, which require few or no more caudexes ; room enough is left on the bark of the shoot for those above them to acquire the numerous new miniature caudexes of embryon leaf-buds, and where the new caudexes of embryon buds can easily be produced along the bark, and sufficient nutriment is supplied ; all vegetables are more liable to propagate themselves by buds than by seeds. " 3. To Perfect and Enlarge the Fruit. u It is believed by some of the Linnxan school, that flower-buds or leaf-buds may be converted into each other in the early state of their existence, as mentioned in Phntolo- gia, Sect. IX. 2. 8. It is indeed pro- bable, that rither a flower-bud or leaf-bud may be generated instead of each other reciprocally, before either of them exists; but after either of them has obtained a cer- tain degree of maturity, so as to be distinguished by its form being more poimed or more spherical; I suspect no addition or detraction of nutriment, or of the facility of the production of its embryon cau- dexes down the bark and radicles beneath can change its destination. " 1. Shorten the oviparous branches, whn the leaves jail off, by pruning their viviparous sum- mits, and cut away the root-suckers. The summitsofthe lateral branches, as well as the erect ones, are fur- nished generally with viviparous buds; which in many wall-trees should be cut off, after the leaves fall in autumn ; that more nutri- ment may be derived to the fruit- buds, which may occasionally be- come somewhat enlarged during the milder days of winter; as they are now certainly too far advanced to be changed into leaf-buds; and if this pruning be deferred till late in the winter months, the flower-buds will not be quite so forward, as if it be performed earlier. For the same reason the root-suckers also should be cut away in the autumn, that all the nutriment, which they would otherwire expend, may be derived to the flower-buds, and in- duce them early to enlarge them- selves. " 2. Pinch or rub off all useless viviparous buds in the spring or summer, as they occur. In those trees where the fruit-buds arise on the new leaf-shoots along with the leaf-buds, and cannot therefore be sooner distinguished or approach- ed, as in figs and vines, the summit leaf-buds should be pinched off two joints above the fruit-buds, as soon as they appear, that more nutri- ment may be conveyed to the fruit- buds, u And in the hardier wall-trees, the new leaf-buds, which apppear during the spring and summer months in wrong places, where they cannot be trained properly FRU FRU 101 against the wall, or where they are too numerous, should be rubbed or pinched off, as they occur; whence more nourishment will be derived to the ripening fruit, and to those new leaf-buds which are to remain to produce future flower- buds. " And if the new buds, which are seen in their young state in the axilla of the leaves of the new shoots, were picked out by the point of a knife, or pinched off, where they grow long enough for that purpose, as the secondary shoots of vines in grape houses are pinch- ed ; it might probably induce those eyes to produce flowers in the suc- ceeding year, as spoken of in Phy- tol/gia, No. 2. 5. of this Section, as well as contribute to enlarge the present fruit by the expenditure of less nutriment on the leaf-buds, an idea well deserving the test of ex- periment. " In the same manner, in the cultivation of melons and cucum- bers, after the central bud is pinch- ed off, as mentioned above Phyto- logia No. 2. 5. the viviparous ex- tremities of the lateral branches should be also destroyed, as soon as a sufficient number of female flowers are impregnated; that a greater share of nutriment may be derived to them, instead of crowd- ing the frame with new branches, whose fruit-buds would be too late to ripen in our short summers. " 3. Thin all those fruits, which are too numerous; pluck off apricots, peaches, gooseberries ; and cut out many grafies from each branch wi'h scissors. By the inosculation of the vessels of vegetables, when any parts of a tree are destroyed, those in their vicinity become more vi- gorous. On this account, when part of the fruit is taken away as early as may be, the remaining part acquires more nutriment..... Add to this, that, where the fruit is crowded, some of it becomes precluded from the sun and air, and in consequence does not per- fectly ripen, and is liable to be- come mouldy ; for mucor is a ve- getable production, which, like other fungi, does not require either much light or air. as appears from the growth of some fungusses in dark cellars, and of common mush- rooms beneath beds of straw. " 4. Prevtnt the production of new leaf-buds. " In some pear trees, the whole of the blossoms become steril, and fall oft* without any apparent injury from cold, and this for ma- ny successive years. The same occurs sometimes to chesnut trees, <£ icutus pavia, after the flower the fructification entirely falls off; some of these might be male flowers, as Miller observes, but the whole could not be such. The same hap- pens very frequently to the fig trees of this climate, sometimes the whole crop falls off, when they are about the size of filberts ; that is, while they are still in flower, which, though concealed within the fig, must precede the swelling of the seed, whether these be im- pregnated or not. u A correspondent fact occurred to me a few years ago. I had six young trees of the Ischia fig, w ith fruit on them, in pots, in a stove. On removing them into larger boxes, the figs fell off, which I as- cribed to the increased vigour of the plants; as they protruded very vigorous shoots, occasioned by the accumulation of new soil round their roots. Perhaps these plants might rather be said to have been in flower than in fruit, and perhaps 102 FRU FRU these flowers were all male ones only, or accompanied only with imperfect female ones ? " Whence I conclude, that about the season when the corals of these flowers with their stamens and stigmas die, the trees generate and nourish too many new leaf-buds, owingtothe facility with which they can produce the new caudexes of these young buds down the bark ; and that by the whole of the vegeta- ble sap-juice being derived to the new buds for their present growth, orto form reservoirs for their future growth, the pericarp and seeds, whether impregnated or not, are deprived of their due nutriment and fall off. " Hence I propose to tie waxed thread or fine wire round the twigs of pear trees, which have usually miscarried, as soon as they are in flower, so as to compress, but not so as to strangulate them ; or to wound the bark by a circular or semicircular incision, which might counteract their facility of pro- creating new leaf-buds; which I suspect would be more effectual in preventing the flowers from fall- ing off, than pinching off the new leaf-buds, as they appear; which is recommended by Dr. Bradley, in the management of fig-trees, and is done to vines in hot houses; but which I found to be ineffectual on many fig branches, both in the natural ground and in pots, and ascribed its failure to the continu- ance of the efforts of the fig tree to produce new leaf-buds; whereas in vines, I suppose, the grapes would ripen, whether the new leaf- buds remain or are destroyed.... See Phytologia, No. 3. 2. of this Section. " Pontedera observed, that in the islands of the Archipelago, some fig trees bear in the spring many male flowers, and few female ones, the former of which fall off; and that they bear a second crop, chiefly of female flowers, in the autumn, which ripen in the ensuing spring....Anthologia. Can this oc- cur in the fig-trees of this country ? " Other figs are said not to ripen, but to fall off' before their maturity, unless they be wounded by insects in their caprification, or punctured by a straw. A further investigation of this subject is much wanted to propagate figs with success in this climate....See Botanic Garden, vol. ii. note on caprificus....See also Milne's Botan. Diction. Article Caprification. " 5. Give additional moisture, manure, and warmth, during the early part of the growth of fruit.... By additional moisture the fruit becomes larger ; in hot houses this may be effected two ways, one by watering the earth on which the vegetables grow, and another by producing steam by watering the warm flues or floors ; which will afterwards in the colder hours be again condensed, and settle in the form of dew on the fruit and leaves. " By supplying vegetables as well as animals with an abundancy of fluid, they are liable to increase in bulk, both because the external cuticle, which confines the growth of both of them, becomes relaxed, as is seen in the hands of those wo- men, who have many hours been employed in washing ; and also be- cause the cutaneous absorbent ves- sels will thus imbibe more fluid from the external surface ; and the cellular absorbents will therefore imbibe less from the internal cells, and consequently more mucus or fat will remain in them. " Thus in Lancashire, where FRU FRU 103 premiums are given for large gooseberries, I am told, that some of those who are solicitous for the prizes, not only thin the fruit of a gooseberry-tree, so as to leave but two or three gooseberries on a branch, but then by supporting a tea saucer under each of these gooseberries, bathe it for some weeks in so much water as to co- ver about one fourth part of it, which they call suckling the goose- berry. " There are two circumstances to be attended to in giving water to plants ; which are, not to water them during the hot part ofthe day in summer, nor in the evenings of spring, when a frost may be ex- pected; in both these circumstances we may be said to copy nature, as rain is generally preceded by a clowdy sky, and is never accompa- nied by frost; though that some- times follows it, and is then very injurious to vegetation. " When plants have been long stimulated by a hot sunshine into violent action, if this stimulus of heat be too greatly and too sud- denly diminished by the effusion of cold water, or by its sudden evapo- ration, their vessels cease to act, and death ensues; exactly as has too frequently happened to those, who have bathed in a cold spring of water after having been heated by violent and continued exercise on a hot day. When severe frosts follows the watering of plants, they are rendered torpid, and die by the too great and sudden diminution of the stimulus of heat; which is equally necessary to the activity of vegetable as to animal fibres ; and in some instances the circulation of their fluids may be stopped by the congelation of them ; and in others their vessels may be burst by the expansion attending the conversion of water into ice; or, lastly, by the separation of their different fluids by congelation. " When an addition of manure can be procured, as where the black carbonic juice from a dunghill mixed with water, or soapsuds, which have been used in washing, can be employed instead of water alone ; it must undoubtedly add to the nutriment, and consequently enlarge the size of the fruit by that means also, as well as by the addi- tional water. " 6. Protect the early flowers and the late fruits from frost. The vernal frosts are very pernicious to the early blossoms of apples and pears, and of all the tender wall- trees ; various contrivances have been used to shelter them, as mats suspended before wall-trees ; which in Denmark are said to be used to shelter them from the mid-day sun, as well as from the night frosts, both to prevent them from flower- ing too early, and being thence ex- posed to severe frosts; and because vegetables suffer more from great cold, as well as animals, after hav- ing been exposed to great heat, as explained in Pbytologia,Sect. XIV. 2. 2. " Those parts of vegetables, which are most succulent, suffer mostfrom frost, as the youngtopsof tender trees, as ofthe ash, fraxinus, and weeping willow, salix babylo- nica ; and also all other vegetables, after having been exposed to much moisture, as to rain or dews ; which probably may occur in part from the greater sensibility of the tender juicy summits of the pre- sent year's growth, and partly from the expansion of their frozen juices, which may burst the containing vessels. 104 FRU FRU " From some experiments in a late volume of the Philosophical Transucions, it appears, that very ,much more rain was caught in glasses piaced on the ground near a high church, than was caught in similar glasses on the roof it; which evinces, that a much greater quan- tity of moisture exists in the lower parts of the atmosphere, and is precipitated from it, than from the higher parts ; whence to protect the blossoms more effectually from the descending dews coping boards might be placed at every two feet or less above each other, with their front edges pointing upwards to the meridian sun in March, and ledges nailed on the back edges to con- vey the rain or dews towards the central part of the tree, where by another cross ledge at the end of each board it might be carried from the wall. " A similar inconvenience from autumnal frosts affects some of the late fruits, as figs and grapes, which might also receive advantage from replacing the coping boards in the autumn. " Another method of effectually guarding against the vernal frosts, and also the autumnal ones, is by building the garden walls with fire-flues m them, which is now frequently practised. There is one secret necessary to be known, and well attended to, in the manage- ment of fire-flues ; and that is in the first place to plant trees, which will open their flowers about the same time, against the same flue, and then diligently toobserve not to put fire into this flue, till the trees, it is designed to assist, are in flower ; since if the fire be applied sooner, the flowers are forwarded, and in consequence exposed to more danger from the severer frosts. One friend of mine, whd diligently attends to this circum- stance, assures me, that he never fails of producing a plentiful crop of excellent fruit. " And it is possible that one use of covering apricot trees, before they flower, from the mid-day sun, which is said to be practised in Denmark, may be to protract their time of flowering, and thus expose them to less danger from frost, as well as to prevent their irritability from being exhausted by the heat, and thus causing the night air to be more injurious to them. " 7. Fruits may be sooner rihened by wounding them, or by gath •ring ih°m. The wounds inflicted by in- sects on many fruits, promotes their more speedy ripening, as well as those inflicted by caprification, mentioned in Phytologia, Sect. XIV. 3. 3. and in No. 3. 4. of this Section. It is said that cutting the stalk of a bunch of grapes half through, which has acquired its due size, will expedite the ripening of it; because it will then be sup- plied with a less quantity of new juices, and the change of its acerb juices into saccharine ones, which is partly a chemical, and partly a vegetable process, proceeds more rapidly....See Phytologia, Sect. X. 8. 1. On the same account the pears on a branch, which has had a circle of its bark cut away, will ripen its fruit sooner; and those annual plants, which are supplied with less water than usual, both flower sooner, and ripen their seed- sooner. " To which may be added, that gathering pears from the tree be- fore they are ripe, and laying them on heaps co-ered with lm lkets, is known considerably to forward their ripening, by something like a FRU chemical fermentation added to the living action ofthe fruit, which ad- vances the saccharine process with greater rapidity. " I have seen apricots at table, which I was informed were pluck- ed from the tree, and kept some days in a hot house, and thus be- came deliriously ripe ; in the same manner as harsh pears ripen al- most into a syrup during twelve or twenty hours baking in a slow oven ; which occasioned the jest of a French traveller, who on being asked on his return, what good fruit they had in England, an- swered, that the only ripe fruit he happened to taste was the baked pear. " iv. The arts of preserv- ing fruit, as they depend on the prevention of the chemical pro- cesses, which produce their disso- lution, ought to be here mentioned. " 1. As life, whether animal or vegetable, prevents putrefaction, and as many fruits exist long after they are gathered from the tree, before they become ripe and die spontaneously, and in consequence putrefy, as crabs, sloes, medlars, and austere pears. The art of pre- serving these consists in storing them, where the heat is neither much above or below 48 degrees, which is the temperature of the interior parts ofthe earth ; that is, in a dry cellar, or beneath the soil, or well covered with straw or mats in a dry chamber. As greater heat might make them ripen sooner than they are wanted, by the in- creased activity of their vegetable life ; and frost by destroying that life would subject them to putrefy, when they become thawed; as perpetually happens to apples and potatoes, which are net well de- fended from frost. And lastly, the VOL. 111. FRU 105 moisture would injure them many ways; first, by its contributing to destroy their vegetable life; se- condly, in promoting the chemical process of putrefaction ; and third- ly, by its encouraging the growth of mucor, or mould, which will grow in moist situations without much light or air. " Too great warmth destroys both animal and vegetable life, by stimulating their vessels into too great activity for a time, whence a subsequent torpor from the too great previous expenditure of the living power, which terminates in death. After the death of the or- ganization, a boiling heat coagu- lates the mucilaginous fluids, and if continued would, I believe, pre- vent the chemical fermentation of them ; and that thus both vegeta- table and animal substances might be preserved. The experiment is difficult to try, and could not there- fore be of much practical utility if it should succeed. " Great cold on the contrary de- stroys both animals and vegetables by the torpor occasioned by the defect of stimulus, and a conse- quent temporary death. After- wards if a great degree of cold be continued, in some cases, the ex- pansion of theirfreezing juices may burst the vegetable vessels, and thus render the life of them irreco- verable. But there is another cu- rious thing happens to many aqueous solutions, or diffusions, which is, that at the time of conge- lation the dissolved or diffused par- ticles are pushed from the ice, either to the centre, if the cold be applied equally on all sides, or into various cells, as mentioned in Pir ■ tolcgia, Sect. XIII. 2. 2. '- i his exclusion of salt is seen in freezing any saline solution in P 106 FRU FRU water ; as common salt or blue vitriol exposed to severe frost in a two ounce phial, are driven to the centre of it. Wine, vinegar, and even milk, may be thus deprived of much of their water. Very moist clay, when exposed to frosty air, shrinks and becomes much more solid according to the assertion of Mr. K.iRvrAX....Mineru!tg. vol. i. p. 9, the freezing water covering its surface with ice, and driving the molecules of clay nearer the centre. And lastly, the mucilage produced by boiling wheat flour in water, like book-binder's paste, if not too thick, loses its cohesion by being frozen, the water driving, as it freezes, the starch from its crystallization ; and from this cir- cumstance probably is occasioned the change of flavour of apples, potatoes, and other vegetables, on being thawed after they have been frozen. " It is nevertheless affirmed, I think, by Mons. Reaumeur, that if frozen apples be dipped in cold water repeatedly, and the ice thus formed on their surface wipe J off, or if they be left in a large pail full of very cold water, so that they may not thaw too hastily, they will not lose their flavour. If this be true, and the apples will keep sound some time afterwards, it would seem that the vegetable life was not destroyed ; but that, like sleeping insects, they were reani- mated by the warmth ; otherwise, if the flavour be not destroyed, and they could be immediately eaten,or used in cookery, it is still a valuable discovery, if true, and might lead us to preserve variety of fruits in ice- houses, as strawberries, currants, grapes, and pines, to the great ad- vantage of society....See Phyiolo- gia, Sect. XVII. 2. 4. " As the process of fermentation will not commence or continue, I believe, in the heat of boiling wa- ter, or 212; and as this degree of heat can be easily preserved by steam, or by the vicinity of vessels containing boiling water ; it is pro- bable, that fruits for the use of cookery might be thus preserved throughout the year, as the pulp of boiled apples, gooseberries, &c. put into bottles, and placed so as to be exposed to the wasted steam of steam-engines, or immersed in the hot water, which flows from the condensing of it; or near the boil- ers fixed behind some kitchen fires; as I suspect, that if such a degree of heat could be applied once a day, it would counteract the tendency to fermentation. " 2. Another method of pre- serving some fruits is by gathering them during their acid state, be- fore that acid juice is converted into sugar, as lemons, oranges, gooseberries, pears, and some ap- ples ; and if a part of the water be evaporated by a boiling heat, so as to leave the acidity more concen- trated, it is less liable to ferment, and in consequence will be longer preserved. For this purpose the fruit should be kept in a cellar, and corked in bottles, so as to be precluded from the changes of air, and variations of heat; gooseber- ries, and rhubarb-stalks, are thus successfully preserved for winter use; and if a tea-spoonful of bran- dy be put into each quart bottle, it will prevent the growth of mucor or mould upon them. " 3. As sugar will not pass into fermentation unless diluted with much water, and less so in low de- grees of heat, many fruits may be thus preserved by impregnating them with sugar, and the better if FRU FRU 107 they are kept in a dry cellar. Dr. Hales found that by inverting the end of a branch of a tree into a bot- tle of brandy for a few hours, that the whole branch died ; hence it is usual and useful to cover preserved fruits with a paper moistened with vinous spirit, which prevents the growth of mucor or mould upon their surfaces, which is a vegetable thus easily killed by the intoxicat- ing stimulus. " If sweet fruits be dried by heat, not only the superfluous water be- comes exhaled, but the saccharine process is also promoted,and much of the mucilaginous or acid parti- cles are converted into sugar, as in baking pears, or in drying figs, dates, raisins, apricots ; so that by gradually drying thern, many fruits may be well preserved, and require afterwards simply to be kept dry. " 4. Some fruits, as the olive, are preserved in their unripe state in salt and water; the unripe pods of kidney-beans, and the hats of mushrooms, may be thus also kept for months in weak brine in a cool cellar enclosed in bottles without much change. But the oily kernels of nuts are well preserved in cellars beneath the soil, to preclude the variations of heat, and covered in jars to prevent their evaporation. Other fruits are converted into pickles, and preserved in vinegar, but lose their flavour; and others by being immersed in vinous spirit are preserved, as cherries, and thus transmuted from food to poi- son. And when the kernels of apricots, cherries, or bitter almonds are preserved in brandy, which is called ratafia, we possess a mixture of two of the most poisonous pro- ductions ofthe vegetable kingdom; except perhaps the leaves of hairo- cerasus distilled in alcohol, which was sold as ratafia in Dublin, and produced many sudden deaths in the gin-shops." In planting fruit trees, the holes ought to be dug at least one foot larger every way than the roots extend, some rich earth thrown into the holes, and the whole well pulverized; the first tender shoots from the roots passing into the earth thus enriched and made soft, will have a quick and strong growth and thereby penetrate the more solid earth with vigour. Hut if the soil be a stiff clay, the ground round thetreeought to be dug and manur- ed every year, farther and L: her from the tree, to make way for the extending roots. Neither grass nor weeds should grow near trees to rob them of their nourishment. When newly grafted scions on young stocks are designed to re- main a few years in the nursery, before they are intended for sale, some provident gardeners trans- plant them, every two years, that the root fibres may be more nu- merous in a small compass, which occasions them to grow, when final- ly transplanted, with more certainty and with greater vigour. The following mode of trans- planting fruit trees, as well as other kinds, has been successfully prac- tised by a nursery man : Late in autumn, dig round the root of a tree, about three feet from the body, and leave the trench open; it will fill with water and freeze all the earth around the roots. Early in the spring, remove the tree, having dug it up with all the earth adhering to the roots, and insert it into the hole made to re- ceive it. This hole should be larger than the roots of the tree require at first. In severe winters the above mode might answer, but 108 FRU FRU during a moderate season, there wo,Id be danger of the destruction of the tree from the roots being constantly covered with water. Manuring the roots of fruit trees is of the greatest importance for the preservation of the fruit. It is said that the Agricultural Society of Foeo-Scoua has found by experi- ment, that apple trees raised from the pummice, if transplanted in time, (having the end of the tap root cut off,) may be rendered fit for grafting one or two seasons earlier, than if left in the place where the seeds were sown. In an excellent paper on the cli- mate of the United States, insert- ed in the London Monthly Magazine for January, 1800,by CoI.Tatham, are the following remarks, which are well worth attention : " It is a fact, that in those west- ern parts of the United States, which have an high exposure to the winter's blast, the northern sides of a ridge or mountain arrive soon- er and more certainly at a state of perfect vegetation, than the south sides, which are laid open to the power of the sun. I account for this phenomenon as follows:....I suppose,that the southern exposure to the vehement rays of the sun, during the infant stages of vegeta- tion, puts the sap in motion at too early a period of the spring, before the season has become sufficiently steady to afford nurture and pro- tection to the vegetating plant, blossom, or leaf; and when in this state, the first efforts of vegetation are checked by the chilling influ- ence of cold nights, and such changeable weather as the* contest between winter and spring is ever wont to produce, in their apparent struggles to govern the season.... On the contrary, the northern ex- posures which are not so early pre- sented to the vivifying influence of the sun remain, as it were, in a torpid state, until the more ad- vanced period of the spring, when all danger of vegetation being checked is over. Mr. C. Yancey, of Amherst county, Virginia, who was remarkable for the manage- ment of his peaches, had his or- chard on the north side of a lofty mountain." Col. T. further observes, " that during a hard winter, he saw a par- ticular tree in a row of the same kind and growth preserved through the mere accident of its having been paved with oyster shells.... Upon this principle, Mr. Wythe, of Virginia, succeeded in an ex- periment of planting a young or- chard in the usual mode, and se- curing each tree respectively, by passing them through the eyes of grind-stone, and breaking them by a sledge hammer, so soon as the maturity of the tree required a greater space for its expansion." Air. Joseph Cooper informed the Editor, that early and late ap- ples, by being ingrafted on the same tree, improved in flavour, more than if but one kind grew on a tree. Mr. Samuel Coles, who was present, confirmed the fact; and said, that the Harvest apple, and Newtown pippin, grew in his orchard on the same tree, and that both were larger, and of a finer flavour, than any other apples of the same kind in his collection ; though the soil, exposure, and all circumstances, were precisely the same. Fruit has been hitherto little at- tended to in the state of Pennsylva- nia. It is true, we have had, and still have several fine kinds, parti- cularly of apples ; but considering FRU FRU 109 how very well they thrive in every part of the state, it cannot be said that they abound to a degree that might be expected. The greatest neglect has prevailed in respect to proper trimming, and manuring round the roots of the trees, and but little attention has been paid to the perpetuation of a fine species, by grafting from it on other stocks. In Boston, and New-York, the su- periority of the fruit has been al- ways remarked. The family of Prince, at Flushing, Long-Island, has been many years celebrated for their fine fruit, and some of the choicest kinds to be met with in various parts of the United States, have been brought from their nursery. A very extensive and excellent collection of fruits, both imported and native, was ori- ginally commenced about ten years since, by Wm. Coxe Esq. of Bur- lington, New-Jersey, and is now for sale by J. Smith £c Co. at that place. In this grand collection, there are eighty kinds of apples, ninety kinds of pears, and fifty-one of cherries nearly all imported, and one hundred varieties of peaches. Mr. Samuel Coles, of Moor's-Town, New-Jersey,also has an excellent collet, tion. Several French gentlemen, who have taken up their residence near Philadelphia, have done much in a few years towards improving our stock of fruits, by importing large- ly ofthe finest kinds from 1-ranee, and there can he no doubt, if we take pains to propagate from the valuable stock in our power, that in a few years the neighbourhood of Philadelphia may boast of as fine a collection as can be de- sired. Under the article Apple, some important remarks were given on this subject; the Editor has now great pleasure in presenting to the American public the first attempt ever made to collect into one view, a list ot the finest kinds of apples growing in the United States. For the materials of which this list was composed, he has been indebted to Mr. Wm. Prince, of Long-Island, Mr. R. Riley, of Marcus-Hook, Chester county, Pennsy!. Wm. Coze Esq. of Burlington, and the Hon. Judge Boudinot, of New- ark, New-Jersey, through whom also the valuable facts from Mr. John Ogden, of Newark,and from Mr. Asa Hillyes, of Orange, Essex county, New-Jersey, were obtained ; and he, with thanks, ex- presses his obligation to them for their ready assistance and commu- nications. Attentive, however, as his friends have been, he cannot suppose that the list comprehends every apple in the United ctates ; but he is satisfied that the most valuable have been described, and he will gladly receive accounts of any others which may have been unnoticed, and add them to the list, should another edition of this work be called for. The following kinds of a'-/ let are most commonly cultivated at pre- sent in the United S'atee. Those mark-'d P are in the sale catalguc of J\Ir. Prince of Flushing in Long- Island: 1. The Junetiv.g, P. is one of the earliest apples, it ripens in June, and is of a yellow colour and small size. 2. Large early Fervent, P. rin?ns in June and July. Jt is usually as large as a middle sized Newton pippin, of a pale yellow colour win n ripe, of a pleasant acid taste, and answers best for tarts, and may be used for that purpose 110 FRU FRU when no larger than a nutmeg, by cutting them in two equal parts without peeling. 3. Bow-apple. P. Ripens in June and July, equal to any summer apple ; it is juicy, tender, and mild, of a light yellow colour. 4. Wool/nan's Harvest....Ripens in July. A handsome and striped apple; agreeable to taste. 5. Sweet's Ha; vest....Ripens in July, with red streaks, very fine for eating, or for tarts. 6. Summer Blush....R\pens in July and August, a very pleasant apple. 7. Summer Queen....Kipens in July and August, white with red streaks. This apple is much ad- mired for the table in Delaware state. 8. Sheep's Snout....An admired summer fruit. 9. Large red and Green sweet- ing. P. Ripens in August. A very large fruit weighing a pound. This is said to be the same as the Bow apple, No. 3. 10. Summer Pearmain. P. Rip. ens in August and September. An excellent apple. 11. Autumn Pearmain. P. Ripens in September and October. 12. Sweet Pearmain ....Ripens in September and October. 13. Large white sweeting. P. Rip- ens in September. 14. White's Pearmain....Ripens in August, is of a very agreeable taste. 15. Edward's Early....Yt\pens in August. 16. Autumn or Fall Pippin. P. Ripens in October. A large yel- low apple, acid taste and pleasant flavour. It is also a good kitchen apple; it usually weighs 19 oz. Keeps well. 17. Golden Pippin. P. Keeps from October to January. Slightly acid: yellow on one side, and red on the other; it is a good apple according to Mr. Riley, and was brought from England by Wm. Penn. 18. Newton Pippin. P. It is of a flattish form, and green colour, when first gathered, turning yel- low in the spring, and is justly esteemed the best table apple in America. It is supposed to have come originally from Holland, " FopprNjE'' in low Dutch signi- fying a small sharp apple ; but Mr. Prince says it originated in the town of Newton, Queens County, Long Island, state of New-York. In general, apples kept till the spring lose their flavour and be- come mealy, but the Newton pip- pin may be kept till June with- out losing either its juice or fla- vour. It is an excellent apple for cyder, either alone or mixed with others. Many varieties are raised from the seed of it, of a large size, but different in form and co- lour. Mr. Riley, of Marcus Hook, says, there are two varieties rais- ed at Newton in Chester County. The flat sort is much the best, and the greatest bearer. It is an excellent apple for house use, makes a large quantity of cyder, though of a thin quality. A large long kind sometimes called Lady finger, are not so good, the taste is not so pleasant, and they have a thick skin. This apple is of a beautiful golden colour in the spring. The trees of both those varieties grow larger, and are great bearers. Forsyth remarks that the Newton pippin seldom ripens in England. Mr. Cooper of New- Jersey remarks, that the Newton pippin does not thrive in a sandy soil. FRU FRU 111 19. Newark Pippin, [of Prince) yellow Pippin, French Pippin of Newark. Abounds near New- ark, New-Jersey; an excellent win- ter apple of a greenish colour out- side, rich saccharine taste, yellow substance, and of a higher flavour than the Newton pippin. It is so abundant in juice, that a barrel of cyder has been made from seven bushels, but the cyder is not of the first quality. It is said to have been imported from France. 20. American Pippin was brought from Maryland to Marcus Hook, thirty years since. It is of a flat- tish form, middle size, firm sub- stance, resembling the Vandevere: and will keep till harvest. Mr. Coxe describes it as a large long fruit, having a dull red stripe. Fourteen bushels of these apples are required at Marcus Hook, to make one barrel of cyder. 21. Spitszenburgh. P. "Keeps from November to March. There are three sorts. The TEsopus, Flushing, and the Newton. The first is of a light red colour, round form, and pleasant flavour, and slightly acid. The second is ge- nerally larger and of a deeper red colour, covered with small white specks ; its form is flatter and is of a more acid taste than the first. The third species resembles the second in taste and colour, but in form is much flatter." According to Mr. S. De Witt, surveyor general of New-York, " the Spitszenburgh apple was dis- covered as an accidental produc- tion in the neighbourhood of the city of Albany, and in his opinion may challenge the world to match il. The flavour he thinks supe- rior to the Newton Pippin.....Mr. Cooper, and Mr. Coles of Moores- town mentioned another kind call- ed the Cane Spitszenburgh, from a family of that name near Glou- cester point New-Jersey, and which they thought superior to the kinds mentioned above. 22. The Rhode-Island Greening. P. Is a most excellent apple. It is a large fruit, of a green colour when first gathered, and turns yellow towards spring, and of a very fine flavour. It answers well for culinary purposes. The tree is of a very rapid growth. 23. Jertey Greening, p. Keeps from November to March. It is a more juicy apple than the Rhode- Island Greening: but does not keep so well, of a pleasant flavour, light green colour, covered with small red spots. 24. Monstrous Pippin, or American Gloria Mundi, P. " will keep from November to March. It originated on the farm of Mr. Crooks, near Red-hook, New- York. It is of a yellow colour when ripe, and resembles in flavour the fall pippin, or piplin. The fruit of the original tree weighed 27 ounces." 25. American Nonpareil, or Doc- tor Apple, in Pennsylvania, P. " will keep from November to March. A large red-striped apple, of excel- lent flavour, and very juicy. It keeps tolerably well during win- ter." The tree is subject to blast. 26. Swaar Apple, P. " keeps from November to March. A large yellow and greenish apple, of good flavour, much admired," but liable to be injured by the rose bug, when the fruit is young. The trees bear well. 27. Lady Finger, P. A long ta- pering fruit, of a beautiful yellow and red colour : it is well flavour- ed, and keeps until June. 2o. Red Everlasting, P. Ripe in 112 F R U FRU November; its colour deep red : it is a small sized fruit, of tolera- ble flavour; and keeps well till June or July, but grows mealy and dry. 29. Yellow Bell Flower, P. " A long yellow apple, of good flavour, and will keep until March." 30. Green Everlasting, P. Light green colour; skin remarkably smooth and fair. This apple keeps well until late in the summer, and some have been kept perfectly sound more than a year from the time they were gathered. 31. Michael Henry. A winter fruit; a long green apple, much admired for the table in Monmouth county, New-Jersey. It is a sweet, juicy, sprightly, and well flavoured apple. 32. Redling. Was brought about sixty years since from Pennsylva- nia to New-Jersey, by the mo- ther of Mr. Joseph Cooper, who thinks it the best keeping apple now known. The colour is of a light shining red, and of very plea- sant smell and taste. They hang on well, being suspended at the end of the twig. It somewhat re- sembles the Priestley apple. The Ridley, or Rigley apple, which abounds in Plymouth township, Philadelphia county, approaches very much to the Redling in co- lour and taste. Are they the same ? 33. Sweet and Sour. This sin- gular fruit came from Benjamin Clarke,of Millstone,New-Jersey. It is full of inequalities. The pro- minences are of one taste, and the cavities of another. 34. Orange Apple. Ripe in No- vember, much admired in Hunt- ingdon county, New-Jersey. 35. Black apple. Ripe in Nov. a very deep red. Another much admired fruit near Trenton, New- Jersey. Mr. Boudinot, of New-Jersey, says, " There is an apple lately discovered here, which is called by the owner of the orchard, a black apple ; but it is much larger, finer, and somewhat different from the common black apple. It appears to be a species between the Spitzen- burgh and common black apple." 36. Morgan Apple. Ripe in Oct. so named by Samuel Coles, of Moorstown, New-Jersey ; as it came from the late J. Morgan, of Pensockin, New-Jersey. A plea- sant eating apple ; will keep till May. A great bearer. 37. Summer Pippin. From Dr. CAMrriELD, of Morris county, N. Jersey. 38. Lambert Apple. From Hunt- erdon. 39. Red Winter. Much praised by Samuel Coles, of Moore's-town, New-Jersey. 40. Burlington Pearmain. Ori- ginally from England. 41. Ruckman's Pearmain,P. Ripe in autumn. 42. White Pippin, P. Keeps from November till March. 43. Quince Apple, P. Keeps from November till March. 44. Priestley. Keeps from De- cember to April; originally culti- vated in Bucks county, Pennsylva- nia. A large, long, juicy fruit, and of a spicy flavour; colour red. This tree grows very straight, and is of a handsome shape. 45. Van de Fere. Formerly call- ed Stalcubs. A well known and most excellent eating fruit; plea- sant, and sprightly acid, joined with a sweetish taste, and much pre- ferred for pies and sauces. L"n- fortunately the trees have greatly failed of late. On a rich heavy soil FRU FRU 113 they are subject to the bitter rot, on light soil not so much so. Mr. Riley, of Marcus Hook, says, this apple originally came from Wil- mington, Delaware, and was called after a farmer who raised it. 46. Merett's Pearmain. An ear- ly autumn fruit, cultivated in Bris- tol, Pennsylvania; a light red, pear-shaped fruit, lively taste, but will not keep ; it makes excellent cyder. 47. Large Piplin. Weighs one pound. 48. Pennock's Red Winter. A large, fair, pleasant, spicey apple ; of an oval and somewhat flat form; of a reddish colour. It origi- nally came from Joseph Pennock, of Springfield township, Delaware county ; is ripe in September, and makes but poor cyder, and will not keep well. The tree is large, and bears abundantly every other year. 49. Winter Sweeting. 50. Brown Winter. 51. Roman Stem. From Bur- lington : agood eating apple, slight- ly acid ; of a dull green, not hand- some shape. 52. Spice Apple, is a large au- <, tumn apple,of an aromatic flavour; very tender, and good for house use, but will not keep long. It ap- pears to be peculiar to Newark, New-Jersey. 53. Rambo. From Delaware; a fine fall apple, ofthe size of a Van- devere ; same shape. 54. Winter Queen. Forsyth No. 44. From Delaware. 55. Hays Winter. Forsyth 43. From Delaware; a fall apple of the Vandevere taste, and next in quality for baking to that fruit. 56. King Apple, is a very large red fruit, ripens in October, and when mellow has a pleasant taste, and is generally used as a winter ap- vol. m. pie about Newark, New-Jersey ; though it does not keep so well as some others. 57. The Nursery Apple, is the size of the Harrison apple. When first ripe, it is of a greenish colour, but in the latter part of the winter it turns yellow ; it is frequently kept until June and July, and has been kept sound until September. It originated in a nursery of Jos. Baldwin, at Crane-town, N. Jer- sey. Is not this also a cyder apple ? 58. Burlington Spitszbergen. A winter apple. 59. Lady Apple, Nonpareil,Pom- me d'Apis, P. of French origin ; is of a bright red colour next the sun, and yellow and green on the other side. A most beautiful little ap- ple, and of pleasant taste. 60. Newark Gate Apple. Native of New-York ; sprightly acid taste, and good for culinary use and cy- der. 61.. Brown Knight. In Mr. Riley's opinion, this is excelled by none for the table. It is ripe in Sep. and keeps well. It was discovered by Rowson, an old Swede, near Marcus Hook. 62. Queen Apple. A large, fair, and well known apple ; fit for use the latter end of July, or soon- er ; bears well every other year; a very good apple, but makes poor cycler. This, with the Ame- rican pippin, and Brown Knight, will furnish the house with fresh apples all the year round. Cyder Apples. 1. Hughes' Virginia Crab. A small fruit,of a light green colour, striped with red, and of a harsh un- pleasant taste. The Virginia Crab used for preserving is a different fruit, and has the disagreeable astringent flavour of a green med- lar. Both of these originated in the stale of Virginia. Q 114 FRU FRU 2. Cooper's Russeting. Keeps from October to May. A natural fruit produced on the farm of Jos. Cooper, of New-Jersey, who be- lieves it to be of Indian origin, as the tree from which he (when a young man) preserved a graft, was an old decayed tree, and the place on which it grew was originally the scite of an Indian village. It is somewhat dry, but of a pleasant sweetish taste. This apple makes most excellent cyder: it also is a good pye apple, and best when not pared. Pears boiled in Russeting cyder, with about half sugar, make a good preserve. The trees bear abundantly every second year. The limbs spread horizontally, and are short; they are therefore not in- clined to break. This excellent fruit being justly esteemed is much propagated by ingrafting in New- Jersey. ' 3. The Harrison Apple, or Long Stem. It is of a moderate size, and of a rich dry taste, with a tartness that renders its sweetness agreea- ble and lively. It ripens about the beginning of November ; keeps a long time, and answers well for cu- linary purposes. The cyder made from this apple is clear, high co- loured, rich, and lively. General Washington was presented with a barrel of it by Judge Boudinot, of Newark, New-Jersey, and he de- clared his preference of it to that made from Hughes' Virginia Crab. Mr. Samuel Harrison, now eighty-four years of age. informed Mr. A. PIillyes, of Essex coun- ty, New-Jersey, " that his father, nearly ninety years ago, obtained a large number of small sprouts, from a Mr. Osborne, of South- Orange, which he planted in a nur- sery : that several years afterwards -they were transplanted into an or- chard : fifteen or twenty of these trees bore the fruit which was first called the Osborne Apple: after- wards the Long Stem, and is now called the Harrison Apple. Three ofthe original trees are now stand- ing in the orchard where they were at first planted, and are still bear- ing and thrifty, although they are nearly ninety years of age. " No person among us, (says Mr. H.) has seen or heard of any of this kind of fruit which has not been propagated from the above men- tioned trees." The cyder of this fruit sells from eight to ten dollars per barrel. Mr. Coxe observes, " As a more vinous, rich, and highly flavoured liquor, I prefer the Harrison to the Crab cyder. This preference may dependon peculiarity of taste. The two liquors may in some degree be compared to the still and spark- ling Champagne, both of which have their exclusive admirers." 4. The Cornfield Apple, is a large sweet fruit, of a pale red colour, ripens about the beginning of Oct. and keeps well, if carefully picked: being a rich fruit, it is necessary to mix the Harrison apple with it, in order to fine the cyder produced from it. This apple was brought to Newark, New-Jersey, by the late E. Camfield. 5. Vannvinkle, or Graniwinkle, is a large red and very sweet apple ; rich taste, and fine flavour; ripe about the middle of October, when the fruit falls, and decays so rapid- ly, that it is difficult to preserve the apples till the proper time for m .king first rate cyder. These apples answer best when mixed with half their quantity of the Har- rison appie. Cyder made from this apple alone, resembles unferment- ed metheglin, and must remain in FRU the barrel until the next summer, when it will fine. The tree origi- nated in the orchard of Thomas Williams, dec. according to Mr. Hillyes of Orange; but Mr. John Ogden of Newark, says, he was told the first graft was taken from a tree belonging to an old lady, Mrs. Vanwinkle Poveshon. 5. Ye/low Sweeting. A large yel- low sweet apple, will keep till har- vest, makes good cyder, and an- swers for family use. Mr. J. Og- den's father took the scion from an old tree of John Johnston's, at Connecticut farms, fifty years ago. 6. Rariton Sweeting. Rich fla- vour ; egg-shaped ; makes good cy- der, which keeps well: brought from Rariton, by Mr. Ogden's father. 7. " There is another apple," says Mr. Boudinot, " which is esteemed by some farmers as an excellent cyder apple. It is of a middling size ; about one half of it is green, and the other of a reddish cast: it is called a Sweet- ing, but is different from the Rari- ton Sweeting : it is a rich sweet apple, and requires a mixture of the Harrison, or some other tart apple, to make the liquor bright. It is a firm apple, and will keep till June." 8. The Grey-bouse. Mr. Riley, of Marcus-Hook, thinks this is not excelled by any for making excel- lent cyder : it is of a middling size, reddish grey colour, ripe in Oct. Cyder is made of it in November. The tree bears but every other year, and then is heavily loaded. It is a very tender fruit, though late in blossoming. At the time of the formation of this fruit it is very subject to perish by easterly winds, attended by cold rains, which fre- quently cause the apples to fall off in abundance, sometimes to the FRU 115 loss of the whole crop ; and, on an average, the tree does not succeed in bearing a good crop above one fourth of the time. " It appears to me, (says Mr. R.) much mere ten- der than any fruit I have met with. It was first discovered by P. Ro- man in this township, (Marcus- Hook), by a natural tree that grew close to his house: hence called his house-tree, and by some, Ro- man Knights. This tree is of a middling size, inclines to grow low, and is short lived. Twelve bush- els of these apples are required to make a barrel of cyder.-' 9. The Red-Hou,e. A fair ap- ple, of a deep red ; keeps pretty well. It makes thin rough cyder, not much in use. Ten bushels of these apples are required to make one barrel of cyder. 10. The Collett. Is a large and fair apple, of a pale striped colour, somewhat speckled : of a spicy and pleasant taste; keeps as well as common ; makes poor thin cyder; a native of Chester county, Penn- sylvania. Very few of these trees are now planted. 11. Cart-House, or Gilpin. A useful apple, keeps well, tolerably good for house use and cyder. This is said to come originally from Vir- ginia. 12. Wine-Sop. An autumn fruit, of a deep red colour, and sweet, but not sprightly taste ; makes ex- cellent cyder, which is preferred by some to that of the red streak; cultivated by Samuel Coles, of Moor's-town, New-Jersey. 13. Poveshon. Is a small red ap- ple, ripe about the latter end of September, of a pleasant flavour, and makes good early cyder, for which purpose it is generally used about Newark, New-Jersey. 14. Red Streak. Originally from 116 FRU FRU England : a winter fruit; keeps well, but shrinks; of a pleasant flavour ; red with spots, and gene- rally has a russet coloured teat on the lower side. The tree grows straight. Yvrhen used for pies they need net be pared. The cyder from this apple is much admired. 15. Ce-'lme. A Delaware autumn cyder fruit. 16. Gloucester. Native of Vir- ginia, and good cyder fruit. 17. Golden Rennett, P. An au- tumn cyder fruit. " The Pyrus Coronaria, or Na- tive Crab Apple of North America, is not eaten except when preserv- ed in sugar, and in this state they are deservedly esteemed as a great delicacy. The fruit is flatfish, above one inch in diameter, yellow when ripe, or of the colour of polished brass, and possesses an agreeable fragrancy. Perhaps no tree presents a more gay appear- ance in the spring, when dressed in g-een, and with clusters of flow- ers of a most pleasing blush. The petals may be compared to flakes of white wax, faintly tinged with the finest carmine; though some trees have flowers of a damask rose colour."....Wm. Bartram. The Editor is indebted to his ex- cellent friend, Dr. James Tilton, of vV'ilmington, Delaware, for the following original and very valua- ble communication, on the subject of the insect which has been so ac- tively engaged in destroying the fruit of Pennsylvania, Delaware, (and probably of the other states), for a few years past. It were to be wished, that other gentlemen among us, who have opportunities, would be equally attentive with Dr. Tilton, in communicating their observations upon this subject of rural economy. " Curculio, a genus of insects belonging to the Coleoptera, or Bee- tle order. The species are said to be very numerous. The immense da- mage done, by an insect of this tribe, to the fruits of this country, of which there is no similar account in Europe, has given rise to a con- jecture with some naturalists, that we have a peculiar and very de- structive species in America. " The manner in which this in- sect injures and destroys our fruits, is, by its mode of propagation.... Early in the spring, about the time when the fruit trees are in blossom, the Curculiones ascend in swarms from the earth, crawl up the trees, and as the several fruits advance, they puncture the rind or skin, with their pointed rostra, and deposit their embryos in the wounds thus in- flicted. The maggot thus bedded in the iruit, preys upon its pulp and juices, until in most instances, the fruit perishes, falls to the ground and the insect escaping from so un- safe a residence, makes a sure re- treat into the earth: where, like other beetles, it remains in the form of a grub or worm, during the winter, ready to be metamorphosed into a bug or beetle, as the spring advances. Thus every tree fur- nishes its own enemy ; for al- though these bugs have manifestly the capacity of flying, they appear very reluctant in the use of their wings ; and perhaps never employ them but when necessity compels them to migrate. It is a fact, that two trees of the same kind may- stand in the nearest possible neigh- bourhood, not to touch each other, the one have its fruit destroyed by the Curculio, and the other be un- injured, merely from contingent circumstances, w hich prevent the insects from crawling up the one, while they are uninterrupted from climbing the other. FRU FRU 117 « The Curculio delights most in the smooth skinned stone fruits, such as nectarines, plumbs, apri- cots, &c. when they abound on a farm : they nevertheless attack the rough skinned peach, the apple, pear, and quince. The instinctive sagacity of these creatures directs them especially to the fruits most adapted to their purpose. The stone fruits more certainly perish by the wounds made by these insects, so as to fall in due time to the ground, and afford an opportunity to the young maggot to hide itself in the earth. Although multitudes of seed fruits fall, yet many reco- ver from their wounds, which heal up with deeply indented scars.... This probably disconcerts the cur- culio, in its intended course to the earth. Be this as it may, certain it is, that pears are less liable to fall, and are less injured by this insect than apples. Nectarines, plumbs, &c. in most districts of our coun- try, where the curculio has gained an establishment, are utterly de- stroyed, unless special means are employed for their preservation.... Cherries escape better, on account of their rapid progress to maturity and their abundant crops : the cur- culio can only puncture a small part of them, during the short time they hang upon the tree. These destructive insects continue their depredations from the first of May until autumn. Our fruits collective- ly estimated must thereby be depre- ciated more than half their value. " It is supposed the curculio is not only injurious above ground, but also in its retreat, below the surface of the earth, by preying on the roots of our fruit trees. We know that beetles have, in some in- stances, abounded in such a man- ner as to endanger whole forests. Our fruit trees often die from ma- nifest injuries done to the roots by insects, and by no insect more pro- bably than the curculio. In dis- tricts where this insect abounds, cherry trees and apple trees, which disconcert it most above, appear to be the special objects of its ven- geance below the surface of the earth. " These are serious evils ; to combat which, every Scientific en- quirer is loudly called upon to ex- ert his talents ; every industrious farmer to double his diligence; and all benevolent characters to con- tribute their mite. " Naturalists have been accus- tomed to destroy vicious insects, by employing their natural enemies to devour them....[See Blight.] " We are unacquainted with any tribe of insects able to destroy the curculio. All the domestic animals, however, if well directed, contri- bute to this purpose. Hogs in a special manner are qualified for the work of extermination. This vo- racious animal, if suffered to go at large in orchards, and among fruit trees, devours all the fruit that falls, and among others the curculiones, in the maggot state, which may be contained in them. Being thus ge- nerally destroyed in the embryo state, there will be few or no bugs to ascend from the earth in the spring, to injure the fruit. Many experienced farmers have noted the advantage of hogs running in their orchards. Mr. Bordley, in his excellent' Essays on Husbandry' takes particular notice of the great advantage of hogs to orchards: and although he attributes the be- nefits derived from these animals to the excellence of their manure, and their occasional rooting about the trees, his mistake in this trivial 118 FRU FRU circumstance does by no means invalidate the general remarks of this acute observer. The fact is, hogs render fruits of all kinds fair and unblemished,by destroying the curculio. " The ordinary fowls of a farm yard are great devourers of beetles. Poultry in general are regarded as carnivorous in summer, and there- fore cooped sometime before they are eaten. Every body knows with what avidity ducks seize on the tumble bug, (Scarabeus carnifex), and it is probable the curculio is regarded by all the fowls as an equally delicious morcel. There- fore it is, that the smooth stone fruits particularly, succeed much better in lanes and yards, where the poultry run without restraint, than in gardens and other enclosures, where the fowls are excluded. " Even horned cattle and all sorts of stock may be made to con- tribute to the preservation of our valuable fruits. By running among the trees, they not only trample to death multitudes of these insects ; but by hardening the ground, as in lanes, it becomes very unfit to re- ceive or admit such tender mag- gots as crawl from the fallen fruits. Besides, the curculio is very timid, and when frightened by the cattle rubbing against the tree or other- wise, their manner is to fold them- selves up in a little ball and fall to the ground ; where they may be trampled and devoured by the stock, poultry, Sec. Col. T. Fo- rest, of Germantown, having a fine plumb tree near his pump, tied a rope from the tree to his pump handle, so that the tree was gently agitated every time there was oc- casion to pump water. The conse- quence was, that the fruit on this tree was preserved in the greatest perfection. " All the terebinthinate sub- stances, with camphor and some others, are said to be very offensive to insects generally. Upon this principle, General T. Robinson, of Naaman's creek, suspends an- nually little bits of board, about the size of a case knife, dipped in tar, on each of his plumb trees.... From three to five of these strips are deemed enough, according to the size of the tree. The General commences his operations about the time or soon after the trees are in full bloom, and renews the application cf the tar frequently, while the fruit hangs on the tree. To this expedient, he attributes his never failing success. Other gen- tlemen allege, that common tur- pentine would be still better ; be- ing equally pungent and more per- manent in its effects. Some have sown offensive articles, such as buckwheat, celery, &c. at the root of the tree, and have thought that great advantages followed. " Ablaqueation, or digging round the trees, and making bare their roots in winter, is an old expedient of gardeners for killing insects, and may answer well enough for a so- litary tree, a year or two ; but the curculio will soon .recover from a disturbance of this sort, and stock the tree again. " There is no surer protection against the curculio than a pave- ment. This, however, is only ap- plicable to a few trees. It may serve in town ; but will not answer in the country....[Flat stones may however be placed round the tree, and where lime is at hand, they may be cemented.] " Many other expedients, such as smoking, brushing, watering, Ike. may be successfully employed, for the protection of a favourite tree or two; but it is manifest, from FRU the preceding history, that a right disposition of stock, especially hogs, among the fruit trees, can only be relied upon by a farmer, with or- chards of considerable extent. And that the stock, poultry, &c may perform the task assigned them, it is evident, that a proper disposi- tion of fruit trees is essentially ne- cessary. " As the smooth stone fruits are the grand nurseries of the curculio, special care should be taken, to have these effectually protected. Unless this can be done, a farmer should not suffer them to grow on his plantation. He will derive no benefit from them ; and they will furnish a destructive vermin that will ruin his other fruits. Cherry trees, nectarines, plumbs, apricots, &c. should therefore be planted in lanes and hard beaten yards, [or pavdcl yards,] the common high- ways of all the stock of the farm, and not beyond the range of the ordinary domestic fowls. Orchards of apple trees, pear trees, peach trees, &c. should all be in one en- closure. The pear trees and peach trees may occupy corners of the whole design, so as occasionally to be fenced off. In large orchards, eare should be taken that the stock of hogs is sufficient to eat up all the early fruit which fall, from May until August. This precaution will be more especially necessary in large peach orchards: for, other- wise, when the hogs become cloy- ed with the pulp of the peach, they will let it fall out of their mouths, and content themselves with the kernel, which they like better ; and thus the curculio escaping from their jaws, may hide under ground, FRU 119 until next spring. Solitary trees of one fruit or another, remote from the orchard, should be regarded as nurseries of the curculio, and ought to be cut down or removed to the common enclosure. A young orchard should not be planted in the place of, or adjacent to an old one; that it may not be immediate- ly infested with the curculio. " It is also apparent, from what, has been said, that great advantar ges might result from an associa- tion or combination of whole neigh- bourhoods against this common enemy. Although an intelligent farmer may accomplish much, by due attention, within his own ter- ritory, the total extermination of the curculio can hardly be expect- ed, but by the concurrent efforts of whole districts." On this subject it may be added, that a gardener near Baltimore, who has been successful in raising plumbs, finds that the insect does most mischief in the night; and hence he shakes the tree every evening, and catches the insect in a sheet placed round it. He always burns them instantly. Wrapping each plumb in a muslin bag, or in thin paper perforated with a pin, is a certain, though troublesome mode of guarding against the at- tacks of these insects. A machine for paring apples. has lately been invented by Mr. MosesCoates, of Chester county, which, on account of its simplicity, and the expedition with which it works, will no doubt come into ge- neral use. The following cut will give an accurate idea of this in- strument. 120 FRU FRU The apple is fixed on the three lively, by means of acids; they ge- pronged fork A, and is turned by nerally acquire a purplish hue, by the handle B. To the block C, the the addition of alkalies. The great- knife D is fastened in the manner er part of the colours of these of a spoke share. E and F are juices is perishable, though they springs which fasten the knife to strongly resist fermentation, and the piece G, turning on a pin at H, continue almost unchanged, when while the right hand turns the the liquor is converted into wine. handle B, the left presses againt If the juice be thinly spread upon the springs E P\ and turns the other bodies, exsiccated, and ex- knife in a semicircle over the ap- posed to the air, the colour speedi- ple. The Editor has tried the ex- ly decays; the bright red fades periment with the machine, and sooner than any other; but the found it to pare apples with great dark dull red obtained from the rapidity.] juice ofthe black-cherry, is of con- Colours from Fruits.....The siderabledurability....The ripe ber- red juices of currants, mulberries, lies of the buck-thorn tinge paper elder-berries, black-cherries, and of a green colour: when green, other fruit, impart their tinging those berries afford a yellow, and if particles to water, but more com- ripe, a purplish pigment. There pletely to rectified spirit; and the are besides a great variety of other tincture acquires a brighter colour, fruits, both wild and cultivated, The red watery solutions, as well which impart different colours, and as the juices, are sometimes ren- which are noticed in their alpha- dered dull, and sometimes more betical series. FRU F U E 121 As we treat of the general pro- perties, as well as the relative sa- lubrity of fruit, under the indivi- dual heads of shrubs and trees, we shall, in this place, only add, that the injudicious practice of promis- cuously allowing it, whether ripe or unripe, to children and infants, is very reprehensible. On account of its acidity, they are not able to bear it in excess; and their diges- tive powers become too frequently impaired at the expence of other secretions; such as insensible per- spiration, and the discharges by stool, both of which are thus unna- turally promoted. All fruit given to young people ought to be per- fectly ripe: mothers and nurses should likewise bestow especial at- tention on the cleanliness of the peels, or shells, which as they ge- nerally pass through different hands, or may have been stored in improper places, require to be previously wiped or washed. FRUMENTY, or Furmenty, as it is popularly called, is a kind of pottage, prepared of wheat, which is first dried whole in an oven, after- wards boiled, and put into moulds or basons. In this country, it is chiefly made during Lent; and, when boiled up with milk, sugar, and a little spice, it forms a whole- some and nutritive dish. FRUSH, or Running-Thrush, in farriery, is a discharge of fetid, and sometimes ichorous matter, from the cleft in the middle of an horse's foot. It affects one, two, and sometimes all the animal's legs; but more frequently appears in the fore-feet. It is occasioned by nar- row, concave, or hollow shoes; which, pressing against the fleshy part of the frog, cause pain, in- flammation, obstruction of the blood, &c. There are few cases vo:.. m. in which the frush admits of a radical cure ; because it is subject to frequent returns, producing at length lameness, in consequence of exposing the raw and tender parts to the action of sand, gravel, hard ground, &cc. But, if the disease proceed from contracted, narrow heels, in those feet which are said to be hoof-bound, it cannot be cured, without remov- ing the first cause ; though even in that case it will only admit of palliation. In wide hoofs, however, that are open at the heels, and where the complaint is recent, or is sus- pected to arise from concave shoes, or from keeping the hoofs too hot, dry, and hard, the cure maybe ef- fected with ease and safety, by lay- ing aside those shoes ; washing the frogs clean after exercise, and dress- ing them with Mel JEgyptiacum, prepared in the following manner: Take 2 oz. of verdigrease finely pulverized; 6 oz. of honey, and 4 oz. of vinegar: let the whole be boiled over a gentle fire, till it ac- quires a reddish colour. Or, 2 oz. of blue vitriol, dissolved in a quart of water, may be substituted for the preceding composition, if the hoofs be kept cool and moist. At the same time, it will be requisite to have recourse to bleeding, and purging-medicines, which may be repeated two or three times at pro- per intervals ; or, to diuretics, which are preferable, as they may be continued for some time, with- out confining the horse to the sta- ble. FUEL is the aliment or food of fire. The fuel generally used in Bri- tain is pit-coal: it is attended with considerable expense, that is not a little increased by the enormous waste, arising from the injudicious R 122 F U E manner in which the fires are usu- ally managed. Hence different compositions have been proposed, among which that contrived by Count Rumford more particularly claims our attention. It is known by the name of kindling-balls, which are composed of equal parts olcoal, charcoal, and clay ; the two former are reduced to fine powder, well mixed and kneaded together with the clay moistened with water; and then formed into balls of the size of hens' eggs, which are thoroughly dried. These balls may be made so inflammable as instant- ly to take fire from the smallest spark, after they have been dipped in a strong solution of nitre, and then dried. With those three in- gredients, Count Rumford is of opinion, that a certain proportion of straw, cut very small, or of chaff, or even of saw-dust, may be ad- vantageously incorporated.....The excellence" of the fuel thus prepared consists in its economy and cleanli- ness ; circumstances of the utmost importance, and which are calcu- lated greatly to improve the apart- ments of the opulent: for, he ob- serves, " nothing is more dirty, in- elegant, and disgusting, than a common coal-fire."....The Count's invention is somewhat similar to the patent Coal-balls prepared by Mr. Frederick of which we have already given an account. To this may be added, the im- proved fuel invented by Mr. Peter Davey, to whom a patent was granted early in the year 1801. The substances he employs are, a mixed coke composed of pit-coal and charcoal, in various propor- tions, united previously to the ope- ration of coking. The patentee takes small sea-coal, to which he adds charcoal, saw-dust, tan, or FUE any other materials that may be converted into charcoal, in propor- tionate quantities: these, however, are not specified, and he simply observes, that for furnaces, or other large fires, the quantity of sea-coal is to be increased ; and, when the fuel is intended to be burned in small fires, it is to be diminished. After mixing the different ingre- dients, they are to be dried in kilns, and heated so as to make them in- timately cohere, and expel the moisture and oily parts, without consuming the substance of the coal : in this state, the fuel is fit for use. We do not pretend to decide, which of the preparations above- mentioned is preferable ; as they are all eminently calculated to in- troduce economy in one ofthe most useful articles of domestic conve- nience. ...fire. Beside these compositions, vari- ous machines have been invented for saving fuel, of which the fol- lowing are worthy of notice :....In May, 1792, Mr- David Frear- son, of Liverpool, obtained a pa- tent for machinery and operations for the purpose of saving fuel, in the process of evaporating water from solutions of salts, or the waste or leys of soap-makers; and which may be applicable on other occa- sions, where the evaporation of wa- ter from substances holding it in solution is required. For the par- ticulars of this invention we refer the reader to the 9th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures," where he will find the whole process amply detailed. A patent was likewise granted in June, 1798, to Mr. George Blundell, of Bethnall-green, Mid- dlesex, for his invention of a ma- chine calculated for the purpose of FUL F U L 123 saving fuel, and preventing dirt or dust from fires, which he calls an « Economical Receiver."....The ap- paratus consists of certain receiv- ers, or boxes, formed of metal, either simple, or compound, and which are either square, oval, or of any other shape that may be re- quired, in order to be fitted be- neath any kind of grates, stoves, or fire-places. Over this receiver is fixed a grating, or net-work of wire, which intercepts the cinders, and suffers the ashes to fall into the lower part of the vessel. There are likewise sliders, and other pieces of machinery ; an explana- tion of which is inserted in the 10th vol. of the work above cited. FULLERS'-EARTH, or Argilla Lithomarga, is a species of clay, of an ash-coloured brown, and pre- sents various shades, from a very pale to nearly a black colour : it is in general of a greenish cast. This earth is hard, firm, and of a compact texture, but soft to the touch, and neither stains the hands nor easily breaks between the fin- gers. Its surface is somewhat rough and harsh ; it dissolves easily in the mouth ; and, in a slight de- gree, adheres to the tongue. When thrown into water, it does not cause any effervescence, but gra- dually increases in size, and sub- sides in a fine soft powder. The largest stock of the finest fullers'-earth in the world is ob- tained from the pits at Wavedon, near Woburn, Bedfordshire; where strata of it are found at the depth of ten or twelve feet from the sur- face of the ground. This earth is also found in abundance, and of a good quality, in certain pits near Brick-hill, in the county of Staf- ford ; near Ryegale, Surrey ; Maid- stone, Kent; and in the vicinity of Nutley and Petworth, in the coun- ty of Sussex. Incalculable quantities of ful- lers'-earth are consumed in this country, in the scouring of cloths, stuffs, &c. for which it is of the greatest utility, as it imbibes all the grease and oil used in the prepar- ing, dressing, 8cc. of wool. For this reason, it is declared to be a contraband commodity, and is pro- hibited to be exported, under the penalty of one shilling for every pound weight....As an article of domestic economy, it might be more frequently employed than it is at present, especially in the cleaning and scouring of wooden floors and wainscots, being an ex- cellent substitute for soap, of which great quantities are now consumed, and unnecessary expence of house- keeping thus incurred. FULLING, is the art of cleans- ing, scouring, and pressing cloths, stuffs, and stockings, to render them stronger, closer, and firmer: it is also sometimes called milling. The fulling of cloth, &c. is per- formed by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling, or scouring- 7/«7/....Without describing the me- chanism of this manufacturing pro- cess, we cannot omit to remark, that urine is sometimes employed, as well as soap and fullers'-earth, to prepare the stuffs for receiving the first impressions of the pestle. They are first steeped in urine, then in a solution of fullers'-earth and water, and lastly in soap, dis- solved in hot water. Soap alone would fully answer this purpose, but it is too expensive, especially as, according to the present mode of dressing, fullers'-earth is of equal efficacy. Urine is certainly pre- judicial, and ought entirely to be abandoned here, both on account 124 F U L of its disagreeable smell, and its sharp, saline properties, which fre- quently render the cloths dry and harsh. The scouring of cloth, how- ever, is not the only object in full- ing it; the alternate pressure com- municated by the pestles,or stamp- ers, to the stuffs, occasions in its advanced stages an effect analo- gous to that produced upon hats in the operation of felting. Thus, the fibres of wool which compose one of the threads, whether of the warp or the woof, assume a progressive motion, first introducing them- selves among those of the contigu- ous threads, then into those which follow, so that gradually all the threads, both of the warp and the woof, become completely felted. The cloth, after having by this process become contracted and shortened in its dimensions, par- takes in a great measure of the nature of.fcl:: hence it may be cut without being liable to unravel; and consequently there is no neces- sity to hem its edges...Farther, as the threads of both the warp and woof are more intimately combin- ed, the web, which acquires a greater degree of thickness, like- wise forms a warmer clothing. The process of fulling stockings, caps, Sec. is performed in a manner somewhat different from that in the mills ; namely, either with the feet or hands; or a kind of rack or wooden machine, armed with teeth of the same materials ; or, which is still better, horses' or bullocks' teeth may be substituted. In this operation, urine, green soap, white soap, and fullers'-earth are employ- ed ; but the first of these ingredi- ents, for the reasons before stated, is here also detrimental to the tex- ture. Stockings manufactured in a loom, should be fulled with soap FUM alone ; but, for dressing such as have been knit, earth may likewise be added. Lastly, knit worsted is by this process rendered less sub- ject to run, if a stich should hap- pen to drop in the stockings. [FUMARIA, Cucullaria, {Cap- norchis, Dutchman's breeches.) A very singular and handsome plant. The elegantly complex texture of its leaves, of a soft, glacous green colour, together with its racemes of milk-white flowers, having lips studded as it were with gold, give it an air of great softness and ele- gance. The flower is of singular structure, having twro, or rather a double nectary conjoined, resem- bling a pair of breeches. We have two other species olfumaria in the United States, both of which are very beautiful plants, viz. f. glauca, and l.fungosa. The last mentioned grows in the rich vallies of our northern mountains, but on ac- count of its singular elegance, has lately been introduced into our gardens. It is a biennial vine, rambles to a great extent over shrubs during the flowering sea- son. Its foliage is truly elegant, and its tufts of incarnate blossoms excite general admiration....Wm. Bartram.] FUMIGATION, in medicine, denotes the artificial impregnation of the atmosphere, with the fumes or smoke of any vegetable or aro- matic substance. Considerable injury is often pro- duced by inhaling the subtle corro- sive fumes of metallic and other processes; so that palsy in lead- mines, and pulmonary complaints, in manufacturing towns, are but too frequent: hence we doubt whether medicated fumes deserve that encomium which has lately- been bestowed on them, by various FUM FUN 125 writers. In our opinion, there is no better and more effectual fumi- gator in Nature than pure air, fre- quently renewed by means of ven- tilators. As, however, there are numer- ous advocates for factitious airs and fumigations, we have no hesitation to admit that they may sometimes be resorted to with advantage, for the purpose of purifying rooms that have been occupied by patients whose disorders were contagious. Hence the fumes of tobacco, and the effluvia of tar, have been espe- cially praised. The late Dr. Lind advised cascarilla-bark to be burn- ed, or the camphorated steam of vinegar to be diffused, as being eminently calculated to dispel in- fection. With respect to the fumigation of stables, or other buildings, where cattle are infected with the distem- per, it has been recommended to put an ounce of common salt in a varnished pipkin, upon which are to be poured two ounces of spirit of vitriol, diluted with one ounce of water. The vessel is then to be placed for an hour on a chafing- dish provided with live coals, in or- der that its contents may be heated to a slight degree of ebullition.... The whole being safely deposited in the middle of a stable, the va- pours are permitted to rise, till the air of the building is saturated. Thus, the malignant miasmata in the air, are supposed to be neu- tralized, or corrected ; but the pro- cess ought to be repeated twice in twenty-four hours, at equal peri- ods, during the prevalence of the contagion....No good, however,will result from this or any other fu- migation, without the frequent ad- mission, and change, of fresh air. FUMITORY, or Fumaria, L. a genus of plants comprising nine- teen species, five 05 six of which are natives ; and among these the principal are : 1. The officinalis, or Common Fumitory. It is annual, grows in corn-fields, hedge-banks and gar- dens, and is in flower from May to August....This plant is eaten by cows and sheep ; goats dislike it, except the young shoots, but horses totally refuse it....The leaves are succulent, saline, and bitter. The expressed juice, in doses of two or three ounces, is strongly recom- mended in hypochondriacal, scor- butic, and such habits as abound with vitiated humours. It corrects acidity, and strengthens the sto- mach. Hoffman, in these cases, preferred it to all other medicines. On account of its efficacy in open- ing obstructions, and what are pro- fessionally called infarctions of the viscera, especially those ofthe liver, an extract of it deserves to be kept in the shops. If the juice be taken in large doses, it proves both diu- retic and laxative : it may also be mixed with whey, and used as a common drink.... An infusion ofthe leaves of this plant is employed as a cosmetic, to remove freckles from the skin. 2. The solidav. bulbosa,ov Solid Bulbous Fumitory, which grows in woods and paiks, (for instance, Le- van's Park), and flowers in April or May....BiCHSTi.iN relates, that this plant affords a certain remedy for the extermination of frogs in fish-ponds. FUNERAL RITES, are those ceremonies which are religiously observed at the interment or burial of the dead. They varied among the ancients, according to the dif- ferent genius and religion of each country. 126 FUR It is not however, our design to specify these ceremonies, but merely to point out an abuse that loudly claims the attention of all. In many populous parishes, with- in the bills of mortality, a danger- ous practice prevails, of excavat- ing pits (graves they cannot be called) for the reception of the poor, who, being packed in four deal-boards loosely nailed together, are there deposited, till the whole is sufficiently filled. During the interval, planks are laid over the common grave; and, when the uppermost coffin arrives, a minis- ter is employed to mutter, at once, the usual prayers over the hapless victims of poverty, who are then covered with the maternal earth. Such mal-practice demands an im- mediate remedy; as the mephitic vapour arising through the planks, especially during summer, have the most noxious properties; and perhaps many have met with a premature grave, from inhaling those putrid exhalations....Facts like these, we conceive it our duty to state, on account of their immediate influence on the health of every inhabitant. Fungus. See Mushroom, and White Swelling. FUR, in commerce, signifies the skins of wild quadrupeds, which are dressed with alum, without depriving them of the hair; and which form a part of the robes of princes, magistrates, and others. The skins chiefly used are, those of the sable, er- mine, bear, beaver, hare, &.c. Furs did not become an article of luxury in this country for many ages, and were imported princi- pally from Italy, till, since the conquest of Canada and tlie more northern parts of America, we FUR have obtained them from the In- dians. The furs at present used, are those brought from the remotest parts of North America by the Hudson's Bay Company, and from Russia. They are very valuable, especially the skins of ermines, black foxes, and sables, for which various prices have been paid, from 20 to 100 guineas....Import- ed furs are subject to heavy duties, which our limits will not permit us to enumerate. With respect to its influence on health, we shall briefly remark, that/wr deserves no commendation as an article of ordinary dress. Its alkaline and oily particles stimu- late the skin, when in contract with it; thus partially increase perspiration, and lay the founda- tion of colds and catarrhs. A fur dress readily attracts infection, and soon acquires an intolerable smell. Hence whole nations that wear such garments, are exposed to ob- stinate cutaneous diseases, and, perhaps, to the propagation of the plague itself: which is said to be spread among the Turks, chiefly by their absurd and cumbersome dresses lined with animal hair. FURNACE, an utensil, or ap- paratus, in which a strong fire, either of coals or of wood, may be raised and maintained. There is a great diversity of fur- naces, according to the different purposes to which they are ap- plied ; but, as it would exceed our limits to specify them, we shall only state the chief points to be attended to in their construction, and next mention the various patents that have been granted to speculative individuals....The chief objects in building, and arranging a furnace, are : FUR FUR 127 1. To confine the heat as much as possible to the matter which is to be operated upon. Hence the fire is usually limited to a cavity formed with that intention, and which is provided with a door for supplying it with fuel, as likewise with a grate for supporting it, and permitting the air to pass through, as well as the ashes to drop down into what is called the ash-pit.... Thus, the heat is restrained so as to exhaust its force on the subject inclosed. 2 To prevent such heat from being dissipated ; which design is effected by simply shutting the door of the furnace, and placing the matter to be acted upon, in such a direction as to receive the whole force of the fire, in its pas- sage up the chimney. 3. To produce an intense heat with the smallest possible quantity of fuel. Hence the throat, or fun- nel of the chimney, is occasionally contracted by a sliding plate; which, when shut closely, prevents the passage of any smoke or air ; and, on drawing it out in a greater or less degree, leaves a vent propor- tionally large or small. Thus, a large quantity of fuel may be put in the furnace at one time, that will be slowly consumed, and con- sequently require less attention, than those furnaces which are des- titute ofthis improvement. Where no great degree of heat is requir- ed, the sliding plate may be of cast-iron ; in some cases, however, fire-clay will be more serviceable ; but this contrivance is inapplicable to such furnaces as consume large quantities of fuel, and especially where metals are to be melted. 4-. To arrange the whole, so that the degree of heat may be regulat- ed at pleasure; which intention is effected by admitting only a certain portion of air to pass through the fuel. For this purpose, the late Dr. Black recommended to fill the upper part of the furnace fre- quently with small portions of soot, so that by closing the door of the ash-hole, and perforating it with a certain number of holes corres- ponding to each other, a suffici- ent controul may be obtained over the fire. When the heat is to be increased, all the passages should be opened, and the height of the vent extended ; by which means the column of rarefied air will be enlarged, at the same time its passage through' the fuel pro- moted, and consequently also the heat of the furnace rendered more intense. In June, 1785, a patent was granted to Mr. James Watt, of Birmingham, for his newly-im- proved method of constructing furnaces of fire-places for heating, boiling, or evaporating water, or other liquids ; and also for heating and melting metals, or smelting ores ; by which greater effects are produced from the fuel, and the smoke is in a great measure pre- vented or consumed. The paten- tee effects these different objects, by closing every passage to the chimney or flues, excepting those left in the interstices of the fuel; by placing fresh fuel above or nearer to the external air, than that which is already converted into coke or charcoal; and by con- structing the fire-places so that the flame must pass downwards, or laterally, or horizontally, through the burning fuel, and also from the lower part or internal side of the fire-place, to the flues or chimney....In some cases, Mr. Watt causes the flame to pass 128 FUR FUR through a very hot funnel, or flue, previously to its arriving at the bottom of the boiler, or at that part of the furnace, where it is in- tended to melt metals; by which contrivance the smoke is still more effectually consumed. In other cases, he directs the course of the flame from the fire-place immedi- ately into the space beneath aboiler, or into the bed of a melting or other furnace....A minute account of this machinery is inserted in the 4th vol. of the u Repertory of Arts and Manufactures," where it is describ- ed and illustrated by engravings. In 1794, Mr. Henry Browne, of Derby, invented an ingenious furnace, calculated to facilitate evaporation; for which the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. rewarded him with a gold medal ....By this arrangement, the heat is first carried under the vessel, then reverted back on the sides, and, at length, conveyed over the surface: thus the air in contact with the liquor is heated and rare- fied to such a degree, that the fluid is raised into vapour or steam, much sooner, and with less fuel, than in the cold atmosphere ; and, as the air necessary to keep the fuel in combustion passes over the surface of the liquor, every perni- cious vapour is carried with it into the fire, where it is decomposed, or at least rendered innoccuous. Mr. Browne's furnace is likewise so constructed, that as much fuel may be laid on the fire at one time as will be required for twelve, or even twenty-four hours; and thus one man is enabled to perform the labour of three, with much greater facility than by the usual method. Beside this advantage, the evapo- ration is more speedily effected; less fuel is consumed than in the common boilers now in use; and, neither the operator nor the neigh- bourhood will be annoyed with the most pernicious vapour.... Those who wish to be informed of the various parts of this use- ful contrivance, we must refer to the 12th volume of the " Trans- actions" of the Patriotic Society before mentioned, where it is mi- nutely described, and illustrated by an elegant engraving. A patent was granted in De- cember, 1798, to Mr. William Raley, of Newbald, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, chemist; for his invention of a philosophical fur- nace and boiler, with an actuating wheel appended to them; and which are applicable to the draw- ing of foul and inflammable air from pits, mines, &c. to several branches of pharmacy, and vari- ous mechanical purposes. As, however, this machinery is scarce- ly suitable to domestic economy, we shall only add, that the speci- fication of it is contained in the 10th volume of the " Repertory of the Arts and Manufactures." The last patent which claims our notice, is that granted in No- vember, 1799, to Mr. James Burns, of Glasgow, builder; for his invention of certain improve- ments applicable to furnaces, fire- grates, stoves, and chimnies, by which a greater supply of heat may be obtained from a given quantity of fuel; and rooms of every description may be heated more speedily and effectually than by the methods now in use ; while they are calculated in a great mea- sure to prevent accidents from wo- men's and children's clothes taking fire, and also to give a degree of cleanliness which cannot be at- tained where grates and stoves of fUR FRU 129 fhe common construction are em- ployed. The design of this con- trivance is to prevent the heat, generated and thrown out into any room or apartment by combustion, from being unnecessarily wasted by the air of such room being made to maintain the combustion of the fuel in the grate. To ef- fect this purpose, the air support* ing the fire in the grates or stoves made with the patentee's improve- ments, or in other grates to which they may be applied, ought to be conveyed through a tube (which he calls an air-tube) from the out- side of the house : or it may be made to pass from the outside of the house between the joists, so as to be brought to the bottom bars of the grate, without com- municating with the interior air of the room; while the grates, and other parts connected with them, should be so constructed, that the passage may be closed in a greater or less degree by means of a valve, small door, cock, or any simiEr contrivance, whenever it is not requisite to supply the fire with cold air from the outside of the house: or, the same object may be attained by directing the tube to a cellar, larder, &c. which will thus be thoroughly ventilated, and prevented from acquiring un- healthy or disagreeable smells.... As our limits will not permit us to specify the constituent parts of Mr. Burns's design, we refer the rea- der to the 12th vol. of the Reptr- tort', &c. above quoted, where it is minutely described, and farther illustrated by two plates. But we cannot conclude the subject, w ith- cut stating, that his improvements are affirmed to be an effectual cure for Micky chimnies ; and when a fire is lighted in grutes of the vol. m. patentee's construction, it burns up, and becomes lively in a few minutes, without th_ aid of bel- lows, and that watchful care which common stoves or grates require* The construction of furnaces, so arranged as to consume the whole volume of smoke, is an object which has long engaged the inge- nuity of artists....Hence various contrivances have been proposed ; but few, we believe, for efficacy and simplicity, can come in com- petition with that invented by Messrs. Roisertsons, of Glas- gow. The opening of their fur- naces, instead of being closed by a door, consists of a quadrangular hopper or funnel, which is con- stantly supplied with coals; so that, in proportion as the fuel is exhausted, a fresh stock continually descends through the hopper* Thus, the first combustion, which disengages the greatest part of the smoke and flame, takes place near the mouth of the fire-place, and a considerable quantity of the smoke will, Without any other contriv- ance, be consumed by passing over the red-hot fuel in the farther part of the furnace. But, as a perfect combustion of smoke can- not be obtained without the aid of atmospheric air, a cast-iron plate, about three quarters of an inch above the top of the hopper, is in-i troduced, so that a slit is formed of this depth, and of an equal breadth to the front of the fur- nace ; through which a current of air constantly enters, and is then combined with the smoke. This aperture may be enlarged, or diminished, as occasion may re- quire, by r rising or lowering t- e iron plate, by means of an iron pin : thus, the supply of air m ^ be proportioned to the quantity of S 130 FUR FUR smoke produced, and the whole of the latter will be advantageously used, before it can escape through the chimney. See aEo Boilers and FiRi -places. [A full account cf Mr. Robert- son's furnace with plaies may be seen in the xi. vci. of Tillociv's Philosophical Magazine. Mr. John Pot I uck ofthe Devon iron works, Scotland, from the suc- cessful result ot an experiment continued for several months, was led to be of opinion, that all blast furnaces, by a proper adjustment of such machinery as they are pro- vided with, might greatly and ad- vantageously increase their pro- duce, by assuming this as a prin- ciple, viz. " That with the giving power, it is rather by a great t.uan- tity of air thrown into the furnace with moderate velocity, tlian by a less eiuantity thrown in with a grea- ter velocity, that the greatest btnrfit is derived, in the smelling of iron stones, in order to produce fdg iron. FURNACE (air.) This de- pends for its great heat on the height of the chimney, for the column of air, of which the chim- ney is a part, will be light in pro- portion to that height ; and of course, the colder and heavier air will rush through the fire with proportional violence, to restore an equilibrium ; and combustion be- comes more rapid and intense, the more the air is decomposed.] FURROW, in agriculture, a term not properly defined, as it has three or four distinct signifi- cations, namely, 1. The soil turn- ed up by the plough ; 2. The trench left by this operation ; 3. The interval between two ridges ; and, 4. The cross drain which re- ceives the rain-water collected by these intervals....Dr. Johnson adds a fifth, but he obviously mistakes furrow for drill. According to Mr. Marshall, there are three ideas which lay claim to the Avord furrow :.... 1. The trench made by the plough, which may be called & plough-fur- row ; 2. The collateral drains, or an inter-furrow; and 3. The trans- verse drains, or the cross-furrow. The proper formation and dis- position of furrows, is an object of the first importance in tillage, to effect the complete draining of water. Hence, in plain fields, the rain-furrows ought to be drawn ac- cording to the declivity ofthe land: but, in rising grounds it will be most proper to direct them to that side which slightly deviates from the horizontal line. It also deserves to be remarked, that in all situations where it is practicable, especially at the decli- vities of fields, reservoirs, or pits should be dug, or formed, in order to collect the drained Avater, toge- ther with the finest particles of earth, mire, and other ingredients of manure: after the water has subsided, these valuable materials might be easily obtained in a solid form, and thus again employed on the same field, without incurring the additional expence of carriage. We trust, judicious farmers will avail themselves of this hint, and not disregard it with the stale plea of innovation. FURZE, or Ulcx, L. an indi- genous plant, consisting of two species, the principal of which is, the Europauc, Common Furze, Whins, or Gorze, which grows on heaths, road-sides, and pas- tures.- It abounds particularly in the county of Cornwall, Avhere it is very productive, growing to the height of six or eight feet; and FUR FUR 131 flowering from May till late in autumn. lurze thrives in a light sandy sod, though it grows more luxuri- antly in rich land. It is propa- gated from seed, which is sown in the months of February, March, and April, or in the beginning of May, in the proportion of 61bs. to an acre ; either alone, or with bar- ley, oats, or buck-wheat. But it is not mowed till the year after it has been sown, in the month of Octo- ber, or somewhat earlier, when it will continue till Christmas, and be fit for use till March. Furze will grow for se\reral years, and produce from ten to fifteen tons per acre, which, in the feeding of cattle, are equal to the same quantity of hay: hence it is in some places regularly stack- ed. This plant is ofthe greatest uti- lity, especially as lood for horses, which, when it is recently bruised, eat it in preference to hay, and even corn. Goats and sheep like- wise feed upon the tender tops.... Cows also, that are fed Avith it, yield nearly the same proportion of pure and untainted milk, as when pasturing on meadow grass. For this purpose, the furze is crushed and reduced in a machine, con- sisting of a large circular stone, set on its edge, with a Avooden axis passing through the centre. One end of this axis is fixed upon a pivot placed in the centre of a cir- cular area, and at the other end is fastened a yoke,to which a draught- horse is attached. As the animal moves, the stone revolves round its axis in a circular groove, or trough of hewn stone, in a manner simi- lar to sugar-bakers, or tanners'- mills. In this trough the Avhins or furze are placed, and bruised by the weight of the stone, as it passes over them : after being well crush- ed, they are raised up (by means of a three-pronged fork) in the form of a kind of matted cake, which being set upright, is again broken by the wheel revolving on its axis. Thus, the operation is continued, new surfaces being successively presented to the action of the wheel, till the whole is reduced to a soft pulpy mass....During, the continuance of this process, how- ever, it will be requisite to pour sufficient Avater on the furze, at dif- ferent times, as, without such pre- caution, the plant could Avith diffi- culty be rendered soft enough to be eaten by cattle. To the furze thus crushed, chopped straw is sometimes added, in the propor- tion of I cwt. to a ton of furze.... This operation may be effectually performed by the mills employed in grinding apples, or expressing oil. But, in some parts of England, the prickly points of the Avhins are merely broken with heavy mallets on blocks of wood, and in this state given to cattle, which eat them eagerly. Furze is likewise employed for heating ovens, as it burns rapidly, and emits a great degree of heat; when consumed, its ashes are used for a ley, which is of considerable service in washing coarse linen. This plant is also eminently adapted to the formation of fences, especially on the banks of rivers ; as by its close and prickly branches it retains the collected earth, and is more easily procured than fag- gots. An instance of this fact, oc- curs in the 52d vol. of the Philoso- phical Transactions of the Royal Society, for the year 1761, Avherc it is stated, that locks and dam- heads may be raised at one-tenth 132 FUR FUR part ofthe usual expenccby means oi furze ; f>r a thin perpendicular Avail of stone and lime, or a wall of deal boards two inches thick, is the de«r*,st part ofthe whole work. Close to such a well, on the inte- rior side, is formed a mound of furze, intermixed with gravel, six or seven yards in breadth ; and a long beam, equal with the highest part of the mound, is laid on the top. It is affirmed that such a dam cannot be injured by the weight of the water, or the force ofthe current, nor will the pressure of the mud and gravel cause it to separate, as their weight is suspend- ed by the intertwining of the furze. If, therefore, the beam on the top of the Avail be fixed, the whole fence will be firm, a d effectually prevent any accident that might happen from the bursting of the bank. Another purpose to which Avhins or furze have been applied, is that of a fence fur h dg ■■<■: With this view, a bank should be raised five or six feet broad »t the top, with a proper ditch on each side, the sur- face of which ought to be thickly sown with furze-seeds. These will quickly grow, and in the course of two or three years form a barrier, through which few animals Avill be able to break : such a fence Avill continue in a state of perfection for several years. But, as the furze advances in size, the old prickles decay ; thus leave the lower part of the stems naked, and afford a passage to animals. To remedy this inconvenience, the bank ought progressively to be stored with new plants, which should never be al- lowed to ascend to such a height as to become bare below ; so that if one side ofthe hedge be cut down dose to the bank, the other half may remain as a fence till the former attains a proper size ; when the opposite sice may be cut down in a similar maimer. rl hus, the bank will continually have a strong hedge upon it, without ever be- coming naked at the met....Lastly, the fre-.h and dried flowers of this plant afford, in dyeing, a fine yel- low colour. There is a variety of this species, which has, within these few years, been cultivated in England, and is called Frer.ch i urze. It thrives on a poor sanciy soil, and is cut every third year, in the month of Febru- ary : the instruments should be sharp, and applied as closely to the ground as possible. An acre of land, sown with this furze, -will yield between four and five thou- sand faggots,which are chiefly con- sumed in the heating of ovens. FUSTIC, or Fustock, is the Dyer's Mul.erry-tree, or Mo- rtis tinctonip E. a native of the West-Indies, Avhence it is brought to this country, it is used by dy- ers in tinging cloths of a yellow colour; lor which purpose it is allowed by the 8th Geo. I. c. 151, sec. 10, to be imported duty-free, excepting a convoy-duty of 7-!. per cwt...,It deserves to be remarked, that a small addition of common salt renders the yellow slmoe dark- er ; sal-ammoniac precipitates an orange-coloured powder, and the supernatant liquid has an aurora ytllow appearance. Cloth dyed with this drug, without being pre- viously impregnated with neutral salts, or alkalies, acquire a yellow colour of a brownish shade, Avhich undergoes no change in the air; but M.Bertuollet observes, that lustre and vivacity of colour can be obtained only, by preparing the stufi's with the usual solutions,,,, FUR F U ^ 133 J>ohner, a German chemist of re- more lively tint, but which easily pute, maintains that alum, and so- fades in the open air, lutions of tin, produce indeed a G. GAD GAL GAD-FLY,or Breeze, Oestrus GALBANUM, a gum that e::- bovis, L. an insect writh spotted udes from the stem of the Bubon wings, and a yellow breast. It has gummifcrum, L. or Gum-bearing a long proboscis, with a sharp dart, Macedonian Parsley, a native of enclosing two others Avithin it. Persia,anddifferentparts of Africa. These insects particularly infest ....The concrete juice is jemi-pel- oxen, in the backs of Avhich they lucid, soft, and tenacious ; of a yel- deposit their eggs, and Avhere the loA\ish-red colour ; a strong sine1.] ; maggots are nourished in the Avin- and a bitterish nauseous taste. The ter, till the month of June: dur- best sort is imported in pale co- ingthe whole summer, they plague loured masses, which, Avhen open- the cattle by means of their darts ed, apparently consists of clear to such a degree, that the distressed white tears....This gum is of an animals are induced to rush into emollient and resolvent nature; a the water for refuge, till night ap- tincture prepared of half an ounce proaches.....We believe that the of it, dissolved in eight ounces of washing of oxen and cows in the proof spirit, of which one spoonful early spring, with a decoction of is taken every two hours, has been tobacco, or any other bitter and found serviceable in chronic asth- acrid plant, Avould greatly tend to mas, and inveterate coughs, avhe re prevent the generation of these expectoration is required to be sup- vermin, ported. It is chiefly employed ex- Gad-flies are also very destruc- tcrnally, in Avhite swellings, as avcII live to flowers and trees, the juices as obstructions ofthe abdomen, and of Avhich they absorb ; and likewise frequently in the form of a plaster, injure the roots of trees, which, if though it is more efficacious in a not timely prevented, they gnaw liquid state....In hysteric spasms, so severely, that the stem -will and inflamed hemorrhoids, we are languish, and at length perish.... not acquainted with a better appfi- Theonly remedy hitherto discover- cation; but, in the latter cas., the ed is, to dig up the soil at the foot painful parts ought to be prtrious- of such flowers or trees, to kill the iy covered Avith linen rags molsten- insects ; and to lay on fresh earth ; ed in lime water, before the tinc- bv Avhich means the plants will be ture is dropped upon them. speedily recovered, if they have not GALE, the Sw;:et, Sweet been too long neglected. Willow, ea Dutch Myrtle, 134 G A L GAL Mi,rica gale, L. is an indigenous low plant, growing abundantly on bogs, in gravelly soils, and flower- ing in the month of May....It is eaten by horses and goats, but not relished by sheep and cows. This plant was formerly, by the northern nations, used as a substi- tute for hops ; but unless it be boiled for a considerable time, it is apt to occasion the head-ach.... Dr. Withering is of opinion, that from the catkins of this vegetable, if gathered in sufficient quantities, good candks might be manufac- tured ; as, upon boiling those parts in water, a Avaxej scum may be perceived to rise to-the surface.... in the currying of leather, espe- cially the softer kinds, this shrub is of the greatest utility. When reduced to powder, it affords a grateful perfume in the composi- tion of ointments; and Bechstein asserts, that it is iihewise service- able for the expulsion of moths from clothes....The Norwegians smoke the leaves mixed with tobacco, which they are supposed greatly to improve....A decoction of the plant is used for the destruction of bugs and other vermin....In dye- ing, the bruised flower-buds and Seeds yield a yellow colour..... Lastly, an odoriferous essential oil may be distilled from this aromatic shrub. The sAveet gale may be propa- gated either by seed, or, more speedily, by the divided roots, which thrive in aimost every kind of soil, if it be sufficiently Avatered. There is another species of the gale, namely, the myrica ce-yFra, from which the inhabitantsof Loui- siana, [South-Carolina and Geor- gia,] prepare myrtle candles ; it is also used for tanning calf-skins.... [See Myrica.] [GALEGA, a genus of plants, comprising nineteen species, of whichthe G. Virginica, L. only, will be here noticed. It is called Vir- ginian goats'-rue, or Cat-gut; and is a beautiful plant. This species has a perennial root, which is also long, elastic, and tough : the stem is annual, and grows to a height of three feet. The whole plant is co- vered with a silvery down. The flowers are red, in spikes at the ends of the branches. The root used in decoction is a powerful remedy against worms.] GALL, in natural history, signi- fies any protuberance, or tumor, produced by the punctures of in- sects on plants and trees of various kinds ; but especially the quercus, or oak; cistus, or rock-rose; gle- choma hederacea, or ground-ivy ; salix, or willow; hitraceum, or haAvkAveed; salvia, or clary ; ve- ronica, or speedwell, Sec. Insects deposit their eggs in the leaves or tender branches of plants, the juice of which exudes, and in a short time forms tumors around the punctures or holes. The ex- ternal coat of this excrescence is dried by the air, and during the winter affords a secure shelter to the inclosed insect, while the soft inner pulp furnishes it with sus- tenance till the spring approaches, when the fly perforates the shell or rind, and departs. The best of these galls are those found on oak-trees, and Avhich are thence called oak-galls; they are deposited by the cynips quercus gemmts, or oak-bud cynips.....A small portion of galls infused in a Aveak solution of vitriol and Avater, imparts to it a purple or violet tint; Avhich, after the Avhole of the colouring matter is extracted, becomes perfectly black. Consi- GAL GAL 135 derable quantities of this drug are used in Britain, for the making of ink, dyeing clothes of a black co- lour, and also for the dressing of leather....The most esteemed galls are brought from Aleppo in Syria. Galls have an austere styptic taste, Avithout any smell: they are very powerful astringents, and have, therefore, often been em- ployed in medicine. It is assert- ed that, by their internal use, in doses of half a dram or more of the poAvder, intermittent fevers have been cured, even after Peru- vian bark had failed. Gall in Shet'p, denotes a dis- order, with which these animals are affected during the winter, and which is probably occasioned by severe frosts. Although Are have met Avith no remedy for the cure of this com- plaint, yet for its prevention, the following useful fact deserves to be recorded. Mr. Ellman, of Shoreham, Sussex, has observed, that by giving his sheep some hay in mornings of hoar-frosts, it pre- serves them from the gall. GALLING of a Horse's Back, an injury occasioned by heat, and the chafing or pressure of the sad- dle. ...To prevent this painful af- fection, it is recommended to take the skin of a hind, Avell furnished with hair, and exactly fitted under the pannel of the saddle, Avith the hairy side next the skin of the horse. When, on a journey, a horse's back happens to be galled, a little of the stuffing of the pannel, near the swelled part, should be taken out, and a piece of soft white lea- ther stitched over it, to supply the deficiency. Besides, the sore part of the animal's back should be dressed every evening with an ointment made of the white of an egg and a little powdered alum, beat up together till it acquire the consistence of honey ; but, previ- ous to its application, the injured part must be carefully washed with cold Avater and soap....Ignorant far- riers, in such cases, generally ap- ply salt-butter, and strew likewise common salt on the horse's back, to remain there, over night. We, however, are convinced from ex- perience, that such practice is hurtful, and that frc-.h hog's lard, or butter, is preferable....In situa- tions Avhere alum cannot easily be procured, a rag dipped in lime- water, or vinegar, may be substi- tuted Avith equal advantage. Galling in Medicine. See Excoriation. [GALLIUM TINCTORIUM, A native plant of North America, possessing the very valuable pro- perty of dyeing a red. It has six linear leaves on the stalk, and four on the branches ; the stock is flaccid, the peduncles are placed under the flowers, the seeds are smooth, the stalk of the plant is from six to eighteen inches high, the seed vessel is on the top* and comes to maturity in Septem- ber ; the roots are from one inch to two feet Ion;1;, and when dried, as slender as a common knitting needle; the outside of them is cf a dark brown colour, the inside when broken, of a yellow, orange or red colour. It grows plentifully in avoocIs, sAvamps and on the banks of rivers, in the middle and back parts oi Pennsylvania, in Canada, Hudson's bay, and Western coun- try. The roots of the plant should be carefully dried in the sun, and great precaution taken to preserve them from moisture, that they may not mould. 136 GAL GAL According to the late Dr. H. Martin, the Indians fix the colour by the juice of the crab apple, (pijrus corcnaria). GoAernor St. Clair stat- ed the same fact to the Editor. The Indians dye all their Porcu- pine quills, and the Avhite hair of deer tails with the gallium....Amer. Phil. Soc. Trans.vol. 3.Dr. Wood- house made some experiments upon this plant, which are detail- ed in the Transactions of the Agri- cultural Society of New-York, and observes " Ave see the dye on cloth and silk is durable; neither sun, air or moisture, nor any chemical agents, the alkalies excepted, change its colour"....There can be no doubt that the gallium might become an article of great conse- quence, properly attended to. Gallium Aparine L.See Goose- grass.] GALLON, a measure of capa- city, both for dry and liquid arti- cles, containing four quarts, which varies according to the nature of the commodity measured....Thus, the Avine-gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and holds 8lbs. avoirdu- pois of pure water; the beer and ale gallon contains 281 solid inches, and lOlbs. 3^oz. avoirdupois of wa- ter; and the gallon for corn, meal ex. 272^ cubic inches, and contains Gibs. 13 oz. of pure water.... Encycl. Brit. CALVINISM, an appellation given to the influence cf metals, by mere external contact with the human body, discovered by Prof. Galvani, at Bologna, about ten years since, and which he called Aninvd Electricity. Certain convulsive motions on the nerves of living and dead ani- mals, may be excited by the ap- plication of metallic or other con- ductors of electricity ; but these motions may also be induced, by simply touching the animal fibre with tAvo different metals, that are brought in contact w ith each other at the same moment. This sur- prizing phenomenon has lately been resorted to, in order to ascer- tain whether a drowned, suffocat- ed, or othervrise suddenly deceas- ed person, Avas really or apparent- ly dead. For this purpose, Dr. Creve, Prof, of Medicine in the University of Mayence, has con- trived an instrument formed like a boAV, both ends of which are fur- nished with two small round plates. The Avhole is composed of two parts made of different metals; one-half of solid zinc, the other of fine silver; or gold and zinc, or lead, tin, and gold. The propor-> tion of the first metal should be less than the other combined writh it; namely, the weight and size of the zinc-plate should be less than the opposite one of gold. Both plates are only screAved on the boAV, which chiefly consists of silver. But, where this instru- ment cannot be procured on the spur of the occasion, a small piece of tin or lead, and a silver coin of a moderate size (for instance a shilling, or half-a-crown piece) may be substituted. Although any part of the body may be fixed upon for making the experiment Avith persons apparently dead, yet the upper arm will be the most pro- per. The skin, hoAvever, in that part Avhere the incision is made, ought to be sound, and not of A gangrenous appearance. The muscles must be cleared of all fat and cellular texture, as far as this be practicable; and the blood is to be taken up by a sponge dip- ped in water. Next, the muscle should, be slightly extended, by GAL GAL 137 stretching the arm ; and, in order to keep the lips of the wound se- parate, the skin ought to be ex- panded, and the muscular fibres clearly exposed. After these pre- paratory steps, either the instru- ment above described, or tAvo loose metallic plates, are to be applied towards the centre of the hollow place or wound made by the inci- sion, and both flat plates brought into perfect contact with the bare muscular fibres. If any irritability exist, or remain, in the system of the subject, the muscular fibres will be contracted and tAvisted in a manner similar to spasms; or con- vulsive motions will be evident: every symptom, however, disap- pears on AvithdraAving the instru- ment, and again becomes manifest on re-applying it as before. But no motion whatever will be per- ceptible, if all irritability be lost or destroyed, in which case the body may be considered as irre- coverably dead....ln those instan- ces, where persons have been de- prived of life by intense cold, a moderate degree of warmth should be previously applied, with a vieAV to render the limbs flexible. Hence, this experiment cannot Avith pro- priety be undertaken, till all other means (see Frost,) of restoring animation have been unsuccessfully employed. Whatever two metals be chosen, they will, Avith a few exceptions, produce those remarkable contrac- tions, when applied in the manner before described; but the most powerful are, zinc and silver, or zinc and gold ; or in general, zinc, tin, or lead, when used in combi- nation Avith gold, silver, molyb- dena, steel, or copper. These singular phenomena take place in consequence of a mutual vol. m. communication betAveen any tAvo points of contact, Avhether more or less distant, in a system of mus- cular and nervous organs. The extent of this communication may be considered as a complete circle divided into two parts, one of which, comprising the organs of the animal under the experiment, is called the animal arc ; the other, which is formed by the metals or galvanic exciters, is denominated the excitatory arc ; and consists of more than one piece, of various kinds. Beside the effects thus produced on the muscles, the impressions made on the organs of sense arc equally remarkable. And as the experiments illustrating them may be easily repeated, we shall speci- fy some of the most interesting. For instance, if a thin plate of zinc be placed on the upper surface of the tongue, and a half croAvn, shil- ling, or silver tea-spoon, be laid on the lower surface of the tongue, and both metals after a short space of time be brought into contact, a peculiar sensation similar to taste, Avill be perceived at the moment when the mutual touch happens. If the silver be put beneath, and the zinc upon the tongue, the same sensation will arise, but in aAvcaker degree, resembling diluted ammo- niac, from Avhich it in all probabi- lity derives its origin. If a silver probe be introduced as far as convenient into one of the nostrils, and then be brought into contact with a piece of zinc placed on the tongue, a sensation not un- like a strong flash of light will be produced in the corresponding eye, at the instant of contact. A Simi- lar perception will result, both at the moment of contact and at that cf separation, if one of the na. Is 138 GAL GAL be applied as high as possible be- tween the gums and upper lip, and the other in a similar situation Avith the under-lip, or even under the tongue....Lastly, Avhen a probe or rod of zinc, and another of sil- ver, are introduced as far back as possible into the roof ofthe mouth, the irritations produced by bring- ing the external ends into contact, are very poAverful; and that caus- ed by the zinc is similar in taste to the sensation arising from its application to the tongue. No method has hitherto been discovered, of applying the Gal- vanic influence in such a manner as to effect the senses of smell, hearing, and touch ; though seve- ral eminent philosophers have carefully investigated the subject. Nor are the causes of these phe- nomena clearly ascertained; Gal- van i and some of his folloAvers, Supposing them to depend on the electric fluid, Avhile others attri- bute them to the influence of va- rious physical agency. In this state was Galvanism, Avhen in the year 1800, Signior Volta, professor of Natural Phi- losophy, at Como, in the Milan- ese, communicated to Sir Joseph Banks, a discovery of the vast ac- cumulation of this poAver: it Avas accordingly presented to the Roy- al Society, from the 2d part of Avhose Transactions, for 1800, Ave have selected the following ac- count. Sign. Volta's apparatus con- sists of a number of copper or sil- ver plates (which last are prefer- able), together Avith an equal num- ber of plates composed of tin, or still better of zinc, and a similar number of pieces of card, leather, or Avocllen cloth, the last of Avhich substances appears to be the most suitable. These last should be Avell soaked in Avater saturated Avith common salt, muriat of ammonia, or, more effectually, with nitre.... The silver or copper may be pieces of money, and the plates of zinc may be cast of the same size. A pile is then to be formed, by plac- ing a piece of silver on a corres- ponding one of zinc, and on them a piece of Avet cloth, or card; Avhich is to be repeated alternately, till the number required be arranged in regular succession. But, as the pieces are apt to tumble doAvn, if their numbers be considerable, un- less properly secured, it will be advisable to support them by means of three rods of glass, or baked wood, fixed into aflat Avooden pedestal, and touching the pieces of metal at three equi-distant points. Upon these rods may be made to slide a small circular piece of Avood, perforated Avith three holes, Avhich will serA'e to keep the top of the pile firm, and the different layers in close con- tact. The moistened pieces should likewise be somewhat smaller than those of metal, and gently squeez- ed before they are applied, to pre- vent the superfluous moisture from insinuating itself betAveen the pieces of metal....Thus constructed, the apparatus will afford a perpetual current of the animal-electric fluid, or Galvanic influence, through any conductor that communicates be- tAveen the uppermost and lowest plate; and, if one hand be applied to the latter, and the other to the highest metal, a shock will be per- ceived, Avhich may be repeated as often as the contact is renewed. This shock greatly resembles that given by the torpedo, or gymnotus electricus: and, according to the larger size of the metallic plates, GAL GAM 139 the shock will be proportionably stronger. The intensity of the charge, however, is so low, that it cannot penetrate the dry skin ; it Avill therefore be necessary to Avet both hands, and to grasp a piece of metal in each, in order to produce the desired effect: its power may be considerably in- creased, both by an elevation of temperature, and by augmenting the number of pieces that com- pose the pile. Thus 20 pieces of each will emit a shock, that is very perceptible in the arms; if 100 be employed, a very severe but tremulous and continued sen- sation Avill extend even to the shoulders; and, if the surface of the skin be broken, the action of the Galvanic influence will be un- commonly painful. The sensation of a flash, or shock with this apparatus, does not mate- rially differ from that produced by two simple plates ; but it may be effected in various ways, especially if one or both hands be applied in a Avet state to the loAvest plate of the pile ; or any part of the face be brought in contact with a Avire communicating Avith the top piece. Farther, if a Avire be held betAveen the teeth, so as to rest upon the tongue, that organ, as Avell as the lips, will become convulsed, the flash Avill appear before the eye, and a very pungent taste Avill be perceived in the mouth. Many other curious facts have transpired on this interesting dis- covery ; but, as they have not been hitherto applied to medical pur- poses (though we believe that Galvanism may be safely, and per- haps successfully, resorted to, in paralytic and other cases, Avhere the muscles require excitement), we F.tcM content ourselves with re- ferring the curious reader to Dr. Fowler's " Essay on Animal Elec- tricity," 8vo....for a further ac- count of Signior Volta's discove- ry, to the volume of the " Philoso- phical Transactions" above cited ; and to the 4th vol. of Mr. Ni- cholson's " Journal of Natural Philosophy:" and, for later disco- veries, to the 1st vol. of Dr. Gar- nett's " Annals of Philosophy," Etc. 8vo. Cadeii and Davies, 1801, Avhere the subject is perspicuously treated. GAMBOGE, a concrete vege- table juice, of a gummy-resinous nature. It issues from the Cambo- gia gutta, a native of Cambia, in the East Indies ; whence it is im- ported in large cakes or rolls. The best sort is of a deep yelloAv colour; is divested of all smell ; and has very little taste. As a pigment, gamboge makes a beautiful yellow, Avhich is much used by painters. When taken as a medicine, it operates violently both upwards and downwards. It has been used in dropsies with cream of tartar, or jalap, or with both, to accelerate their operation : it is also recommended to be taken for the expulsion ofthe tape-worm, in doses of fifteen grains, early in the morning, and, if the Avorm. be not expelled in two or three hours, this poAverful dose is said to have been repeated Avith safety and Avith success, even to the third time, and in persons of delicate habits....Great precaution, how- ever, is requisite in the use of this precarious and active medicine; but, if accidentally too large a dose of it should have been swallowed, the most effectual antidote will be copious draughts of a solution of pearl-ashes in water. GAME, in general, denotes any 140 GAM sport or diversion that is perform- ed Avith regularity, and subject to certain rules. Games are usually divided into those of exercise, such as leaping, playing at tennis, e;c. and into those of hazard, such as back- gammon, &.c. which latter ought, in justice to the persons addicted to them, to be completely abolish- ed. Having already treated of the more active games, under the ar- ticle Exercise, we shall at pre- sent only point out such as are pe- culiarly detrimental to the health of children. 1. Bending of the head back- Avards should be carefully avoided, to prevent young people from tumbling over: besides, the mus- cles of the abdomen become thus unnaturally extended, and fre- quently dispose such hazardous adventurers to ruptures. 2. Jumping Avantonly from, or to, a considerable height, ought to be either prohibited, or undertaken with the greatest caution, in order to avoid violent concussion, and sudden tension of the muscles. The juvenile sportsmen should, therefore, be taught to make such exertions with their knees some- what inflected, as to reach the ground first on the points of the toes, and then gradually to drop on the soles of the feet. 3. Children are uncommonly fond of displaying their dexterity in lifting one another, and even weights far superior to their strength; a practice that ought to be seriously discouraged: for, while they are in such postures, every nerve is necessarily strain- ed ; respiration is impeded ; and dangerous accidents may ensue, 4. All partial exercise tends to GAM give the body a crooked form, and should therefore be alloAved only at certain times, and with moderation; as, under these re- strictions, it is even salutary; but, if continued to excess, it is attend- ed Avith the most injurious effects. Hence it Avould be a judicious measure to teach youth, at an early period, the use of both arms alike, and to make them acquainted Avith such games as contribute to that purpose. 5. Sedentary diversions, and long standing, are extremely pre- judicial to the straight growth of children; for, as the spinal co- lumn and legs are too feeble to support the additional weight of the reclining part of the frame, the vertebrae yield to one side, and often occasion incurable distor- tions. If these precautions were more strictly observed, and both male and female children instructed to beAvare of dangerous postures and leaps, as Avell as of raising and carrying heavy burthens, how ma- ny fatal accidents might be avoid- ed ! Yet, we are by no means ad- vocates for rendering them unne- cessarily timid. There is a medi- um, which every prudent guardian will easily discoArer; and to this we Avould call the attention of pa- rents....happy, if Ave could thus add our mite towards introducing more rational, and less hazardous practices. GAME, among sportsmen, de- notes such birds, beasts, or other eatable animals as are taken or killed by fowling or hunting....Foi its physical properties, the reader will consult the separate articles of Deer, Duck," Hare, &.c. Different penalties have been imposed, by various acts of parlia- GAM G A N 141 ment, on all unqualified persons, who may be detected in taking aAvay or killing game, or in keep- ing greyhounds and other dogs, together with engines for catching hares, or other game ; but as they are too numerous to be specified here, Ave can only refer to the laws themselves, or to the abstract of the acts of parliament, published in Kearsley's Tax-Tables, 12mo. 1801. GAMING, the art of playing any game of chance ; for instance, dice, E O, and Pharo-tables, Sec. Gaming has at all times been regarded as pernicious to the mo- rals of society, and is therefore prohibited under severe penalties. Thus, by the 16th Car. II. c. 7, if any person lose by playing or betting, more than 100/. at one time, he is not compellable to pay it; but the winner incurs a forfei- ture of treble the value, one moiety of Avhich belongs to the King, and the other to the informer. By the 9th Ann, c. 14, all bonds, Sec giv- en for money Avon at play, or lent for the purpose of play, are ulterly void; and, if any person lose at one time more than in/, he cannot sue the Avinner; or, if any one com- mit a fraud, and Avin more than 10/. or any valuable article, he is liable to be indicted, and incurs a forfei- ture of five times the value ; beside Avhich, he is to be deemed infa- mous, and liable to suffer such cor- poral punishment as is inflicted in cases of perjury...By the 18th Geo. II. c. 3*, the stat. 9th Ann is far- ther enforced; and, if any person is convicted of losing 10/. or 2c/. at'any sitting v,hhin twenty-four hours, he shall forfeit five times the sum. There are likewise vari- ous other penalties, which our limits do not permit ua to r-pecify....Do- mestic readers have neither leisure nor inclination to spend their valu- able time in the iniquitous practice of gambling: and, as those idle miscreants of society Avho Avaste their days in deep games, at the ultimate expence of the industrious husbandman, are seldom detected or punished, it Avere sincerely to be wished, that our salutary laws could be more rigidly enforced. But little prospect remains for the suppression of that vile amusement, which has lately spread its baneful influence even among women of rank and fashion; since they find themselves encouraged and sup- ported by a powerful phalanx,com- posed of great and Avealthy, but unprincipled men, Avho consider their homes as gloomy abodes, in which they cannot devote them- selves to every scene of riot and dissipation. GANGRENE, [See Mortifi- cation,] an intense degree of in- flammation ; in Avhich the part af- fected groAvs livid, soft, little sen- sible, and is frequently covered with vesicles containing ichorous matter. But, Avhen the part be- comes blackish, flaccid, easily lacc- rable, cold, insensible, and emits the smell of putrid flesh, so that the corruption quickly vpreads, it is then called sphacelus. Persons of a good habit of body are seldom affected by a gangrene ; though, even in them, it may acci- dentally be induced by contusion, long-continued pressure, or bv whatever destroys the texture of a part, and deprives it of its nourish- ment. Thus, in cold climates, se- vere frosts frequently occasion this malady, by impeding the circula- tion....In rheumatic constitutions, especially those advanced in years, the feet are first afflicted with pain, 142 G A N while on the inner side of the small toes, livid spots appear, from Avhich the skin soon separates. By de- grees the foot SAvells, and the toes becomes mortified. As soon as there is reason to ap- prehend, from the unnatural heat of the part affected, and the vio- lence of the fever, that a gangrene will ensue, the patient ought, Avith- out loss of time, to apply for pro- fessional advice, as bleeding may perhaps be useful: meanwhile, his diet and other treatment should be similar to that prescribed under the head of Inflammation. When an inflamed surface as- sumes a gangrenous appearance, while the patient is Aveak, and the pulse low, it will be advisable to resort to a nourishing diet,together with the free use of generous wine, and whatever else is calculated to invigorate the system. Peruvian bark in powder is usually given, in as large quantities as the patient's stomach can support. According to later experience, however, musk conjoined Avith the volatile salt of amber, affords a still more power- ful remedy, for checking the pro- gress of gangrene : eight grains of the former, Avith five of the latter, have been administered in the form of pills, every three hours, with evident success, after the bark and valerian had been given Avithout effect. In gangrenes arising from in- tense frost, the parts ought to be immersed in very cold Avater, or rubbed with snow; for warm ap- plications will be attended Avith speedy mortification. A similar practice should be adopted, if the whole body has become torpid, or rigid, from the severity of the wea- ther ; but, in this case, tiie Avater ought to be gradually changed for G AN some of a warmer temperature.... Frictions with salt will also be of considerable service ; and, if the whole body be benumbed, it -will be requisite to administer first a glass of cold wine, or other cordial, and afterwards some warm wine, either alone or Avith spices. It, however, frequently happens, that a mortification takes place, though no efforts or attention be neglected. In such unfortunate situation, Ave can by no means ap- prove of extraA'agantly cutting and dissecting the parts, as soon as they appear gangrenous; but, where the affection extends very deep, it will be beneficial to scarify the diseas- ed spots, and to remove part ofthe putrid muscular fibre. Various external applications have been recommended, as auxi- liary means of curing a gangrene ; but the following deserve particu- lar notice : Dr. Hahneman has, Avith singular success, employed a strong decoction of oak-bark, name- ly, six ounces of it, in coarse pow- der, boiled in a quart of Avater till it is reduced to one pint: four or six double rags are dipped in it, and applied in a cold state to the diseased part, every half hour, but the compress must every time be made of clean rags...Others have, with equally good effect, resorted to gentle stimulants, generally con- sisting of a weak solution made of one dram of sal-ammoniac in two ounces of vinegar, and six of wa- ter: the degree of stimulus may be increased, or diminished, by va- rying the proportions ofthe salt. Lastly, when a separation ofthe mortified part, and a discharge of the corrupt matter, have been ef- fected, either by the use of exter- nal or internal remedies, the re- maining sore is to be treated as a GAP GAR H3 simple purulent ulcer, and may be healed in the same manner. [GAPS, a disease to Avhich poul- try are subject. The late Dr. A. Wisenthall of Baltimore, gives the following account of it: Lon. Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. ii. " There is a disease prevalent among the gallinaceous poultry in this country, called the Ga/is,Avhich destroys eight-tenths of our foAvls in many parts, and takes place in the greatest degree among the young turkeys and chickens bred upon old established farms. I know not whether the same kind of fowls in England are liable to it, and therefore shall take the liberty to give you a brief account of it. " Chicks and poults, in a feAV days after they are hatched, are found frequently to open their mouths Avide and gasp for breath, at the same time frequently sneez- ing, and attempting to swalloAV. At first the affection is slight, but gradually becomes more and more oppressive, until it ultimately de- stroys. Very few recover; they languish, groAV dispirited, droop and die. It is generally knoAvn, that these symptoms are occasion- ed by Avorms in the trachea. I have seen the whole of it completely filled Avith these Avorms, and have been astonished at the animal's be- ing capable of respiration under such circumstances. " They are of a reddish colour, and at first view, resemble the hu- man lumbricus, (or round worm) ; but Avhen examined, are ma- terially different. When exposed to the microscope, they are found to have an orifice or mouth at one end, formed for function ; the other end, as far as I know, imperforated. Through the integuments is seen the intestinal tube, much convo- luted, like that ofthe lumbricus. " No effectual remedy is known against these destructive animals. 1 have indeed seen them draAvn out of the trachea, by means of a fea- ther, stripped from near its end, Avhich is passed into the larynx, and twisted round till it engages one' or two of the Avorms, which are extracted Avith it."] GARDEN, a piece of ground, laid out, cultivated, and ornament- ed with a variety of plants, fruits, and flowers. Gardens are generally divided into three classes: 1. The flower- garden ; Avhich, being designed both for pleasure and ornament, ought to be in the most conspicu- ous situation. 2. The fruit-gar- den, or orchard; and, 3. The kitchen-garden, Avhich being calcu- lated for utility, should be planned in more distant situations. The two latter, hoAvever, are at present usually combined, as they equally require good soil and exposure. The principal circumstances that merit attention in the laying out of gardens, are, situation, soil, Avater, and prospect; the most eligible of Avhich Ave shall briefly state, re- ferring the reader to the article Kitchen-garden, for a more par- ticular account of the management of such ground as is designed for the supply of culinary vegetables ; and to that of Orchard for the treatment of fruit-gardens. 1. The situation ought to be nei- ther too elevated, nor too low: for if a garden be too high, it AA'ill be exposed to the attacks ofthe Avirds, Avhich are very detrimental to trees; and, if it be too low, the dampness, the vermin, and Ae- nomous creatures Avhich breed in 144 GAR ponds and marshy places, contri- bute much to the unwholesome- nc;s of the spot. It is true, as Dr. Darwin has observed, that Ioav situations are favourable in some respects, on account of their superior warmth, and of their being more sheltered from the cold north-cast Avinds, which, in this climate, are accompanied with frost; and from the boisterous south-west Avinds, that are very violent, and during summer, fre- quently injure the more delicate plants, by dashing their branches against each other. But in Ioav situations, Dr. D. adds, the fogs in the vernal e\enings moisten the young shoots and early flowers of trees, and thus expose them to the injuries of the frosty nights which succeed them, and which they ge- nerally escape, Avhen placed in more elevated ground....The best scite, therefore, is on a gentle de- clivity, especially if it abouncUwith springs, and the land surrounding the house be level: for the air will thtn be temperate, and the Avater descending from the hill, Avhether from springs or rain, will not only contribute to fertilize the soil, but also supply fountains, cascades, kc. it w ill be farther useful for irrigat- ing the adjacent valley, Avhich, if the water be not suffered to stag- nate, it w ill thus be rendered fruit- ful and salubrious. 2. A good soil is an object of great importance. This may be ascertained, by observing whether there be any heath spontaneously growing on it, or other Aveeds that indicate a poor soil. But, if the l.rd be covered with rich grass, fit for pasture, it will be advisable to investigate the depth of the ve- getable earth, by digging holes in various parts, 6 feet in width and GAR 4 in breadth : thus, if 2^ or 3 feet in depth, of good mould, appear on the surface, the soil may be considered as excellent.. ..Good land must neither be too stony, nor too hard for the spade ; nor too dry, clamp, sandy, or too light; lastly, neither too strong, nor clayey, as such soils are ill calcu- lated for gardens. 3. The next requisite is water; the Avant of which is one of the greatest inconveniences in garden- ing : nor should it be taken from cold springs ; as river-water, or that from stagnant pools, is more proper, especially after it has been exposed to the rays of the sun dur- ing the day. 4. The prospect, though by no means an essential point, consti- tutes one of the greatest charms of a garden, Avhich, if it happen to occupy a Ioav and confined situ- ation, is not only disagreeable, but also detrimental to the health of those Avho spend part of their time in such places. In laying out a garden, its size ought never to exceed the ability or Avants of the proprietor. The beauties of Nature should likeAvise be diligently studied; as gardens will continue to please in propor- tion as they approach to her de- sign. Hence the several parts ought to be sufficiently diversified ; and the general disposition of them accommodated to the inequalities, as well as the different situations, of the soil. Nor should the num- ber and species of trees and shrubs be disproportioned to each part; nor any objects that may conduce to ornament, be excluded from the view of the garden. Lastly, in designing these delightful spots, the constant aim should be to unite all that is natural, grand, and no- GAR GAR 145 ble....The curious reader, who is desirous to obtain more particular information, may Avith advantage consult Mr. Wheatley's classi- cal work, entitled " Observations on Modern Gardening, illustrated by descriptions," 8vo. 3s. 6d. which is calculated alike to entertain and instruct. [The great want of Botanic gar- dens in the United States, particu- larly in the city of Philadelphia, the seat of medical science is now severely felt, and ought to be in- stantly remedied. That legisla- ture would do itself immortal ho- nors, Avhich would devote a few acres to this important purpose. Of so much consequence is this measure deemed in Europe, that it is said almost every little free town in Germany, and in every province of the BataA'ian Republic, a botanic garden is established, and a person regularly appointed to take charge of it....In this gar- den all useful plants are placed, whether intended for medicine, or the arts, and it also serves as a source of instruction to those avIio wish to acquire a knowledge of that pleasing and highly useful study....At Glassnevin near Dub- lin, too, a botanic garden has been established for some years, and is now in a flourishing condition. It is under the direction of the Dub- lin Society, for the Promotion of Arts, &c. by Avhich an account of it has been published. Dr. Hozack professor of Bota- ny has lately laid the foundation of one at NeAV-York; and it is to be hoped the laudable example will be followed in Philadelphia.] GARGET, a disease incident particularly to black cattle : it is attended Avith a swelling of the throat, tongue, and the contiguous VOL. III. parts ; and supposed to arise partly from OA'er-heated blood, partly in consequence of eating poisonous herbs....To prevent an attack of this disorder, it has been recom- mended to bleed the animals in the spring. But, if it has already taken place, the mouth ought to be examined, and Avashed with vinegar. Others advise an inci- sion to be made Avith a knife, be- low the tongue, in order to let out the blood and water; afterwards to wash the Avound Avith a solution of salt and alum, in vinegar. This, hoAvever, appears to us a hazard- ous practice, of which we have had no experience. G ARGIL, a distemper in geese, which, by stopping the head, fre- quently proves fatal....To effect a cure, nothing more is requisite than to take three or four cloves of garlic, pound them in a mortar with sweet butter; then form them into little balls, and give them to the animal fasting ; but no food should be allowed them till tAvo or three hours after taking this re- medy. GARGLE, or Gargarism, is a liquid form of medicines used in disorders of the mouth, gums, &c. Gargles are peculiarly useful in sore throats and fevers: they are preferable to many other remedies that are given on the spur of the occasion, as they may be easily and expeditiously prepared....Thus a gargle for softening and cleans- ing the mouth and gums may be procured, by simply mixing a small quantity of barley-Avater and honey, acidulated Avith a little vi- negar. An attenuating gargle, consist- ing of 6 ounces of Avater, j an ounce of honey, and a dram and a half of nitre, will be of considerable U 146 . GAR GAR service in inflammatory fevers and quinsies, and also for cleansing the tongue and mouth....A decoction of sage, sweetened with honey and sharpened Avith vinegar, is Avell calculated to answer a similar pur- pose—With the same intention, the late Sir John Pringle recom- mended a decoction of figs in milk and water, Avith the addition of a little sal-ammoniac, as an excel- lent gargle, especially for strangu- lations in the fauces. In putrid sore throats, where the symptoms are urgent, the ten- dency to putrefaction is great, and the patient's breath offensive, the following composition will be found serviceable: Let 12 ounces of bar- ley-water be mixed with 6 of bruis- ed contrayerva-roots, while the former is boiling. The liquor is then to be strained off*, and 2 ounces of Avhite Avine vinegar, 1 ounce of tincture of myrrh, and 6 drams of the best honey are to be added. If the parts surrounding the gullet happen to be affected to such a degree as to render it pain- ful for the patients to employ this composition themselves, it may be injected into the mouth, by means of a small syringe. An emollientgarglemaybe made, by boiling an ounce of marsh-mal- low root, and tAvo or three figs in a quart of water, till it is reduced to one pint, when the liquor is to be strained off: it is useful in fe- vers, Avhere the tongue and mouth are parched, in order to soften those parts and to promote a dis- charge of the saliva....Lastly, the common gargle is prepared, by mix- ing 6 ounces of rose v/ater, with \ an ounce of syrup of Clove July- flowers, and acidulating this com- pound with spirit of vitriol: it is employed for cleansing the mouth and gums, and operates as a gentle repellent; though Ave believe a mixture of water and vinegar is not inferior to that elegant com- position. GARGUT, a distemper affect- ing all hinds of mamillary animals, especially cows Avhen full of milk. It is occasioned by this fluid being coagulated in their bags or udders, so that it becomes corrupted and breaks out, discharging a noisome and ulcerating matter. The chief cause ofthe injury is owing to the neglect of milking, or sucking down in proper time ; but it may also arise from too high feeding. Coavs and sheep, when thus affected, may be cured ; because these ani- mals are tractable, and will suffer the diseased parts to be anointed with emollient applications; re- maining quiet, Avhile their teats are gently drawn down. Instances have occurred of coavs, which were, even after they had lost half their bags, recovered by the simple me- thods above mentioned, especially by gently squeezing out the cor- rupted milk from the tAvo sound teats. But soavs can seldom be cured, on account of their intracta- bility ; and their pigs will never re- lieAre them by sucking, after they have once tasted the vitiated milk : hence they necessarily perish, in consequence of their unlimited high feeding. GARLIC, or Allium, L. a genus of plants comprising 54 species, seven of which are indigenous : of these, the following are the princi- pal: 1. The Oleraceum, Streaked Field-garlic, or Wild Garlic, Avhich is perennial; grows in pastures, meadoAvs, and among corn ; and produces whitish-green blossoms in the month of July....It is eaten GAR GAR 147 by cows, goats, sheep, and hogs : ....the tender leaves of this species are usually boiled in soups, or fried with other herbs, and form an Avholesome article of food. 2. The ursinum, Broad-leaAred Garlic, or Ramsons, which is also perennial; grows in avoocIs, hedges, and meadows ; and produces large white flowers, that blow in the months of May and June. This species is eaten by cows, but it communicates its flavour to the milk and butter, to such a degree as to render those articles offensive during the spring. It affords an excellent remedy for dispelling rats and moles ; nor will this plant suf- fer any vegetable set near it to thrive:....an infusion of it in brandy is esteemed,according to Mr. Pen- nant, a good medicine for the gravel....The inhabitants of Kamt- schatka find it of great service in removing the scurvy, even in the most advanced stages. 3. The Schoenoprasum, Chive, or Chived Garlic, abounds in mea- dows and pastures ; and flowers in the month of June. It is propa- gated by parting the roots, and was formerly in great request as an in- gredient in salads, during the spring ; but it has been latterly neglected : its taste, smell, Sec. are milder than those of the common onion. Beside these species, which are but little cultivated, there is ano- ther, that deserves to be noticed, viz. the sativum, or Common Gar- lic. It is a native of Sicily, Avhence it has been introduced into our gardens.....This is a very hardy- plant, and will thrive in almost every soil or situation. It is pro- pagated either by the roots or seeds : the former ought to be set in autumn, so that they may strike firmly in the ground before the spring ; which is requisite to make them floAver vigorously the ensu- ing summer. When raised from seeds, it should be soavii on a bor- der of common earth, either in autumn, shortly after the seeds are ripe, or in the succeeding spring : they require only to be kept clear of Aveeds ; and, in the following autumn, may be transplanted to the spot where they are destined to remain. Every part of this plant, but especially the root, has a pungent, acrimonious, and almost caustic taste, Avith a peculiarly strong, and, to many persons, offensive smell. Several nations, hoAvever, such as the Russians, Poles, and Hunga- rians, are very partial to it; and the Jews eat it to excess. Its odour is extremely penetrating and diffu- sive ; and, when the root is taken into the stomach, its scent is com- municated to the various excre- tions, and perspires through the pores of the skin....The juice of this pungent root may be employed with advantage, for cementing broken glass and china, or porcelain. Garlic differs from the onion, only by being more powerful in its effects : they are both stimulants ; assist digestion; relieve the bowels; expel flatulency ; and are benefi- cial in disorders proceeding from too great a degree of viscidity : they also increase the appetite; and, as their stimulating properties are diffused over the whole system, they may be considered as useful condiments Avith the food of phleg- matic persons, or those,, whose se- cretions are in a languid state ; but their use may prove very pernici- ous to individuals who are liable 148 GAR to inflammatory complaints, or in whom a great degree of irritability prevails. The medical properties of garlic are various : it has long been in estimation as an expectorant in pi- tuitous asthmas, and other pulmo- nary affections that are not accom- panied Avith inflammation. It is also frequently of service in the dropsy ; at the commencement of Avhich it has been especially recom- mended by Sydenham, in the quantity of one or two drams in substance, for a dose....Externally applied, it blisters the skin. When made into an unguent, it is said to discuss cold tumors, and has been celebrated for its efficacy in cu- taneous complaints :....in certain states of deafness, a small clove or bulb of the root, Avhen enveloped in gause, or muslin, and intro- duced into the ear, has been found an efficacious remedy. [Method for preventing the taste of Garlic in Milk and Butter. The folloAving plan is recom- mended, by a Avriter in the Philadel- phia Magazine for 1798, for re- moving the garlicy taste from milk, and producing sweet, good butter, in place of that which is so generally considered as highly dis- agreeable. " When the milk is new from the cow, pour one quart of boiling wa- ter into every gallon of milk ; stir it through, and put the Avhole into broad shallow dishes, so that it will not be above two inches deep. Let these dishes be placed on an open shelf, that the vapour may pass freely and entirely away« When the milk has stood in this manner tAvelve hours, it may be put into the churn altogether, or only the cream, as may be most agreeable to the taste or practice of the ope- GAR rator. Milk from cows that have pastured on garlic, when managed in this Avay, -will be quite sweet. The plan here proposed is found- ed on analogous experience. The feeding of cows on turnips communicates a disagreeable taste to the milk and butter; but in many parts of Britain, they make excellent butter from turnip fed cows, by a plan similar to the fore- going. The bad taste of the turnip con- sists in some volatile substance, which is evaporated by the hot water. Garlic is much of the same nature, but probably more volatile. Biscuit baked from gar- licy flour, has no taste of gar- lic ; but soft bread or pudding of the same flour, retains it strongly, having both experienced but an imperfect evaporation." Wild Garlic is unquestion- ably the most noxious plant with which farmers are troubled. When once it has obtained entrance in a field it is exceedingly difficult to destroy, for being a bulbous root, it is very tenacious of life, and will spring up vigorously after having been smothered for two years by a plentiful crop of clover....Nothing short of a system of farming, Avhich is able to destroy it while in a ve; getating state, will banish it from a field. Such a system, the Edi- tor has been favoured with by Mr. John D. Steele of White-Marsh township, Philadelphia county; Avho successfully cultivates a large farm, and the Editor has the plea- sure to state that nearly the pre- cise plan laid down by Mr. S. Avas prescribed by Mr. Wm. West of Delaware county upon an applica- tion to him respecting the means of destroying this noxious plant. " The loss which farmers sus- GAR GAR 149 tain, by the impossibility of selling" but at a, very depreciated rate, grain that has garlic mixed Avith it, or dairy produce, that is affect- ed with its disagreeable flavour, and also the loss which results to them from the retardation of the growth of their crops, Avhere this pernicious plant prevails, render its extirpation an object particu- larly Avorthy of attention....I do not presume to say from experience, that this desirable object is fully attainable, but I believe the mode of summer fallowing pursued by many farmers, for that purpose, is illy calculated to produce its ac- complishment. If the increase of garlic proceed- ed only from its fructiferous stem, plowing in the summer would doubtless prevent it, but this is far from being the case, as the lateral progeny Avhich grows from the maternal bulb, is perhaps more numerous than the sexual progeny produced at the summit of the stem. We all know that the germinat- ing powers of garlic lie dormant from the latter end of the spring, till toAvards the termination of au- tumn, and a slight attention to its bulbs will convince us, that it re- ceives little or no injury from ex- posure to the action of the atmos- phere during that time ; indeed it is a prevalent opinion that bulbs shoot Avith additional vigour after being dried during the time that theirgenninative functions are sus- pended, and hence the practice of taking up tulips, small onions, hyacinths, &c. Avhen their foliage or blades decay, and replanting them before they begin to shoot.... It is a fact also, Avhich no one -will pretend to controvert, that bulbs kept out of the ground, or from receiving nutrition during their springing season, will gradually dAvindle away and die, Avhich fact is strikingly exemplified in the plant we are treating of, for if it be plowed up early in the spring of the year, those bulbs which are turned to, and loosened from the surface of the ground, will in a short time perish inevitably. Some few however of the embryon plants, draAving nourishment from their parents, and receiving shelter from their exterior integuments, -will, if plowred into the ground again, too soon spring from their remains. But the greatest difficulty is in bringing the whole of the roots to the surface of the ground, and can only be effected by repeated ploAvings, hence two, three, or four years, according to the state of the ground or the seasons, must escape before a field overrun with this weed, can be perfectly cleared from it: but I do not think this ought to discourage the cultivator, or deter him from attempting the destruction of this pest, for if he can g'lA'e as much manure to his land as will cause it to produce three or four crops of oats, barley or spring wheat in succession, he will not sustain anv loss. It is not on mere theoretic rea- soning that I have founded my opi- nion, of the impossibility of de- stroying this plant by repeated plowings in the summer, and of the efficacy of spring ploAvings, in producing its destruction; for experience and observation have convinced me of both....I have fre- quently plowed fields that abounded in garlic early in the spring, sow- ed them with oats, and in the suc- ceeding autumn sowed them with winter grain; in these fields I haA'e invariably found garlic plants so 150 GAR GAU weakened, that few of them pro- duced seed....In two instances I have ploAved land in the spring and fall, two years in succession, and sowed it with oats for the ex- press purpose of destroying the garlic. In the first instance, I suc- ceeded perfectly, I do not knoAV that there is a single root of gar- lic in the Avhole piece, which con- sists of about 12 acres ; whilst ano- ther section of the same field ex- actly in the same state Avhich was left as a mowing piece, and high- ly manured, is nearly covered with this plant....My other experiment was not crowned with such com- plete success, but the quantity of plants left appear so trifling as scarcely to deserve notice. When a field is once clear of this weed, I believe there will be little difficulty in keeping it so, if care be taken that it is not introduced Avith the seed or manure, for nature has been very sparing in furnish- ing it with the means of spread- ing itself: she has not given it the downy Avings of the thistle to convey it into the circumjacent country; she has not bestowed upon it the adhesive properties of the burdock, to carry it to distant parts; nor has she communicated to it the elasticity of the noli me tangere to convey it from its native spot: but on the contrary, she has form- ed its seed heavy and destitute of every itinerant principle, so that, Avhen ripe, it falls immediately to the ground, where it joins the nu- merous subterranebus progeny, and becomes the concomitant of the maternal bulb."] GARTER, a ligature employed for fastening or tying up stockings. Though the use of garters be sanctioned by custom and fashion, it is by no means to be recommend- ed, either above or beloAV the knee; for the parts compressed acquire an unnatural hardness ; and every ex- ertion, either in walking or riding, is attended with increased fatigue. Dropsies ofthe legs and thighs also frequently arise from this unsus- pected cause ;....hence, likeAvise, many persons stumble, fall, and dislocate, or otherwise materially injure the knee-pan. Such are the inconveniences attendant on the use of garters: they might, how- ever be easily prevented, by simply fastening the stockings tothe waste- band, by means of tape....Trifling as this alteration may probably ap- pear, it is of real importance to all, especially to those who are troubled with swelled or ulcerated legs, as well as to invalids and valetudina- rians in general: for Ave are fully persuaded that by the adoption of the expedient before suggested, many unfortunate accidents may be easily obviated. [GAULTHERIA, a genus of plants, one species of which only is known to us as a native of the United Syites. It is called Cana- dian Gaultneria, or Mountain Tea, Grouse-berry, Deer-berry, Ground- ivy. It is a common and very small shrubby plant, with slender stems, having at their tops four or five oval ever-green leaves, Avhich have been used as a substitute for Bohea tea ; Avhence the name of Mountain tea. This tea has been used Avith suc- cess in alleviating the asthma.] GAUZE, in commerce, is a thin transparent stuff, sometimes woven of silk, and sometimes only of thread. In preparing the silk for making gauze, it is twined round a Avooden machine, about six feet in height, in the middle of which an axis is placed perpendicularly, with six large wings. On these, GEM GEN 151 the silk is Avound off the bobbins, by the revolution of the axis ; and, when it is thus placed round the mill, it is taken off' by means of another instrument, and wound on two beams. The silk is then passed through as many small beads as it has threads, and is thus rolled on another beam, in order to supply the loom. Gauzes are either plain or figur- ed : the latter are worked with flowers of gold and silver, on a silk ground, and are chiefly imported from China....No silk gauzes can, during the present hostilities, be imported from either France or Holland: formerly they paid a duty of 21 per cent, on the value of the goods....Within these few years, excellent silk and other gauzes were manufactured at Paisley, in Scotland; but, as this elegant ar- ticle of luxury has lately much declined, the silk is now employed for other more solid purposes. GEM, a general name applied to all precious stones, which are divided into two classes; 1. The pellucid, or such as are clear, ele- gant and beautiful fossils, extreme- ly hard, and of uncommon lustre ; 2. The semi-pellucid gems, which are found in small detached pieces, and are composed of crystalline matter debased by earth: they are, nevertheless, of great beauty and brightness, and somewhat transpa- rent. The value of gems depends principally on their hardness and colour. With respect to the for- mer, the diamond is alloAved to be the firmest, and can only be po- lished, or cut, by its OAvn powder : next to it, the ruby, sapphire, ja- cinth, emerald, amethyst, garnet, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry, and marble are classed in the otdcrwe have enumerated. The same clas- sification prevails in point of co- lour: the diamond is universally esteemed on account of its brilli- ancy ; the ruby for its purple; the sapphire for its blue; the emerald for its green ; the jacinth for its orange ; the amethyst for its car- nation ; the onyx for its tawney ; the jasper, agate, &c. for their vermillion, green, and variegated colours; and the garnet for its transparent red. The art of imitating gems is very difficult to be attained ; and, as it can be practised only by those cu- rious persons, who possess both leisure and means, we shall not en- ter into a detail. The same apo- logy will apply to the imitation of what are called antique gems; many valuable impressions of which have been made by Mr. Tassie : hence Ave cannot omit to mention Mr. Raspe's " Account of the Present State and Arrangement of Mr. James Tassie's Collection of Pastes," &c. 8vo. 1786, where the inquisitive reader will find an in- teresting subject judiciously treat- ed and explained. GENERATION, in physiology, implies the propagation of the species, Avhether in plants, insects, fishes, or other animals. Having referred the reader to this article, under the head of " Animalcule," (vol. i. p. 61), Ave are obliged only to explain the term, without entering into spe- culative theories, none of which has hitherto been sanctioned by general authority. Generation, is also used, in Scripture, for genealogy, or the series of children issued from a common parent. More frequent- ly, hoAvever, is the Avord genera- lion employed at present, to sig- 152 GEN nify an age, or the average period of human life. Hence we say, " to the third and fourth genera- tion ;" in which sense historians generally compute the space of about 33 years to each generation. Thus Herodotus divides a cen- tury, or 100 years, into three ge- nerations ; a calculation that ap- pears to be tolerably correct, from the latest results of political arith- metic. GENTIAN, the Common, Yel- low, or Red ; Gentiana lutea, v. rubra, is a native of the Alps, Avhence it Avas introduced into this country. It is however, seldom cultivated in our gardens ; the root, which is employed in medicine, being imported from the moun- tainous parts of Switzerland and Germany. Gentian is one of the principal bitters of European groAvth, and has been found of considerable ser- vice in fevers, and those complaints Avhich arise from weakness of the stomach, and acidity in the first passages. Some years since a poisonous root Avas brought to Lon- don among parcels of gentian, the use of which occasioned violent disorders, and, in two cases, death. This spurious root is conjectured to haAe been the Aconitum anthora, a species of the wolf's-bane, which may be easily distinguished from the gentian, by its smell, whitish colour, and Avant of bitterness; whereas, the true gentian is exter- nally brown, and of a yellowish, or bright-red colour Avithin ; has no scent, and, at first, a SAveetish, but immediately after, a very bit- ter and pungent taste....The dose of this drug, in powder, is from 10 to 40 grains; though it is more frequently taken as the chief in- GE R gredient in bitter Avines ; tinctures, and infusions. [There are several species of gentian in the United States. Dr. Shoepf particularly praises a low species, with narrow leaves, which he found in the glades in Pennsyl- vania. GERANIUM, maculatum or Cranes bill. " In the county of Lancaster" according to Dr. Bar- ton, " and probably in other parts of Pennsylvania and the United States, tins plant is known by the English name of " Crow Foot." It is hardly necessary to say, that this name is improperly applied to this or any other species of the IdLvriXyol geranium; for it has, long since, ceased to be applied to this or any other species of the genus. Ranunculus. The name of Crow-foot is also bestowed, in some parts of Pennsylvania, upon a spe- cies of geum or Bennet, the geum rivale or red water avens.".... These remarks furnish an additi- onal argument in favour of the importance of calling plants by their botanical, instead of their trivial names. The geranium maculatum, is a common plant near Philadelphia, and flowers in the spring: it is a powerful astringent, and will stop very violent bleeding. Mr. Bar- tram informed the Editor that he stopped a most profuse hemorrhage in the ancle, Avhich had been cut Avith an adze,by applying this plant to the part. From the pulsatory motion of the blood, there could be no doubt of a small artery ha\ - ing been divided. The root boiled in milk is a com- mon domestic remedy for the cho- lera, a bowel complaint which at- tacks children during the summer GER G E R 153 months. Dr. Willich notices the geranium under the article "cranes bill."] GEPMANDER, or Teucrium L. a genus of plants consisting of sixty-eight species, three of Avhich only are natiATes. 1. The scorodinia, Wood Ger- mander, or Avood sage, which is perennial; grows in woods, heaths, thickets, and hedge-banks; and flowers in the month of July. It has a bitter taste, and in smell re- sembles hops, with a small mix- ture of garlic: in the Isle of Jer- sey, it is used in brewing, as a substitute for hops. 2. The scordium, or Water Ger- mander, which is also perennial ; grows in damp and marshy situa- tions ; and produces purplish flow- ers in the months of July and Au- gust. It is eaten by sheep and goats, but refused by horses, hogs, and coavs ; though the latter will feat it Avhen impelled by hunger, in consequence of which, their milk acquires the flavour of garlic ....The fresh leaves of the water germander are bitter, and some- what pungent; Avhen pulverized, they have been used for the ex- pulsion of Avorms....a decoction of the Avhole plant is said to be a good fomentation in gangrenes. 3. The chamadrys, or Common Germander, is found in the bor- ders of corn-fields that are remote from houses, in ruins, and upon ancient walls ; it produces reddish purple flowers, which bloAv in the month of June or July. The leaves and tops of this species have a mo- derately bitter taste, accompanied w ith a weak aromatic flavour. It was formerly in great esteem as an aperient and corroborant; it is strongly recommended in agues, iheumath.in, and gout, especially vjl. m. to Aveak and relaxed constitutions, ....In tanning, it has been employed with advantage by Bautsch. There is an exotic species of the germander, viz. the Teucrium ma* rum, or marum germander, which is a native of Spain, Avhence it has been introduced into our gardens, under the name of Cat-thyme. It has received this appellation, from the uncommon fondness Avhich cats instinctively display for this vege- table. Its leaves and tender branch- es, on being rubbed betAveen the fingers, Avhen fresh, emit a Aola- tile aromatic odour, Avhich excites sneezing ; but to the taste they are somewhat bitter, Avith a sensation of heat and acrimony. From the active poAvers of the marum germander, it has been highly recommended in many dis- eases that require medicines of a stimulant, aromatic, and deobstru* ent quality. In the second volume of the " Transactions of the Royal and Economical Society of Florence," Ave meet Avith an interesting memoir by Dr. Menaubone, on the medi- cal properties ofthe Common Ger- mander. Our limits permit us only to state, that Dr. M. strongly recommends the leaves and shoots of this indigenous plant as a sub- stitute for the PeruA'ian bark; a hint which deserves the attention of medical practitioners. GERMANDER, the Wild, or Germander-Speedwell, Vero- nica c/iamocdrys, L. an indigenous perenniri plant, growing in pastures and the sides of hedges ; and flower- ing in May. It is eaten by cows, goats, sheep, and hoises, but re- fused by hoi;s....Thc leaves ot this plant have been recommended as a substitute for tea ; but it is chiefly used as a mild astringent. X 154 GIL GIL GID, a distemper to which hogs are subject. It is occasioned by their feeding too eagerly on buck- Avheat, clover, or other rich succu- lent plants ; and is somewhat simi- lar to the disorder in horses, called the staggers ; as the diseased hogs are affected Avith violent giddiness, sometimes stumbling and falling at every step ; at others, sitting on their haunches, they squeak for several minutes successively, with great violence. The only remedy hitherto known for the cure of this malady is, to drive the animals about for a considerable time (as they are too intractable to be treat- ed medically,J by winch means an abundant evacuation Avill be pro- moted, and they Avill be effectually relieved. It i-, hoAvever, necessary to adopt this rough treatment, as scon as any ofthe first symptoms appear ; for, if neglected, their in- testines become inflamed ; their bodies violently distended ; and a painful death will be the conse- quence. GILDING, the art of spreading, cr covering any substance with gold, either in leaf, or in a liquid state. This art Avas known to the an- cients, though it has only Avithin the last two or three centuries been brought to the highest degree of perfection. Consistently Avith our phm, avc cannot enter into the va- r'.ous branches of gilding, the know- ledge of which is confined to a par- ticular class of artists ; yet, as there are many who delight in making experiments, avc shall subjoin a simple method, that may be easily practised, and will not affect the health of individuals. Let gold be dissolved in aqua- regia (which see) ; in this solution pieces of linen should be immersed, then dried, and burnt to ashes; these should be finely pulverized, and rubbed on silver, by means of a Avet linen rag, or more properly with a moistened piece ol cork: thus, the particles of gold they con- tain will be deposited, so as to ad- here firmly to the silver. The re- mainingashes are nextto be washed off", and the surface of the silver that does not appear gilt, is to be burnished with a blood-stone, till it acquires the colour of gold....This method, which is easy, and con- sumes a very small portion of gold, is usually employed for the gilding of trinkets, spoons, snuff-boxes, and other articles. Gold is likeAvise used for orna- menting glass, porcelain, and other vitrified matters ; to the surface of which (being very smooth, and sus- ceptible of a perfect contact), the gold leaves closely adhere. The pieces are then exposed to a certain degree of heat, and slightly bur- nished, in order to give them lus- tre. However ingenious and pleasing to its amateurs, the art of gilding is very ce.rimental to the health of the persons who practise it, espe- cially in the more complex branches Avhere mercury and other noxious minerals are employed over fires, and cannot fail to produce the most pernicious vapours. Gilders by profession are particularly liable to suffer from these exhalations, the influence of which, hoAvever, might be effectually prevented, by alloAV- ing a continual current of air to perflate the apartment, Avhere the process is managed. Such an ar- rangement may be easily made, by merely opening the upper window, or a door, w liich will admit fresh air to pass through the room. By this simple expedient, the tremors, GIL GIN 155 paleness, and sickness usually at- tendant on such operations, will be completely averted. [The folloAving expeditious and excellent mode of gilding is com- municated by Mr. Samuel Fol- well, miniature painter of Phila- delphia. " Give your Avood two coats of parchment size, and when dry, give one coat of a black composed of asphaltum boiled in turpentine : then lay your gold leaf on, and in three hours after, you may gild.] GILEAD, the Balsam, or Balm of, is a gummy substance that ex- udes from the bark of the Amyris Gileadensis v. Opobalsamum L. a native of Arabia Felix. The balsam formerly imported into Europe, is obtained chiefly by incision ; but the quantity afforded by one tree is so very small, and the collecting cf it is attended Avith so much trouble, that the genuine balm is seldom, and perhaps never exported in a commercial Avay. It is of a bitterish aromatic taste, an acidulous fragrant smell, and of a yellowish or greenish colour.... Among the Turkish women, it is in high reputation, both as a cosme- tic and as a specific for almost every disorder; on which account it is valued at so extravagant a price, that it is extremely difficult to pro- cure it in a genuine state, because it is presented only to Sovereign Princes. Hence, in this country, it is noAV entirely superceded by the balsams of Canada and Copaiba, which are equally efficacious. We have inserted this account, with a view to caution and undeceive the credulous, a\ ho may be apt to ima- gine that any base compound offered to the public, under specious pre- tensions, is the real Balm of Gitcad, which is frequently mentioned in Scripture. [A contemptible Jew Mounte- bank, by name Solomon, resident at Liverpool, who has purchased the title of M. D. from Aberdeen, has puffed off a medicine which he calls " Balm of Gilead," as an uni- versal restorer of exhausted consti- tutions, and has continued to dupe thousands by his disgusting preten- sions, and by the abominable pub- lications which bear his name. To the honor of the American name, such creatures would starve in the U nited State s. Some of t h i s medi - cine, is hoAvever, occasionally offer- ed for sale among us, at the mode- rate price of £,J per oz. vial; but there is little demand for it. The good sense of our countrymen is strongly depicted in this circum- stance.] Gill. See Ground-ivy. GIN, sometimescalkri Glneva, or Hollands, is a malt spirit dis- tilled a second time Avith the addi- tion of juniper-berries. These berries were at first added to the malt before it was ground ; so that the spirit obtained from both, by distillation, possessed the aromatic flavour ofthe* berries, and Avas much superior to that produc- ed by any other method. At pre- sent, the juniper-berries are totally omitted ; and the noxious spirits vended under the name of gin, ac- quire their flavourby distilling them with oil of turpentine, the taste of which in a slight degree resembles that of the juniper-berries, but possesses none of their valuable properties. [GIN, commonly called Jenny. A machine to free cotton from seeds. Various machines underthis name have been invented, some of which go by wat..r or horses, and some by hand. An account of these may be seen in " Drayton's vievr of South Carolina" just published, 156 GIN GIN 8vo. At present Ave shall describe a foot gin in use in South Caroli- na, and of which a drawing has been procured through the friend- ship of a correspondent, Avho ob- serves, that '' this gin differs from the common foot gins, in havingiron in ••-.lead of wooden rollers ; it also Avotks with greater ease, and its rollers appear to have twice the velocity of those in common use. The inventor asserts he can gin sixty five pounds of cotton per day." Explanation of the movements of tlie improved cotton foot gin. A A. Two perpendicular Avheel?. B the axis, on which is a crank C turned by a treadle D \rith the ope- rator's foot. The wheels are each armed with a triple fly, loaded at the extremity of each arm with leaden Aveights of about 4 pounds each. E a leather strap, turns the collars FF of the two iron rollers^ and for the purpose of turning them contrary Avays, the strap on one side is reflected or tAvisted, and a s n dl ;:pindle G, turning freely on its ay/is^preirents the friction of the sair.j. II pi are two steel screws to regulate the distance which the rollers are tobe apart. lis a moveable table with elevated sides on Avhich the cotton is placed to be ginned, and resting on two arms K. This table m the back vieAV of the machine is re-«?»V*d to shew a dia- gonal trough L. whVch receives the seed separated from the clean cot- ton. The cotton is extricated by the operator from the rollers, and falls over a platform placed on the braces M and is received on abroad footboard N, in the front. O is a hgh seat on Avhich tho operator is seated. P, Q, are mortoises in the upright shaft, in Avhich are in- serted metal collars for the axis B to run in, and are regulated by wedges, as sheAvn in the plate. As this gin is particularly calcu- lated for families who raise cotton for home manufactures, the inha- bitantsof Kentucky ,Tennesee, Ohio and Mississippi Territory, (in all which states it is understood no gins are yet introduced) will de- rive great benefit from the oppor- tunity noAV offered them of con- structing a machine Avhich will greatly diminish their labours.] GINGER, the Common, or Amomum Zingiber, L. is a native of the East Indies, whence it was transplanted by the Spaniards to the West India Islands, from which Europe is chiefly supplied with its spicey root. Ginger is a perennial shrub, which grows about a yard high. Its propa- gation is effected by parting the roots in the spring, planting them in* pots of light rich earth, and placing them in a hot-bed of tan- ner's bark, Avhere they are to re- main. The dried roots of this plant are either white, from the lime em- ployed to prevent their destruction by vermin; or blueish, broAvn, or black,according to the soil in Avhich they have been cultivated: they are of eminent use, both for culi- nary and medical purposes, afford-! ing one ofthe most Avholesome and agreeable spices. Hence ginger in entire pieces is often boiled in beer, and drunk by persons Avho are obliged to spend part of their time in cold, open air. It is more im- mediately serviceable in cold flatu- lent colics ; in laxity and debility ofthe stomach and intestines, espe- cially in torbid, phlegmatic consti- tutions ; in order to induce a bris- ker action of the vessels ; for it is 'I 1 GIN GIN 157 not so heating as the spices ofthe pepper kind, though its effects are more durable. Ginger-bread, is a composi- tion prepared of flour, and sugar or treacle, to which is added a cer- tain proportion of ground ginger, whence it has received its name. Ginger-bread, well baked, may occasionally be of service to tra- vellers, if a small portion of it be taken early in the morning, and on an empty stomach ; but it ought seldom, or very sparingly, to be given to children, Avhose stomachs it materially injures, especially Avhen ornamented with leaf-gold, as it is erroneously called ; though the glittering bait consists of Dutch gold, that is, brass or copper re- duced to the fineness of gold-leaf, and which is one of the most ve- hement poisons. From this fruit- ful source arise gripes, obstipations of the bowels, obstructions of the mesenteric glands, and other fatal disorders that frequently torment infants, and which there is great reason to fear, have carried many helpless victims of indulgence to an untimely grave....Parents, there- fore, cannot be too watchful in this respect; and it Avere much to be wished, that the pernicious prac- tice of gilding ginger-bread might be prohibited, by public authority. [Ginger'avine. A correspond- ent forwards the following receipt for making a pleasant ginger Avine, which he recommends from expe- rience. To 20 galls, of Avater add 80 lbs. honey, or 70 lbs. sugar, the former in preference : boil and skim as the feculent matter rises ; put the mixture into an open head, and add ^ ounce of ginger coarsely ground or bruised, to every gallon of the mixture, and when cooled, ferment and proceed as in elder Avine, adding to every 10 gallons, when bunging close one fourth of brandy ; and if the flavour of the orange is required, proceed as in Currant wine.] GINSENG, or Panax quinque- folium, L. is an exotic plant grow- ing Avild in North America. The dried root of ginseng, as imported into this country, has a mucilaginous, sweetish taste, simi- lar to that of liquorice, but accom- panied Avith some degreerof bitter- ness, and a slight aromatic warmth, Avith very little odour. The Chi- nese ascribe extraordinary virtues to this plant, and consider it as a sovereign remedy in almost every disease to which they are subject. No proofs, however, of its avoii- derful efficacy have occurred in Europe. Nevertheless, it is often used as a tonic, antispasmodic and stimulant, in doses from 20 to 60 grains, in powder....Nor do Ave be- lieve that the celebrated ginseng tea possesses any peculiar proper- ties, excepting those of a nauseous taste and loathing, Avh.ile the warm Avater swalloAved with it debilitates the stomach. [This well knoAvn plant is the only native production of the Unit- ed States, Avhich answers to ex- port, in order to procure the lux- uries of China. It is not much es- teemed in China, unless clarified, except in times of a great scarcity of the plant. When however Avell clarified, it has brought the extra- vagant price of Si00 per lb. and great Avealth has been acquired by- some early adventurers from Phi- ladelphia. The process of clari- fying, though hitherto kept a pro- found secret, consists in the care- ful application of heat and mois- ture to the fresh roots, and after- 158 G L A Avards dipping them in hot rice water, or a solution of isinglass in Avater. It is observed that not more than one root in twelve will clarify. This plant grows abun- dantly near Philadelphia. The Chinese attribute almost miraculous powers to ginseng. In particular they suppose, it possess- es the property of preventing the effects of old age, and in preserving their virility to a late period. Me- dical men in Europe and the Unit- ed States do not ascribe any virtue to this plant; but Mr. Pennant shrewdly remarks, that it is very extraordinary, a nation so acute as the Chinese should continue to use it for so long a period, and still belieAein its good effects, and there- fore he cannot be persuaded but that the plant must possess some of the properties attributed to it by the Chinese.] Gladiole. See FloAvering Rush. Gladavyn, or Gladdon. See Stinking Flower-de-Luce. GLANDERS, a disorder in horses, which manifests itself by a corrupt slimy matter running from the nose : according to the degree of malignity, or the conti- nuance of the infection, the dis- charge is either Avhite, yellow, green, or black, and sometimes tinged with blood. The cause of the glanders is va- riously attributed, by some to an infection ; by others, to a diseased state of the hmgs, the spleen, or the brain. W lien the distemper has continued till the evacuated mat- ter is of a blackish colour (which usually happens in the last period), it is conjectured to proceed from the spine : in this case, it is call- ed the mourning of the chine. GL A Unless timely remedies be ap- plied on its first appearance, the disorder becomes incurable. With a vieAv, therefore, to prevent ra- ther than to cure it, Ave shall brief- ly state the most likely methods of obviating the symptoms of this ma- lady, on their first appearance. If the lungs be the seat of the disease, as is the case when horses are first attacked Avith coughs, Ave cannot recommend a better treat- ment to be pursued than that point- ed out, under the article Cough. But, if a sAvelling arise beneath the ears, jaAvs, or about the root of the tongue, proper and immediate ap- plications should be made to pro- cure a discharge and suppuration of the matter. When cough, dif- ficulty of breathing, or a great de- gree of inflammation, accompanies such swelling, it will be advisable to draAV a little blood from a dis- tant vein, in order to mitigate those symptoms: and, Avhen the swel- lings about the parts have acquir- ed an evident prominence, they should be fomented twice in Uwen- ty-four hours, for two or three days, with flannels dipped in the following decoction :....Leta hand- ful of chamomile, and a similar quantity of Avormwood, marsh- malloAvs, and elder-flowers, be boiled in three quarts of water, for fifteen minutes, at the end of which they are to be strained. The li- quor is to be used hot; and the herbs applied Avarm to the parts affected, by way of poultice. •In the course of two or three days, it may be ascertained Avhe- ther a suppuration will follow ; in Avhich case the tumors increase in size, and feel soft in the middle, Avhen pressed by the hand. This is a favourable symptom ; but if the GL A G L A 159 swellings continue hard, without fluctuation, and are accompanied Avith a running from the nose, eve- ry precaution ought to be taken ; as otherwise the disease may be- come troublesome. Hence it will be necessary to prepare a vapour- bath, consisting of rosemary, la- vender-flowei s, and sweet marjo- ram, a handful of each boiled in two or three quarts of Avater. This is to be put into a pail, and the ani- mal's head held o- er it tw ice a day, as near as can be borne, and for such a length of time as the vapour passing up the nostrils is supposed to operate in the manner of an in- ternal fomentation. During the whole treatment, the horse's head ought to be kept Avarm, as it will greatly contribute to the discharge of the noxious humours. In case the running from the nose continue to increase, becom- ing progressively more discolour- ed, the above stated vapour-bath should be continued, and the eighth part of a pint of the fol- lowing mixture injected into one or both of the nostrils, lukewarm, three or four times in the course of twenty-four hours: Take an ounce of linseed, half an ounce of chamomile-flowers, the same quan- tity of elder-floAvtrs, and three pints of water. The whole is to be boil- ed for a few minutes and strained; but, preAiously to its application, it ought to be properly mixed with four ounces of Mel JEgyptiacum, the recipe of Avhich was given in .the article Frush. Should the discharge, at length, become so malignant as to afford reason to apprehend a caries of the bones, the fumigation and injection must" be continued, and two or three drams of the following mer- curial ointment rubbed into the glandular tumors, every evening, for a fortnight; cutting away all superfluous hair,that the mercurial particles may be more effectually- absorbed, and carried into circula- tion :....Take one ounce of crude mercury, and half an ounce of Venice turpentine; let them be mixed together in a mortar, adding a few grains of sulphur, to facilitate the union of the ingredients ; then gradually mix with them two ounces of melted and lukewarm hog's-lard, and cover the vessel closely ; the unguent being now fit for use. This is the last remedy that can be applied, Avith any pros- pect of success; and, if it unfortu- nately fail, the most rational far- riers are of opinion, that the animal should be killed, Avithout further delay ; as the shin will then be its only valuable part. GLASS, a solid, transparent, brittle substance, produced by- melting together sand, fiint, alka- line salts, &.c. besides which, there are various saline matters em- ployed, namely, Polverine, or Re- chetta, which is prepared from Gla.iswort, or Salsola Kniy an in- digenous plant; but which is chief- ly imported from the Levant, where it is cut down in the summer, dried in the sun, and burned in heaps, Avhen the ashes fall into a pit, Avhere they concrete into a hard mass. A similar salt is obtained from the ashes (kdp) of the Fucus vesicu- lous, or Common Sea-wrack, or Sea-ware, a marine plant growing on the sea-coasts....The sand used in the manufacture of glass is found at Lynn, in Norfolk, and Maid- stone, in Kent. These various articles are first carefully Avashed, and, after ex- tracting all the impurities, they are conveyed to the fu; m.ce in pots 160 G L A GL A made of tobacco-pipe clay, for the purpose of resisting the fire. Here the mixture is fused, and disposed of according to the different kinds of glass intended to be manufac- tured. Round glass, such as phials, drinking-giasses, Sec. are blown. When the different materials are sufficiently liquefied, the Avorkmen dip long iron pipes into it, and blow the metal till it lengthens like a biadder. It is then rolled on a mar- ble slab to polish it,Avhen it is bloAvn a second time, in order to form it into the shape of a globe. Next, it is cut off at the collet, or neck, adhering to the pipe: for this pur- pose, the latter is rested on an iron bar close to the neck, and a drop of Avater poured on it, by Avhich means it is cracked about a quarter of an inch,Avhen it is slightly struck, or cut by a pair of shears, and im- mediately separated.....Now the Avorkman dips the rod or pipe into the melting metal,Avhence he draws out as much as will connect the glass already made, to which he fixes the rod, opposite the opening caused by the breaking or cutting of the neck. In this position, the glass is carried to the mouth ofthe furnace, in order to be heated, or scalded : thus it becomes so soft, that it may be pierced, opened, and moulded at pleasure, Avithout any apprehension of its breaking. The vessel, however, is not finish- ed till it has again been returned to the mouth of the furnace, where, after being thoroughly heated, and turned quickly round, it will open to any size, by means of heat and circular motion. Shoul 1 any im- purities remain, they are cut off with the shears, as the glass con- tinues flexible till it becomes cool. And, if the vessel thus made re- quire a foot or handle, or any other ornament, the operator forms them separately, and unites them by the help of hot metal, drawn from the pots Avith the iron rod :....the last operation for completing the glass, is that of Annealing....See vol. i. Window or Table-glass, is Avork- ed nearly in the manner above de- scribed : the Avorkman blows and manages the metal, so that it ex- tends two or three feet in a cylin- drical form. It is then carried to the fire, and the operation of blow- ing repeated till the metal is stretched to the dimensions re- quired, the side to Avhich the pipe is fixed diminishing gradually till it ends in a pyramidal form ; but, in order to bring both ends nearly to the same diameter, while the glass continues flexible, a small portion of hot metal is added to the pipe ; the Avhole is draAvn out Avith a pair of iron pincers, and the same end is cut off with a little cold Avater as before. The cylinder thus open at one end, is returned to the mouth of the furnace, where it is cut by the aid of cold water, after Avhich it is gradually heated on an earthen table, in order to unfold its length, Avhile the workman with an iron tool alternately raises and depresses the two halves of the cylinder: by this process, the latter accommo- dates itself to the same flat form in which it is again heated, cooled on a copper table, hardened twenly- fourhours in the annealing furnace, and aftenvards preserved for use. Window-glass is divided into va- rious sorts, the principal of Avhich are: 1. Crown- glass, Avhich is the clearest and most expensive. The best Avindow-glass is made of Avhite sand, 60lbs.; purified pearl-ashes, 30lbs.; salt-petre 15lbs.; borax, GL A GLA 161 Ub. and of half a pound of arsenic. These materials are melted in the manner before mentioned, and if the glass should assume a dusky yellowish hue, a sufficient quantity of manganese must be added to re- move that defect. 2. Newcastle-glass, which is most commonly used in England: it is of an ash-colour, and frequent- ly speckled, streaked, and other- Avise blemished. Its preparation consists of 601b6. of Avhite sand, 25lhs. of unpurified pearl-ashes, lOlbs. of common salt, 21bs. of ar- senic, and 2 oz. of manganese. 3. Phial-glass is an intermediate kind between flint and the com- mon bottle or green-glass. The better sort is made of l20lbs. of white sand, 50lbs. of unpurified pearl-ashes, lOlbs. of common salt, 5lbs. of arsenic, and 5 oz. of man- ganese. The composition for green or common phial-glass consists of 120lbs. of the cheapest white sand, 80lbs. of wood-ashes Avell burnt and sifted, 20lbs. of pearl-ashes, I5lbs. of common salt, and lib. of arse- nic. 4. The common bottle, or green glass, is prepared from any kind of sand fused with wood-ashes, to which may be added the clinkers of forges. Plate-glass is the last and most valuable kind, and is thus called, from its being cast in plates or large sheets: it is almost exclu- sively employed for mirrors or looking glasses, and for the A\in- doAvs of carriage;-....It is composed of 60lbs. of Avhite sand cleansed ; 25lhs. of purified pearl-ashes.; 15lbs. of salt-petre, and 71bs. of borax; and, if a-yellow tinge suould appear in the glass, a small quan- tity vF manganese and arsenic are added, in equal proportions. VOL. ill. Plate-glass Avas formerly blown, but that method having been found very inconvenient, casting was in- vented ; namely, the liquid metal is conveyed from the furnace to a large table, on Avhich it is poured, and all excrescences, or bubbles, are immediately remoA'edby a rol- ler that is sAviftly passed over it.... It is then annealed in the manner already referred to. The last process is that of grind- ing, Avhich is performed by certain machinery, that is not generally known. In Britain, it is practised to the greatest perfection by Bohe- mians. The cdouring of glass with Ara- rious shades, is an art known only to a feAV persons, and as it is not an objoct of domestic economy, Ave shall only notice a patent granted in February, 1778, to Mr. John Kent Tarrant,for his invention of painting, spangling, gihling, and silvering glass....This is effected by applying the painting to the back of the glass, so that it may appear on the front, Avhen finished: the colours are to be prepared Avith oil or varnish. Those parts which are intended to be gilt, must be previ- ously traced on the glass, and when perfectly dry, the gold-leaf is to be applied : a similar method is to be followed for silvering. With re- spect to spangling, the patentee di- rects this process to be performed after the parts have 1 .a'ii properly shadoAved ; and, as soon as the out- lines are dry, the glass ought to be varnished with a solution of gum copal, and the spangles strewed o-.i while it is wet; when t ■'.<=• v are per- fectly dry, it is m\ ,: ^ .iry to varnish them over two or three times. Glass is so remarkably elastic, tha* if the force with Avhich glass balls strike each other, be comput Y 162 G L A GL A ed at 16, that Avith Avhich they re- cede from tneir elasticity, will be nearly 15. Hence Ave have seen glass hvigs, and even glass brushes, manufactured by Bohemian a. lists. If gla:-s be exposed to the influence of dew, it becomes moist, Avhich does not happen either Avith silver or any other metal. And if a gob- let, or other drinking glass, be fill- ed Avith Avater, and rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, it will im- part musical notes, higher or loAver, in proportion as the glass contains more or less of that fluid : it like- Avise posse-ses considerable electri- cal properties, and is therefore fre- quent'y employed in experiments on electricity. Before Ave conclude this article, we cannot omit to take notice of the numerous accidents that fre- quently happen in consequence of persons inadvertently, or adventur- ously, swallowing fragments of broken glass. In such case, the safest remedy is to administer, as speedily as possible, large draughts of olive or other demulcent oils, by which the membranes of the sto- mach and intestines may be lubri- cated, and thus the injurious ef- fects of the glass timely counter- acted. If children, or other impro- vident persons,have cut themselves with glass, it is of the first import- ance to ascertain Avhether any par- ticles of it have remained in the wound : these should, at all ha- zards, be, immediately extracted by a skiiful operator; as, Avithoutsuch precaution, the most dangerous consequences are to be apprehend- ed, in parts thus injured. For different methods of uniting broken glass, Ave refer to the arti- cles Cement and Garlic Glass-avort. Sec Salt-ayort. GLAUBER's-SALT, a chemi- cal composition, which is usually prepared by adding to sea-salt an equal quantity of oil of vitriol dilut- ee! with Avater, distilling off the marine acid, and dissolving and crystallizing the remainder. These salts may also be obtained by mixing four ounces of borax Avith one ounce and one dram of oil of Aitriol; the Avhole of Avhich, Avhen sublimed, affords Avhat is by chemists called Sedative Salt; and if the remainder be exposed to a strong fire, it will yield Glauber's- salts. They were first prepared by John Rhodolphus Glauber, a celebrated chemist ofthe 17th cen- tury ; and are of considerable use in medicine as cooling purgatives, when taken in closes from six to twelve drams : they also prove ex- cellent aperients in various chroni- cal disorders, such as habitual cos- tiveness, for which small doses of one dram of this salt, with tAvo scruples of cream of tartar, and one scruple of sal-ammoniac dissolved in Avater, may be given Avith ad- vantage, three or four times a day. [The very disagreeable taste of this salt may be in a great mea- sure destroyed, by dissolving it in hot lemonade.] GLAZING, signifies the coating or enamelling of earthen ware Avith any vitreous substance, the basis of which consists of lead. It is one of those familiar arts with Avhich the ancients Avere doubtless better acquainted than our modern pot- ters. The Roman urns discovered jn Yorkshire, instead of being glazed, are coA'ered on both sides Avith a fine varnish of a red coral tint, smooth, beautiful, and incom- parably more durable than all our GL A G L E 163 earthen vessels ; having Avithstood the effects of time for a long series of centuries. On the contrary, the glazing of all our earthcrn ware is very apt to crack, both from moisture and heat, being composed of lead, one of the most pernicious metals that could be devised for such important pur- poses. It is well known that lead is easily volatilized by heat, and readily decomposed by any vegeta- ble acid: hence it has been affirm- ed by various eminent writers, that Ave are under the necessity of inhal- ing or SAvallowing, perhaps every day, a minute portion of a metal which is one of the slowest, but most destructive poisons, and lays the foundation of many fatal disor- ders, such as palsy, dry colic, con- sumption, See the remote cause of which has not, till lately, been sus- pected. Although Ave are no advocates for spreading alarm, or exciting appre- hension, yet there appears to be sufficient reason to believe that our glazed culinary vessels are a latent source of disease ; and Avhen fruit or acids be allowed to remain in them for some time, the liquors or substance.; thus preserved will ne- cessarily acqtrrrc a very dangerous impregnation from the metal. Instead, therefore, of describing the composition and process by Avhich earthen ves. e's are usually glazed, Ave shall earnestly recom- mend various substitutes for lead to the attention of the public. M. Westrumb,aneminentGer- man chemist, Avas required by the government of Hanover to devise a less pernicious method of glazing earthen ware than Avas hitherto practised. In consequence of nu- merous experiments, he has at length published the successful re- sult of several compositions, in which not a particle of lead was employed, and Avhich in his opinion will prove an useful glazing for or- dinary vessels. First: 32 parts of sand ; 11, 15, or 20 parts of purified pot-a-.ii ; and from 3 to 5 parts of borax. % Second: 32 purls of glass (we suppose fiint-glass) ; 16 parts of borax; and 3 parts of pure pot- ash. Third: 150 parts of crystallized Glauber's-salt, with 8 parts of pul- verized charcoal, previously roast- ed, till ithas acquired a grey colour; 16 parts of sand; and 8 parts of borax. Another method of glazing with- out lead has been invented by "',>.. Nieseman, a potter at Leipzig : it consists of half a pound of salt- petre, half a pound of pot-ash, and one pound of common salt. This composition is not very expensive, and said to produce an enamel not inferior to that prepared with lead. Professor Lkoniiardi has investi- gated, and found it eminently use- ful. We trust, therefore, our pot- ters a\H1 in future conscientiously desist from using that pernicious a id slow Iv poisonous metal. GEKAXENvi, or Leasixg, as it is called in some counties, is the gathering or picking up those ears of corn which ai e left after the field has been reaped, and the crop car- ried home. This practice has lately been de- cided to be illegal; and so far as it respects those idle persons, whose sole occupation during the summer months, is to procure a scanty sub- sistence by leaF.ie-, tlie decision has been dictated by the soundest wisdom. In some parts ofthe Continent, the farmers allow tiiis privilege 164 G L O GLU only upon condition that the glean- ers contribute their labour for one or tAvo hours towards the housing of the crop. Such regulation is occasionally beneficial to both par- ties, especially on the approach of rain ; as the sheaves may thus be collected and loaded on carts, or otherwise secured by the aid of supernumerary hands, before the storm bursts forth, and perhaps damages the corn, by additional moisture. In consideration of their services, these voluntary labourers are permitted to glean for one or two hours, more or less? according to the time they have assisted, be- fore others are suffered to enter the field indiscriminately. GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wrist, which forms a consider- able article of commerce. Giovcs are divided into various kinds, such as silk, thread, cotton, leather, Stc. The materials for the last-mentioned sort are the skins of kids, lambs, does, bucks, and other animals, the various manufacturing of which affords employment to a great number of families. Although the most fashionable gloves, and those very generally worn, consist of leather, yet they are by no means the most healthy. Indeed, it is equally improper and umvholesome to cover the hands and arms Avith any other than woollen texture, which ought to be preferred by all females Avho are anxious to improve the complexion of those extremities....we are con- vinced, from experience, that no cosmetics are so efficacious and safe as simple animal avooI. GLOW-WORM, the female of the Fire-fly, or Lampyris nocti- lucu, L. is remarkable for the light it emits during the night. This luminous appearai.ee depends upon a phosphorescent liquor found at the lower extremity of the insect, which, by unfolding or contracting itself, withdraAvs it at pleasure. The gloAV-AVorm flies ■ about chiefly in autumn, and frecpients the grassy plantations of juniper- trees. The whole insect was for- merly used in medicine as a solvent of the stone, and highly extolled as an* anodyne ; but it is at present deservedly exploded. GLUE, a tenacious, viscid mat- ter, serving as a cement to unite or connect substances together. Glues are of different kinds, ac- cording to the various uses to which they are applied; such are com- mon glue, glove-glue, and parch- ment-glue : but the two last are more properly called Size. The common or string-glue, which is chiefly used by carpenters, joiners, &c. is prepared sometimes from the Avhole skins of oxen, coavs, and other animals ; but more gene- rally from the parings or scraps, sineAvs of the legs, &c. The parings are steeped for tAvo or three days in Avater, Avhen they are washed out, and boiled to the consistence of a jelly, which is pas- sed, Avhile hot, through osier bas- kets, in order to separate the im- pure particles. It is then left to subside and filtrate : when all fecu- lent matters are settled at the bot- tom, the jelly is dissolved and boiled a second time ; after which it is poured into flat vessels or moulds, whence it is taken out in solid mas- ses, and cut into square pieces or cakes....Lastly, it is suspended in a kind of coarse net fastened to a frame, or strings, Avhere it is suf- fered to remain till completely dry. The best glue for common purpo- ses used 'in this country is gene- rally imported from Ireland, and is GLU GLU '165 exempt even from the convoy- duty ; Avhereas the glue obtained from foreign markets pays to the customs 9s. 3d±. percwt. A very superior, but expensive, glue may be prepared from the hides of the oldest cattle, especi- ally those of bulls. Its quality is likeAvise much improved by long keeping ; artel its strength may be easily determined, by immersing a piece in water for three or four days; at the expiration of which, if it swell considerably without dis- solving, and resume its former dry state, on being exposed to the air, it may be considered as excellent. Glue is also manufactured from the skins, fins, heads, tails, and cartilages of porpoises, cuttle-fish, and other sea-monsters. For this purpose, the parts above mention- ed should be boiled in Avater, be- ing carefully preserved from smoke, and whatever may disco- lour the liquor, or render it tur- bid. When all the substance of the fish has been boiled doAvn, the jelly is strained through a sieve, and suffered to ccol. It is then again boiled Avith the same pre- caution, till the drops, when dried in the open air, concrete on cool- ing. After having acquired a pro- per consistence, it is twisted in a manner similar to paste, and sus- pended on strings for drying in the shade. Glue, thus prepared, is more or less perfect, in proportion to the care with which it is clari- fied : it should be completely so- luble in Avater. Another very powerful glue may be prepared by a spirituous solu- tion of isinglass, Avhicli Mr. Boyle directs to be first steeped for twen- ty-four hours in common brandy ; when the isinglass is opened and softened, the whole should be gen- tly boiled together, and stirred till it forms a perfect solution, and till a drop of the cold liquor indicates a strong jelly. It is then to be strained Avhile hot, through a dean linen cloth, into a vessel; which ought to be closely stopped. A gentle heat Avill be sufficient to dis- solve this glue into a colourless, and nearly transparent fluid, which is said to be so adhesive, that pie- ces of Avood glued with it, separate elsewhere sooner than in the place where they are joined....See Em:- glass. [The following account of tlm mode of making glue, is extracted from a late British publication. " Pelts obtained from furriers and hatters, the hoofs and ears of horses, oxen, calves, sheep, Sec. all yield glue. These are fir^t digested in lime water, to cleanse them as ihr as it can, from the grease or dirt they may have contracted : they are then steeped in clean Avater, taking care to stir them Avell from time to time ; afterwards they are laid in a heap, and the superabun- dant Avater pressed out; then they are boiled in a large brass cauldron with clean water, skimming off the dirt as it rises, and further cleans- ed by putting in, after the Avhole is dissolved, a little melted alum, or lime finely powdered, which, by their detersive properties, still fur- ther purge it: the skimming is continued for some time, when the mass is strained through baskets, and suffered to settle, that the ie- maining impurities, if any, may subside ; it is then puurcd gently into the kettle again, until it be- comes a clear dail.ish brown co- lour ; Avhen it is thought to be strong enough, (which is known either by the length of time a cer- tain quantity of Avater and materi- 166 GLU GLU als haAre boiled, or by its appear- ance during ebullition,) it is pour- ed into frames or moulds of about six feet long, one foot broad, and two deep, Avhen it hardens gradu- ally as the heat decreases: out of, these troughs or receivers it is cut Avhen cold by a spade into square pieces or cakes, and each of these is placed within a sort of Awoden box, open in three divisions to the back ; in this the glue, as yet soft, is taken to a table by women, Avhere they divide it into three pieces, with an instrument not unlike a bow, having a brass wire for its string; Avith this, they stand be- hind the box and cut by its open- ings, from front to back: the pie- ces thus cut arc taken out into the open air, and dried on a coarse net Avork, fastened in moveable sheds of about four feet square, which are placed in rmvs in the glue ma- ker's field every one of which con- tains four or five rows of network;) when perfectly dry and hard, it is fit for sale. Character of good £;7yr....That is thought the best glue Avhich swells considerably Avithout melting, by three or four days' immersion in cold Avater^ and recovers its former dimensions and properties by dry- in;-. Glue that has been frosted, or that looks thick and black, may be melted over again and refined, with a sufficient cuiantity added of fresh to overcome any injury it may have sustained ; but it is ge- nerally put into the kettle after what is in it has been purged in the second boiling. To know good from bad glue, it is necessary for the purchaser to hold it between his eye and the light, and if it ap- pears of a strong dark broAvn co- lour, and free from cloudy or black spots.; -he article is good. Mr. Hatchett observes „ that glue made from the skins of animals is more tenacious and of a better quality, than that Avhich is made from feet and sineAvs....The more aged the animal the better the glue, but a longer continued boiling ap- pears requisite in order to extract it, and the more viscid glues are obtained from the substances which afford them, Avith greater difficulty than those of a less viscid quality, which may more properly be call- ed size....Transactions of the Royal Society. London, 1800, :part 2.'' An excellent glue may be pro- cured from cheese. Take skim- milk cheese, free it from the rind, cut it in slices, and boil it in warm water, stirring it with a spoon, until it be reduced to a strong glue Avhich does not incorporate with Avater. Then throw away the warm water, pour cold water over the glue, and knead it afterwards in warm Avater, subjecting it to the same process several times. Put the warm glue on a grinding stone, and knead it with quick lime until you have a good glue. When you Avish to use this glue, you must warm it: if it be em- ployed cold it is not so strong, though it may also be used in that manner. This glue is insoluble in Avater as soon as it is dry, and it becomes so in forty-eight hours. It may be used for glueing wood and for cementing marble, See. The joining can scarcely be dis- covered. Baits also for catching fish may be made of it. Pish are very fond of it, and it resists the Avattr. Boerhaave observed, that no men- struum dissolved cheese, not even aqua regia. Transactions of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. Giue of the Laplanders. The GN A bows of the Laplanders are com- posed of two pieces of wood glued together; cne of them of birch, Avhich is flexible, and the other of fir of the marshes, Avhich is stiff, in order that the boAV Avhen bent may not break, and that when un- bent it may not bend. When these two pieces ofcwood are bent, all the points of contact, endeavour to dis- unite themselves, and to prevent this, the Laplanders employ the folloAving cement: they take the skins of the largest perches, and, having dried them, moisten them in cold Avater until they are so soft that they may be freed from the scales, which they throAV aAvay. They then put four or five of these skins in a rein deer's bladder, or they wrap them up in the soft bark of the birch-tree, in such a manner that water cannot touch them, and place them thus covered into a pot of boiling Avater, Avith a stone al o". ■_■ them to keep them at the bottom. When they have boiled about an hour they take them from the bladder or bark, and they are then found to be soft and viscous. In this state they employ them for glueing together the two pieces of their bows, Ariiich they strongly compress and tie up until the glue is Avell chhd. These pieces never afterwards separate. Transactions of the Academy of Sciences at Stock- hohni] GNAT, or Cule.r, L. a genus of insects comprising several spe- cies, which are Avtd known by the severe punctures they inflict. Gnats deposit their eggs to the number of 200, by each female, on stagnant Avaters Avhere they are hatched into small grubs, in the course of two or three days. On the sides are four small tins, by the aid of which the iiii-ec swims G O A 167 about, and swiftly dives to the bot- tom. The larvae retain their form a fortnight, or three weeks ; when they are converted into chrysalis, in which state they continue three or four days, floating on the sur- face of the Avater, till they assume the form of gnats. These insects have a cylindrical body, consisting of eight rings. The sting, which is perceptible to the naked eye, contains five or six spiculac, or darts, exquisitely mi- nute. With these, gnats make punctures in the skin, and are sup- posed to inject a small portion of liquor which renders the blood cir- culating near the Avcund more fluid, and thus causes troublesome itch- ing. Others observe, that female gnats only extract the blood by sucticn. As, hoAvever, these stings are generally attended \rith a pain- ful swelling, different remedies have been suggested for its remo- ved ; one of the most effectual con- sists of small, but equal portions of Venice turpentine and SAveet oil; they should be mixed and applied to the wounded part, Avhich will be effectually relieved in the space of six hours. Indeed, olive oil a1 me, or unsalted butter, or fresh hog's-lard, if timely rubbed on the stir.:, will be equally effica.clrv.s. But Ave cannot approve of any mer- curial solutions, that have occasi- onally been advised in popular books, for the more speedy cute of this trifling afi'ectior. GOAT, or Cnpi'tt, L. a genus of animals, compri lug more than CO specie, only one of which is reared in this country, namely, the F:re:: ■, or Common v oaf1, a native of Mount Caucasus, in Aria,Av hence it has been dispersed through Eu- rope. This species has arched and 168 G O A GO A keeled thorns, with a long beard, and is peculiarly attached to the company of man, even in its Avild state. The females generally bring- forth one or two, and very seldom three kids, after a gestation of about five months; they attain an age of twelve years. Goats are sensible of caresses, and display a remarkable attach- ment to their friends. They are stronger, more nimble, and less timid than sheep ; possess a lively, capricious and wandering disposi- tion ; and delight in elevated and solitary places, frequently sleeping en tiie points of rocks and preci- pices....These animals are more easily supported than any others of the same size ; for there are feAV herbs which they Aviil not re- lish....Nor are they liable to so many diso.riers as sheep; and, though ..hie to support the vicis- s'rtur'usof heat and cold more easi- ly than the latter, yet they are very susceptible of severe frosts, which they endure Avith less difficulty in the society of other animals. Goats emit, at all times, a strong and disagreeable odour, Avhich how- ever is not Avithout its use: for, if one of these animals be kept in a stable, it is affirmed that it will be an eacetual preventive of the stag- gers, a disorder which is often very fatal to horsi s. This influence of the goat is not, as Mr. Marshall judiciously observes, in his " Ru- ral Economy of Gloucestershire," merely that of a charm; for the staggers are evidently a nervous disorder. Odours, in many cases, operate beneficially on the human nerves, and probably the strong scent of the goat lias a similar ef- fect on these cf the horse ; a con- jecture which is partly corroborat- ed by the practice adopted in Northumberland, Avhere a fe\r goats are generally mixed Avith the sheep, for the preservation of the health of the flock. It is also well known, that the former Avith safe- ty eat plants, which Avould be de- structive to sheep and other ani- mals. Hence, goats devour the leaves of Hemlock Avith impunity ; but the Spotted SnakeAveed, Poly- gonum Persicaria, as well as the leaves and fruit of the Common Spindle-tree, Evonymus Europaeus; L. are to them not less fatal than to other quadrupeds. Although the food of goats is attended with little expence, as they maintain themselves on the most barren mountains, yet their produce is of considerable value. The Avhitest Avigs are made of their hair, for Avhich purpose that of the Welch he-goat is in the greatest request....Their fat is in equal esteem Avith the hair, and candles are made of it, Avhich, in Avhiteness and quality are said to be.superior to those of Avax ; their horns afford excellent handles for knives and forks ; and their skin is well calculated for gloves, espe- cially that of the kid, Avhich is drensed abroad, made into stock- ings, bed-ticks, bed-hangings, sheets, and even shirts. The flesh of these animals, hoAV- ever, is hard, and almost indiges- tible : hence the meat of kids only should be eaten, as it is more ten- der, and affords good nourishment. Goat's-milk is sweet, nutritive, and medicinal ; it is an excellent sub- stitute for that of asses ; and, Avhen drunk warm in the morning and evening, with a tea-spoonful of hartshorn, for several weeks, it has been productive of benefit to phthi- sical patients, who Ave re not too much reduced....Cheese prepared GOL G O L 169 from goat's-milk is much valued in mountainous countries, after it has been kept to a proper age ; but, possessing a peculiar flavour, it is to some persons very unplea- sant ; nor is it more easily digested than any other kind of caseous mat- ter. GOAT's-BEARD, or Tragopo- gon, L. a genus of plants compris- ing 16 species, two of which are indigenous. 1. The pratense, Yellow Goat's beard, or Go-to-bed-at-noon (be- cause its blossoms close about the middle of the clay) grows in mea- dows and pastures, where it floAvers in June. Dr. Withering re- marks, that the young roots of this plant, in spring, may be boiled and eaten like asparagus, as they pos- sess a similar flavour, and are nearly as nutritious. 2. The porrifolium, or Purple Goat's-beard, is also found in mea- dows, and not unfrequently in up- land pastures ; it flowers in the month of May....The succulent roots of this vegetable, Avhen cul- tiA-ated in gardens, are called Sal- *q/i/....Cows, sheep, and horses, eat the Avhole of this plant ; SAvine de- vour it with avidity, but it is not relished by goats. The tender roots afford a delicious salad, and also an excellent substitute for asparagus. GOLD, the most valuable of all metals, is of a bright yellow colour in its pure state, but acquires dif- ferent shades, Avhen alloyed with baser metals. Europe is supplied with gold chiefly from Chili and Peru, in South America ; though a small quantity is likewise imported from China, and the coast of Africa.... This metal is also found in the sands vol. iir. of several large rivers which do not spring from mountains, but con- tain veins of gold : mines of it exist in various parts of Europe, and a very promising one has lately been discovered in the county of Wick- low, in Ireland. Gold is obtained in a pure or na- tive state more frequently than any other metal; it is in general mixed with a stony matter, from Avhich it is extracted by amalgamation.... It is more ductile than lead, or tin, but less elastic than either iron or copper. Gold becomes hard and brittle, by continued hammering, but resumes its ductility when sloAvly heated. Being the toughest, and at the same time the most mal- leable of all metals, one grain of it may be hammered into leaves that Avould cover a space of 1400 square inches. This precious metal is the hea- viest of all known bodies, except- ing platina ; its specific gravity being to that of distilled water as 19,2581 to 1,0000; that is, one solid inch of gold weighs about nineteen or twenty times heavier than one cubic inch of water. It melts in a low white heat, requiring, accord- ing to Mr. Wedgewood's calcu- lation, 5237 degrees of Fahren- heit's, or thirty-two of his own thermometer ; a point much higher than that required for the melting of silver or copper. Gold is not only the universal cir- culating medium for the purchase of commodities, but it is also ap- plied to various purposes ; for in- stance, chains, watches, plate, the making of gold laCe for liveries, &c. As the manufacture last men- tioned frequently becomes tarnish- ed, and tgtally loses its lustre, Ave shall briefly observe, that this may 170 G O L be easily restored, by gently rub- bing the lace Avith a sponge dipped in warm spirit of wine. Gold is soluble in aqua-regia, by Avhich considerable quantities of it are consumed by carvers and gild- ers, ami a'.->o for the ornamenting of china, lie. It may, likewise, though imperfectly, be dissolved in the most concentrated aqua- fortis. The relative value of gold to that of silver, was anciently as twelve to one. This proportion, hoAvever, varies according to the abundance or scarcity of the former metal.... In our coinage, the value of fine gold is to that of fine silver, as 15-*- to 1. A similar proportion may be considered, upon an average, as the fixed standard of Europe. [Mr. Hatchet has lately pre- sented to the Royal Society of Lon- don, an interesting paper on the alloying of metals ; from which it appears that copper, in proportion of 1-12th, is the best alloy for gold. From many experiments it is ascer- tained, that the deficiency found of late in gold coin, is not oAving to the wear of circulation ; as in a quantity of guineas loosely packed, and sent to some distance by the coach, the Avear was all upon a few, and on those the impression Avas quite obliterated ; yet they v/ere not found much deficient in Aveight, the Avork being by action, press ed in, and not, ask Avere, filed off.] There are various methods of determining the fineness of gold or the proportion of alloy which it contains, lor this purpose, touch- needles are generally employed, by which the respective quality of gold can be ascertained Avith tolerable exactness. These needles are small bars made of compound metals, in different proportions, Avhich are ac- GOL curately marked on each ; and, by rubbing the metal under examina- tion, and one ormore of theneedles, close to each other on a touch-stone, the different strokes are compared, in order to judge by the colour which bears the strongest resem- blance to that of the doubtful me- tal. The most usual stones for this test are black basaltes, though either flint, or potter's ware of a black colour, may be employed Avith equal advantage. And though such a criterion cannot be relied upon with the same degree of ac- curacy as that of ascertaining the specific gravity of different metals, yet the touch-needles give a more exact information than might be expectedfrom this superficial assay. Thus, an expert goldsmith will not altogether decide from the differ- ence of colour, but will also be guided by the concomitant effect produced on the texture of the me- tal, when abraded by the touch- stone, namely, whether it be rough, dry, smooth, or greasy....See Gui- nea. Several metallic compositions, hoAvever, yield marks or impres- sions on the touch-stone, very near- ly resembling those of pure gold, and which can be distinguished or detected only by another more ac- curate test. In order to guard against such impositions, it is ne- cessary to apply a drop of aqua- fortis to the suspected metallic strokes on the stone : if they do not disappear, in consequence of this application, it may be safely concluded that the gold is genuine ; as, in the contrary case, it v> ill be evident that it is a base or adulterat- ed metri. GoLD-cua. See Bulbous Crow- foot. GOLDEN-ROD, the Common GO L or Wound-wort, Solidago Vir- gaurea, L. an indigenous perennial plant, groAving in avoocIs, hedges, heaths, and copses; and flowering from July to September. This plant was formerly officinal, and is still in great repute among country people, for its medicinal virtues ; but we are inclined to think, it may Avith greater advan- tage be employed as a dyeing drug. Both its leaves and flowers impart a beautiful yelloAv colour ; which, according to Bechstein, is even superior to that obtained from woad. GOLD-FINCH, or Fringilla Carduelis, L. is a native of Europe, and is sometimes also found in Asia and Africa. This bird is peculiarly beautiful in its colour, of an elegant form, and strikes melodious notes. Its bill is Avhite, tipped with black, and its forehead and chin of a rich scar- let tint, divided by a line passing from each corner of the bill to the eyes, which are black. Gold-finches begin to sing early in the spring, and continue to whistle the greater part of the year, Avhen kept in a cage. In a state of confinement, they are much at- tached to their keepers, and will learn a variety of little tricks, such as to draw up small vessels con- taining hemp or Canary-seeds, and water; to fire squibs or crackers, Sec. Gold-finches construct very neat and compact nests with moss, dried grass, and roots, which, they line with avooI, hair, the cIoavii of this- tles, and other soft substances.... The females lay five white eggs, marked with deep purple spots at the larger end : they feed their young with caterpillars and insects ; GOL 171 but the old birds subsist on various kinds of seeds, especially those of the thistle, of which they are ex- tremely fond. As these birds are frequently liable to be sick, it will be requi- site to allow them every clav a lit- tle groundsel, and some saffron in their Avater. If th.ey are lax, a small portion of chalk should be giA-en them, either by fixing it to the side of the cage, or crumbling it on the bottom. Red sand, or gravel, should like- Avisc be strewed every day in their habitation ; for, as they chiefly sub- sist on oily seeds, the gravel or sand will qualify, and absorb the oil in their stomachs...-Gold-finches will breed with the Canary bird : this intermixture is most successful be- tween the male finch and the fe- male Canary, Avhose offspring is productiA'e, and is said to resemble the male in the bill, the colours of the head, and Avings; and the hen, in the rest of the body. [Gold-Finch (Fringilla tristis,) called yellow bird, or Dutch yellow bird, to distinguish it from a beau- tiful little summer bird of passage (niotacil/a testiva) or the common yellow bird. It is about the size of the F. Carduelis, above mentioned, of a beautiful light yellow colour, ex- cept that it has a crow black spot on the forehead, larger feathers in the Avings and tails, which are also of the same crow colour. It is a beautiful, viva, ions little bird ; its notes are variable and lively, some of them seem to resemble the Canary bird, with which they will breed, producing mules of various colours. W. Bartram.] GOLD-FISH, or Cyprimis au- ratut, L. is a native of the East- 172 G O L GOO Indies, Avhence it was introduced into England, about the latter end of the 17th century. These fish are very tender, even in their native climates ; but they are noAv become so naturalized, that they even breed in this coun- try. They are chiefly kept in glass vessels for ornament; but it has lately been ascertained, that they thrive and propagate in ponds or other reservoirs ; Avhere they grow much larger and come to greater perfection than in the East: hence it is proposed to rear them in pre- ference to carp, on account of their possessing a finer flavour, and being much better calculated for the ta- ble than the common carp. GOLD OF PLEASt RE, or Common Camline, Alyssum sa- tivum, v. Moenchia sa*iva, L. an indigenous plant, groAving in corn- fields, frequently among flax (Avith the seeds of which it is supposed to have been imported from foreign countries) ;....it floAvers in June. This plant is cultivated in Ger- many, on account of its seeds, from which an excellent oil is expressed : one bushel ofthe former yielding from 24 to 28lbs. of the latter, which is equally useful for culinary and other economical purposes. According to German Avriters, the seeds of the Common Camline afford a larger proportion of lamp- oil, and which is of a finer quality than that obtained from rape-seed; though it is more liable to become rancid. Nevertheless the culture ofthe former strongly recommends itself to the farmer ; as it will groAV in unfavourable weather, when flax cannot prosper. The Gold of Pleasure, however, requires a Avell prepared soil, should be thinly sown, and not harrowed in too deep: if properly cultivated, it yields more than one hundred-fold. The seeds of Camline are like- Arise a favourite food with geese and other poultry. Horses, coavs, goats, and sheep, relish the plant. GOOSE, or Anas anser, L. a Avell known species of birds, very common in this country : it is di- vided into tAvo varieties : 1. The ferus, Grey Lag, or Wild Goose, that inhabits the fens, Avhere each female hatches eight or nine young, which are frequent- ly caught, easily tamed, and afford excellent meat, far superior to that of the domesticated kind. To- wards winter, they collect in flocks, but reside the whole year in the marshes. 2. The mansuetus, or Tame Goose, or the Grey Lag in a state of domestication, from Avhich it varies in colour, being more or less inclined to a grey. It is, hoAvever, often found perfectly Avhite, especially the males or ganders. [Mr. Wm. Bartram informs the Editor that " there is a valu- able breed of this FoavI in the Southern states, from a mixture of the largest Grey Goose, Avith the Avild Canadian Goose, (Anas Canadensis.) They are much larger than any sort of tame geese; and in their cry and manners re- semble the Canadian Goose."] The goose, in general, breeds only once in the course of a year ; but, if well kept, it will frequently hatch tAvice within that period.... Three of these birds are usually allotted to a gander ; for, if that number were increased, the eggs would be rendered abortive : the quantity of eggs to each goose for sitting, is about twelve or thirteen. GOO While brooding, they ought to be fed with corn and water, which must be placed near them, so that they may eat at pleasure. The males should never be excluded from their company, because they are then instinctively anxious to watch over, and guard their own geese. The nests, in which these birds sit, ought to be made of straw, and so confined that the eggs cannot roll out, as the geese turn them every day. When they are near- ly hatched, it will be requisite to break slightly the shell near the beak of the young goslin, as Avell for the purpose of admitting air, as to enable it to make its way at the proper time. Geese are very valuable, on ac- count of the feathers they afford : for this purpose, they are unmer- cifully plucked in the county of Lincoln (where they are reared in the largest numbers) five times in the year : the first operation is per- formed at Lady-day, for feathers and quills, and is repeated four times between that period and Mi- chaelmas, for feathers only. The old birds submit quietly, but the young ones frequently prove unru- ly and noisy. The latter may be plucked once, when about thirteen or fourteen Aveeks old, for fea- thers ; but no quills must be taken from them ; nor should this opera- tion be performed at too early a season, because the goslings are liable to perish in cold summers.... Although the plucking of geese has by many been considered as a bar- barous custom, yet experience has evinced, that these birds, Avhen pro- perly stripped of their feathers, thrive better, and are more healthy, than if they Avere nermitted to drop them by moulting. GOO 173 As geese form a principal deli- cacy at our tables, the most expe- ditious mode of fattening them is an object of some importance.... Hence it has been recommended to keep them cooped up in a dark and narrow place, Avhere they are to be fed with ground malt mixed with milk, or if milk be scarce, with barley-meal, mashed up with Ava- ter. Another, and less expensive Avay, of which we can speak from experience, consists in giving them boiled oats, with either ducks'- meat, or chopped carrots, alter- nately, as they are exceedingly fond of variety: thus, they will become very fat in a few weeks, while their meat acquires a fine flavour. In order to fatten Michaelmas, or stubble-geese, it has been directed, first to turn them on the wheat-ed- dishes, or those pastures that grow after the Avheat has been harvested. Next, they are to be pent up, and fed Avith ground malt mixed with water, for Avhich, boiled oats, malt, or wheat, may occasionally be sub- stituted. This method of fattening, how- ever, by no means deserves to be countenanced ; for, as the flesh of geese is naturally a precarious food, confinement, without exercise, ren- ders it still more unwholesome. Their fat, indeed, is almost indi- gestible ; and their flesh has a very bad effect on Avounds and ulcers. It is also pernicious to persons, Avhose habits of body predispose them to inflammatory diseases, and frequent eruptions of the skin ; for the prevention of which,they ought prudently to abstain from this deli- cious morsel. GOOSEBERRY, the RouGH,or Fea-berry, Ribes grossularia, L. an indigenous shrub growing in 174 GOO woods and hedges, especially about Dariington, Durham ; also, on old buildings and church-toAvers, Avhi- ther it has probably been trans- planted by birds. This useful bush flowers in April, and bears fruit in June or July, Avhich, however, docs not acquire its natural vinous fla- vour in this climate, till August or September. Although gooseberries are gene- rally eaten, or employed for culina- ry purposes, before they arrive at perfect maturity, yet being one of the most saccharine productions Ave possess, they might with more advantage be converted into wine. As each pound of the juice ex- pressed from ripe berries requires only one ounce of soft sugar, (whereas the ripest currants require double that quantity) to induce the vinous fermentation, a very excel- lent and Avholesome domestic w inc may be made at a trifling expence. After standing several years in bot- tles Avell corked, it becomes equal in quality to muscadel, or other sweet Italian Avines. If the flower- buds of this shrub be added to a cask of any other flavourless wine, Bryant asserts (in his 1st volume of " Nutritive plants," p. 245, Ger- man edition) that they impart to it the taste of genuine muscadine. The husks of this fruit, when the juice is expressed for making wine, are usually throAvn aAvay : it appears, hoAvever, that they may with advantage be employed in distillation, and afford an agreeable spirit, resembling Brandy. It has indeed been ascertained by experi- ence, that such liquor, after having been kept a few months, Avas little inferior, in point of strength and flavour, to the best French Coniac. [Gooseberriesdo not succeed Avell near Philadelphia, owing probably GOO to the great heat of our summers: for it is understood, that in Cana- da and Nova-Scotia, this fruit groAVS to a large size. It was late- ly mentioned to the Editor, that a successful cultivator of goose- berries at Newcastle, upon Tyne, was in the practice of covering the bushes with mats, to prevent the influence of the sun causing a ra- pid maturity. Probably a shady situation in the United States Avould answer equally well. Dr. Daravin gives the following additional reason for covering fruit and plants :...." When vege- table fibres have been long stimu- lated more than natural or usual by increase of heat, the spirit of vegetation becomes exhausted; and in consequence a slighter de- gree of cold will destroy them ; be- cause their fibres, after having been long excited by a greater stimulus, will cease to act on the application of one which is much less ; whence after hot days, tender plants are more liable to be destroyed by the coldness of the nights. For this reason also, in more northern cli- mates, the gardener s shade their ten- der vegetables, as the fiowers of apricots, in the spring frosts, from the meridian sun, as well as from the coldness of the night, Avhich is generally the greatest about an hour before sunrise."....Phytologia, Sect. xiv. 1.1. " At the late annual gooseberry sheAv at Chester, England, the fol- loAving were adjudged to be the principal prizes, viz. of red....Mr. Bell's Alcock's King, Aveighed IS dwts. 19 grs....of yellow, Mr. War burton's Royal Sovereign, 14 dwts. 10 grains....ofgreen, Mr. Warburton's Langley Green, 14 dwts. 5 grains ; and of white, Mr. W a r u u r t o n ' aF 11 rhites with, 16 GOO GOO 175 dwts. 1 grain."....Monthly Mag. London, Sept. 1 SO 1. In Holt's View of tlie Agricul- ture of Lancashire, we also find the folloAving facts:...." A single gooseberry tree, the Manchester rough red, in the garden of J. Sykes, yielded twenty-one quarts of fruit in their green state ; the whole quantity weighed twenty- eight pounds .' avoirdupois."....FoR- 5Yth gives a list of the most cele- brated gooseberries, with their re- spective Weights, which sheAvs to what perfection this fruit is brought in England. Gooseberries are a delicious and wholesome fruit, and would be found very profitable, if attended to, in the United States. They not only afford a very pleasant article of diet, but also form the chief article in an excellent domestic Avine. Such a wine, made near Downing's-tOAvn, the Editor had the satisfaction lately to taste, and hopes, to be able to describe the particular process pursued in making it, under the article Wine. This fruit may be preserved by being put up dry in a large mouth- ed, strong black bottle, covering the cork well Avith rosin. The following directions for cultivat- ing gooseberries are taken from Forsyth. Gooseberries are raised from cuttings, or from seed, and some raise them from suckers ; but this last is not a good Avay, as bushes raised in this manner are more lia- ble to throw out suckers than those which are raised from cuttings or seed. The best time for planting cut- tings is about Michaelmas, always cutting them from the strongest and cleanest shoote. The length of the cuttings shiflHd be from six to eight inches, planting them to an East or North aspect, at the distance of one foot from row to row, leaving them about three inches above ground. By plant- ing at this distance, you will be able to hoe and keep them clear of weeds. Water them frequently in dry weather during the spring. The Methods of Planting Gooseber- ries. The Market-Gardeners about London plant them in rows from eight to ten feet apart from row to row, and six feet from plant to plant in the toavs. In that case, I advise pruning them in the begin- ning of October, and the ground between may be planted Avith Cole- worts or Beans for a spring crop; by so doing, there -will be no occa- sion to tread over the ground and hurt the coleAvorts in pruning the bushes; for, before the gooseber- ries begin to shoot, the coleAvorts Avill be all cleared off the ground. After this time (or before if you find it convenient) lay a good coat of rotten clung on the ground; then dig it and plant early pota- toes ; but not so near to the goose- berries as to hurt them. The roots of gooseberries should ahvays be kept clear to admit the sun and air. In small gardens I would recommend planting them in a quarter by themselves, at the distance of six fhet between the roAvs, and four feet from plant to plant; or you may plant them round the edges of the quarters, about three feet from the path ; you Avill then have tlie ground clear for cropping, and a man, by set- ting one foot on the border, can gather the gooseberries Avithout in- juring the crop. As gooseberries love a rich soil, they should be dunged every year. 176 GOO GOO or at least have a good coat of dung once in tAvo years. Never plant them under the shade of other trees, as it will in- jure the flavour of the fruit. Of Pruning Gooseberry Bushes. It is a practice too common in pruning gooseberries, to let them branch out with great naked stems, suffering them to remain in that state for years. When that is al- ready the case, they should be cut doAvn near to the ground in the winter pruning; this will make them throw out fine strong healthy shoots which Avill bear fruit the second year. Gooseberry-bushes, in general, bear their fruit on the second year's wood. Care should be taken in summer to keep the middle of the bush clear to admit a free air into them ; leaving the finest and strongest shoots from six to ten inches distant from each other. This will help to ripen and harden the wood. It is a practice with some to shorten the shoots in the autumn or winter pruning: This should be always near to a Avood-bud; which may be known by its being single, Avbereas fruit- buds are in clusters. The shoots may be shortened to eight or ten inches, according to their strength. Some leave them at full length for three or four years, thinning out those that are superfluous. Al- ways leave a proper number to be trained up between the full length shoots, to succeed them Avhen they are tired of bearing ; then cut the old ones doAvn to the young ones that are to succeed them. By these means you Avill always keep the bushes in a constant stateof bearing. You may observe, that those branches which avc re cut the first year, will in the second throAV out short dugs, or spurs, Avhich pro- duce the fruit; and these should by no means be cut off, unless the branches are in a sickly state, and require to be cut close down (as / is the case this year, 1800), Avhen the bushes are overloaded with fruit. It will then be necessary to cut out a good deal of the old wood, to assist nature to recover herself after producing so great a quantity of fruit. It is a practice with some to clip the the tops of gooseberries with a pair of garden shears, as they Avould clip a thorn hedge; this I by no means approve of, as the fruit will not be half the size, nor of so fine a flavour, as when the bushes are kept clear of super- fluous wood. Care should be taken in spring and summer to stock, or grub up, all the suckers from the roots of the bushes, leaving their stems clear and unencumbered. Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to grow horizontally, and the branches frequently trail on the ground, Avhich renders them liable to be broken by high winds, especially when they are loaded with fruit. In that case I would recommend two or three hoops to be put round them, to which the branches may be tied, to support them, and prevent their being bro- ken by the wind. Those Avho wish to have their gooseberries very late should plant on North Avails and palings, be- tween the other trees, and they may be removed Avhen the trees begin to meet. If laid in thin, they will be very fine and hand- some fruit. I Avould advise to plant the finest late sorts; as by 4 this method th^table will be sup- GOO plied much longer than by the Common custom of planting in quarters. Immediately after pruning, I ahvays apply the composition to the ends of the shoots and cut- tings ; and I find it of great use in preventing the exhalation of the sap, and preserving the cuttings till they take root. Gooseberries are very much in- fested with a small green cater- pillar, which frequently devours both leaves and fruit. You must, therefore, be very attentive, and observe their first appearance on the bushes; for, if not destroyed early, they will in- crease so fast, that they -will soon devour all the leaves, and the fruit will then be good for nothing. They make their first appearance generally on the edges and under- sides of the leaves. Take some sifted quick-lime and lay it under the bushes ; but do not at first let any of it touch the branches or leaves; then shake each bush suddenly, and smartly, and the caterpillars will fall into the lime ; if the bush be not shak- en suddenly, the caterpillars, on being a little disturbed, will take so firm a hold as not easily to be shaken off. After this is done, sift some of the lime over the bushes ; this will drive down those which may have lodged on the branches. The caterpillars ought to be swept up next clay, and the bushes well washed Avith clear lime- water mixed Avith urine; this will destroy any caterpillars that may still remain, and also the Aphides, if there are any on the bushes. [To the above, the Editor will only add, in case the gooseberry bush does not succeed on first planting, change its portion : by do- VOL. III. GOO 177 ing so three times, a friend at last succeeded in raising a very fine bush, Avhich amply reAvarded his trouble and patience. Dr. Anderson, Avho has inves- tigated the natural history of the gooseberry caterpillar Avith great minuteness, observes, that these insects ahvays commit their depre- dations on the under sides of the leaves, at the bottom of the bush : and begin by gnaAving off the edges. While young, they herd together, but as they advance in size they separate. He therefore directs the tree to be searched repeatedly, to pinch off* all leaves on which the caterpillars are found, and to kill them instantly. By this method he saved his bushes, though the caterpillars seized upon them in such numbers, that had they been neglected only for a feAv days, eve- ry leaf must have been destroyed. The following mode of destroying gooseberry caterpillars is given in the London Monthly Magazine, for March, 1800. " Make a cone by covering three or four hoops with a tarpaulin, or coarse brown paper. When the trees are affected by the caterpil- lar, streAV hot lime under and around the trees, and cover the bush Avith the cone ; fill a common fumigating belloAvs with tobacco and sulphur, in equal quantities with a bit of charcoal, or any other piece of lire-wood ; thrust the pipe of the bellows through a small hole of the painted cloth at the bot- tom of the cone, when a feAv mo- ments are sufficient to suffocate all the caterpillars; falling on the lime, they serve as a manure to the tree. No injury is done to the tree."] < Wild gooseberries, however, are A A 178 GOO GOO of a very inferior size to those cul- tivated in a rich garden soil, espe- cially Avhen improved by inocula- tion, or engrafting ; in Avhich sta'e they frequently attain an uncom- mon size. There is another species of this shrub growing wild about woods and hedges, in sa\eral places in Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire, Nor- folk, and the isle of Wight. We allude to the Smooth Gooseber- ry, or Ribes uva-crispa, L. which can with difficulty be distinguished from the preceding species, either by the flower scales, or even by the smoothness of its berries. Mr. Robson assured Dr. Withering, that the seeds from the same plant Avill produce both rough and smooth gooseberries. The last mentioned species, however, flowers some- what later, thrives in almost every soil, and does not attain the size of the rough gooseberry : its yellow berries are transparent, juicy, and contain a great.number of seeds. Beside these, we meet Avith an- other Linnsean species, or perhaps a variety of the former, called the Red Goosebekrv, or Ribes recti- natu-n, which grows wild in Ger- many, Sec. has someAvhat broader leaves than those before described, and produces a red or dark-purple fruit of a very sweet flavour. It thrives remarkably in a fat, light, and sandy clay : we therefore con- clude that its berry would be emi- nently adapted to the preparation of domestic wines. All the different gooseberries are Avholesome fruit, but should not be eaten before they are perfectly ripe ; nor is it proper to swallow their stones along- Avith the juice ; but the skin may, Avith probable advantage, be used by those Avho are accustomed to take large quan- tities at one time ; in order to pre- vent flatulency. It is, however, founded on erroneous notions of their chemical properties, either to boil the unripe berries for sauces, or to convert them into domestic wines, Avhich, though more cool- ing and refreshing, do not.possess the delicate flavour, and rich sac- charine quality, inherent only in ripe fruit. Gooseberry Caterpillar.... See Caterpillar. GOOSE-FOOT, or Chenopo- dium, L. a genus of plants, com- prising twenty-seven species, ele- ven of Avhich are indigenous ; of these the following are the princi- pal : 1. The Bonus Henricus, Peren- nial Goose-foot, Mercury Goose- foot, or Good King Henry, Avhich grows amongst rubbish, on road sides, and Avails ; and is sometimes found in pastures: it produces pur- plish-green flowers, that are in bloom irom May to August. This plant is cultivated like spinach by the poorer class of people in Lin- colnshire : its leaves are frequently boiled in broth ; and the young shoots, Avhen peeled and dressed, are, on account of their flavour, eaten as substitutes for asparagus. Neither goats nor sheep relish this plant, which E also refused by cows, horses, and hogs. Its roots, hoAvever, are frequently given to sheep affected Avith a cough, and are supposed to afford an excellent medicine for preA-enting consump- tion in those animals. 2. The album, White Goose- foot, or Common Wild Orache; Avhich grows frequently in corn- fields, on old dunghills, rubbish, and in gardens; and flowers in the months of Jury and August....It is eaten by cows, goats, sheep, Horses, GOO GOO 179 and hogs, which last devour it Avith a>idity ; but Linnaeus asserts that it is totally refused by horses.... According to Prof. Pallas, the white goose-foot is a very trouble- some Aveed among corn, on the banks of the Volga, where the German colonists make use of its very abundant seed, by mixing it Avith bread-corn, and also boiling it separately in the form of groats ....Townsend relates, that a spe- cies of pot-ash, or barilla, is pre- pared from this plant. 3. The olid um, v. vulvaria, Stinking Goose-foot, or Fetkl Orache, an annual plant, grow- ing on road sides, old Avails, and rubbish, and flowering in August ....This species, in a fresh state, has a nauseous taste, and a strong offensive smell, similar to that of pu- trid salt fish. It is nevertheless eaten by cows, horses, goats, and slieep, but refused by su inc....Though ex- ploded by the London College, Dr. Cullen strongly recommends the fetid orache as a poAverful anti- spasmodic, especially in hysterical cases....Dambourney dyed avooI of a durable citron colour Avith a decoction of the whole plant; but the stuff was previously immersed in a diluted solution of tin ; and though the liquor emitted the un- pleasant fetor of this vegetable, yet the wool acquired no smell. 1. The maritimum, Sea Goose- foot, Small Glass-wort, or Sea- blite, which abounds on the sea- shore, and flowers in the months of July and August....Dr. With- ering mentions it as an excellent pot-herb....In Siberia, and in As- trakhan,the inhabitants obtain from this plant their pot-ash, which pro- bably partakes more of the nature of soda. i :■>. The polyspermum, Upright Blite, Round-leaved Goose-foot, or All-seed Goose-foot, Avhich grows on cu tnated ground and dung- hills, and floAvers in the month of July or August....Thiscurious plant has not hitherto b_en converted to any useful purpose ; though we be- lieve its numerous seeds might be advantageously employed in feed- ing poultry. Perhaps it is a vari- ety of the quinoa, which grows in the mountains of Peru, Avhere each plant affords upwards of 1000 grains, equal, if not superior, to rice; for we find in the French " Annee Litteraire" for 1781, that this exotic vegetable is a species of the Goose-foet. [See Chenopo- DIUM.] GOOSE-GRASS, or Cleav- ers, Clivers, or Catchweed Goose-grass ; Galium aparine, L. an indigenous plant, growing in cultivated grounds and hedges, and flowering from June to September. This succulent vegetable pos- sesses no smell, and is of a some- what bitter and acrid taste. An ointment prepared of the herb, when bruised and mixed Avith lard, is said to be an useful application for discussing strumous swelling . Dr. Mayerne informs us, that three ounces of the juice of this plant, taken twice a day in Avine, have been found singularly benefi- cial as an aperient and diuretic in incipient dmpsLs. Its greatest ef- ficacy, however, is said to be evi- dent in scorbutic complaints, for the cure of which a tea-cupful of its expressed juice is to be taken every morning, for nine or ten day.-.. When the frerii plant can- not be procured, the dried leaves may be infused and drunk like tea. The-branches of this vegeti-rie are employed by the Swedes, as substitutes for a hair-sieve to strain 180 G O U GOU milk. Young geese are exceed- ingly fond of the leaA'es; and the Avhole plant is eaten by horses, coavs, sheep and goats....It is re- markable, that the bones of poul- try feeding on the roots of goose- grass, acquire a red colour. [The Rev. Dr. Bateman has published an account of the great benefit derived from the use of the juice of this plant in cancers, foul ulcers and scorbutic eruptions. The dose is a gill twice a day. The ef- fects are said to be slow, though certain. An ointment must be pre- pared from the leaves Avith hogs' lard, and applied to the ulcers, the fresh plant being too heating to ap- ply to them. The parts must of course be kept clean, salt meat avoided, and temperance strictly observed. Gent. Mag. 2d part 1790.] There is another species of this plant, namely, the Cross-leaved, Goose-grass, Bed-straav, or Cross-wort Madder, Galium boreale, L. Avhich groAvs on moun- tains, rocks, and in gravelly places in Westmoreland and Wales; its stalk attains a height of from one to four feet, and its beautiful white floAvers appear in July and August ....In SAveden, the root of this ve- getable is known by the name of mattara, and is generally employed for dyeing avooI of a fine crimson colour....According to Bechstein, this herb affords a very grateful and wholesome food to cattle. GOUPD, or Cucurbita, L. a genus of plants comprising nine species, of Avhich the folloAving are the principal: 1. The lagenaria, or Bottle Gourd, a native of both Indies, where it groAvs on the banks of ri- vers : it has thick, trailine;, doAvny stalks, extending from 10 to 20 feet, and producing large white flowers, which are succeeded by long incurvated fruit of a whitish yelloAv colour, from 2 to five or 6 feet in length, and from 9 to 24 inches in circumference. 2. The Pepo, Pompion, or Com- mon Gourd, which is cultivated in various parts of Germany, but the native soil of Avhich is unknoAvn.... It produces fruit of various shapes and sizes, frequently 18 inches in diameter, and its culture in a tolerable land exposed to the rays of the sun, requires but little trou- ble. The pulp of the fruit is eaten as an ingredient in puddings and pancakes. But the most economi- cal use of this bulky vegetable pro- duction, is that of fattening pigs, as well as carp Avhen thrown into fish-ponds, for these purposes, extensive fields are deA-oted to the growth of the Common Gourd in Bohemia, Saxony, Thuringia, &c. climates which coincide with many parts of Britain, so that this plant certainly deserves to be more ge- nerally reared in this country.... Besides, its numerous seeds afford an unusual proportion of express- ed oil, amounting to one half of their own weight: when triturated with Avater, they yield a cooling and nutritive milk ; and boiled in- to a jelly, they are said by Bech- stein to be a A:ery.efficacious re- medy for curing a retention of urine. 3. The verrucosa, or Watered Gourd, Avhich is reared in America as a culinary vegetable : its young fruit is eaten boiled, and frequently mixed with Avheaten floAver in the baking of bread, to Avhich it im- parts a yelloAv colour, but an agree- able taste. 4. The Melofiepo, Erect Gourd, or Squash. It has a long erect GOU GOU 181 fttalk, several feet in height, Avhich becomes bushy tOAvards the top. It produces a knotty fruit, of a mo- derate size, and is used like the preceding species. 5. The lignosa, Ligneous-shelled Gourd, or Calabash, which has long trailing stalks, extending along the ground in every direction. Its smooth roundish fruit is provided with hard woody shells. All these species of the Gourd have several varieties, and the fruit of each frequently changes its form. They are raised from seed, set an- nually in the month of April, or in the beginning of May. But. if the plants be forwarded in a hot-bed till they are a month old, they will produce fruit six weeks earlier, and mature comparatively sooner. The first species, or Bottle-Gourd, how- ever, seldom ripens in Britain with- out the aid of artificial ht at. Hence these plants are in our climate cul- tivated chiefly for curiosity, but in the Past and West Indies, Bottle- Gourds are sold in the markets, and constitute, during the summer months, the principal food of the common people, Avho boil and sea- son them with vinegar ; and, some- times filling the slit 11 Avith rice and meat, prepare a kind of pudding. These shells are employed as flasks for holding water,and likewise con- verted intospoons,funnels,and even hats....l astly, it is remarkable, that the stalks of the different species of the gourd contain a considera- ble proportion of nitrous particles, and might therefore become use- ful in the manufacture of salt-petre. GOUT, or Podagra, a disease of th.e Proteus-kind, thus defined by Dr. Cullen: It is hereditary, and commences Avithout any appa- rent external cause, but is in most instances preceded by indigestion, or other affection of the s • -~ h ; its paroxysms are ushered in with fever, pain at the point, generally, of the great toe, always attacking the joints, and chiefly those of the feet or hands: it returns at inter- vals, often alternates with indispo- sitions of the stomach, or other internal parts. Forerunners ofthe Gout .'....Indi- gestion often returning; thick se- diment in the urine, sometimes for a whole year previously to the pa- roxysm, Avhile that fluid emits the flavour of milk ; vomiting, hic- cough, and frequent pains of the for head. Peculiarities of the disease:.... Chalky excrescences appear on the joints, which shortly before death also cover the face; the gout infects dogs licking the sore or tumefied parts of their master, and accord- ing to some authors, it may like- wise be communicated by clothes : it occurs most frequently in the spring ; is often connected with the stone or gravel; and has sometimes been confounded with acute rheu- matism. Causes ;....Acid food, especially sour cherries; the immoderate use of fish, sugar, wine, cyder, and spirituous liquors ; in short, lux- ury and debauch of every kind ; suppressions of diarrhoeas, dysen- teries, or the hemorrhoidal flux ; repulsion of the itch, scurvy, or other cutaneous eruptions ; Steep- ing on fresh hay, kc. Prevention and Cu> e:.... Although this obstinate disease has generally been considered as incurable, and thus become too often the boon of the most ignorant pretenders, vet we believe that the want of success in the profession, must be ascrib- ed partly to that fashionable su- perficial treatment which constant- 182 GOU GOU ly aims at alleviating urgent symp- toms, and partly to the difficulty of preA-ailing on those whimsical patients to pursue a steady and re- gular course of both medicine and diet, without which no radical cure of the gout can reasonably be ex- pected. During a paroxysm of the gout, the patient ought to be» treated ac- cording to the state of his fever (Avhich see) ; and, as the crisis of the disease generally takes place in three or four weeks, eitherby trans- piration of the pores, or the dis- charge of urine, those secretions should be promoted by the mildest sudoiifics and diuretics. Hence diluent drinks, such as barley-A\a- ter in which sal ammoniac has been dissolved, in the proportion of one dram to each pint, should be libe- rally di unk ; but, where impurities in the first passages are suspected, gentle emetics may be administer- ed ; and if fulness of blood prevail in the vessels, venesection Avill per- haps be advisable....Marino, an Italian physician, prescribed for his gouty patients half a pound of olive oil, to be swallowed several times a day, Avith uncommon success : but we apprehend, that feAv persons Vvill be inclined, or able, to take such profuse draughts. Meanwhile, the parts affected should be care- fully covered w ith flam.el : and the following applications used, which have occasionally been found of great service, in abating the most excruciating pain, viz. oil of worm- wood; or Peruvian balsam dissolv- ed in alcohol; or a solution of sai ammoniac, in white Avine ; or a cat ...plasm made of elder flowers, boiled in cream, and applied as hot as the patient can bear it; or oil of w ax dropped on the [-art affect- ed ; or the skin of an eel; oi lini- ments consisting of vinegar and soap ; or the leaves of the Rough Bind well; or even fresh horse- dung, &c all have, in particular cases, been employed, and found productive of good effects. Never- theless, Ave by no means recom- mend these remedies to be indis- criminately or promiscuously used, as the propriety and safety of their applications should be determined by professional advice. When the gout retreats to more dangerous, internal parts, such as the breast and stomach, it is ge- nerally attended with vomiting, which [if violent, and in an elderly person, may be restrained by warm wine and water, warm brandy tod- dy, or by a tea spoonful of xther in a Avine glass full of water: but if the subject be young, and the pulse true and full, bleeding is a better remedy.] As soon as the stomach i^ composed, small doses of camphor, or vitriolic xther, in- ternally, Avill be of essential ser- vice to allay the spasmodic action of the viscera. At the same time, sinapisms should be applied to the soles of the feet, and tne low er ex- tremities kept warm; a treatment by Avhich the pain, as well as the seat of the disease, easily returns to its former place. Various expedients and plans of regimen have been devised, in or- der to prevent, or retard, the fits of the gout. As we cannot enter into the peculiarities of diff rent constitutions, Ave shall here briefly point out that mode of living which will, in gei.erri, be found the most conducive to the purpose.... Tem- perance, in the strictest seise, total abstinence from acid, ferine,led and spirituous liquors, and a very moderate use of wine are the prin- cipal circumstances to be attended GOU GOU 183 to by the gouty ; but, in their food also, they should be extremely careful, and avoid all fat, rancid provisions. Spices, pickles, and stimulating dishes, in general, are the most powerful promoters of this painful disease; while hot sup- pers, late hours, and long sleeping in ieather-beds,are its greatest nur- sery. Hence, persons liable to at- tacks of the gout, ought attentively to observe Avhatever agrees or disa- grees Avith their digestive organs ; for, as long as their stomach duly performs its office, there is reason to hope for a favourable change.... Moderate exercise should likeAvise, on no account, be neglected ; be- cause excessive fatigue and long- continued application to intense study, are equally detrimental.... Fear, violent grief, and an irascible temper, ought to be vigilantly con- trolled by the calm reflections of reason....Pieside all these precau- tions, however, it will be useful to adopt some particular rules of diet and regimen, in order to counter- act the constitutional predisposi- tion to that formidable disease.... \v ith this intention, Ave from ex- perience recommend the constant use of barley bread, and to bilious individuals, mare's milk, or the whey obtained from it after coagu- 1 a tion. Large closes of ginger, from one to four or six drams pulverized, and boiled in cow's milk for break- fast, have lately been found an excellent preventive, [by Sir J. Banks.] Absorbent powders, con- sisting of tAvo scruples of calcined magnesia, with purified kali and powdered rhubarb, from three to five grains of each, have likeAvise been taken Avith considerable ad- vantage during the intervals of gouty fits ; but this medicine ought to be repeated for several Aveeks or eA*en months, at least every other morning, according to the nature of the case. Lastly, there is sufficient reason to conclude, that the internal use of the marine acid, or spirit of salt diluted Avith Avater, if continued for a proper length of time, and aided by bathing the legs daily in Avater saturated with a small proportion of the same acid, would greatly tend to prevent the return of the disease. Indeed, Dr. Wollaston has discovered, that gouty matter consists of a peculiar (lithic) acid Avhich is supposed to be generated in the human body, and combined with the mineral alkali: conse- quently, as the marine acid has a greater attraction for this alkali than the lithic acid (or that Avhich contributes to the formation of the Btone in the bladder), it appears to be a reasonable inference, that the generation cf chalky mattermay be counteracted by the copious use of that acid, both internally and ex- ternally, which Avould preferably combine Avith the mineral alkali, and thus deprive the lithic acid of its nucleus or basis. [Every gouty person should read Dr. Warner's treatise on this dis- ease, as it contains an excellent system of directions, the result of observations and of experience upoi himself. The theory Avhich he gives of the complaint is indeed ab- surd, as might be expected from the time in which he wrote, but the practice he advises is certainly highly proper. The Editor has had so much experience of the ef- ficacy and utility of his prescrip- tions, that he thinks proper to in- sert them, in order that they m; v be kept in families. 1. A icd-'ne Tincture. l> Take of opium six drachms.... 184 GOU GOU Soap of tartar and Castile soap, of each half an ounce ; nutmeg pow- dered, one drachm ; camphire, 3 drachms ; saffron, tAvo scruples ; sweet spirit of sal ammoniac, nine ounces. Digest all these ingre- dients in a Plorence flask in a sand- heat for ten days, shaking it now and then till the last day or two, and then pour it off clear and stop it up for use." The soap of tartar and Castile soap may be safely omitted, as they add nothing to the virtues of the medicine. Dr. Warner says, " Of this noble medicine, Avhich no gouty man should ever be Avithout, take thirty or forty drops, an hour be- fore it is Avanted to operate, in a glass of strong mint Avater, after nothing hath been received into the stomach for an hour and a half: and if in an hour or two after tak- ing it,the pain is not greatly abated, take twenty more, and drink some- time after of warm sage tea at plea- sure. The number of drops must be proportioned to the violence of the pain, and repeated every night that the pain requires it ; abating two or three drops at a time, as the pain abates, till the dose is re- duced to ten or a dozen, when the patient may desist at once from any more : and thus the fit Avhich might otherwise last a month, or two, or three, will be cured in a fortnight, and the patient enjoy ease and sleep. When the pain hath been so very intense, as that I have thought it necessary to add the second dose as above directed, and yet Avas apprehensive that I might be rather heated too much, from a larger quantity than the ad- ditional twenty drops, and that these might not be sufficient to an- swer the intention, I have joined seven, eight or nine drops of lau- danum : and in the like case I have sometimes taken fifteen drops of it instead of the second dose of the Anodyne Elixir. 2. Purging Tincture. Grated rhubarb, orange peel, caraAvay seeds bruised, each one ounce. Infuse these ingredients in a quart of Avhite wine for three days : decant and take half aAvine- glass full, or the quantity that will answer, when sitting down to din- ner. The above prescription is also an easy purgative in other diseases, and in cases of costiveness. 3. Cordial for the gout in the sto- mach. Raisins sliced and stoned, half a pound ; Senna, two drachms ; Co- riander and Fennel seeds, each one drachm ; Rhubarb sliced, one ounce. Infuse these ingredients in a quart of brandy, then strain, and add a pint more to the ingredients, and after standing sometime, de- cant and mix the first and last tinctures. The dose is four or five spoonsful in as many of hot water, to be repeated if necessary in half an hour, until ease be procured.] GOUTWTEED, Herb-gerard, Ash-aveed, or Ground-ash, JEgo- podium Podagraria, L. an indige- nous perennial plant, growing in orchards, gardens, pastures, and hedges,and floAvering in the months of May and June. This plant has received its name from its suppos- ed efficacy in relieving the gout.... Its leaves are very tender, and may be eaten early in the spring among other pot-herbs ; being possessed of nutritive rather than medicinal properties.....Cows, sheep, and goats, are remarkably fond of the gout-Aveed, but it is refused by horses. GR A G R A 185 GRAFTING, a term in garden- ing, which signifies the taking a shoot from one tree, and inserting it into another, so that they may closely unite, and form one trunk. Grafting has been practised from the most remote antiquity ; but its origin and invention are differently related by naturalists. The great aim of this useful art is, to propa- gate any curious sorts of fruit-trees, to insure the groAvth of similar kinds, which cannot be effected by any other method : for, as all the good species of fruit have been accidentally obtained from seeds, many of these, Avhen sown, will degenerate, and produce bad fruit. But, when shoots are taken from such trees as bear good fruit, they will never change their kind, what- eA-er be their stock, or the tree on which they are grafted. Mr. Bradley observes, that the stock grafted on is only to be con- sidered as a fund of vegetable m,,i- ter, which is to be filtered through the cyon, digested and brought to maturity, as the time of growth in the vessels of the cyon directs. A cyon, therefore, of one kind, graft- ed on a tree of another, may be lather said to take root in the tree it is grafted, than to unite Avith it: for it is obvious that the cyon pre- serves its natural purity, though it be fed and nourished by a mere crab. [The experience of J. Cooper is opposed to this generally adopt- ed theory....See Apples.] The grafts or cyons Avith which this operation is effected, should be of the last summer's growth, from the outside branches; firm and well ripened; and selected from healthy trees. The graft is always the middle part of each shoot, cut to five or six inches in length, or vol, in. so as to have four or five good eyes, or buds, but should be preserved at full length, till grafting time. The proper tools and other ma- terials used in grafting, are ; 1. A strong knife for cutting off the heads of the stocks, previous to the insertion of the graft; also a small hand-saw, for occasional use, in cutting off the heads of large stocks; 2. A common grafting- knife, or strong sharp pen-knife, for cutting and shaping the grafts ready for insertion; also to slope and form the stocks ready for the reception cf the cyons; 3. A flat grafting chisel, and small mallet, for clefting large stocks, in cleft- grafting; 4. A quantity of neAV bass-strings, for bandages for se- curing the grafts, and promoting their speedy union with the stock ; and 5. A quantity of clay, for ap- plying closely round the grafts after their insertion and binding, to de- fend the parts from the influence of the sun, winds, and wet weather, or from being affected by cold.... For this purpose, a kind of stiff loamy mortar may be prepared of strong fat loam; or any other tough clay may be substituted ; to which may be added a fourth part of fresh horse-dung, free from lit- ter, and a small portion of cut hay, with a little water, Avell mixed : the whole should be properly beat- en Avith a stick, and thus incorpo- rated. This operation should be repeat- ed, according to the nature of the clay, and performed several times during the first day ; the composi- tion being still moistened Avith wa- ter for six or seven days success- ively, at the end of which time it will be fit for use. There are various other modes of engrafting, Avhich are termed B b 186 G R A G R A whip-grafting, or tongue-grafting, cleft-grafting, crown-grafting, root- grafting, check-grafting, side-graft- ing ; and, lastly, grafting by ap- proach, or Inarching (to which Ave refer.) Beside this- last-men- tioned, the following are most com- monly and successfully practised: 1. Whip-grafting, or tongue- grafting, is generally performed in nurseries, upon small stocks, from a quarter of an inch to half, or a Avhole inch in diameter. The stock, and cyons or grafts, should always be ofthe same size, or approach as near to the same size as possible. They are both to be sloped off a full inch, or more, and then tied closely together. This method may be much improved, by performing . Avhat gardeners call tongueing, or tipping; that is, by making an in- cision in the bare part of the stock, dowiiAvards, and a similar slit in the cyon, upwards; after Avhich they are to be carefully joined to- gether, so that the rinds of both may meet in every part, when a ligament or bandage of bass is to be tied round the cyon, to prevent it from being displaced ; and the whole is to be covered over, or coated, Avith the clay above de- scribed. 2. Cleft-grafting, or slit-graft- ing, as gardeners differently term it, is performed upon stocks from one to two inches in diameter. The head of the stock being carefully cut off, in a sloping direction, a perpendicular cleft, or slit, is to be made about two inches deep, Avith a knife or chisel, towards the back ofthe slope, into which a wedge is to be driven, in order to keep it open for the admission ofthe cyon: the latter must now be cut in a per- pendicular direction, and in the form of a wedge, so as to fit the incision in the stock. As soon as it is prepared, it should be placed in the cleft, in such a manner that the inner bark of both the stock and cyon may meet exactly together. It is then to be tied with a ligature of bass, and clayed over, as is prac- tised in Avhip-grafting, three or four eyes being left in the cyon unco- vered. The proper season for this mode of grafting is the same as for the preceding, viz. the months of February and March : towards the latter end of May, or the be- ginning of June, the junction ofthe graft and stock will be completed, and the latter begin to shoot; when the clay may be taken off, and, in the course of a fortnight or three Aveeks, the bandages may be re- moved. [Mr. Wm. Fairman, of Kent County, England, has inserted in the 20th vol. of the Trans. Soc. Arts, London, an account of his mode of" extreme branch grafting," upon old decaying trees, A\hich promises to be a very great acqui- sition to those who take pleasure in cultivating fruit. The process is as follows: " Cut away all spray wood, and make the tree a perfect skeleton, leaving all the healthy limbs : then clean the branches, and cut the top of each branch off, where it would measure in circumference from the size of a shilling to about that of a croAvn piece. Some of the branches must of course be taken off where they arealittle larger, and some smaller, to preserve the ca- nopy or head of the tree : and it Avill be necessary to take out the branches which cross others, and observe the arms are left to fork off, so that no considerable open- ing is to be perceived when you stand under the tree, but that they GR A GRA 187 may represent an uniform head.... pound of pitch, one ditto rosin, When preparing the tree, leave half ditto beeswax, quarter ditto the branches sufficiently long to hogs-lard, quarter ditto turpentine, allow of two or three inches to be to be boiled up together, but not taken off by the saw, that all the to be used till you can bear a fin- splintered parts may be removed, ger in it. The trees being thus prepared, Mr. Fairman objects to the put in one or two grafts at the ex- mode of grafting at a short dis- tremity of each branch ; and put tance from the trunk or body of a on the cement described below, tree, as the wounds are so large as and tie Avith bass or soft strings.... to require several grafts Avhich can- Sever the shoots or suckers from not firmly unite and clasp over the the tree, until the succeedingspring, stumps, and consequently these to make good the deficiency, in wounds lay a foundation for after case some grafts do not succeed, decay ; or else they diminish the Additional grafts may be inserted growth of the tree: whereas, upon in the sides of the branches; as at the new plan, they will be larger A, A, A, A, A, A, or where they in three or four years, than before are wanted to form the tree into a the operation. The annexed cut handsome shape. will give an idea of Mr. F's neA? The cement for grafting....One method. 188 G R A GR A Another new mode...The late Mr. A- C. Du Plaine informed the Editor that the following mode of grafting was long kept a secret in France. A limb of willow, three or four inches thick was buried in a trench deep enough to receive it, and at the distance of every four or five inches, holes were bored into Avhich grafts were inserted, care being taken to make the bark of the graft and the limb into which it Avas inserted, touch ; the lower part of the graft was pointed and the bark shaved off. The limb and the grafts Avere then coArered Avith earth, and about two inches of the latter left above the surface. In process of time the limb rotted, and the grafts took root. The dif- ferent grafts were then dug up, and transplanted. Dr. Darwin explains the theory of grafting thus...." It is the inos- culation of the vessels of the graft Avith those of the bark and albur- num of the tree to which they are applied and bound." Phytologia, Sect. 111. 7. In grafting, Dr. D. says, " it is necessary to apply the bark which contains or consists of the caudex of the young scion, exactly to the bark of the branch into Avhich it is inserted or applied ; and then all species of engrafting succeeds, whether by excision, or inocula- tion, or in arching. But I suspect, that where a single bud is inocu- lated, it has often failed from the operator having selected a flower bud instead of a leaf bud ; Avhich probably unites its caudex to those of the stock Avith less vigour, and certainly dies after it has ripened its seed ; or by his holding the bud in his mouth, as he ascends the ladder, or Avhile he makes the mcision, and thus destroying it by heat, as I once observed. A leaf bud may in general be distinguish- ed from a flower bud, by its being sharper pointed and less spherical." Dr. D. has many interesting and curious remarks upon the sub- ject of grafting, which every one anxious to perfect his fruit should read.] GRAIN, strictly speaking, sig- nifies the fruit or seed, growing in a spike or ear ; in which sense it comprehends corn of every kind, such as Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats, &c. Ofthe preparation, cul- ture, and preservation of these, we treat in their alphabetical series. Grain, also denotes the smallest Aveight used in England, and which is thus denominated, because it is regulated by the weight of a grain of wheat, selected from the middle of the ear, and well dried. The grain is employed for troy-Aveight, in the Aveighing of gold, silver, jewels, bread, and liquors. The grain employed by apothe- caries, is the same as that of gold- smiths (see Avoirdupois), though they afterwards vary with respect to the computation of greater Aveights arising from the aggregate of grains. Thus, with the former, twenty grains make a scruple,three scruples a dram, eight drams an ounce, and twelve ounces a pound. Grain, is likewise applied to the figures, or representations of grains on stones, stuffs, leather, Sec. Thus Ave say, in some mar- bles the grain is very fine, in others it is much coarser ; Morocco has a richer, that is, a larger grain than shagreen, Sec. GRAINS, are the refuse of malt, Avhich has been brewed or distilled. Immense quantities of this article are consumed in London and its environs for the feeding of pigs, GRA GRA 18f 100,000 of which were annually fattened, a few years since, by one extensive distiller. Cow-keepers in the vicinity of the metropolis likeAvise feed their cows frequently with grains, which produce indeed abundant milk, but of a very infe- rior quality. Hence we are of opinion that such refuse, especially that from brew-houses, might Avith greater advantage be employed in the process of making vinegar; for, by bruising the grains so as to reduce them to a pulp, adding the necessary quantity of tepid Avater, together with leven, yeast, or other fermentable substances, they might easily be converted into a strong acid. GRANARY,a building in which corn is deposited, especially when designed to be kept for a consider- able time. In constructing granaries, the principal objects are, strength or solidity ofthe edifice, and its expo- sure, to the most drying Avinds.... In the county of Kent, previously to removing the corn to such a ma- gazine, it is tossed with a shovel from one ene of a large room to the other; by which means the lighter substances fall into the mid- dle, while the ripe grain only is col- lected at the sides or extremities of the room. The corn is then screened, and conveyed to the gra- naries, where it is spread to the depth of half a foot on the floor, and turned twice in the Aveek : the operation of screening is repeated once a week. At the expiration of two months, the corn is heaped up to the thickness of a foot, for a si- milar period during Avhich it is turned once, or, if the Aveather be damp, twice in the Aveek, and is al- so occasionally screened. At the end of five or six months, the heaps are enlarged to the height of two feet, and turned once or twice in a month, the operation of screening being likewise from time to time continued. When grain has thus lain for one year, the quantity is increased to the thickness of 2£ or 3 feet; it is turned once in the course of three weeks or a month, and screened accordingly. At the ex- piration of two or three years, it is moved only once in two months, and screened every quarter; but in proportion to the length of time it is kept, the turning, Sec. should be more frequently repeated, in consequence of which the grain will be much improved. In storing corn, it is requisite to leave an area of a yard in width on every side of each heap, into which the corn should be tossed as often as appears necessary. In the Kentish granaries, tAvo square holes are made at each end of the floor, and a circular one in the middle of the building, through Avhich the corn is shifted from the upper rooms into those below, and again from the lower rooms into the upper ones, in order that it may be the more effectual- ly turned and aired. The screens or frames employed for sifting the corn, are made with two partitions, for the purpose of separating the pure grain from the dust, which falls* into a bag. By these precau- tions, corn has often been pre- served sound and pure for thirty years; and it is a circumstance worthy of notice that, though by long keeping the grain decreases in bulk, yet it Avill yield proportion- ably more flour, and the bread will likeAvise be Avhiterand more whole- some ; as the superfluous moisture 190 GRA GRA only eAraporates during the fre- quent airing. M. Du Hamel, and Dr. Hales, have recommended various contri- vances for ventilating, or introduc- ing fresh air through corn depo- sited in granaries, with a view to preserve it SAveet and dry, as well as to secure it from AAreevils or other insects. This object is to be effected, by constructing grana- ries with lattice-work, and hair- cloth at the bottom. The ventila- tors for supplying fresh air may be affixed to the Avail, either within or on the outside of the granary, be- neath the floor, or in the ceiling ; but, in the former case, it Avill be necessary to place the handle of the lever externally, as otherwise the person Avorkingthe machinery would be exposed to suffocation, when the corn is fumigated with sulphur for the expulsion of wee- vils. Small moAeable ventilators may be constructed on this plan, for ventilating corn in large bins deposited in granaries. Similar contrivances may be applied to the lowest floors of small magazines, so as to be w orked by men stand- ing on the ground, either Avithin or without the buildings. In the 8th vol. of the " Letters and Papers of the Bath and Jl'ect of England Society," &c. Thomas South, Esq. gives a description of a cheap and efficacious ventilator, for preserving corn on ship-board. This machine consists of a forcing pump, Avith perforated tubes an- nexed to it; and by means of which fresh air may be communicated to every part of the cargo....Mr. Sot th's air-vessel is, for the sake of cheapness, confined to a diame- ter of 10 inches ; but he observes that, if the latter be enlarged to 14 inches, the effect of the machine will be nearly doubled; and if the length of the trough (by the suction-valve) be extended ten inches, a poAver Avill be obtain- ed capable of Arentilating a car- go of 400 tons in the course of one hour. The price of a ventila- tor on the smaller plan, is comput- ed by Mr. South, at about five or six guineas : one on a larger scale might perhaps amount to twenty guineas ; a sum Avhich, in either case, enhances the price of corn only at a rate of less than four- pence per quarter, on the first car- go. These machines, if Avell paint- ed and properly preserved, will continue useful for many years.... A more minute account of Mr. South's invention is contained in the volume of the " Letters," Sec. before quoted, where its various parts are specified and illustrated by an engraving. To preserve corn in barns or granaries, Dr. Daravin observes, it is requisite first to make them dry, and, secondly, to keep them in that state ; because no seeds will vegetate Avithout moisture. In order to dry seeds, the heaps should be frequently turned over in Avarm dry Aveather : hence, in this cli- mate, the doors and Avindows, of granaries should open towards the south, for the reception of the Avarmth of the sun, with air-holes round the building, for sufficient ventilation ; and Avhich apertures ought to be sheltered from rain or snoAV, by boards placed for that purpose on the outside. Heaps of corn should be surrounded Avith planks, in order to prevent them from touching either brick or stone Avails; because, Avhen cold north- erly Avinds are succeeded by moist GRA GRA 191 and warm south-west winds, such Avails frequently precipitate the moisture from the atmosphere, and communicate it to those bodies which are in contact with them.... According to Mr. Tull, the safest method of preserving a large quan- tity of Avheat is, to dry it gradually in a malt-kiln on a hair-cloth, Avitli no other fuel than clean straw, and with a heat scarcely exceeding that produced by the rays of the sun.... In this temperature, the grain is to remain from 4 to 12 hours, in pro- portion to its previous dampness. The vegetative principle ofthe corn is not destroyed by this process ; as instances have occurred of its growing Avhen sown, after it had been thus kept for seven years. With respect to the best method of securing grain from insects, Sec. we refer the reader to the article Corn. GRANATE, or Garnet, a genus of fossils, classed among siliceous earths, and containing three species, the principal of which is the crystallized granate. It i.-> ranked among precious stones, but is one ofthe least valuable, as it varies in its colour, and the form of its crystal, more than any other; being sometimes of a deep red, sometimes yellowish or purplish, and, at others, of a broAvn or black tint. It is inferior both in lustre and hardness to all other gems, and yields to the file, though it Avill strike fire against steel. Granates are either oriental or oc- cidental : the former are brought from the East Indies, and the latter from Spain, Bohemia, and Silesia. They are found of various sizes, from that of a large pin's head, to one inch in diameter, but seldom exceed one-fifth of an inch. GRANITE, in Natural History, a genus of stones, consisting chiefly of quartz, feldspath, and mica; forming rough and very large mas- ses of great hardness, yielding fire with steel, not fermenting Avith acids, and slowly but imperfectly calcinable in a great heat. The most stupendous ridges or chains of mountains on our globe, are composed of this fossil, which pre- sents three distinct species. 1. The hard Avhite granite, with black spots, commonly called moor- sttne. It is much used in London, for the steps of public buildings, and on other occasions Avhere great strength and solidity are required. 2. The hard red granite, varie- gated Avith black and Avhite, which is common in Egypt and Arabia. 3. The pale whitish granite, di- versified with black and yellow. This is sometimes found in strata, but more frequently in loose no- dules, and is employed for the pav- ing of streets. Granites take a good polish; hence the Egyptians formerly em- ployed them, and the Italians still use them for Avorking large pieces of ornamental architecture ; a pur- pose to Avhich this fossil is uncom- monly Avell adapted, as it is not liable to decay in the air. Indeed, there are columns, statues, and other monuments of antiquity erected of granite, and preserved to this day entire, though some of these relics have withstood the test of time for upwards of 4000 years! GRANULATION, a chemical process, by Avhich metallic sub- stances are reduced to small grains. It consists simply in pouring the melted mend into cold Avater, from a considerable height. Lead or tin may be granulated, by pouring 192 GRA them when melted into a box, the inner surface of which is to be rubbed with chalk, and the box shaken till the metal becomes cold. The design of granulation is chief- ly to facilitate the combination of metals with other substances; be- cause, from their great ductility, they are incapable of being pul- verized, and liable to contract im- purities from the tedious opera- tion of filing....See also Lead and Shot. Granulation is also applied to wheat when divested of its husk, and other surrounding parts, so that the heart or middle of each grain only is preserved entire. In this state, it is called Semolina, and often sold by grocers : it affords an excellent and nutritive food, especially for children and invalids. GRAPES are the fruit of the Vine, on the culture of which we shall treat under that head. Grapes are excellent fruit, and Avell calculated for cleansing the humours, on account of their lax- ative properties, by promoting the natural evacuations, without de- bilitating the body. They are, how- ever, remarkably flatulent, and ought to be avoided by those Avho are liable to eructations, and other complaints arising from bad diges- tion....It is asserted, that the small stones of grapes, Avhen sAvallowed together with the juice in large quantities, have occasioned the most painful and inveterate colic;. Sour grapes ought never to be eaten, as they easily produce gripes, and even the dysentery. [See Vine.] GRASS, in botany, is defined to be a plant or vegetable Avhich has simple leaA-es, a jointed tubu- lar stem, a husky calyx called GRA gluma, and the seed of which is single. Grasses are divided into two classes, leguminous and culmifer- ous. To the former belong wheat, barley, oats, and all other grain, for the various modes of cultivat- ing which, the reader will consult the articles in their alphabetical series. Culmiferous grasses may likewise be subdivided into tAvo classes, for agricultural purposes ; hence it is of importance that every farmer should distinguish, 1. Those which run to seed-stalks in a manner si- milar to the common annual spe- cies of corn, and the leaves of which gradually decay, in propor- tion as they approach towards per- fection, and totally wither when the seeds are fully ripe. In this division may be ranked Ray or Rye-grass, to which may be ad- ded the SAveet-scertted Spring Grass, the Dog's-tail-grass, and the Bent-grass. 2. Those, the leaves of which groAV after the seed-stalks are formed, and retain their succulence and verdure during the Avhole season. Such are the Fescue and MeadoAv Grasses, that continue green and succulent, even after the seeds have attained to maturity, and while the floAver- stalks are fading. We cannot here specify the places of growth, proper soils, or the modes of cultivating the dif- ferent grasses; but, as many far- mers are not sufficiently acquaint- ed with the peculiar names of those plants, and as little improvement can be made in this important branch of husbandry without such knowledge, Ave shall here state the proper appellations of the best cul- tivated and uncultivated grasses, re- GRA GRA 193 ferrihg the reader to the various articles as they occur in their al- phabetical order. I. Cultivated Grasses. 1. Red Darnel, or Ray-grass: Lolium perenne, L. 2. Crested Dog's-tail-grass: Cy- nosurus cristatus, L. 3. Meadow Fescue-grass: Fes- tuca pratensis, L. 4. Meadow Fox-tail-grass ; Alo- fiecurus pratensis, L. 5. Smooth-stalked Meadow- grass ; Poa pratensis, L. 6. Roughish Meadow-grass: Poa Trivialis, L. 7. Soft Brome Grass, Lob-grass, or Oat-grass : Bromus mollis, L. 8. Meadow Soft-grass: Holcus lanatus, L. 9. Sweet-scented Spring grass : Anthoxantkum odoratum, L. 10. Timothy-grass: Phleumpra- tense, L. II. Wild, or Uncultivated Grasses. 1. Sheep's Fescue-grass : Festu- ca ovina, L. 2. Hard Fescue-grass: Festuca duriuscula, L. 3. Water Hair-grass: Aira aquatica, L. 4. Annual Meadow-grass: Poa annua, L. 5. Flote Fescue-grass : Festuca fluitans, L. 6. Reed Meadow-grass: Poa aquatica, L. 7. Mountain Melic-grass : Me- lica nutans, L. 8. Creeping Bent-grass : Agros- tis stolonifera, L. 9. Marsh Arrow-grass : Triglo- chin palustre, L. and, 10. Sea Arrow-grass: Triglo- chin maritimum, L. Avhich is pecu- liarly calculated for sheep-walks. These are the principal grasses, VOL. m. cultivated and wild, which merit the attention of agriculturists ; but, as their seeds, as Avell as those of other grasses drop from the husks a very short time after, and many of them, before they are ripe, those Avho wish to preserve such seeds, ought to watch them dili- gently ; as the neglect of a very few days Avill deprive the cultivator of an opportunity of collecting them. The Tall Fescue-grass, hoav ever, forms an exception : for, as its seeds are not fertile, it can only be propagated by parting and planting the roots. The culture of grasses has been particularly attended to Avithin these few years; and, as they support .many of the most useful quadru- peds, the art of increasing the quantity of leaves round the roots of grasses, is deservedly regarded as an object of great importance. It simply consists in eating off the central stem by sheep, horses, or other cattle, early in the season : hence Dr. Daravin justly observes, thatnew leaves are produced around the first joint ofthe stem thus graz- ed. This practice is especially use- ful in Ioav meadows, and affords a double profit, if continued till the month of May ; as, in moist situa- tions, a crop of hay is certain to succeed, Avhich, by this method, will not only be much finer, and more copious, but the expence that must otherwise haA'e been in- curred in providing hay, may in a great measure be saved by making use of such early grass. [The ReAr. and learned Dr. Hen- ry Muhlenberg of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, has paid more atten- tion to the natural history of the grasses of the United States, than any other person, and it is much C c 194 GRA GAR to be wished he avouPJ favour us with the result of his valuable re- searches on this subject. But he has been equally attentive to the cultivation of some of the most useful species of grasses, as well domestic as imported. " Accord- ing to his trials they thus range in point of merit. I. Tall Meadow Oats, or Tall- oat grass, Avxna elaiior, imported. 2. Tall Fescue Grass, festuca elaiior, native. 3. Meadow-fox-tail-grass. Alope- curuspratensis, imported. 4. Mcadow-soft-gj-ass, or York- shire grass of the English, Holcus Lanatus, native. 5. Timothy, or meadow-Cats-tail grass, p/deum protease. 6. Rough Cocksfoot-grass, [or- chard grass] dactylis glomerata, na- tive. 7. English or Common Rye-grass, loiium perenne, imported. 8. Sweet scented-vernal-grass, anthoxanthum odoratum, imported. 9. Reedy China, Cinna Arun- dinacea, native. 10. Broom-grass, tAvo species, brand. Timothy should be cul- tivated av ith the nine other kinds of grass enumerated above, in bot- toms or meadows, which can be Avatered. lor upland meadows, Dr. M. prefers red clover, trifoli- um protease ; 2. Lucerne medicago saiiva ; and 3. Sainfoin Jiedysa- rum onobrychis. 1. The Tall-Meadow oats Avas imported many years ago by Dr. M. and is now spreading fast through tli- state of Pennsylvania. It is the Wiesenhafer franzoiich ray- grass of the Germans....The Eng- lish rye-grass or ray grass is the Loiium perenne, a very different plant. A very good figure and de- scription is given of the avana in bherber's treatise on grasses, vol. 1. tab. 1. Agreeably to the experi- ence of Dr. M. this grass is of all others the earliest, latest, and best grass for green fodder and hay. It blossoms about the middle of May, with red clover, and the seed ripens a month after. It grows best in a clover soil, and rises to a height of from five to seven feet. It ought to be cut in blossom about the end of May. The seed may be sown in the fall or spring, with or without grain, and must be brushed in, or lightly harrowed. If mi:;ed with clover, it will make good upland meadoAV. Horned cattle prefer this grass to all others. But some, horses do not relish it green." Trans, of' Agric. Soc. A'cw- York. In addition to the above, Dr. M. informs the editor, that the ray grass must be pastured or cut at least three times in a season ; if suffered to groAV old, it will become strawlike. When intended for hay, it must be salted. . 2. Fescue Grass (Tall.) A native perennial grass of the United States. It is very luxuriant and productive, but rather coarse. Coavs are fond of it but horses do not relish it. It grows in moist meadoAvs and in woods. The leaA'es are broad, stem very high (some- times six feet), flowers in July. 3. Madow-fox-tailgrass, Alope- curus Pratensis. Root perennial, stalks from a foot to eighteen inches high. Mr. Swayne says it suits low meadoAV grounds or boggy places Avhich have bjen drained. Sheep, horses and goats eat it, but cows and hogs are not fond of it. 4. M> adow soft grass... Hole us La- natus...The root is perennial, stems from tAvo to three feet high. The velvet-like softness of this plant, and the redness of the opening GRA GRA 19i panicle, render it very conspicuous in the field. This grass is esteemed by Mr. Marshall, (Rural Eco- nomy of Yorkshire) as excellent for promoting the growth of young heifers, and cattle of every kind, but not good for horses....Indeed it has been accused of exciting the discharge of a morbid quality of urine in horses. Young's Annals, vol. 20, p. !05. 5. Timothy Grass....Phleum Pra- tense....A well known favourite and native grass of the Northern and middle United States. According to Mr. Strickland, (Trans. Board of Agric.) It is the same as the English Cats tail grass, except that the Timothy is about a fortnight earlier than the cats tail, the ef- fect of the change of seed and cli- mate. Dr. Muhlenberg, we haATe seen, accords in this opinion. Mr. Deane (N. England Far- mer) says " it obtained its name, by being carried from Virginia to North Carolina, by one Timothy Hanson." Is it possible to ascer- tain the accuracy of this statement ? By what name is it known in Vir- ginia ? Timothy suits a moist low ground, and if someAvhat shady it may be sown alone. On upland it is generally sown with red clover, but as these grasses ripen at differ- ent periods, it certainly is bad eco- nomy to soav more Timothy than will answer to support the clover which is very apt to lodge. But as a combination of Timothy and Clover is preferred by horses, and the former terfds to correct the ten- dency of the latter to injure their Avind, the best Avay is to sow it with grain, to roll the ground and to permit it to stand alone after the grain comes up. It may then be mixed with clover hay in alternate layers. The Timothy will grow about four inches high in the autumn, and in the succeeding spring the grain will shelter it from the sun, until after harvest, Avhen it will have acquired sufficient strength to bear the heat of our summers. The first year, after grain harvest it may be lightly pastured, but the second year it must be kept up for hay, of which it will yield an abun- dant crop if the ground has been well prepared. It may be pastur- ed afterwards, and if the land be manured every spring Avill keep in the same ground many years. Timothy is commonly cut too soon, that is, before it has blossom- ed ; it is then bitter and apt to bleed, which weakens the stalk and frequently occasions the death of the plant; but if permitted to stand until in full blossom, the young leaves will be seen coming out from near the surface, Avhich, if the grass be then cut, will start up with vigour, stand the sun, and yield a fine pasture. It is a common opinion among farmers, that Timothy hay is bet- ter for being heated, or mow-burn- ed : but Mr. Joseph Cooper as- sures the editor that this is a mere prejudice, and unfounded in fact.... He justly remarked, " that cattle are the best judges of good hay, and that repeated attention to the subject has convinced him, that they will seldom if ever leave any part of bright Timothy hay winch may be put before them, Avhile, on the contrary, a part of mow-burned hay will frequently lie left. He also added an important fact:'viz. that bright hay, even if made of coarse grass, Avill give vcIIoav but- ter, Avhile the best Timotliy hay if 196 GRA GRA mow-burned, will always produce white butter." One acre of Timothy hay will yield thirty bushels of seed, and on good upland, two tons of hay. Timothy is spoken of in terms of contempt by Savayne, Sole, and other practical English Avriters, the reason of Avhich is, that the heat of the sun in England is not great enough to bring this plant to per- fection. 6. Orchard Grass. Rough Cock's foot grass, Dactylis Glomerata. Is a native of the United States, and is a strong robust and productive plant. It is ripe before timothy, flourishes well in orchards in the shade, (Avhence its name,) and lasts three years. It should be cut when young, either for hay or fodder, as its stalk becomes coarse when per- mitted to grow old. Sole in the 9th vol. of the Bath Society Trans. says it is refused by all cattle ; but from this assertion, and from what he says of our favourite Timothy, he cannot be received as an autho- rity for American farmers....It is said that the American orchard grass is different from the grass knoAvn in Europe by that name. 7. Ray-Grass, Lollium perenne. Wiiy, with little foliage in upland pastures : but in rich meadoAvs its foliage is abundant, and of rapid growth. It is an early grass. 8. Sweet Scented Vernal Grass. An- thoxanthum odoratwn. Is common in our meadows, grows to the height of ten inches; it is an early grass and delights in moist soils. 9. Reedy Cinna. China arundinacea. A grass the size of oats, root pe- rennial. Holcus odoratus. Sencka grass of the western country. It is also a native of Europe and Asia. The root is perennial, jointed and creep- ing. This grass has a sweet smell, and collected in some places to lay among clothes and linen, and hung over beds, according to Linnaeus, to procure sleep. Green Grass, Poa Viridis, is a native of the United States, and especially of Pennsylvania, where it grows in all meadows, and rich soils. Dr. Muhlenberg says, it is not described by Linnxus though nearly allied to his poa angustifolia. It may be easily knoAV by the fol- lowing description. " Culm (or haulm) erect and round (columnar) pannicle diffuse, spicules five flow- ered and hairy at their base." Cattle are very fond of this grass, if cut Avhen the blossom opens. It produces less than Avana elatior or tall mea- dow oats,but horsesprefer it. Itcon- tinues green until even after frost, and when all other herbage is de- stroyed ; and if manured, will con- tinue for ever. The fine grazing farm of Mr. Wm. West of Up- per Derby, Delaware county, con- sists entirely of this grass. Mr. W. finds it necessary to sow clo- ver thinly upon the green grass sod every three or four years, to cor- rect a slight tendency which green grass has to bind the soil. When the Green Grass appears upon mea- dows made by banking out rivers, care must be taken to secure a supply of water; otherwise, accord- ing to Mr. J. Cooper, the ends of the seeds (not the tips ofthe blades, as stated in vol. 2d. p. 52) will be- come affected with a black spear, about one fourth or one half inch in length, similar to the smut on rye, and cause a loss of the hoofs of cattle that eat the grass. Blue Grass, Poa compressa, L. Rchwasen of the Germans, a na- tive grass of the United States^ having1" a compressedobliqueculm (or haulm) panicle squeezed, spi- cules round, (columnar) and eight GRA GRA 197 floAvered." This is eaten tolerably well by cattle Vten young, and re- mains green until after frost. It binds the soil in the course of three or four years, so as to require ploughing up. This is often mis- taken for the green grass, and both are called occasionally Spear-Grass, and wire grass. Having already fully treated on clover both red and white in vol. 2d, there remains nothing to be said, except that wood ashes have been found in Penns. and Del. the best top dressing for land which it is wished to bring into white clover. To sheep raisers this fact is important; as white clover is known to fatten sheep speedily, and to give a fine flavour to the meat. Herd-Grass. White top, Foul meadow grass of East Jersey. Dr. Muhlenberg informs the editor, he thinks this grass is the agrostis stricta of Wildenow. It is particu- larly adapted to wet low grounds. It mats and consolidates the surface, continues many years, excluding every other grass, and all weeds. Many worthless swampy spots in the low parts of the state of NeAV- Jersey have been rendered valuable grazing grounds by this grass, loaded waggons having passed over places, which two or three years before sowing it, would scarcely admit an animal to walk through Avithout sinking. It makes excel- lent hay, and cattle are said to pre- fer it to that made of either clover or timothy. It is more succulent than timothy, though not so coarse. The same bulk of herd-grass hay, will weigh one third more than the same bulk of timothy hay. Four tons is a common crop from one acre. It yields no second crop, but affords excellent late and early pasture. It was first brought to New Jersey from New England, by the late Wm. Foster, whore- sided near Mount Holly ; and in- troduced into Pennsylvania about ten or twelve years since. The Red Top and White Top, are only varieties of the above spe- cies of grass. The latter is the larger of the two. The red top is particularly valuable, as it will grow and sod the first year on banks, when no other grass will thrive. Lucerne, Medicago Sotiva. The Hon. Robt. R. Livingston has re- corded some original and highly valuable experiments upon Lu- cerne, in the Trims. Agric. Soc. New York : by which it appears that it may be easily sown on a dry soil with oats and clover, and that its annual clear profit after deduct- ing every expence, will exceed on the two first years 7 L. per acre. The ground must be highly pulve- rised to insure a good crop....He found also that it answers very well with red clover, and that it braves biting frosts of the spring, and the keen autumnal blasts, better than .clover, or any cultivated grass of this climate. In England the de- ficiency of heat, prevents the lu- cerne from coming to perfection until the third year, hence the ne- cessity^ there of sowing it in drills to keep doAvn weeds....In warm si- tuations, lucerne when sown Avith clover Avill be fit to cut before the clover rises to the scythe. The se- cond crop in this case will be ear- lier, on account of the cloA'er which will consist almost Avholly of it: because having escaped the wounds which the lucerne received, it will be ready to take the field before lucerne has recovered from its am- putation." Mr. L. advises as the result of his experiments : 198 GRA GRA 1. Never to soav on ground that is not perfectly pulverised. 2. Not to sow till the earth has acquired a degree of warmth friend- ly to rapid vegetation, viz. in May. 3. To sow with no crop that will probably lodge. 5, If sown Avith buckAvheat, to apply no gypsum or other manure, till the buckwheat be off. 5. When the quantity sown is small, and the farmer can afford to lose a crop, to give the ground one turn in the autumn, another in April, harrowing it fine, and a third the beginning of May, and then if the Aveather be mild and warm, sow, if the ground be in perfect tilth, otherAvise give it ano- ther ploughing....Eighteen or twen- ty pounds of seed are not too much. Mr. L. prefers ground that had been manured and bore a potatoe crop the year preceding; but ano- ther mode by Avhich the seeds Avill come up quicker, and Avith more regularity, is to manure early in the spring, and to plough and har- row the ground firm, Avhen the weeds haA'e sprung and got some head, and Avhen the earliest kinds begin to blossom, plough again, and harrow fine ; repeat this four times by the first of July ; then the lucerne seed should be soAvn when the ground is dry, and rol- led in : if committed to the ground when moist, the seed Avill swell, and if a dry season succeeds be- fore they have struck root, they will wither aAvay. When lucerne turns yelloAv, it must be moAved, as the plants will come up free from the disorder. Dr. Muhlenberg sows lucerne alone, like clover, after potatoes or Indian corn, or in preference after cabbage crops, about the se- cond May, and observes, that when it can be fed green, it exceeds any other grass. The folloAving observations on this valuable plant, and on other useful grasses, by Mr. De la Bi- garre, are taken from the Trans. Agric. Soc. N. York, and being the result of experience, deserve seri- ous attention. " Amongst a great number of grasses used for artificial pastures, I thought it my duty to select these which I presume the most suitable to this state, and most friendly to cattle, as far as I am able to judge, from my experience of the coun- try. This essay will be extended only to four of the perennial, consider- ing the three others as annual, and less useful, which therefore require a separate treatise. Lucerne....It is not true that lucerne can groAV every Avhere : it requires a light but substantial ground, not too dry nor too Avet: it delights in a deep and gravelly soil, or rich sand, Avhere it may root down easily, rather upon a level spot, than on mountains or declivities. As much as possible I would chuse a situation sheltered by Avoods or hedges from the cold Avinds in the Avinter, and from burning breezes in the summer. Tillage and Sowing....The ground intended for lucerne, must be ploughed twice before Avinter, fif- teen inches, or at least a foot deep. In the latter end of March you plough it again, and dress it with a harroAV before the day of sow- ing : the seed is buried in the ground by the harroAV, taking care to fix chatwood or branches under and betwixt the teeth, in such a way as to facilitate the covering of the seed, Avithout going too deep into the ground. GRA There are two ways for the soav- ing of lucerne: the first, by itself, Avhich is the best: the second, mixed Avith barley or oats....but observe not to mix lucerne with any other perennial. Whether lucerne is sown by it- self, or mixed Avith barley, take twenty pounds weight for an acre. If you chuse to sow it with barley, take the exact measure of the quantity of barley which you are used to sow upon one acre....then put in that measure twenty pounds of lucerne seed, fill it up afterwards Avith the barley, that process will establish the just proportion. If you intend to sow lucerne by itself, fill up the measure with sand or ashes over the above-mentioned quantity of seed, that method makes the sowing easier and more regular. When your barley is ripe, you may mow it as close as possible to the ground Avithout any danger of hurting the young plants of your lucerne, of Avhich you cannot ex- pect but a very indifferent crop the first year. Do not let cattle feed upon it at that time. The second year will give you two crops. In the beginning of the third year, as soon as the win- ter is over, you must harrow your lucerne about tAvo inches deep Avhen the ground is yet moist, in tAvo or three different directions, in order to root out the Aveeds : Never mind nor be uneasy if your lucerne is torn to pieces by that hard dressing ; the more it is torn the better it Avill grow : this is a fact of long experience, upon Avhich you may rely. Manure....After the above dres- sing, you may manure your lu- cerne with greater advantage, by spreading over some new ground GRA 199 or mud taken from creeks and swamps, or employ some pulve- rized gypsum. The best manure for lucerne which I knoAv, is the dung of fowls and pigeon-houses, Avell dried by the sun, and reduced into powder; but it seems very scarce, and too difficult to be got in this country, although a great deal less of this last manure would be required, as in the proportion of one to nine. Dung of coavs, horses, or of any other cattle, ought to be rejected as bad manure, upon lucerne, because they bring with them such a quantity of weeds, as to poison the best lucerne in the course of two years. Produce ....The third year the lu- cerne has acquired its full strength, then upon a common average one acre will produce, viz. The first crop, 2500 Aveight. The second, 1400 do. The third, 600 do. After the third crop, let it be fed upon by your cows all the remain- der of the fall. Such a piece of lucerne will last from nine to ten years : but how- ever great may appear the profit of that culture, there is a greater one after the lucerne is worn out: I mean the richness afforded to the ground by the roots of that plant; which is such, that the first year the lucerne has been ploughed up, I Avas never able to raise Avheat, which greAV too rich, tall, luxuri- ant and lodging. Instead of Avheat, then you must sow barley or oats. Mjwhig....The most proper time to get good and tender forage, re- lished by the cattle, is to mow lu- cerne when in full blossom, or a little before the ripeness of the seed. Another advantage of mowing 200 (j R A GRA early, is to have the weeds cut down, Avhich otherwise would come to seed, and spread over the field. When the weather is clear, one or two days are sufficient to dry your lucerne hay ; and by spread- ing over each i'oav a thin bed of any straw (that of oats and barley is the best) you may carry your lucerne to the barn, without any danger of being heated or rotten. The straAV so intermixed with lu- cerne, receiving the juicy emana- tions of it, becomes more palatable, and is eaten like the best hay by the cattle. It would be needless to observe what increase of food that process affords to a farm. Disorder....In some uncommon summers, it happens that lucerne is attacked by caterpillars, or other insects. When this is the case, and you perceive the stems and the leaves turning pale, yelloAv, or fading, the only and best reme- dy is to moAV instantly your lucerne, which will soon groAV again, fine and free from those insects. Sainfoin....It may be ascertain- ed that sainfoin, considered like hay, is one ofthe most friendly foods to neat cattle ; horses are particu- larly fond of it in the winter, when it furnishes them so strong a nou- rishment as to be a good sub- stitute for oats. It grows upon any kind of soil, except upon stony ground. Its most advantageous quality is to succeed in the poorest land, san- dy loam, and upon declivities, of which it keeps the ground. Tillage and Sowing....Two tilla- ges as deep as possible, according to the nature of the ground ; ne- ver mind if the plough turns up a part of that reddish and yelloAv stratum which they call unvegeta- ble among the farmer-,. It is sown by itself, or mixed with the same grains pointed out for lucerne ; but as the seed of sain- foin is bigger than that of lucerne, the mixture must be in propor- tion. Manure...Any kind of well-rot- ten dung, or any pulverized gyp- sum, will increase the crops, though it may do without. When it is three or four years old, a good har- row-scratching cannot fail to be of service. Produce....\t will be according to the soil, commonly two crops. The first richer than that of any other grass: The second less, in the proportion of one to nine; because you cannot mow the sain- foin as early as you do lucerne. If you wish to make a strong food for your horses, you must wait till it is grown up in seed for the first crop. Mowing....! would recommend the method pointed out for lu- cerne, as the most profitable. Longevity...-Sainfoin is in full strength the third year, and will last from nine to twelve years, sometimes more, according to the soil and exposure. Disorder....It is not liable to be destroyed by any kind of insect, as far as I know from an experi- ence of fifteen years. Its mortal enemy is a flock of sheep, particu- larly when it is young. Esparcet....T1us grass, un- known I belieA'e in England, may be classed among the plants of pe- rennial kind, and more like the sainfoin than any other. It has some peculiar advantages....It may be sown in every month of the year, except in time of snoAv or frost, growing upon every soil, it roots very Avell through stiff clay, stony cr hard red gravel, provided GRA the ground has been ploughed as deep as possible. Manure. ..The same as for sainfoin. Produce, Mowing, iFc....Though it Avould afford a crop nearly like that of sainfoin, I preferred keep- ing it for constant pasture; and in that Avay I have seen one of twen- ty-three years old, producing as fine grass as any young meadoAV. It is remarkable for keeping up the ground upon declivities....No disorder. Pimpernel....This perennial plant, which 1 would rather call immortal, on account of its long continuance, highly deserves to be introduced into this country. It is capable of withstanding the sever- est cold, as well as heat; besides it groAvs as well upon the top of mountains as in plains and vallies: it delights above all in light, gra- velly or calcareous soils. This vi- vacious plant has the power of destroying every other kind of grass or Aveeds. It keeps green all the Avinter, and the cattle are so fond of it, that Avhenever they smell it, they soon remove the snoAV to get at it. Whether eaten dry, green, or wet, it never hurts the cattle : Its nutritive qualities differ from those of other plants of the same class; for instead of heating, it refreshes. Give me leave to submit to you a single in- stance, recommending this plant better than any other description. In the province of Berri it Avas knoAvn and remarked long ago, that all the sheep, who fed upon certain meadows full of Avild pim- pernel, had finer avooI. In conse- quence, a gentleman of my ac- quaintance took the trouble to cultivate a piece of ground Avith that pimpernel, and his success has confirmed beyond any doubt VOL. III. GRA 201 our preceding remark. lie bought twenty poor Avretched sheep, who never had before but coarse and common avooI. In the course of the first year the alteration in th.e avooI was sensible, and the little flock Avas bearing a good and heal- thy appearance. Not further than at the third shearing, the avooI Avas so fine that it fetched one-fifth above the common price. In short, this plant, Avhetheras hay or in grass, affords the most relishing food to horses and cows ; these last give much better milk. Tillage and Sowing....The ground must be Avell ploughed at least six inches deep, once in the latter end of September, the second time in October. Then twelve pounds of seed Avill do for an acre, if the ground is good :....add to it as much sand or ashes, and sow it as you do lucerne. Manure....It may do Avithout; but gypsum and any kind of dung Avould by all means increase the crops. Like lucerne, this grass will re- ceive a great benefit, by being scratched with a harrow, every other year in the beginning of March. Produce. ...Commonly threecrops, like lucerne, if it is reserved for hay. Is also moAved like lucerne, and perennial."] Those of our readers who wish to acquire more minute informa- tion respecting the [English] native grasses, Ave refer to Mr. Savayne's excellent Treatise, entitled, " Spe- 4 cimens of Pasture Grasses ;" (folio, 1/. 1 ..■.), a work replete Avith infor- mation. Grass Plots and Walks, are chiefly formed by covering spots of ground with turf taken from a fine common or down; as this D D 102 GRA mode of obtaining verdure is more speedy, and, for durability, far pre- ferable to that of soAving the soil Avith grass-seeds. But, Avhere the latter method is practised, the seeds ought to be procured from those pastures Avhich abound with fine and clear grass. The soil should be previously dug, and carefully divested of all clods and stones : after which it ought to be covered an inch deep vriih good mould. The seed is then to be thickly sown, and raked over, to prevent it from being dispersed by the wind. It will, however, be advis- able to mix Avith the seeds a con- siderable portion of Avhite clover, as this will produce a finer surface, and retain its verdure "much longer than any common grass. The turf intended to be laid in gardens, ought to be selected from such commons as are free from Aveeds; and, if it is to be transpos- ed to a rich soil, it -will be requisite to cover its surface beneath the turf, with sand, or an indifferent mould, that the grass may not he- come too rank. It will also be ne- cessary to dress the turf late in autumn every second year, either Avith ashes, or tan, so that the rains may precipitate the ameliorating particles into the ground. The .grass, Avhen a few inches high, should be mowed closely, or graz- ed off by sheep, to prevent it from vegetating too luxuriantly; by Avhich means it will retain its beau- ty for many seasons ; but, if ne- glected, it Avill in a few years be overgrown Avith Aveeds. GRASS-HOPPERS, or Tet/igo- nip., L. are a family of insects be- longing to the genus of Gryllus, and comprising- 6'J species : they all leap by the help of their hind legs, which are strong and much longer than the fore-leg*. Though GRA their Avalk is heavy, they fly oc- casionally with great speed : the females deposit several hundred eggs in clusters under ground, by means of two lamina or plates ap- pended to their tail, with Avhich they penetrate the surface. The larvse that arise from them, re- semble nearly the perfect insects, but are of a smaller size, and ap- parently destitute of wings : these, however, are enveloped in four ex- crescences or knobs, Avhich are un- folded when the insect attains its full growth, after having four times changed its coat during the sum- mer. Grasshoppers do not abound in Britain, and indeed are seldom seen in any considerable numbers, on account of our variable climate. But, in the Avarmer countries of Asia, Africa, and Europe, especi- ally in Spain, they commit incal- culable damage, by destroying the Avhole vegetation of a corn-field, in a short period of time....The only method of extirpating these pre- datory vermin, hitherto known, is to destroy their eggs Avherever they can be discovered in the ground, cither in early spring or late au- tumn; for, as they multiply ra- pidly, the extermination of the Avinged insects alone Avould not be attended Avith the desired effect.... For this purpose, ditches two or three feet deep, may be formed in autumn, filled Avith horse-dung, to Avhich they are extremely partial, and the surface covered with a few inches of mould. In the fol- lowing spring, numerous families of grasshoppers, Avith their eggs, Avill be found assembled in these ditches, where they may be readi- ly destroyed....See also Locust. GRASSWR ACK,orZos^ra, L. a perennial native plant, of two spe- cies, the principal of which is the GRA marina, or Sea-grassAvrack, found on sea-shores, and in salt Avater ditches near Yarmouth. This vegetable grows at the bot- tom of the ocean, as common as the mosses thrive in woods: it is throAvn on shore by the tide in such abundance, that mounds or dams, are constructed with its assistance, to prevent the encroach- ment of the sea. The green leaves are said to be an useful and dura- ble substitute for thatch: when ex- posed to the air and Aveather, they become Avhite....The inhabitants of Gothland, employ the grasswrack as an excellent manure, and like- Avise for stuffing their beds, as it is softer than hay or straAV.... Horses and swine eat this herb, but it is not relished by cows, un- less mixed with hay...The ashesob- tained from the whole plant are, Avith great advantage, employed by Ger- mans, in the manufacture of gla^s. GRATES for P'ires, are com- posed of ribs of iron, placed at small distances from each other, so that the air may pass through the fuel, and the accumulation of ashes be, as much as possible, prevented. Grates are peculiarly adapted to the use of pit-coal, Avhich requires a greater draught of air to promote its burning freely, than any other kind of fuel. In the year 1791, a patent was granted to Mr. Benjamin Charles Collins, of Salisbury, Wilts, for a grate on a new con- struction, to be used either in or out of a chimney. This invention is said to be calculated to increase the action of the air upon fire, by augmenting and directing the pas- sage of the former through the latter. Thus the fire may be ren- dered so intense as to present a perfect white heat; and, as the GRA 203 draught of air is very great, the patentee observes, that " all, or nearly all of the unigniled smoke is carried down into the fire and there consumed, instead of passing off'in the common Avay." To eiiect this purpose, he constructs one or more air-flues provided Avith stops, by which he may at pleasure pro- mote the draught of air to the re- quisite degree of heat. Grates of this construction are asserted to be very useful for light- houses, and other places requiring a strong fire, such as laboratories, brew-houses, smelting furnaces, glass houses,Sec. For a more cir- cumstantial account of this patent, Ave must refer the reader to the 8th vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manvfrcfuree....[See Fireplace.] GRAVEL, in agriculture and gardening, is a congeries of peb- bles ; Avhich, if mixed with stiff" loam, make excellent and durable gravel Avalks. For this purpose, the bottom shoidd be laid with iime rubbish, large flints, or any other hard substance, to the depth of six or eight inches, in order to pre- vent any Aveeds from shooting through the surfa ,. Over this stratum, the gravel is to be strew- ed six or eight inches thick, and somcAvhat sloping, that all the larger stones may roll off to th" sides. The next operation is that of raking, Avhen the large stones arc to be removed, and the Avalks carefully rolled in every direction, especially during or after hard shoAvers : thus they will bind, and become very firm. The most proper gravel for walks, is that Avh.ich abounds Avith smooth round pebbles ; for these, when mivad with a small portion of loam, are net so liable to be turned up by the feet in Avalking as those of a i ou.ghandirreguiarshape 204 GRA Gravelly Lands or Soils are such as abound Avith gravel or-sand, which easily admit both heat and moisture. They receive but little benefit from the latter, if there be a loose bed at the bottom, because it easily evaporates; but if the stratum be firm, for instance, clay or stone, the moisture is too long retained, so as to chill the soil and render it unfruitful. The best method of counteracting this incon- Aenience, is to manure such land Avith chalk, A\hich is slightly to be ploughed in, that it may not sink too deep into the ground. As gravel constitute the chief material of our loads, and thus be- comes an article of considerable importance, we shall briefly men- tion a method, by Avhich gravel or stone may be discovered without boiing. It simply consists in ob- serving, Avhether the common White Saxifrage, or Saxifraga granulata, E. (which see) grows on any spot Avhere a bed of gravel is suspected to lie : for, if that plant be discovered, it Avill serve as a guide to surveyors or others, where to dig with a certainty of finding the object of their search. We state this fact on the authority of Mr. T. Waliord,in the 25thvol. of Anncls of Agriculture, Avhere an accurate representation of the Saxifrage is given. For a method of clearing land from stone or gra- vel, Ave refer tlie reader to the ar- ticle Stonk. GRAVPLL, in medicine, is a dis- order affecting chiefly the bladder and ureters ; it is occasioned by a sandy or gritty substance Avhich collects in those parts, produces considerable pain, and at length obstructs the due secretion and ex- cretion of the urine. Although the gravel is generally considered as the forerunner of the GRA calculus, or stone, yet we are con- vinced from experience, that they are distinct diseases; and that those patients Avho are afflicted with the former, are generally exempt from the dangers of the latter. Persons of a gouty or rheumatic habit, as Avell as the aged, often discharge a white-reddish gravel, Avhich not only obstructs and sup- presses the emission of urine, but by its stimulus occasions colic, ao- miting, and other spasms. There is a peculiar bodily disposition re- quired for the generation of this painful disease ; but it is also re- markably promoted by the use of sour wines ; hard food, or such as is Avith difficulty digested, especial- ly cheese ; a sedentary life, See... For the cure of the gravel, only the mildest diuretics (Avhich see) ought to be resorted to; perspiration should be supported by gentle means, particularly by friction Avith Avarni flannel; moderate exercise is never to be neglected ; and the patient's diet, as Avell as his mode of living in general, must be re- gulated by appropriate temperance, and abstinence from all heating food and drink. [A very common plant about Philadelphia, viz. Erigeron Phila- dclphicum, ficabane, or Cavender, has been frequently given with evi- dent relief in this distressing com- plaint. Half a pint of a moderate- ly strong infusion of the plant in Avater, twice a day, is the dose.] GRAVELLING, a disorder in- cident to horses much employed in travelling. • It is occasioned by small particle:, of gravel penetrat- ing betAveen the hoof and sh.oe, in consequence of which the part swells and festers. The most efficacious remedy, we understand, is to remove the shoe as early as possible ; to draw GRE G R E 205 the place to the quick ; to express made of strong canvass, or coarse the matter and blood gathered cloth, neatly fitted to the part ai ■ there, and to pick out all the gra- fected, will afterwards be found vel. The wounded foot is ney.t to very useful, and might be easily be Avashed Avith copperas-water; contrived. then to be filled up with a mixture But, if cracks or scratches are of hot grease and turpentine ; the perceptible, which suppurate, th:- hole stopped with the refuse of flax hair should be carefully clipped or hemp, and the shoe properly aAvay, as well to prevent a gather- set on again. Meanwhile, the ani- ing, as to admit of cleansing the mal should not be suffered to work animals heels from all impurities, or travel, and the foot must be which would tend considerably to kept dry: thus, it is asserted, it aggravate the disorder. Should Avill heal after twro or three dress- this be the case, or if the lucis be ing. cohered Avith hard scabs, it will be Grave. See Burial, Bury- requisite to begin ^the cure with ino-grounds, and Funeral poultices, prepared.either of boiled Rites. turnips and lard, Avith a handful of GREASE, a disorder in the bruised linseed, or oatmeal and rye heels of horses, proceeding either flour, Avith a little com.uon unpen- fro m a relaxation of the vessels, tine and hog's-lard, boiled up with or a vitiated state of the blood and strong-beer grounds, or red-Avine humours. lees. Beside applying cither of When a horse's heels are first these poultices for t.vo or three observed to savcII in the stable, and clays, the sore parts ought at the to subside on taking exercise, care same time to be dressed with the must be taken to wash them very digestive ointment, in order to clean, after every journey Avith soften them, pro mte a discharge, soap-suds, urine, or a mixture of and reduce the s\> .riling; avIicu vinegar and Avater. Thus, Avith sores may be dried up Avith the proper rubbing, the disease Avil 1 folloAving absorbent: Take Avhite often be effectually prevented, or vitriol and burr* alum, of each 2 removed. Or, the heels should be oz. Met sfigyptiucum (see Frush) Avell bathed twice a day either with 1 oz.; and lime-Avatcr two or three old verjuice, or the folloAving mix- pirns; wa^.i the seres three times ture, Avhich is Avell calculated to a clay, Avith a sponge clipped in brace the relaxed vessels : Take cf this mi\lure ; and apply the corn- rectified spirit of Avine 4 oz. dis- mon white ointment spread on tow, solve in it ', oz. of camphor; then adding previously two cham.-, oi add 6 oz. of wine-vinegar or vcr- sugar of lead to one ounce of this juice, and 1 oz. of white vitriol salve. dissolved in a gill of Avater. After When the distemper is only U,- mixing these ingredients, cloths caP and requires i.o internal ir.edi- dipped in the liniment should be ciues, the method aboAe described applied to the heels of the ani- is g-, m catiy - uccesriul ; but if ti.e mal, and fastened with a proper horse be full a;.d gross, his legs bandage for a few (lays, during much gorged, so that the b...ir which'3the cure will generally be stares up, and is, as farriers term performed. A laced sleeking, li,»pen-fe:P/:ercd. discharging a ie- 206 G R E GRE tid matter from deep foul sores, in such case it Avill be advisable to apply to a skilful A-eterinary sur- geon ; as the disorder is then be- come of a dangerous tendency. GREASE, the fat of animals, or any unctuous matter.....See Fat, and Tallow. Having already given some re- cipes for removing grease spots from Cloth, avc shall here add a few directions for discharging them from Leather, or other articles of wearing apparel: Take equal quan- tities cf soft soap, and the ashes of Aines; let them be Avell mixed to- gether, and a small proportion of Tartar and burnt roach alum be ? tV.cd: these articles should be thoroughly incorporated, then form- ed into balls, and kept in a dry place for occasional use. With juch balls the spots are to be care- Jully rub! ed, in consequence of which, it is affirmed, they A\ill to- tally disappear. Another, and more simple me- thod, howTeA'cr, is to rub the leather with the Avhite of an ego:, Avhich, when dried in the sun, Aviil lcaAe no trace of the spot or stain. [Mr. Henry, in his late excel- lent Epitome of Chemistry, says that " spots of grease may be re- moved by a diluted solution of pure pot-ash; but this must be cau- tiously applied, to prevent injury to the cloth.. Stains of Avhite v. a::, Avhich sometimes fall upon the clothes from Avax candles, are re- movable by spirit of turpentine, or sulphuric xther. The marks of white paint may also be discharged by the last mentioned agent."] GREEN, is one of the primary colours, exhibited by the refrac- tion of the rays of light....See Co- lour. Sap-Green is a simple cole*".', hut far inferior to verdierca1 e: it is prepared from the juice of buck- thorn berries, evaporated to the consistence of a gum; but it fre- quently inclines to a yellowish co- lour. Another green sometimes used is called terra verte, which is a na- tive earth, probably impregnated with copper. It is of a blueish- green cast, much resembles Avhat is called sea-green, but is gritty, and requires to be finely levigated before it is used. Its colour is durable, but not remarkably bright. See also Green. A durable green pigment has long been a desideratum among painters. M. Kinnman, a mem- ber of the Swedish Academy, has, at length, discovered and published the following process : Dissolve, in separate vessels, a portion of zinc in aqua fortis, and cobalt strongly calcined, in aqua regia, till the li- quors are completely saturated.... When both solutions are prepared, mix two parts of the latter with one part ofthe former ; then procure a hot and clarified solution of pot- ash, three parts of which will be required to precipitate the mixture above specified. After it has sub- sided, the fluid part should be de- canted, and the sediment evaporat- ed to dryness over the fire, till it as- sumes a green colour. Before, however, this pigment can be used, it ought to be repeatedly Avashed Avith filtered Avater: thus it will be- come fit both for oil and water-co- lours, as it is sufficiently fixed to Avithstand the effects of the air and sun ; for the inventor has ascer- tained its superior durability by more than ten years' experience.... He adds, that painters may, by means of this preparation, com- bine their yelloAv and ultramarine, so as to form a very beautiful and permanent green. GRE Green....The following method of preparing Brunswick Green, a beautiful colour, in great request on the Continent for oil-painting, and in the manufacture of stained paper, is inserted on the authority of M. Kasteleyn. He directs shavings of copper to be put into a close vessel, and sprinkled Avith a solution of sal ammoniac....The metal first unites with the muriatic acid, and is dissolved, when it is precipitated by the disengaged am- monia, Avith Avhich it combines.... The precipitate is then to be wash- ed, and dried either in wooden boxes, or upon an expanded cloth : the liquid now remaining may be repeatedly employed as a solvent for fresh portions of sal ammoniac, till it be completely saturated. 3.1. Kasteleyn states, that three parts of such salt are sufficient for two parts of copper, and that the result will be six parts of colour....This beautiful pigment is sold in Hol- land by the name of Fr'fsland Green; and it sometimes forms an article of exportation ; in Avhch case it is generally adulterated Avith white lead. [To paint a good green, the first coat must be a lead colour.] GREEN-FINCH, a species of the FringUla, L. a charming littie bird, which has a strong tinge of green diffused over its whole body ; the wings and tail are black, but variegated with yellow. The green-finch may be easily domesticated, by carrying it into a dark place, putting it upon one fin- ger and gently touching its breast with a finger of the other hand. Thus, by a feAv caresses, and gra- dually admitting day-light, this lit- tle creature may be accustomed to eat any bruised seed out of the band, and Avill then continue tame. GRE 207 With respect to the proper food for green-finches, and their treat- ment Avhen in a diseased state, Ave refer to the article Gold-finch. GREEN-HOUSE, a conserva- tory or erection in gardens, for the purpose of sheltering the more cu- rious and tender exotics from the effects of our variable climate, es- pecially during the Avinter season. The length of green-houses ought to be proportioned to the number of plants intended to be kept, or rais- ed. Their depth in small houses should not exceed twelve or four- teen, and in large ones, eighteen or twenty feet. The Avindows should reach from about 1 A. foot above the pavement to nearly the same distance from the ceiling, so as to admit of a cornice being con- structed round the buildings, over the tops of the windows. The breadth in the smaller conservato- ries ought not be more than 5 or 5-1, and in the larger ones 7 or7A feet; as they will otherwise be- come heavy and inconvenient. The floor ought to be paved with. Purbeck-stone, or flat tiles, elevat- ed two, or if the situation be damp, three feet above the surface of the ground ; it will also be advisable to carry a flue, about ten inches Avidc, and two feet deep, beneath tlie floor, through the Avhole length ofthe house, and to return it along the back part, Avhere it should be carried up into funnels, for the pur- pose of discharging th.e smoke. In ti.e inside, shutters should be made so as to fold back upon the piers, that the rays of the sun be not im- peded. The inner wall of the building ought to be either cover- ed Avith stucco, or plastered Avith mortar, in order to exclude the frosty air. But, if the Avails be wainscoted, it Avill be requisite to 208 GRE GRE plaster the intermediate space with lime and hair: the cieling and Avails or Avainscot ought, however, to be Avhite-Avashed, so that the rays of the sun may be reflected throughout the building. While the front of the conserva- tory is placed directly south, the two wings should be respectively arranged to face the south-east and south-west. Thus, the Avarmth of the sun Avill be reflected from one part of the green-house to the other, during the Avhole of the day ; and the front Avill be effect- ually guarded against the cold northerly Avinds. In the 2d vol. of ': Recreations in Agriculture," Dr. Anderson proposes to construct a green- house, in such a manner that it may be converted into a hct-house, without requiring any additional fuel. He therefore recommends the roof to be made of glass, plac- ed in a sloping direction ; and to fix perpendicular AvindoAvs on the top of the front Avail, so as to raise the lower eaves of such roof con- siderably higher than that of the slates Avould have been, without elevating the middle of the iv-oi'. According to his plan, the trian- gular, perpendicular Avail should be completely covered Avith glau,s, through Avhich the morning and evening sun may he admitted. In the country, or in houses uncon- nected Avith others, he suggests th.e propriety of bringing perpen- dicular Avindows closely down to the floor, both on the east and Avest ends, in order to receive the bene- fit of the rising and setting sun. With respect to the conversion of this structure into a move, or hot-house, Dr. Anderson supposes it to be erected 'lose to the kitchen chimney of an inhabited house. At a small distance from the bot- tom of the chimney, there is to be made a communication Avith a flue, or stove, Avhich passes beneath, and rises on the opposite side of the green-house, where an appro- priate tile is suspended from a lever Avhich, by means of a cord fasten- ed to its extremity, may at plea- sure drop this cover on the top of the tube or flue, and thus pre- vent the smoke from ascending; the bottom of the co\'er being lined with pieces of thick cldth, so that it may apply closely and become air-tight. A valve is likeAvise plac- ed in the chimney, Avhich turns on a p'lA'ot, so as either to allow the ' smoke a free passage, or to impel it into the flue, whence, after part- ing Avith its heat, it is either suf- fered to escape at the top, or is re- verberated, according as the cover- ing tile before alluded to, is shut or opened. For a more ample account of i his project, Ave refer the reader to 2d vol. of Dr. Anderson's in- structive Avork above cited, Avhere it is illustrated by cuts....We have here given an outline of his plan, because it is ingenious, and may lead to farther improvements. Whh respect to the manage- ment of plants in green-houses, Mortimer recommends occasion- ally to open -the mould in Avhich they are set, to scatter a little fresh earth on the pots, and over this to lay a little dung. It wrill al>j be ad- visable to water them, when the. leaves begin to curl or wither ; and to pluck off such as are decayed ; but these operations should not be too frequently repeated....See Hot- house. [Plants destined for the Green- house, should be kept out as late in the autumn as safety v, ill admit, in GRE GRE 209 order to prepare them for the di- minished temperature to Avhich they Avill be exposed. A slight white frost Avill not injure, but be- nefit all except very tender plants. During the day they ought to be placed in the shade for a Aveek, in order that they may not suffer by different degrees of temperature in the day and night; and that they may be accommodated gradually to the cold, which they are destined to bear, before being confined for the winter. The sun must be kept out until the depth of winter....In the even- ing, Avater the floor, in order that the air may be filled Avith moisture, by which plants thrive more, than Avhenthe water is applied to their roots. Orange, lemon and lime trees, must not be permitted to blossom in the green house during Avinter, as they will thereby be prevented from bearing the following season. They must only be kept alive and healthy, to prepare them for the genial Aval mth of the external atmosphere in the spring....The leaves are much disposed to fall off, if the tree has been subjected to too much Avarmth during the Avinter....The ever-green plants never push out leaves in the same place a second time. Water con- stantly evaporated from a stove, is highly useful. J. \V. Watkins, Esq. of NeAv- York, gives the following plan for the construction of a green-house, in the Trans, ofthe Agric. Soc. of the above state. The building should be sunk in the earth from two to four feet, in proportion to the size of the house, and according to the nature of the soil; as clay retains moisture, and of consequence produces damps, VOL. III. in such ground it should not be so deep. The height should not ex- ceed twelve feet from the exterior ground, by which it Avill be less exposed to high Avinds. The width should not exceed sixteen or eighteen feet, as the sun's rays are at that distance from the glass very feeble. A south front is Avell knoAvn to be the true one, but ad- vantage should be taken of glaz'.ng as much of the eastern end as pos- sible, for the benefit of the morn- ing sun. The front should decline northward from a perpendicular Avith the horizon, so as the angle made thereby Avith the horizon, Avill at noon day in Avinter, bring the rays of the sun to strike the glass at right angles, and the roof should descend the opposite side without a break. By this position of the roof and glass, the rays of the sun are thrown upon e\ery part of the inside of the house, and the Avhole becomes heated thereby ; more of the rays are also introduced into the building, and Avhen the sun produces most heat during the clay, there is no reflec- tion of its rays, and at other parts of the day, the reflecting angle being obtuse, docs not powerfully cast off the rays. The inside of the rafters of the roof, should be lined with boards, and the space between that and the roof filled with a mixture cf straw, sand, and clay made into mortar; boards should be used in preference to shingles, as making fewer breaks in the roof, less opportunity is given for the admission of cold air. The residue of the building may be of stone or brick Avork, or a frame building filled in Avith bricks, and no flooring of any kind upon the ground. Shutters on the out- side are sufficient, and it is prefer- E E 210 GRE able to have them hung on hinges, as the least troublesome, to the common practice of sliding ones ; {hey should be made to fold into the spaces between the Avindows. Before putting the plants into the house, the bottom should be covered with bark from a tan-vat, about a foot deep, according to the depth the building is sunk in the earth. The advantages proposed by this method of constructing are, the lessening the expence of building, that fhe heat of the sun being suf- ficient to Avarm the house, the trou- ble and expence of Avarming it by a stove is aAToided, Avhich unless very carefully attended, the plants may be injured by too much heat, and are ahvays by the smoke that unavoidably makes its way cut of the pipes. It a\ culd be proper, ne- vertheless, to make arrangements in constructing the house for using a stove, in case a long succession of cold cloudy days, by obscuring the sun, should reduce the heat in the house beloAV that degree of temperature necessary for preserv- ing the plants, w hich is a case that will seldom happen, as one clear day Avill Avarm the house sufficient- ly to admit its being shut up for several days. Plants in a house of this kind require less water, and do not suf- fer for the Avant of atmospheric air. It is probable, as the earth is charg- ed Avith electric flukls, as vegeta- ble substances are knoAvn conduc- tors of it, that the bail:, by its fer- mentation, not only generates heat, but serves as a mean to produce out of the earth, an atmosphere for the plants, sufficient with such atmospheric air as Avi'.i find admis- rion, to simp!y the quanri.y e::- GRE hausted, by the daily rarefaction occasioned by the sun's heat. A green-house has been used upon this construction in this state, without having had the least occa- sion of being heated by fire. The plants in the spring were remarka- bly thrifty ; tropical fruit ripened in it during the winter, and young- fruit formed on the trees. It re- quired no other care, than now and then watering the plants, and shut- ting the Avindows as soon as the sun left them.] GREEN-SICKNESS. See Chlc- rocis. GREY-HOUND, the Common, or Canis Grains, L. is a dog re- markable for his swiftness, strength, and sagacity, in pursuing game.... There are several varieties, such as the Italian, the Oriental, and the Highland Greyhound : the last of which is iioav become exceedingly scarce. A good grey-hound ought to have a long, and rather large body ; a neat pointed head, sparkling eyes, a long mouth, Avith sharp teeth, small ears, formed of a thin cartilage; a broad, and strong breast; his fore-legs straight and short; his hind-legs long and lim- ber ; broad shoulders, round ribs, muscular buttocks, but not fat, and a long tail, strong and full of sineAvs. In the breeding of these ani- mals, the female is principally to be regarded ; though both should, as nearly as possible, be of the same age, which ought not to ex- ceed four years. The food of grey-hounds ouriit to consist of chippings, or raspings of bread, Avith. soft bones and gris- tles ; these should always be soak- ed in beef cr mutton broth, and, GRE GRI 211 when nearly cold, some milk may be added. On this diet, they should be fed morning and even- ing, Avhich will greatly contribute to preserve them in health and spirits. But if, nevertheless, the dog should become sick or weak- ly, we understand that a rich broth, prepared by boiling a sheep's head together Avith the avooI, in a suf- ficent quantity of Avater, with the addition of some oatmeal, and given to the animal alternately Avith the flesh, Avill speedily pro- mote his recovery. The proper exercise for a grey- hound is coursing three times a week; and, if he be consequently rewarded Avith blood, it -will ani- mate and encourage him to pursue game. After the chace, he should be led home, his legs Avashed Avith beer and butter, and in about an hour, he may be fed. GRIEF, or an increased and continued degree of sorrow, is one of the depressing passions. Its influence on the body is remarka- ble ; and its effects, with feAv ex- ceptions, are similar to those of far. Grief diminishes bodily strength in general, and the action of the part in particular. The circula- tion of the fluids is thus impeded ; the bile stagnates, and occasions indurations of the liver; or, by mixing Avith the blood, it produces either jaundice or dropsy. Grief also diminishes perspiration, ren- ders the skin sallow, aggravates the scurvy, but particularly putrid fevers, and disposes persons to be- come easily infected with their..... Its effects in changing the colour of the ha'n-, are Avell known, and instances have occurred, in which the hair has been turned from a deep black to a grey colour, in 24 hours. Blindness, gangrene, and eAren sudden death, or, as it is em- phatically called, a broken heart, have resulted from the excess oT this passion....Persons Avho indulge in fretting, become at length in a high degree peevish and irritable : from the constant return of sorrow, -the mind beholds neAV food for it in every object. Thus, the Avhole imagination is seriously affected, and the most profound melancholy, together Avith a nervous fever, or, which is still more dreadful, Avith total insanity, are the inevitable con- sequences. Consolatory arguments being the first remedy that can be ad- ministered, recourse should be had to whatever is chearful, or calcu- lated to dispel thought, and to di- vert the mind from brooding over its real or imaginary Avoes. Gentle opiates, cautiously taken, may oc- casionally be of great service in this preying disease ; but daily ex- ercise in the open air, must on no account be neglected ; *the body should be frequently rubbed Avitli dry cloths, and perfumed Avith vi- negar, amber, or other fragrant matters : the tepid bath will also be found cf eminent advantage ; and, if possible, the patient ought to be removed to a more genial climate. Mild Avines, if drunk Avith modera- tion, Avill be often productive of the happiest effects; but, if they be intemperately used, their strong tendency to generate an acid, can- not fail to deprave the appetite, and disorder the stomach. GRIPES, or Colic, in Farriery, a disorder Avith Avhich horses are frequently affected. As it arises from various causes, its treatment must necessarily differ ; and as the most judicious farriers have divided this malady into three species, Ave 212 G R I GRI have adopted such division,because there is no distemper incident to that useful animal, which is more frequently mismanaged by igno- rant pretenders, and consequently becomes incurable. The first species is the flatulent colic, Avhich is generally occasion- ed by Avind in the bowels, after drinking cold Avater, Avhen the horse is hot; or the perspirable matter is retained, and repelled on the boAvels, by catching cold: in either case, those parts become A'iolently distended....This species of the disease may be distinguish- ed 1m the rumbling of confined air in tlie intestines, and the restless- ness of the animal affected, Avhich often lies doAvn, and rises almost instantly with a violent spring; striking his belly with his hinder feet, stamping Avith those before, and refusing his food. The horse is frequently attacked with a kind of convulsions, and falls into pro- fuse SAveats, which are quickly suc- ceeded by cold damps. He strives repeatedly to stale, turning his head to his flanks, rolling on the ground, and frequently lying on his back. The symptom last men- tioned arises from a retention of urine, Avhich generally attends the flatulent colic, and is often increas- ed by an accumulation of dung pressing on the neck of the blad- der....The first remedy is, to in- troduce into the straight gut, a small hand dipped in oil, by Avhich the confined air obtains a passage ; and the neck of the bladder being thus relieved, the suppression of urine, will be removed. Next, the following preparation will be of considerable service : Take half an ounce of Venice turpentine, and a similar quantity of juniper-berries pounded ; one ounce of salt-petre, one dram of oil of juniper, and two drams of salt of tartar. Let these ingredients be formed into a ball with syrup, and given to the animal affected; after which it may be Avashed doAvn Avith a decoction of juniper-berries, or Avith a little ale. But, if the horse neither break Avind, nor stale plentifully, it will be requisite to repeat the ball at the expiration of two hours, Avith the addition of one dram of salt of am- ber. He should likeAvise be gently exercised during the continuance of the fit....A clyster may be given either during the interval of taking the balls, or alone, and occasionally repeated: for this purpose farriers use the following ingredients, viz. Tavo handfuls of chamomile Aoav- ers, an ounce of anise-seeds, and a similar quantity of fennel and co- riander seeds : these are to be boil- ed in three quarts of water, till they are reduced to tAvo; when half a pint of gin should be added, together Avith half an ounce of oil of amber, and eight ounces of oil of chamomile. We conceive, hoAv- ever, that instead of the last three expensive articles, a pint of com- mon, or linseed oil, will ansAver a similar purpose....By a judicious application of these remedies, the animal will be considerably reliev- ed; and, if his restlessness cease, and he continue quiet for an hour or longer, no danger need be appre- hended. 2. The bilious, or inflammatory gripes, are attended with the same symptoms as the flatulent colic, to- gether Avith a considerable degree of fever, panting, and dryness of the mouth. The horse frequently discharges a small quantityofdung, together Avith a hot scalding Avater. If the urine appear of a blackish, or reddish colour, accompanied with G RI G R O 213 a fetid smell, a mortification Avill speedily ensue.....To counteract these dangerous symptoms, the distempered animal should imme- diately lose three quarts of blood ; Avhich operation ought to be re- peated, unless a favourable change take place within three hours. The clyster above-mentioned, should be injected thrice a day, with the ad- dition of two ounces of nitre dis- solved in Avater : large draughts of gum-water should be alloAved, and a pint of the following drink ad- ministered every three hours, till several loose stools are procured ; when it may be repeated every night and morning, till the disorder be removed: Let three ounces of senna, and half an ounce of salt of tartar be infused in two quarts of boiling Avater, for one or two hours; Avhen the liquor should be strained, adding two ounces of the common lenitive electuary, and four ounces of Glauber's salt. If, notwith- standing these remedies, the in- flammatory symptoms become more violent, the event will in ge- neral be fatal. A strong decoction of Peruvian bark is the only medi- cine that may probably afford re- lief; a pint of Avhich ought to be given every three hours, with half a pint of port-Avine. 3. The dry gripes arise chiefly from costiveness ; they are knoAvn by the animal's restlessness, and frequent but unsuccessful attempts to dung. In this case, the straight gut should be relieved in the man- ner above directed for the flatulent colic; an emollient clyster, consist- ing of two or three quarts of thin water gruel, six ounces of sugar, and an equal quantity of salad-oil, should be injected lukewarm, three times in the course of twenty-four hours; and the purging drink, pre- scribed for the inflammatory gripes, may be given till the boAvels be unloaded, and the symptoms abate. The proper diet for horses at- tacked with either species of this painful disorder, ought to be scald- ed bran, thin water-gruel, or Avhat is called by farriers white water; Avhich is prepared by dissolving- four ounces of gum arabic in tAvo quarts of water, and mixing the whole with the animal'susual drink. GROMWELL, or Lithosper- mum, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprising seA-eral species, the principal of Avhich are : 1. The o^raa/fCommon Grom- Avell, or Gromill, Gray-mill, or Gray-millet, which groAvs in dry gravelly soils, and flowers in the months of May and June....The seed of this plant affords excellent flour, which might in times of scar- city be converted into bread. From the rind of the root, a red colour may be extracted; and it is also employed in the North of Europe as an inoffensive paint for the face, especially by country girls. Its seeds Avere formerly medicinal, but possess no peculiar properties; though Haller observes that the plant itself is narcotic. 2. The ai-vensc, Corn, or Bastard Gromwell, Gromill, or Alkanet; a noxious Aveed, Avhich is common in corn-fields, and lloAvers also in May and June....The juice of the root is likeAvise used as a paint: its rind tinges Avax and oil of a fine red co- lour, similar to that which is ob- tained from the root of the foreign Alkanet..-Sheep and goats eat the Bastard Gromwell, but cows do not relish it; and itis totally refused by hogs and horses. GROUND-IVY, Gill, or Ale- hoof, Glcchoma Hederacea, L. an indigenous plant, thriving in groves, 214 G R O hedges, and shady places; flower- ing in the months of April and May. Ground-ivy has a peculiar strong odour ; it is of a bitter and slightly aromatic taste. Its leaves contain an essential oil, destitute of smeli. This plant A/as formerly held in great estimation, and supposed to possess eminent medicinal virtues ; but which are not confirmed by later experience. In obstinate 'coughs, it is still a favourite reme- dy with the poor, Avho probably ex- perience its good effects by perse- vering in its use, and abstaining from animal food. The expressed juice mixed Avith a little Avine, and applied mcrning and e\rening, is said to destroy the white specks sometimes occurring on the eyes of horses. It is observable, that plants grow- ing near the ground-ivy, do net prosper; and that this vegetable proves hurtful to horses, if they eat it in any quantity ; nor should it be gh'en to diseased sheep, though it is a grateful and salutary food to them, Avhen in health. But horses are not veiy partial to it; and it is totally refused by coavs, hogs, and goats. GROUND-NUTS, or Ground- pease, the Arrachis Hypogaios Americanus of Ray, a plant culti- vated in the West-Indies by the Negroes. When in flower, it in- clines tOAvards the earth, into a-* hich the pointal enters, and extends to a certain depth, Avhere the seed- vessel and fruit are formed; so that the latter attains to maturity under ground. As large crops of this vegetable are produced on light sandy lands, of little value, it may perhaps be advantageously cultivated in the southern counties of Britain. The seeds or fruit, when bruised GRO and expressed through canvass bags, afford a pure, clear, and sa- vory oil, which, in the opinion of Dr. Watson, may be used for the same purposes, both culinary and medicinal, as those obtained from olives or almonds. The oil of ground-nuts, however, possesses a great advantage, as it will admit of being kept for a considerable time, without becoming rancid, or re- quiring any particular care, even during the heat of summer. As one bushel of the seeds, when ex- pressed, yields a gallon of pure oil without, and a much larger quanti- ty, though of inferior quality, with the aid of heat, they deserve to be more generally known and import- ed. The value of a bushel of these nuts, in South Carolina, did not ex- ceed eight pence in the year 1768, when specimens of the seeds Avere produced before the Royal Society, and an account given in the 5'Jth vol. of their Philosophical Trans- actions for 1769....[See Earth- nuts.] GROUND-PINE, or Ajuga Chamoepitys, L. an indigenous plant growing in sandy fallows, and flowering in the months of April and June. It possesses a bitter and acrimonious taste, and though it has often been recom- mended as a medicine for the cure of the gout, jaundice, and intermit- ting fevers, yet its real efficacy in these diseases is not ascertained. GROUNDSILL, the Common, or Senecio vulgaris, L. an indige- nous plant, growing on cultivated grounds, rubbish, and in court- yards ; it flowers from April to September. A strong infusion of this weed excites vomiting; the bruised leaA'es afford a refrigerant and healing application to boils.... Its seeds are very agreeable to GRO GRU 215 gold-finches and linnets confined in cages....Coavs do not relish this plant: it is, hoAvever, eaten by goats and swine, but refused by horses and sheep. There is another useful species of the groundsel, the Senedo Jaco- boea ; for which we refer to Rag- wort. GROUSE, or Growse, Tetrao tetrix, L. a native bird, Avhich is found in woody and mountainous situations, chiefly in North Britain. The male is tAvo feet in length, and weighs nearly four pounds ; Avhile the female is only about half that length and weight: she deposits six or seven eggs, which are hatch- ed late in the summer; and the young birds subsist at first on ants' eggs, and wild mountain berries. Towards autumn, grouse fre- quently descend from the moun- tains, and feed on corn: as they grow older, their principal food is derived from the tops of heath, and the cones of the pine-tree, by which they acquire a delicate fla- vour, and are speedily fattened. At present, these birds are rarely found in England, though grouse-shooting is a favourite sport in various parts of Scotland. GROVE, in gardening, is a small Avood impervious to the rays of the sun. Groves constitute one ofthe chief ornaments of our gardens : they al- so afford the greatest relief against the scorching rays of the sun, while the rest of the garden is parched Avith heat; so that without a grove, every large garden must be defective. Groves are either open or close. The former are composed of large shady trees, arranged at such dis- tances as to prevent the rays of the su.i from penetrating through their intertwining branches. Close groves frequently contain large trees; but the ground beneath is so thickly planted Avith shrubs as to form private Avalks, sheltered from the Avind. These are often con- trived, in order to bound the open groves, or to conceal the Avails or other inclosures of the garden: and, when properly laid out, with dry walks winding through them, be- tween fragrant shrubs and fiowers apparently irregular, they have a most pleasing effect. In the planting of groves, tlie trees should be placed at diagonal inter\-als, by Avhich mode they will acquire a more noble appearance, and also form a shade much sooner than such as are planted in direct lines. GRUB, in Zoology, the Eng- lish name for Avorms, or maggots, hatched from the eggs of beetles. Grubs are an excellent bait for many kinds of fish. In angling for the grayling (See Umber) as Avell as trout, the ash-grub is pre- ferable to all others. This insect is cf a milk-white colour, a plump round form, Avith a red head. There is another very common grub, which is longer and thinner than the ash-grub ; has also a red head, but two rows of legs along the bel- ly ; it is tougher and yelloAver. To preserve grubs, they should be kept in bran, Avhich will render them very firm ; but the ash-grub is always so tender, that it can with difficulty be employed as a bait: hence, it should be Avrapped in a piece of stiff hair with the arming, and about a straw's breadth left to project at the head of the hook, to prevent the grub from sliding on, when baited. The horse- hair must be white, or of a colour pufeclly resembling that F the 216 G U A GU A bait; as otherwise it will be sus- pected by the fish....For the dif- ferent methods of destroying grubs, in general, see Chafer. GRUBBING, in agriculture, a term used by farmers to denote the extirpation of trees. Old trees Avhich are past grow- ing should be taken up by the roots, and young ones planted in their stead. This is, in most places, a tedious operation, though in some counties a machine is employed for this purpose, which considera- bly facilitates the labour and les- sens the expence of removing the roots. It consists of an iron hook, about two feet and a half long, with a large iron ring affixed to its handle. The ground about the root being cleared away, and the straggling horizontal roots cut off, the point of the hook is fastened to some part of the stump ; and a long lever of sufficient strength placed through the ring. Thus arranged, two men at the extremi- ty of the lever force it in every direction, till the root is torn out, twisting off the tap-roots at some distance under ground. This method appears to be very effectual in stubbing up the roots of undenvood ; but, Avhen those of Aery large trees are to be extract- ed, it Avill be advisable previously to cleave them Avith Avedges into several parts, and then to take them up separately.....See also Berne-Machine : CUAIACUM, or Lignum vitas, L. is a genus of plants producing three species, the principal of Avhich is the officinale, or Common Lignum Vita:, a native of the West Indies. It may, in colder climates, be propagated by seeds sown in pots plunged into a hot- bed, but it is seldom cultivated in this country. The Avood of this species is of equal utility in the mechanical arts, and in medicine ; being so heavy as to sink Avhen immersed in Ava- ter. It is chiefly employed in the West-Indies for the wheels and cogs of sugar-mills, and is also fre- quently formed into mortars, bowls, and other utensils. The Avood, gum, and bark, are all employed in medicine, though the two first are chiefly used in Europe. Gum Guaiacum is of a friable nature, of a deep greenish colour, but sometimes of a reddish hue ; and has a pungent acrid taste.... There is another spontaneous ex- udation obtained from the bark of this tree, which is called native gum ; it is imported in small irre- gular, semi-pellucid pieces ; and is much purer than that extracted by incision. The general virtues of Guaia- cum are those of a Avarm aromatic medicine: it strengthens the sto- mach and other viscera, and great- ly promotes the discharges of urine and perspiration. Hence it is of especial service in cutaneous erup- tions, and disorders arising from ob- structions of the excretory glands : in rheumatic and other pains, un- attended Avith fever, the liberal use of gum guaiacum has often afford- ed considerable relief. It is like- Avise a good laxative, and furnishes a more active med' ine than, either the avooc! or Lark of this trc e. Gum Guaiacum, Avhen dissolved in rum, or combined Avith wa' :. by means of mucilage or the yolk of an egg, or in the form of a tinc- ture or elixir, h. been found use- ful in chronic rheum asm, or even ia lucIi v."a..acting pains of the sto- G LTD GUE 217 mach or other parts of the body, as could be attributed to the retroce- dent gout; in Avhich cases a small table»spoonful of the emulsion may be taken three or four times a clay. . GUDGEON, in Ichthyology, is a species of the Barbus, or Bar- bel ; Avhichsee. It inhabits most running Avaters, small streams, such as the river Lea, and is found in great abundance in the New-Ri- ver, near London. Though small, this fish is highly esteemed for its fine flaA'our. Gudgeons generally hide them- selves under Aveeds, in rough wa- ter, and among the sedge groAving at the sides of rivers, particularly during the spaAvning season, which commences about the middle of April, and terminates with the month of May. When full of spaAvn, they are of a superior fla- vour, and this period includes the latter part of March, and the first half of April. The proper season for taking gudgeon is in the months of March, April, and May, but the rods, lines, baits, Sec. differ in several material respects, according to the particu- lar time of the year fixed upon for angling. In general, however, the rods should be of a small size, and the line a single horse-hair, or that of a goat may be substituted. The hooks should also be very small, three or four of which must be affixed to each line, at the dis- tance of six inches from each other ; and the depths at Avhich the sportsman is to angle, vary, ac- cording to the season of the year, the nature of the Avater, and other circumstances. The most gener- al bait for gudgeons are, blood- A\orms and Avhite paste. On taking his stand, the angler VOL. in. may throw in bread as a ground- bait ; but the common method of disturbing the bed of the river Avith a rake, should be adopted only in warm seasons. Sometimes it is attended Avith good effects to plumb the bottom, or at least to drop the plummet rather deep. A curious double plugged float, and small shot, fixed at about three inches from the hook, is generally used Avith success in catching these fish. GUELDER-ROSE, or Vibur- num, L. a genus of plants compri- sing twenty-two species, tAvo of which are natives of Britain. 1. The Lantana, Mealy Guel- der-rose, Pliant Mealy Tree, or Wayfaring Tree, which groAvs in calcareous soils to the height of 18 or 20 feet, in Avoods and hedges ; it produces large Avhite flowers in May, and black farinaceous berries in October. The young branches and rind of the trunk of this spe- cies may be employed for bands and cords. It is, however, chiefly esteemed for its beautiful foliage, which renders it an ornament to parks and plantations. The bark of its root is used for the prepara- tion of bird-lime ; the berries at- tract birds, and are of a drying, astringent nature. 2. The Opulus, Common Guel- der-rose, or Water Elder, which groAvs in woods and damp hedges j bears Avhite blossoms in May or June, and red berries in Septem. ber....When in bloom, this tree ex_ hibits a singularly fine appearance ; the flowers, though small, are formed into large globular um|)eig5 whence it is sometimes caller \hc Snow-ball tree....Birds are entpcej by the red berries, but will not eat them.—According to Bechsteiv 213 GUI GUI these berries may be preserved in vinegar, and the tough, hard Avood is employed by shoe-makers for small pegs of heels. [GUTLANDIA, Bon due or Nic- kartrce. A forest tree abounding in the western states of America. It bears nuts about the size of tne pignut, of a deep chocolate colour and shining appearance......The shell is so thick and hard, that they require to be filed, to forward their vegetation. The nuts when perch- ed and ground, are substituted lor coffee by the inhabitants of the Avestem country.] GUINEA, a British gold coin, thus denominated, because the pre- cious ore from which the first gui- neas Avere coined, was originally imported from the coast of Gui- nea. The value or rate of this coin has frequently varied : when first struck, its current price was 20s. on account of the scarcity of gold, it afterwards advanced to 21s. and dd. but its present nominal value is 21 s. If the pound weight (troy) of gold be divided into 89 parts, each of them will be equal to half a gui- nea, so that 12 ounces contain 44| guineas....As this favourite coin is gradually disappearing, Ave think it superfluous to state its accurate proportion cf pure gold and alloy : it has been confidently reported, that English guineas have lately been exchanged on the Continent, and especially in Hamburgh, at from24 to 25 shillings. Such temp- tations, however, will induce only those persons to profit by the op- portunity, w ho are noAV almost ex- clusively in the possession olgold, while they accommodate us with paper. GUINEA-CORN, or Holcus Sorghum, L. an exotic vegetable, growing on the coast of Africa : its stalks are large, compact, generally attaining the height of 7 or 8 feet, and producing abundance of grain. It may be easily raised in shelter- ed situations, especially in exhaust- ed hot-beds and other loose soils, where its seeds should be sown early in the spring; as the large flowery tops appear in June....In Tuscany, Syria, and Palestine the fiour made of this grain is mixed with other meal, and converted in- to bread ; Avhich however, is ge- nerally brown, tough, and heavy. Hence the former is better calcula- ted for milk-porridge that is equal- ly wholesome and nutritive. The juice exuding from the stalks of the Guinea-corn, is so agreeably luscious, that it affords excellent sugar, by a process similar to that adopted Avith the sugar-cane. The seeds furnish nourishing food to poultry and pigeons, as Avell as for horses andhogs....STRUvE, a Ger- man writer on economy, states, that he obtained from this grain good vinegar by fermentation ; and, on distilling it, a strong spirit. GUINEA-GRASS, ""a valuable species of herbage, thus denomina- ted, as it Avas first discovered on the coast of Guinea, whence it Avas brought to Jamaica, and afterwards imported.into this country. In point of real utility, this plant ranks, in Jamaica, next the sugar- cane ; for the breeding farms throughout the island Avere origin- ally established, and are still sup- ported, chiefly by means of the Guinea-grass, Avhich bestOAvs ver- dure and fertility on lands that would otherwise not deserve to be cultivated. About ten years since, it was also introduced into the East-Indies, where it is now sue- GUI GUL 219 cessflilly cultivated, and groAvs to the height of seven feet : it ad- mits of being frequently cut, and makes excellent hay. Cattle eat it, both in a fresh and dry state, Avith great avidity : hence the cul- ture of this valuable herbage has been strongly recommended to the farmers of Cornwall and Devon- shire. [The following remarks on the culture of this grass are by the late H. Laavrence of South Caro- lina. " In the last spring, I procured from Jamaica three half pints of Guinea grass seed, which I planted in the drills of one fourth part of an acre of very indifferent land ; the seed sprung and soon covered the ground Avith grass four feet high and upAvards. Being desir- ous of saving as much seed as pos- sible, I cut one bundle of grass for horses : .they ate it'all Avith great avidity. " In August I took one of the grass roots and divided it into twenty eight parts, which were im- mediately replanted: every part took root, and the whole are uoav groAving very finely and seeding;. I am of opinion this grass will make the best pasture Ave carrAv'uh for....From former experience I have reason to believe the Guinea grass is perennial....Tt is easily managed, requires but one good hoeing, after which it will take care of itself. I am informed a gentleman near Kingston, in Jamaica, makes up- wards of 1000Z. sterling per an- num by Guinea-grass hay.] GUINEA-HEN, or Numida meleagris, L. an exotic species of gallinaceous foAvl, Avhich is a na- tive of Africa. Its body is sloped in a manner similar to that of a partridge, and its dark grey co- lour is beautifully variegated Avith Avhite spot-. Guinea-hens are not so tame and domestic as our native fowls, and frequently occasion considerable trouble to their keepers, by flying into hedges and bushes, especiallv during the night, where they lay, and hatch their eggs, of which they frequently deposit from 100 to 150. Nevertheless, they breed tolerablv well in this climate; their flesh is generally Avhite, tender, and sweet, though it is sometimes found per- fectly black. GUINEA-PIG, or, as it is more properly termed, the Restless Ca- vy, Cavia Cobaya, is not a native of Guinea, but cf Brasil, Avhence it has been imported into Europe. It is about seven inches in length., and its Avhite body is variegated Avith irregular black and orange- coloured spots. The female breeds at two months eld, and brings forth ten, twelve, or fourteen young ones, several times in the course of the year, after a gestation of three Aveeks. Guinea-pigs feed on all kinds of herbs, but are particularly fond of parsley, as likewise of apples and other fruit. In their wild state, they multiply prodigiously, and Avould become innumerable, if they w ere capable of sustaining- cold and m a green manure. The lot on which I first strewed plaister, twenty-five years ago, has not been ploughed during that pe- riod. I have twice given it about half, a top dressing of stable clung. I have repeated the plaister three or four times, three, four and six bushels to the acre, at intervals of three, four and five years. I should have preferred ploughing, had it been convenient, as, in the second crops, I am often tormented with Indian grass and Aveeds. But the ground is on a part of my farm, Avhere the hay and pasture are more useful to me than any other crops. After dressing whh clung, 1 have left a pmt unplaistered, to compare it Avith the rest; and al- Avays pcrce'n'ed a striking inferio- rity, Avhere the plaister Avas not strewed. I once repeated the plaister on a part of it, Avithout previously dunging,afterithad been moAved several years, from the lime it was first plaistered. The plaister seemed to have no effect. But on applyinga slight dressing of dung the next year, this part Avas equally good Avith the rest. This lot is now in excellent common grass, intermixed Avith red and Avhite clover, and some blue grass ....parts of it much layed, OAving to the wet season. I have, notwith- standing the above instance, fre- quently plaistered here and in other parts of my farm, and succeeded Avell Avithout dung; but never in the degree I have perceived Avith dung. I must be understood here to mean, a repetition of the plais- ter. Por in the first application it has generally thrown up as great a burthen as any combination could produce. I have from this and many other occurrences, long been of opinion that the plaister must come in con- tact with some animal or A-egetable manures, or putrified substances, to give it its proper efficacy. And when so connected, a small quan- tity of such manures or substances, will give it activity. The auxili- aries necessary to draAv forth the poAvers of the plaister, are Avithin the reach of every farmer, of com- mon industry and moderate capa- city. The first application, with- out other assistance than that it finds in the earth, from the decay- ed and decaying roots, and other vegetable substances, vrill throw him up forage, and enable him to increase his stock. The more stock, the more animal manure for summer or winter crops, pre- paratory to the repetition of plais- ter, with clover. The green ma- nures only cost the seed which produces them. With these aux- iliaries, I am satisfied, by actual GYP and long experience, that the gyp- sum may be repeated as safely, and with more benefit and less ex- pence, than can any other manure, on soils suitable for its application ....a circumstance Avhich ought al- ways to be kept in view. I can Avith a tolerable degree of certain- ty, from the appearance of an over luxuriant crop of clover, tell when it is about to quit me. When the plaister ceases its operation, the clover departs with it, being over- come by tAvitch or other noxious grasses or Aveeds. It perishes in consequence of too violent and rapid efforts. Its fate is similar to that of an individual, Avho, by liv- ing too fast, accelerates death. I account for the phenomenon of the sudden exit of the operative pow- ers of the gyps, by its having pre- maturely decomposed the substan- ces containing the principles of ve- getation ; and having exhausted those principles in too short a time. In the violence of these operations it excites a vigorous, but fatal ve- getation, , which, like the exertions of one in a paroxism of fever, puts on the semblance of strength, but in fact is only a prelude to dissolu- tion. There is no guard against this misfortune, but the practice of sowing small quantities, and frequent repetition. This mode I like the better, the more I expe- rience it." Valuable however as gypsum is, it must be acknowledged not to be suited for all soils and situa- tions. 1. Mr. Joseph Cooper strewed some upon his clover shortly after the revolutionary Avar, Avith evident good effect upon the first crop, but he had a trifling second crop. He Mien put the land in potatoes after GYP 243 ploughing and manuring well, and tried clover again, but the crop Avas not Avorth noticing; flax, Avhich according to his experience ansAvers as well as barley with clover, Avas tried the succeeding season, the ground having been previously well manured, but with no better effect. He then hauled river mud upon his land, anct this seemed to have the best effect in adapting the soil to the growth of clover. It is highly probable that the cause of the exhausting quality of the gypsum in the above instance, proceeded from the small quantity of vegetable matter it found in the ground, as explained by Mr. Pe- ters ; or the gypsum may have been of a weak kind. Mr. Sajiuel Cooper, also of New Jersey, experienced no be- nefit from gypsum applied to corn, in a sandy soil: though we haA'e before seen, (Art. Corn) that good effects Avere produced by it in Penn- sylvania. 2. Cypsum, it is Avell known, does not answer near the sea. Dr. Mitchell explains this circum- stance thus : « When plaister is applied to a soil impregnated Avith common salt, a double decomposi- tion may happen ; the sulphuric acid forming Avith soda a Glau- ber's salt, and the muriatic acid making Avith the lime a muriate of lime. As neither of these sub- stances is remarkable for promot- ing the groAvth of vegetables, the reason is plain, Avherefore gypsum so often fails to fertilize land, in the neighbourhood of the ocean, or in any place Avhere it can be decom- pounded by particles of sea salt." 3. On (lay it is equally inert* Mr. Smithk, in the Trans, of- 244 GYP GYP the Board of Agriculture, London, invaluable manure is much better has published some observations understood in Pennsylvania. on gypsum, which eA'idence great Mr. Peters, has fully refut- Avant of information on the subject, ed the errors of the above wri- and shows that the right use of this ter.] H. HAI HAI HADDOCK, or Gadus eglesi- Hail is one of those phenomena, nus, L. a species offish which pe- of which naturalists have in vain riodically frequents the Yorkshire endeavoured to give a satisfactory coast, in large shoals, and com- explanation. As far as the limits monly weighs from two to three of our knoAvledge extend, hail is a pounds. meteor, that is neA'er productive of Large haddocks are in roe. from any good effect. Both rain and the middle of November to the end dew invigorate the Avhole vegetable of January; but, in the succeed- world ; and the frost, by expanding ing three months, they are said to the water contained in the earth, be out of season. In the month of often pulverizes and renders the May they recover their flavour, soil fertile; Avhile the snow shel- and continue to improve till Janu- ters the more tender plants from ary, Avhen they are in the greatest being injured by severe frost. Nei- perfection. ther of these purposes is effected These fish groAV to a considera- by hail, which is indeed attended ble size, weighing sometimes four- with contrary effects: for, during teen pounds; but in such cas£their the Avinter, it does not lie sufficient- flesh is coarse, and not proper for ly close to the ground, to preserve the table: hence those of an in- vegetables from the nipping frosts; ferior bulk are more esteemed when and, during the spring and sum- their Aveight does not exceed two mer seasons, its cold temperature or three pounds. not only chills and blasts, but its HAIL, a meteor, Avhich is usu- weight greatly injures the more ally defined to be frozen rain ; delicate plants; frequently laying though it widely differs from the whole corn fields level. But, though latter, as hail-stones are not com- we cannot discover any ostensible posed of single pieces of ice, but of use of hail, it is certain that the several small globules condensed Creator has formed nothing, that together. is not in some degree subser- HA I H A I 245 vient to the operations of Nature. HAIR, small filaments, which issue from the pores of the skins of animals, and which serve them as a natural covering. Hair is found on all parts of the human body, excepting on the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet; but it groAvs to the greatest length on the head and chin. It is subject to few diseases ; the only affection that can in this country be strictly considered as a disease, is Baldness ; for which we have pointed out the most pro- per remedies. Frequent cutting the hair is very beneficial to the ears, eyes, nay, to the whole body : and, if the head be washed or immersed daily in cold water, it will be found an excellent preventive of periodical head-achs. Persons subject to deflrxions of humours from the head, to Aveak eyes and similar complaints, will derive great benefit from shaving the head at certain intervals ; as this is the most effectual mode of opening4hei pores and promoting perspiration. There is no danger of contracting cold from washing or exposing .Jhe head, after being rubbed dry, to the open air: and this futile objection should influ- ence only the conduct of those Avho, from ignorance or prejudice, carry all their exhaled impurities on the surface, of the skin, and especially on the head, for a suc- cession of years. Thus, perhaps, arise many states of intellectual de- rangement, the source of Avhich is seldom suspected. Besides, cleans- ing the head affords comfortable and pleasing sensations ; and the more frequently the hair be cut, it will grow the more speedily ; so that this simple expedient may, in some measure, serve as a substitute for a constant blister, or artificial issue. There are, hoAvever, certain cases, in which cutting off* the hair is attended Avith dangerous effects, especially during a state of conva- lescence from acute diseases. In a periodical Avork lately published in Prance, tAvo instances are re- lated of Avomen, in a \rery promis- ing state of recovery from a pu- trid malignant fever, Avhose hair had been cut, and Avho both died shortly after this imprudent ac- tion. A third owed her preserva- tion only to her youth, and the energy of her constitution. The hair is, by all nations, con- sidered as an ornament to the per- son, more than as a covering for the head, provided by the benefi- cent hand of Nature. Hence va- rious pomatums, and other secret preparations, have been imposed upon the public, for the purpose of " making the hair grow long and thick." We are no advocates for contrivances, which to our certain knowledge are generally composed of noxious ingredients, such as the calces of lead and mercury. Those persons who cannot be dissuaded fromJ^ie use of artificial means, may Avith safety employ a mixture consisting of equal parts of olive oil and spirits of rosemary, to Avhich may be added a few drops of oil of nutmeg. If the hair be rubbed every night Avith a little of this liniment, and the proportion be very gradually increased, it will answer every purpose to be attain- ed by those boasted preparations which are sold by empirics. Another course of fraud is that of changing the colour of the hair 246 H A I HAI to a darker shade : Avith this inten- tion, various liquid remedies are vended by perfumers, under dif- ferent alluring appellations. These, however, being likeAvise prepared from lead, antimony, and other metallic solutions, no prudent per- son will be induced to purchase them. The only method that can be pursued with impunity, is to cut the hair close to the head, and to pass a leaden comb through it every morning and evening, by Avhich simple practice the hair will assume a darker colour; the per- spiration of the head will not be impeded, and, consequently, the health of the individual rather pro- moted than injured. Hair constitutes a very consider- able article of commerce, especi- ally since the fashion of Avearing wigs has prevailed among all ranks, and has lately been extended to both sexes. The hair of this, and other northern countries, is preferred to that ofthe southern climates of Ita- ly, Franee, 8cc. The chief qua- lity of hair consists in its being well fed, as it is termed by hair- dressers, so that it be neither too coarse nor too slender. Hence thick hair is less susceptible of the artificial curl, and is disposed to frizzle; but, if it be too delicate, it Avill retain the curl only for a short time. The length of good hair is usually estimated at 2 5 inches ; and, in proportion as it is shorter, it becomes less valuable. t There appears to be no stated price for this article ; as, accord- ing to its quality, it is sold at from 5s. to 5/. per ounce : it pays, when imported, a duty of 2.?. 4ic/. per lb....With respect to the various operations Avhich hair undergoes previously to bring manufactured into Avigs, we trust the reader will excuse our silence. The hair of beavers, hares, and other animals, is used in various manufactures, especially that of hats, of Avhich they constitute the principal material. If the refuse of the short hair of hides be scattered on arable land, and left there to putrify, it proves one of the most fertilizing and du- rable manures. Hair, in farriery, is commonly called the coat ; and, with respect to horses, merits particular consi- deration. The hair growing on the fetlock, serves as a defence to the prominent part of it, Avhen the ani- mal is travelling on rough, stony roads, or in frosty weather. If the hair on the neck and more ex- posed parts be close and smooth, it may be concluded that the horse is in health. To render the hair of this use- ful animal fine and glossy, it is ne- cessary that he be kept warm at heart, as the least internal cold will render the hair rough; he should also be frequently sweated, in or- der to loosen the dust'and filth, Avhich render his coat foul; and Avhile he is hot, all the'Avhite foam, SAveat, Sec. that rises on his skin, ought to be carefully scraped off. The smoothness of a horse's hair, it is said, may also be conside- rably promoted, by rubbing his own blood OA'er him for two or three days after it has been drawn ; he is then to be Avell curried and dressed, in consequence of Avhich, his coat will become as soft and glossy as if it had been covered with a fine varnish. The hair of a horse's mane and tail is apt to fall off, especially if they have been suddenly over- H AI H A I 247 heated, so as to engender, what is called in the language of the stable, the dry-mange. A similar effect will follow, after he has been surfeited, so that the foul humours are repelled into those extremities of the body. To remedy such dis- gusting appearance, the horse's mane, &c. should be anointed with black soap, and the animal washed with a strong ley prepared of wood- ashes. If, nevertheless, a canker arise on the animal's tail, it will be requisite to apply diluted oil of vitriol, Avhich will corrode, and prevent it from making farther pro- gress.^ ifbrse-hair likeAvise forms a con- siderable article of trade ; it pays on importation a duty of about I \d. per lb. and is partly employed for Aveaving the covers of the seats of chairs, sofas, Sec. but principally for the stuffing of bolsters and mat- tresses. For the last mentioned purposes, the hair is previously baked, and, in that state, forms one of the most elastic couches, which is incomparably superior to the softest, but enervating, feather- beds. HAIR-GRASS, or Aira, E. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising 24 species; of Avhich 14 are indigenous; and of these the following deserve notice. 1. The cespitosa, or Turfy Hair- grass, which grows in moist mea- dows and woods; flowers from June to August. This plant is frequently found in tufts, and oc- casions irregularities in the surface of meadows. It produces an abun- dant quantity of leaves ; and being the roughest and coarsest of all the grasses in pasture and meadoAV- grounds, cattle seldom touch them, unless impelled by hunger. It would, therefore, amply repay the trouble of eradicating it, and sub- stituting better grasses: for this purpose, the land should be first drained, and then the tufts of this noxious weed pared up and burnt. Its ashes are said to afford an ex- cellent manure....Coavs, goats, and swine eat the turfy hair-grass, but it is refused by horses. 2. Thefiexuosa, Heath or Way- ed Mountain Hair-grass, growing on heaths, in woods, and barren pastures ; and flowering from June to August. 3. The caryophyllca, or silver Hair-grass, which is common in sandy pastures ; and flowers in the month of July. Mr. Stillingfleet, in his ex- cellent Tracts relating to Natural History, recommends the culture of both these last species, as be- ing particularly Avell adapted for sheep-Avalks : for he has observed them always to abound in those counties which are celebrated for delicious mutton. 4. The ae/uaticei, or Water Hair- grass, is found generally on the edges of pools and standing wa- ters ; it flowers in the months of June and July.•••This plant is a wholesome food for cattle, and de- serves to be more generally known; as it contributes much to the sweet- ness of the Cottenham cheese, and to the fine flavour of Cambridge butter. HAIR-POWDER is generally prepared from starch, Avhich, after being thoroughly dried, is ground and passed through the finest sieves. In its pure state, it should be perfectly white, and possess no smell. But in order to conceal base adulterations, or to please the votaries of the toilette, perfumers 248 HAL HAL study the art of communicating to it various artificial odours from SAveet-scented flowers, such as vio- lets, jesamines, &c. Dr. Daravin observes, that alum is sometimes used in the manufac- ture of hair-powder; and we un- derstand from creditable persons, that even lime is frequently mixed Avith fine flour: it is therefore not surprizing that so many persons who employ hair-dressers display bald heads, and are under the ne- cessity of Avearing Avigs ; but, if the latter were aAvare of the inju- ry they inflict on themselves, by inhaling such pernicious substan- ces, in consequence of Avhich, many Avho exercise that trade, pine away of pulmonary complaints, they would never use any other but ge- nuine poAvder. And though com- mon flour is not in itself pernici- ous, when used as a substitute for hair-powder, yet by the mucilage it contains, the hair is apt to be caked together when the head is sensibly perspiring, or is accident- ally wetted by a shower of rain ; 'an effect which may be frequently noticed in a whole regiment of sol- diers. There is a great variety of vege- tables which may be usefully em- ployed as substitutes for hair-pow- der, in the manufacture of which large quantities of grain are annu- ally wasted. The principal cf the former is, we believe, thePfoRSE- Chesnut, of Avhich the reader Avill find some account, A'ol. ii. p. 113. bee also Starch. HALTER-CAST, in farriery, is an excoriation of the pastern, occasioned by the halter being en- tangled about the leg, in conse- quence of the horse's endeavour to rub his neck with one ofthe hind feet. For the cure of this affection, it is requisite to anoint the sore part ,every morning and evening with equal quantities of linseed oil and brandy, properly mixed. HALTING, among farriers,sig- nifies an irregularity in the motion of a horse, arising from a lameness, or other injury in the shoulder, leg, or foot, which induces him to spare that part, or exert it loo timorously. As an intimate acquaintance with this defect is of considerable importance to the farmer, Ave shall briefly state the principal circum- stances connected with tWl Sub- ject. ' If a horse halts, the lameness may be discovered either before, in Avhich case the malady is seat- ed in the shoulder, legs, or feet; or, behind, when it lies in the hip, ham, Sec. 1. When the cause of the af- fection proceeds from the shoulder, the horse does not lift up his leg, but drags it on the ground, or casts one of them more than the other, and keeps the knee in a manner unbent. On turning short, be will evidently favour the lame leg.... Plence the injury must be either in the top of the shoulder blade, called the withers, which is known by the animal halting most Avhen a person is on his back ; his fre- quent shrinking; and, if pressed with the hand about the top of the shoulder-blade, attempting to bite: or, the hurt may be at the lower end of the shoulder-blade; in which case he treads Avith thick steps, shrinks, and is ready to drop on being squeezed in that part.... When it arises from the elbow which joins the marroAv-bone to the leg, the horse winces, and HAL HAM 249 draAva up his foot, on slightly pinching the part above-mentioned. ". If the lameness be in the legs (in which case it is in the knee, or pastern joint), the horse refuses to bend either the one or the other, and Avalks stiffly on that leg; or, Avhen it appears in the shank, it will be discovered by some splint, screAv, windgall, or other visible malady. 3. If the defect be in the foot, it is either in the coronet, and pro- ceeds from a strain: or it becomes evident by a hot and inflamed tu- mor. Or, if it be situated in the heel, it may have been occasioned by an over-reach, which is discern- ible by the eye, as Avell as by the animal's treading entirely on his toe. When a horse halts more on sloping than on plain ground, the mischief is seatedbetweenthe ejuar- ters. This kind of limping is some- times occasioned by being pricked with a nail in shoeing; in Avhich case, the offensive nail may be distinguished by pinching the head of each together Avith the hoof. Should a horse halt behind, from a disorder in the hip, he will walk side-long, and not follow so easily with that leg as the other; nor Avill he turn on the side affected, Avithout favouring the leg. This cause of lameness is particularly discoverable Avhen the animal, in walking on the side of a bank, lifts up the injured leg higher than the other. Like all injuries of the hip joint, that last mentioned is most difficult to be cured ; and, in every -species of the affections before de- scribed, total abstinence from hard labour, proper feeding, and, ac- cording to circumstances, either moderate exercise or complete rest, are essential requisites to a speedy recovery. VOL. III. HAM, the loAver part of an ani- mal's thigh, adjoining to the knee; or the angle in Avhich the leg and thigh, Avhen bent, incline to each other. Ham, in Commerce, denotes the thigh of a hog or bear, dried, sea- soned, and prepared so as to pre- serve it. Hams may be cured, in order to resemble in taste those of Westpha- /m,bythefolloAvingprocess: Cover a young ham of pork with dry salt, let it lie for 24 hours to drain off the blood, then wipe it perfectly dry, and take one pound of broAvn sugar, a quarter of a pound of salt- petre, half a pint of bay salt, and three pints of common salt; incor- porate these ingredients in an iron pan over the fire, and stir them continually till they acquire a mo- derate degree of heat....In this pickle the ham must be suffered to remain for three Aveeks, fre- quently turning it, Avhen it should be suspended in a chimney for dry- ing, by means of smoke from no other but a Avood-fire. See also vol. i. [Hams may be cured by Po- cock's receipt for curing beef:.... See vol. i. p. 2 ,o. HAMAMELIS : Witch hazel. There is only one species of this natural plant, viz. Virginica. The Indians consider this tree as a valuable article in their mate- ria medica. They apply the bark, Avhich is sedative and discutient, to painful tumors, and inflammations. A cataplasm of the inner rind is found to be very efficacious in re- moving painful inflammations of the eyes, according to Dr. Cut- ler- Amer. Acad. Mem. 1. Mr. Bartram informs the Editor th.at '• this shrub grows ten or twelve feet high, from one common root, producing blossoms late in the au- K k 250 H A R HAR tumn, and in mild Avinters, through almost all the season, and exhibit- ing a singularly pleasing appear- ance ; for, then divested of its foli- age, the twigs appear fringed in gold. Brooms are made of the jyoles of this plant."] HAND, a part or limb of the human body, Avhich forms the ex- tremity of the arm. The most common accidents to which the hand is liable, are sprains from violent exertion, and chaps from sudden changes of heat and cold. When the hand has been sprain- ed, Dr. Lobb recommends fomen- tations with vinegar for several mi- nutes, and two hours after every application, the part affected should be Avetted with rectified spirit of wine, and then gently rubbed.... We believe, however, that of all the emollient remedies, goose or V^ duck's fat is productive of the best effects, if the hand or arm be kept at rest for some time in that pos- ture, in Avhich it was when the accident happened....See farther, Sprains. For the cure of chapped liands, there is no better and more simple remedy than honey-water, if suf- fered spontaneously to dry, when it; forms a kind of varnish, which speedily allays the pain and heals the skin. For the prevention of this complaint, it Avill be useful to observe, that the hands should /$£§f^ never be held to a fire after return- ing from the cold air ; and, after V every washing, they ought to be carefully Aviped and dried. Hanging : See Suspension by •the Cord. H \RE, the Common, or Lepus timidus, L. is naturally a timid animal, and extremely swift in motion, when pursued by dogs. Hares are dispersed over almost every climate, and, though hunted in all countries, their species does not apparently diminish in number. They breed in the Erst year, and the female generally produces four or five leverets, after a gestation of about thirty days. Unlike dogs, the eyes of these animals are open at their birth; and, after being suckled for about three weeks, they are abandoned to their OAvn fate. Hares are remarkably infested by fleas....According to Linnaeus, the Dalecaiiians manufacture a spe- cies of cloth, or felt, from the fur of this creature, which, by attract- ing the insects, preserves the Avear- er from their troublesome attacks. Hare's wool forms an important ar- ticle in the manufacture of hats ; and pays, on importation, a duty of only Is. IQd. per lb. as suffici- ent quantities of it cannot be pro- cured in Britain. Hares are of a gentle disposi- tion, susceptible of a kind of edu- cation, and, if taken very young, may easily be domesticated. They attain the age of about seven or eight years, and their proper food is grass, cabbages, and other plants. Sow-thistle, dandelion, and let- tuce, are to them peculiarly agree- able. These animals frequently inflict great injury on trees, by barking them. Beside the hints already given, for the prevention of this mischief, Ave learn from M. de Ehrxnfels, a German writer, that trees may be effectually se- cured from their depredations, by anointing tlie bark in autumn, se- veral feet high, Avith hog's-lard, and sometimes also besmearing them with ox-gall.....\nother reme- t.v, Avhich appears to be more effi- cacious, and salutary rather than hurtful to the vegetation of the H AR tree, consists in scattering occasi- onally small quantities of soot round the stem: this expedient has for many years been successfully prac- tised in Scotland. In order to prevent hares from devouring the young cabbage or brocoli, and other succulent plants, it has been recommended to clip their roots in the following prepa- ration, before they are transplant- ed: Take the parings of old cheese, soak them in Avater, and preserve it till spring: then stir into the li- quor such a quantity of clay as will form a pulpy mass....We have had no experience of this medication ; though it is affirmed, that it not only secures the future plants from the attacks of hares, but its exhal- ations are so obnoxious to those depredators, that they will not frequent gardens where vegetables thus prepared are growing. With regard to its physical pro- perties, the flesh of hare is more palatable in winter ; and those bred in elevated countries are most esteemed. Nor should this ani- mal be chased till it drops; for thus its flesh is rendered less di- gestible, and less wholesome : in other respects, its qualities are si- milar to those of Deer. HARROW, an implement of agriculture, commonly used for the purpose of coA'ering seed Avith earth. There is, however, ano- ther object, to which it may be ap- plied, of equal importance, namely, to pulverize the soil previously to its receiving the seed. Common harroAvs are of differ- ent forms. The first we shall no- tice, has two bulls, four feet in length, and eighteen inches apart, each of Avhich is furnished Avith four Avooden teeth. The second has three bulls, provided with twelve similar teeth : a third has H A R 251 four bulls, and tAventy teeth, com- posed generally of iron, Avhich are ten, eleven, or twelve inches apart. The last mentioned implement is preferable to either of the former; as, on account of its iron teeth, it is better calculated for covering the seed ; but it is still very imper- fect, and the use of it attended with many inconveniencies. Plence different harrows haA'e been invent- ed at various periods, the principal of which Ave shall describe in the order of time. The earliest that merits notice is the Harrow-plough, invented in the year 1763, by a Mr. Wood, of Chelmsford, Essex: a full ac- count of which appears in the 2d vol. of the Museum Rusticum el Commerciale. It consists of a com- mon harrow-frame, 7 feet in length, and 4 in breadth, to which are fit- ted 14 iron shares, of the form of a heart, with a rounded point, be- , ing hollowed underneath, and con- vex on the upper surface: the edges of the rounded point, and two sides of these shares, are sharpen- ed in the same manner as a com- mon hoe ; and the shares are dis- posed in the following order ; the letter A representing the front, and B the back of the frame. A 1 4 7 2 3 5 6 0 10 12 IS 8 11 14 B The design of this implement is to clear turnips from Aveeds, Sec- Each share is about 14 inches dis- tant, and, Avhen the harrow-plough moves forward, the shares marked 1,4, 7, are the first, each of which cuts the plants or weeds in its Avay. These are succeeded by others marked 2, 3, 5, and 6, Avhich toge- 252 HAR .. HAR ther form seven sharj^. The seven chain (which is commanded by the remaining behind are intended to screw) the harroAV, Avhen drawn complete the work commenced along, will form an angle down- by the first row. Thus each share wards, and thus pass over every clears about eight inches of land in part of the curve of the ridge in Avidth, and leaves the space of six proportion to its extent; which, inches untouched. This method of according to his statement, may be weeding turnips has been found nine feet, the distance from A to much cheaper and more effectual B; whereas the Avhole extent from than the common practice : for the c to d, is said to be only about shares cut deeper, and move the five feet and a half. When the ground better than labourers will crowns of the ridges have been suf- stir it with their hand-hoes. Be- ficiently harrowed lengthways, the sides, the harrow-plough, it is af-,. £hain may be shortened by the firmed, will also bring land to an screAv, Avhich forms an angle up- excellent state of improvement, af- Avards : the harroAV is then draAvn ter it has been three or four times by horses, one on each side of the ploughed. furroAv, Avhich will be completely In the year 1795, a harroAV upon reduced as well as the sides of the a neAv construction was inA-ented ridges, if 18 feet in breadth. by Mr. FmAVAun Knight, of If the harrow is to be drawn Great Bardfield, Essex, for Avhich across eAren ground, or high ridges, the Society for the Encouragement in such cases, it may, by the aid of of Arts, &c. hml796, conferred on the screw, be made horizontal, so him a premiuto of 15 guineas, as to work in the manner of a solid The purpose of his contrivance is harroAV Avithout a joint. The teeth to obviate the irregular notions, of Mr. Sandilands' implement^ sudden and incessant checks, and are square, and fixed in the usual various other inconveniencies at- wayr, being nine or ten inches be- tending the use ofthe common Ioav the wood, and of such strength harroAVS. as the land may require. They [This harroAV consists of too cut or tear the ground regularly many parts to be generally adopted every four inches, Avithout clogg- by farmers, Avho require simple, ing, unless at the extreme angles, strong, and cheap utensils. The where the teeth are necessarily put account therefore given of it by someAvhat closely together: they Dr. Willich, is omitted.] may, hoAvever, be cleared with the In the " Letters and Papers of utmost facility, by raising them a the Bath and West of Eng. Soc. a little from the ground. The vol. 6." is an account of an imple- "figures 1,- 2, 3, 4, Sic. point out ment, invented by the Hon. Mr. R. where the twelve teeth on each Sandilands, and denominated by side ofthe harrow are placed. him a Chain and Screw Harrow, Mr. Saxdilan'ds observes, that of Avhich Ave have annexed [a Avheve a strong break harrow is plate.] not necessary, by making the teeth If the ridges be high, and re- shorter or lighter, 48 tines may quire to be harrowed through their be obtained, which Avill tear the whole length, that object will be ground at every two inches, cover •effected by Mr. Sandilands' im- the seed welland makeafine mould. plement; as by lengthening the He farther recommends to cons- H AR H A R 253 tructharroAvsfor every purpose,and L| of every size, on the principle above stated ; as, in such case, no tooth can follow the track of another, and ^ all are kept in constant action. The same gentleman has also in- dented another implement, called a Wrack-harrow, from the speedy manner in which it collects the wrack, or roots of couch-grass, and other noxious weeds. Of this contrivance the annexed figures represent the plan and profile. It is composed of a plank of tim- ber, six feet long, nine inches broad, and two inches thick, in Avhich are fixed two rows of teeth, viz. twelve in the front, and thirteen behind: each i'oav is about four inches apart, and the teeth are five inches dis- tant ; so that they operate at the distance of 2 A inches from each other. They are in length about seven inches beloAv the AA'ood,three- quarters of an inch square, and pointed diamond-Avise, so as only to catch Avhatever may be brought above ground by previous harroAV- ing, without penetrating the soil. To the plank are joined shafts for a horse, and handles for a man to guide it, of such length and strength as may be deemed neces- sary. This machine is used in the fol- lowing manner: When all the weeds are brought to the surface, the wrack-harrow is drawn across the field ; the person Avho holds the handles pressing a little on them, till the plank has passed over the first furroAv, on Avhich the harroA* is suddenly lifted, without stopping the horse ; thus all the weeds col- lected by the harrow will fall into the furrow, whence they may be remoA-ed or burnt, at the option of the farmer. If, hoAvever, the horse be not steady, it will be requisite to employ a boy for the purpose of leading him ; in order that the couch-grass, 8cc. may be properly eradicated. A patent Avar, granted in the year 1799, to Mr. William Lester, of Yardley-Hastings, Northamp- ton, for his invention of a harrow, by Avhich the inconveniencies at- tending the implements construct- ed on the common plan may be ef- fectually obviated. The patentee makes his harrows of various sizes, to be draAvn by one, two, four, or six horses, so as to suit every kind of soil. The first size is six feet in Avidth, and of equal length ; the teeth are twehe inches distant in every direction, and there is an interval of one inch and a halfbetween their tracks, in every line of draught. This size is more peculiarly adapted to harrowing in every species of grain and seed, especially on lay, flag, or whole-land. The second size is 7 A feet wide, and six feet nine inches in length ; the teeth are fourteen inches asunder in every direction, and an intermediate space of two inches occurs between their tracks, in each line of draught. This im- plement is particularly calculated for clearing foul land. The third size is nine feet in length, by seven feet nine inches in breadth ; the teeth are sixteen inches apart in 254 HAR every direction, and a space of 2-*. inches intervenes between the tracks in each line of draught.... The last mentioned harroAV is, in the opinion of the patentee, emi- nently adapted to the cultivation of foul land, especially for clearing fen-fallows of couch-grass. The superiority of Mr. Lester's patent harrow, is stated to consist in the impossibility of its clogging, ordrivingthe soil together in heap.c. Being divided into two parts, of equal lengths (which are draAvn by two centres united in a third), it has a steady uniform motion, and is effectually prevented from di- verging into any oblique direction. Another excellence in this contri- vance is, its couching over both ridges and furrows, and its yield- ing to all the inequalities of the soil; besides, from the diagonal position ofthe bulls, and the irre- gular arrangement of the teeth, each tine is drawn in a differer* direction, so that no one tooth <'an folloAV another in the same track ; whereas, in the common harrows, one half of the teeth run in the same course. In the 9th A'olume of the Letters and Papers of th? Bath and West of England Society, there is a de- scription of a pair of harroAvs and of a drag, or heavy harrow, imrent- ed by Mr. H. Wynne. His imple- ments are constructed in such a manner, that each pin makes a separate track, and that the inter- vals between those tracks are all equal; so that the entire ground, over Avhich the harroAV passes at one time, -will be marked with lines three inches apart. The pair of harrows is seven feet six inches broad ; and the i'.iA-entor asserts, that the same horses will, by means of it, Avork c.nefoi-vih more ground, snd perform such labour much HAR better, than by any other harroAV. Mr. Wynne's implement is stated to possess this farther advantage, that Avhen the pins or teeth sink into the earth, the posts being nearlyparalleltothe line of draught, admit all roots, stones, and other obstructions to pass freely betAveen them, and also beneath the rails by Avhich they are connected. And, as the hinge is Avithin the tine, when the harrow is drawn up and doAvn ridges, it accommodates itself to the shape of the ground ; the joint rising when the harrow is on the top of the ridge, and sinking Avhen it is in the furrow. The drag, or heavy harrow, like- wise invented by Mr. Wynne, is constructed Avithout a joint, and will work a piece of land six feet three inches in breadth, leaving in- tervals of five inches between the tracks. The principle is similar to that on which the implements just described are formed; and Avhich, the inventor says, is appli- cable to harrows of any size ; as the intervals between the tracks may be varied at pleasure, the re- gularity being still preserved. The spikes or teeth here employed are made of square iron, pointed and bent forward diagonally ; they are fixed in such a direction, that the line of the track may pass through their angles {as in the plan.] A patent Avas granted in May or June, 1801, to a Mr. Wilde, for a harroAV on a neAV plan. His in- vention is intended to obviate the inconveniencies attending the com- mon harrows; from the ingenuity and simplicity of its construction, it appears to merit attention. The set of harrows, when put together for Avork, consists of four, which are constructed in the usual man- ner, and with the usual number of tires. These are placed nearly H AR parallel to each other, and are combined by means of three iron links, which are moveable where they are joined to the harrow; the centre link is fitted in an ob- lique direction, and is longer than the other two, which aresetstraight. All the links, however, are placed loosely, in order that the imple- ment, when joined together, may have a little play-room. This in- ■; genious harrow is fastened to the bearing-bar, to which the traces are affixed, by means of an iron pin that is attached to the chain-hook, m passing through holes made at dif- ferent distances in the bar, so as exactly to give the requisite direc- f tion to the harrow....Thus, the equal course of the implement is secured; and the work is more uniformly performed, and with a greater degree of regularity. Mr. Wilde makes harrows for five-yard lands, exclusive of the furrows ; but they may be adapted • to any size required. The horses may likewise be set to draw abreast, or where the soil is very Avet and heavy, to follow each other in the furroAv, and thus to prevent the land from poaching. The patentee is of opinion, that a considerable saving might be made both in seed, and the labour of horses, three of which are said to be fully suffici- ent, where other harroAvv, require four. His implement may also be employed as a rake, or for any si- milar purpose. From the great importance of harrows in tillage, Ave have been induced to extend this article to a considerable length. Although we do not pretend to decide on the re- lative value and practical utility of the diffei cut inventions or improve- ments before speciiied, yet we should probably -elect th- imple- H A R 255 ments contrived by Mr. Sandi- lands, Avithout prejudice, Iioav- evcr, to the merits of. the rest, which are doubtless calculated to be eminently useful in different soils and situations. HARTS-HORNS, are the horns of the common male red deer.... The scrapings, or raspings, of this animal's horns are medicinal, and employed in decoctions, ptisans, or cooling drinks, Sec. Harts-horn jelly is remarkably nourishing and sometimes given in cases of diarrhoea : a decoction of burnt harts-horn in Avater is, however, generally substituted for this purpose. The coal of harts-horn, Avhich is prepared by exposing it to a strong and long-continued fire, changes into a very Avhite earth, called calcined liarts-horn. It is employed medicinally as an absor- bent, and likewise in dysenteries, which are supposed to arise from acrid and ill-digested matter. The salt of harts-horn is sudori- fic, and has been successfully pre- scribed in fevers : it yields a very penetrating spirit, which is useful to persons of weak nerves, or sub- ject to fainting fits; though the preparation generally used, is dis- tilled from bon:s, after extracting the oil. The latter is more grate- ful to the stomach, retains its lim- pidity for a much longer period, and is consequently superior to that obtained from harts-horn. This valuable substitute, however, is frequently adulterated by means of quick-lime. In order to detect the fraud, Let a small portion of strong spirit of wine be mixed with the suspected volatile spirit; and, if a white powder be separated, let it subside, till the fluid can be dc- cmt.-J. \ little: of the sediment 256 H A T HAT is then to be poured into a spoon, and held near a fire, or over the flame of a candle : if the powder be completely dissipated, the spi- rit is not prepared Avith lime, and contains a due proportion of A'ola- tile salt; but, if any remain in the spoon after it has been exposed to a moderate heat, it may be con- cluded that quick-lime, and other pernicious ingredients, have been employed. [The utility of the spirits of harts-horn, or spirit of sal-ammo- niac in curing the effects of the bite of a snake, were mentioned in vol. i. p. 44. The efficacy of the remedy has lately been confirmed by a publication of Dr. Ramsey of Charleston. S. C] Hasel. See Hazel-nut Tree. HAT, a covering for the head, which is generally made of a mix- ture of Spanish wool Avith that of hares, kids, rabbits, beaver, Sec. Lately, feathers have been useful- ly employed in the manufacture of this article. As it Avould be too tedious to de- tail the various processes the dif- ferent materials undergo, before they are converted into felt, Ave shall content ourselves with ob- serving, that the degree of fine- ness depends entirely on the grea- ter or less quality cf hare's wool and beaver employed in its tex- ture. The former is usually mix- ed wi*h equal portions of the finest sheep or lamb's wed; but the hea- ver is generally coi,lined to the- fac- ing of finer iiats, ir.to Avhich it is worked superficially, and therefore seldom used for the body, or prin- cipal material of this article. After the hat has hetn shaped and fashiened, it is e'yed in a li- quid prepared of logwood, and a mixture ciVreen copperas and i.hie vitriol ; Avhen it is stiffened with common glue: the beer grounds (Avhich are previously applied to the inside, to prevent the glue from penetrating through to the face) * being perfectly dry. In the dyeing process, however, our hatters ac- knowledge their inferiority to those of France and Holland, Avhich is imputed to the Avater on the conti- nent being kept for many months, nay, in some places, for years, be- fore it is used.... Various other little operations are still required, in or- der to soften and give the hat its final shape, after Avhich it is lined and trimmed for sale. A patent Avas granted in January 1782, to Mr. Robert Golding, of SouthAvark, hat-dyer; for his method of dyeing, staining, and colouring beaver hats green, or any other colour....The inventor directs the nap of the hat to be raised by means of a card, on the side in- tended to be dyed, and then boiled in alum and argol. A thin paste should be made of fiour, or clay, Avhich is spread over every part that is not to be dyed, and then closed; or the hat may be pre- viously pasted, and instead of being boiled, it should be only simmered in the same liquor. As scon as the paste is spread, plates of copper or other metal, shaped like a common funnel, are fixed over the paste, to prevent the dye from penetrating through. In this state, the hat is immersed in the clye, till the colour he sufficiently fixed ; Avhen it is taken out, opened, and cleansed from the paste : but, if any co- louring particles have penetrated through the felt, they may be re- moved by rubbing them with a small quantity of spirit of salt, aqua forlis, Uc. The compounds em- ployed in dyeing, are fustic, tur- HAT HAT 257 meric, ebony, saffron, alum, argol, indigo, and vitriol, with urine, or pearl-ash, at the option ofthe dyer; all of which are used together, or separately, according to the colour required. Among the different patents granted to hatters, for discovering neAv materials in this manufacture, such as that of Mr. J. Burn, in 1792, for mole-fur; and another to Mr. J. Tilstone, in 1794, for kid-hair; we shall only notice an invention of Mr. George Dun- nage, who, in NoA'ember 1794, ob- tained a patent for his Watcr-piroof Hats, in imitation of beaver. The articles he employs are si- milar to those commonly used for the making of hats, with Avhich he mixes Bergam, Piedmont, or Or- ganzine silk. These are dressed and worked in a peculiar manner ; though Ave understand that hats thus prepared become heavy and oppressiAre - to the wearer, wfiile they acquire an ugly colour....The curious reader Avill find the paten- tee's specification inserted, at full length, in the 4th aoI. ofthe Re- pertory of Arts and Manufactures. The same manufacturer procured another patent in November 1798, for a method of ventilating the crowns of hats. This hwention consists in separating the top i'mm the sides of the crown, so that the tip, or top crown, may be either raised or let down at pleasure, in order to admit the external air, or to exclude it from circulating in the crown ofthe hat. The Avhole connivance is effected by means of springs, sliders, sockets, grooves, loops, and cases, Avhich are con- nected Avith the top and side- crown : thus the admission or ex- clusion of atmospheric ah in front, vol. in. behind, or on either side, may be regulated accordingly....As this in- vention is ingenious, Ave refer the reader to the loth vol. of the Avork last emoted, Aviicre he will find a minute account, illustrated by an engraving. In November, 1801, a patent was obtained by Messrs. John Walker and Plter Alphey, for contriving Avater-proof hats and caps, as likewise for rendering silk, linen, leather, cotton, and other materials for wearing apparel, wa- ter-proof....Their invention consists in providing the respective articles^. with a coat of oil-paint; after which they are japanned with a varnish mixed Avith lamp or ivory- black. The caps and hats are ma- nufactured of paste-board covered with canvas, and treated in a simi- lar manner; but the leather, to be made water-proof, should not be previously dressed Avith oil, or any unctuous matter....For a more mi- nute account of the method in which the different compositions are applied, the reader -will consult the 16th vol. ofthe " Repertory of Arts," F.y. [The art of hat-making has been fully detailed by Mr. Nicholson, in his Philosophical Juurnal, vol. 1, 2,"and 3, 4to. to which the reader is referred.] HATCH I> G, is the maturation of, or communicating life to, fecun- dated eggs, either by the incuba- tion and warmth of the parent bird, or by artificial heat. The art of hatching chickens by means of o\'ens, has been long practised in Egypt, A\here it is con- fined to the'knowledge of the in- habitants of a single village and its vicinity. This method bring easily understood, we shall only observe, L L 258 H A T II A W that each brood is supposed to con- sist of 30,000 chickens; the num- ber of ovens amounts to 386, Avhich are in constant employ for six months; and, as the eggs are completely hatched in three weeks, or about the same period as a hen continues to sit upon a brcod, it has been calculated that the ovens of Egypt every year communicate life to at least 92,640,000 chickens! A A'ery ingenious and useful me- thod of hatching eggs, Ave conceive, is that invented by the celebrated naturalist Reaumur, avIio reduced Miis art to fixed principles. The degree of heat necessary for the purpose, is nearly the same as that marked 36 deg. on his own ther- mometer, Avhich is equal to about 96 cleg, of Fahrenheit, as Avell as to the heat both of the skin of the hen and all other fowl. M. Reaumur employed stoves of any shape, which were heated by means of a baker's oven ; or in a room warmed by an oven under- neath : the eggs Avere here depo- sited, and occasionally shifted in a similar manner as the parent birds move them; in order that each egg might equally participate in the irregularities of the stoA e. The on- ly important object is, to ascertain the precise degree of heat: Avith this design, he melted and poured into a phial two parts of butter and one of tal'oAV. When the heat Avas of a proper temperature, the liquid grease resembled a thick syrup ; if it Avas' too great, the mixture flow- ed like oil, on holding the phial sideward ; but, when the heat was too low, it remained fixed in a lump. Thus, by placing the phial into tlie stove, the proper degree of heat may be easily regulated. He also invented a kind of hollow covers, or low boxes, Avithout bottoms; and lined with fur, w hich he called artificial Parents. These not only shelter the chickens, Avhen hatched, but also afford them a genial Avarmth, so that they fly under the boxes as readily as they resort to the protection of the wings of the hen. In a few days, they may be turned out into the open air, and committed to the care of capons, or even cocks, w hich may be taught to perform the maternal office, and Avatch them Avith as much solici- tude as is evinced by hens. HAULM, Halm, or Hawk, among farmers, signifies the stem or stalk of corn, pease, beans, Sec. from the root to the car. The haulm of beans affords an excellent fodder for Avorking- horses; that of pease, if saved in a fiA'ourable season, makes nou- rishing and Avholesome food for horses, cattle, and sheep.....The stalks of potatoes are of considera- ble utility as a manure : if spread on coarse sour pasture, they will totally change its nature, and en- hance the value of the land from ten to fifteen shillings per acre. HAW, or Haugh, in farriery, is a spongy excrescence in the in- ner corner of the eyes of horses, or other cattle, and Avhich, if not timely removed, will occasion total blindness. It arises from gross humours, and is known by the Ava- tering of the eye, and the opening of the lower side. To cure this excrescence, far- riers direct the affected animal to be held fast by the head, and the upper eye-lid to be draAvn back by means of a needle and strong thread; Avhich, in cows or oxen, may be tied to one of the horns. The haw is then to be carefully cut out with a knife, after which the eye should be dressed, then HAW HAW 259 washed with a sponge clipped in beer, or ale, and salt, in order to cleanse it properly, and absorb the blood. This operation, hoAveA'er, ought to be performed only by skilful farriers, as many valuable horses have been rendered irreco- verably blind by the deep cutting of ignorant pretenders. In such case, the Avound must be dressed Avith honey of roses; and, if any fungous or spongy flesh should arise, it ought to be sprinkled with burnt alum, or to be touched with blue vitriol, that it might be com- pletely eradicated. Where sheep are affected with the haws, the prac- tice is to drop the juice of chamo- mile, or crows-fcot, into the eye. [The method of removing haws, Avas noticed under the article Eat..] HAWK, the Common, or Spar- rowhaavk, Falco jYisus, L. is a bold and spirited bird: it abounds in almost every part of Europe ; and varieties of it are found dis- persed over the Avhole earth. The length of the male of these birds is twelve inches ; that of the female fifteen; the former differs both in size and colour from the latter. The female builds her nest in hollow trees, high rocks, or lof- ty ruins, sometimes in the old nest of a' crow, and generally lays four or five eggs, marked at the point- ed end Avith reddish spots. The SparrowhaAvk is obedient and docile : by keeping him awake three or four days successively in a hoop, till he become almost deli- rious, he may afterwards be easily trained to hunt partridges and quails. In a wild slate, however, these creatures commit great de- predations on pigeons, poultry, rab- bits, hares, Sec. so that the follow- ing method of catching them will probably be acceptable to manv readers. A haAvk-cage, made upon a plan similar to that of a goldfinch trap- cage, but larger, and baited Avith two house-sparrows, should be ex- posed in a fine clear morning, on a hedge, or some other open place, and left out till late in the evening. By this simple contrivance, those picdatory birds might be easily taken ; and either destroyed, or preserved forthe purposes of hawk- ing ; an amusement that has late- ly been abandoned in this country, and therefore requires no descrip- tion. HAWK-MOTH, or Sphinx, L. is a genus of insects, comprising 165 species, ten of Avhich are dis- covered in Britain, and variously named, according to the trees they infest. The generality of hawk-moths spin their cods under ground, in- terweaving with their threads small particles of grain and earth. They appear either early in the morning, or after sun-set: their flight is slow, and often accompanied Avith a pe- culiar sound. The caterpillars of these insects are usually found rolled up in the leaves of trees ; some being green, and smooth ; others brown or yellow ; again, others are spotted, and furnished with rings, or belts. The most certain method of pre- venting the depredations of hawk- moths, consists in collecting the leaves they inhabit, and crushing the insects ; after Avhich the trees should be Avashed Avith a mixture of clear lime-water, and a decoction of tobacco leaves. Such cleansing will, according to Mr. Forsyth, also be found an effectual remedy, when the moths are in the state oi 260 HAW HAW larva ; having preAiously picked off and destroyed the caterpillars. iiAWKWKED, or iFraeium, L. a native genus of perennial plants, comprising forty-six spe- cies, the principal of which are : 1. The Filosella, Mouse-ear HawkAveed, which groxvs in dry meadows, pastures, and on Avails; its ficnvers possess the singular pro- perty of opening in the morning, and closing early in the afternoon : they blow from May to September. This species differs from other lac- tescent plants, being less bitter, and more astringent, on which ac- count it was formerly esteemed in the cure of blood-spitting. It is con- sidered as noxious to sheep, which are not partial to it; and though eaten by goats, it is refused by horses and cows. 2. The auricula, NarroAv-leaAr- ed HaAvkweed,orUmbelled Mouse- ear, thrives on mountains, in the county of Westmoreland, and flow- ers in the month of July. It de- serves to be cultivated on the bor- ders of gardens where bees are kept; for, according to Bech- stein, it furnishes them Avith an abundance of wax and honey. HAWTHORN, or Crataegus, L. a genus of plants, consisting of twenty-five species, three of which are natives cf Britain. I. The Aria (Pyrus Aria of Dr. Smith), White-beam Hawthorn, or Wild Pear-tree, which »rows in woods and hedges, especially in mountainous situations with a cal- caieous soil, and flowers in the month of May. It delights in dry hills, and open exposures, thriving either in gravel or clay. It will bear lopping, and does not prevent grass from growing beneath it. The Avhite-beam hawthorn is eaten by sheep and goats, Avhich last ani- mals devour it with avidity. Its fruit is red, and when mellowed by the autumnal frosts, furnishes a grateful repast; a spirituous li- quor may be obtained from it by distillation. This species seldom produces a good crop of fruit for tAvo years in succession; but its barrenness is amply compensated by the utility of its hard, tough, and smooth wood ; which is form- ed into axle-trees, wheels, walk- ing-sticks, carpenter's and other tools : its seed should either be soAvn as soon as it becomes ripe, or preserved in damp sand. 2. 'Pile Oxyacantha (Mespilus Oxyacantha of Dr. Smith) White- thorn, or May, which grows in hedges, woods, and old parks. This is a very valuable shrub, and, on account of the stiffness of its branches, the sharpness of its thorns, and its hardiness in endur- ing the severest Avinters Avithout injury, it is universally preferred for making fences and hedges. The berries during avinter afford food to various birds, but may be more usefully employed in fatten- ing hogs : the Avood is very tough, and, like the Avhite-beam hawthorn, converted into axle-trees and han- dles for tools. There are several varieties of this species, of which we shall mention only the celebrated Glas- tonbury Thorn. It is in bluom twice in the year: the winter blos- soms (about the size of a sixpence) appear about Christmas, and much earlier, if the winter be very se- vere. These, hoAvever, produce no fruit. This extraordinary thorn has been celebrated for its age, for nearly a Avhole century ; the oldest inhabitants never having observed it in any other than its present state. The berries of this miraculous va- HAY HAY 261 riety conmin only one seed; and, when soAvn, produce plants which dilrer in no respect from the com- mon hawthorn. 3. The torminalis, Wild Service- tree, Sorb, or Service Hawthorn, Avhich groAvs in woods and hedges, and flowers in the month of May. Its dark yellow berries ripen in October, and may be eaten either raw or preserveil in sugar. They also yield, on fermentation, a good vinegar, as well as an ardent spirit by distilling them: where they abound, hogs may be easily fat- tened. [There are several native spe- cies of Crataegus or Thorn in the United States....See Hedge.] HAY, signifies any kind of grass, that is cut and dried for fodder. The time of mowing grass for hay, ought to be regulated accord- ing to its growth and maturity; for it is extremely detrimental to a crop, to cut it too early ; because the sap has not sufficiently circu- lated through the Avhole blade of grass; so that the latter, Avhen made into hay, shrinks and consi- derably diminishes in bull.. It is, however, equally prejudicial to the grass, if it be suffered to stand till it shed its seeds. When the tops of the grass appear broAvn, it will then be fit for being mowed. The chief object in making hay, is to preserve the vegetable juices: with this design, different methods have been adopted, of which Ave shall notice the principal. In the county of Middlesex, whence the London markets are chitfly supplied Avith hay, all the grass mowed on the first day, be- fore nine o'clock in the morning, is tedded, that is, uniformly spread over the meadow, divided as much as possible, and Avell turned, be- fore twc've o'clock, and perhaps a second time in the afternoon. It is then raked into wind-rows, and formed into smail cocks. On the second clay, the grass mown the preceding day alter nine o'clock, and wln.t is cut on this day before that time, is tedded, and treated in the manner above described. Previously to turning the grass of the second day's work, the small cocks thrown up on the preceding day are well shaken out into straddles, or separate plats, five or six yards square. If the crop be so thin as to leave large spaces between the plats, they ought to be raked clean. The next business is, to turn the plats, and also the grass cut on the second day, which is generally clone be- fore one o'clock, in order that all the grass which is mowed may be drying Avhile the people are at dinner. In the afternoon, the straddles or plats are raked into double Avind-rows; the grass into single ones ; and the hay is thrown up into field-cock* of a middling size, also called bastard cocks ,• the grass is then cocked, as on the preceding clay. Similar operations are succes- sively performed on the third day ; the hay in bastard-cocks is again spread into straddes, and the whole is turned previously to the people going to dinner. Should the wea- ther have proved fine and Avarm, the hay that Avas made into bas- tard-cocks on the second eA-ening, will, in the afternoon of the third day, be fit to be housed. On the fourth day, the hay is put into stacks. This method has, from experience, proved very success- ful, especially in favourable wea- ther. On the Duke of Argyle's es- 262 HAY HAY rates in Scotland, the hay is dried on pins in barns ; and, Avhen thus made, it has been found to be re- markably green and sweet. According to Dr. Anderson's plan, the grass is to be cut only Avhen it is perfectly dry, Avithout spreading it out into swath's, Avind- rows, he. or tedding it, as is the general practice. Immediately after it is moAved, it is thrown up into small and narrow cocks about three feet high ; each cock is slightly thatched, by drawing a lit- tle hay from the bottom of the cock, Avhich is laid on the top, with one cf the ends doAvnAvards. Thus, the hay may Avith ease and expe- dition be rendered equally safe from rain and wind, unless a violent storm should occur immediately after the cocks are raised. And, if they be put up when the grass is perfectly dry, Dr. Anderson af- firms that they " never sit so close- ly as to heat," though they become in the course of a day or tAvo so firm as not to be liable to be over- turned, unless by a hurricane. In these cocks, the hay is suf- fered to remain for a Aveek or a fortnight ; till upon inspection, it is judged that they will keep in tolerably large tramp-cocks; in a-, hich case two men, each of Avhom is provided Avith a pitch-fork, carry the small cocks between them suc- cessively to the place where the tramp-cocks are to be raised. The advantages attending this method arc : 1. That the labour is consi- derably shortened ; 2. That the hay continues almost as green as when it was first cut, and that it re- tains its natural juices in the great- est perfection ; Avhereas,by spread- ing it out, tedding it in the sun, Sec. it becomes bleached, its sap ex- hales : and it is frequently much damaged by the rain. Particular care, hoAvever, ought to be taken, that the grass be perfectly dry, Avhen first piled up into cocks: for, if it be in the least degree wet, it will speedily become mouldy, clog together so closely as to be impervious to the air, and never dry, unless it be spread out in the sun. To prevent such an accident, Dr. Anderson directs the cut- ting of the grass to be commenced during fine, settled weather in the morning, and not to suffer the hay makers to touch it, till the dew be evaporated. In the 28th vol. of Annals of Agriculture, we meet with a com- munication from David Barclay, Esq. of Walthamstow, Essex, Avho has employed Dr. Anderson's method of making hay with suc- cess ; but, instead of conveying the hay by hand to the stack, he caused a cart rope to be fixed round the bottom of a large cock, and to be drawn by a horse to the stack, while a man fixes a pitch-fork in the opposite side, and thus pushes the cock. Dr. Darwin proposes a middle way to be adopted between the different methods practised in the North and South of Britain. If the sAvath of cut grass be turned over only once in the course of a clay, for three or four days, the internal parts of it become in a manner dried in the shade; and, if it be afterwards spread over the ground only for a feAv hours in a fine clay, he believes the hay Avould become sufficiently dry to be stack- ed. He strongly recommends the grass to be throAvn into small cocks at night, especially if the weather be clamp, to prevent it from being injured by the excre- ments and slime from the vastnum- HAY HAY 263 bers of worms, Avhich rise out of the ground during warm moist nights. For this reason, the hay- cocks ought to be made as high in proportion to their base as pos- sible, that a less surface may be in contact with the ground, Avhile the broader top is exposed to the ac- tion ofthe air, by Avhich the exha- lation of its moisture is accelerated, and the hay itself is secured from accidental showers. In wet seasons, Dr. Darwin thinks the best method is to turn the swaths every day, or every other day, or make them into small cocks; thus to secure the Avhole from the injuries of incessant rains; and also to prevent the parts next the ground, as well as in the mid- dle from fermenting and putrify- ing. WThen the weather becomes more favourable, the hay may be made into large cocks, so that the perflation of the atmosphere Avill not only cause its moisture to ex- hale the more quickly, but an in- cipient fermentation -will discharge a portion of heat, and thus contri- bute to dry the hay, by increasing the evaporation : in a similar man- ner, the remarkable heat genera- ted in hay-stacks, finished only one or tAvo days, greatly contributes to dry the whole stack. Hay constituting the chief food of horses and other cattle, espe- cially during the Avinter, different contriAances have been suggested to prevent it from being injured by rain, Avhile mak.ng. And here we cannot but recommend the practice of tip/ding, Avhich Ave have already described ; as, from its simplicity and facility, it is equally applicable to clover and other grasses. In the Mth vol. ofthe Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, Sec. Mr. John Middleton, of Lambeth, gives an account of a machine to be used in the making of hay. It consists of a back and two sides, or gates, each of which is about seven feet in length. The frames, or exte- rior parts, are of oak or ash, that of the tack being four inches by four, while those ofthe Avings aie three inches by three. Between all the: frames are fixed deal planks three inches by two and a half, and at the end of each Aving, or gate, are chains, to which the horses are to be fastened by means of splinter bars. Before this machine can be employed, the hay is to be put into rows ; the animals bring harness- ed, and managed by persons mount- ed on them, they are sloAvly driven on, so that all the hay may be col- lected between the gates. When the machine is filled, and the load is to be drawn to a distant place, the horses must be kept as closely together as possible. We conceive Mr. Middleton's implement will be found useful during the ardent heat of summer, especially Avhen there are but few labourers, in dragging the hay to- gether as soon as it is sufficiently made, and thus preventing it from bring parched. In showery Avea- ther, it is se.id to be still more ser- viceable ; as, in case of approach- ing rain, the grass may he collect- ed immediately, formed into a stack, and sheltered from wet by a cloth, or by treading it closely to- gether, leaving a ridge in the mid- dle, and by raking it down en the outside. He observes- that during the wet summer of 1795, this ma- chine was particularly convenient ; ami that, if the b^vs or drivers be 264 HAY steady, and the horses tractable, or accustomed to the work, ten acres of hay may be effectually secured in little more than one hour. [The following description of a hay-harrow, or rake, is taken from the Trans. Dublin Soc. having ori- ginally appeared in the Avorks of the Rottcrdum Society. As the object of this contrivance is to diminish labour, the Editor thought it might prove useful to the farmers of the PTnited States, and hence has given a full account of its merits. If the hay, Avhen raked by the machine, dries so rapidly as stated, in the cool moist air of Holland ; the hay-rake must answer au ex- cellentpurpose in our warm dry air. The hay-rake is cf the size of a harrow. The upper and under rails are two or three inches square, and nine feet long, fastened together Avith three pieces, five inches broad, one inch and a quarter thick, and four feet four inches long ; one in the middle, and the other two on each side, ten inches from the ernds ofthe rails, as at aa. To give this machine yet more strength, there must be two diagonal braces b b ; in each of the rails must be five teeth six inches long in the clear, and three quarters of an inch diameter, placed as in the plate, and sloping outwards to the rear ; for if they slope forward;., or are up- right, they Avill cluster the grass too much in lumps. The teeth may be made of iron, and a little smaller, if the harrow sink through the hay or grass into the ground. The hay-harrow is drawn by a horse, upon which a man sits, who scatters the hay, by harrowing it from the swath, as thick as is ne- cessary to diy it. Three acres of grass may be turned in one hour, HAY and well mixed; and on a warm dry day, the horse may be kept constantly going ; Avhen the last of the acre is turned, the first of it may be begun Avith, because the grass may be sufficiently dry on the upper part, so that if this Avork be done at an early hour ofthe day, the cocks may be made up in the afternoon ; because if it should not be yet sufficiently dry, it will be so before it is all cocked. Play composed entirely of red clover has been proved by repeated experience to be injurious to horses Avhen given constantly. New clover hay is said to hurt their eyes, and old clover hay to injure their wind in an evident manner. These are singular effects, and not yet Avell explained : but as the facts stated are the result of numerous en- quiries among men the least liable to prejudice, the reader is cau- tioned against the injury he may sustain, from inattention, disbelief, or ignorance of these properties of clover hay. Timothy or green grass, should therefore be mixed with clover; and every species of hay should be well salted,by sprink- ling a large handful of salt over the surface of eA'ery load of hay. The effect of salt in making even poor hay palatable, Avas stated under the head of Cattle, vol. -2d, on the au- thority of an experienced feeder and grazier.] In the 2d A'ol. of the Transac- tions of the same Society, Mr. Richard Toft, of Kentish ToAvn, describes a contrivance for securing hay-ricks from rain, while they are raising ; for which he was reward- ed with a silver mccLl. It consists of 240 yards of coarse cloth, called duck, prepared with tar and oil ; three scaffold-poles, two of which are upright, the third is thicker in HAY HAY 265 the middle than at the ends, being intended for a ridge ; tAvo double blocks ; four pedestals, and about one hundred Aveight of tarred rope: beside these articles, there is a reel, or Avindlass, together with pullies, and iron work, Sec. the Avhole ex- pence of which amounts to about 28/. The pedestals are to be placed four feet in the ground, for the re- ception of the poles. The Avidth of the cloth is required to be great- er than its length, as it is to be raised by a ridge-pole, for the ad- mission of air: and as the stacks are generally Avider in the middle than at the bottom, the cloth is di- vided into two parts, that it may be the more easily folded over the pole. When a rick is advanced above the eaA'cs, and begins to become narrow, Mr. Toft di- rects the cloth to be taken clown, by unhooking one end ofthe ridge- pole, and letting it doAvn by means cf a rope ; after which the other is to be unhooked, Sec. in a similar manner. The cloth may be suf; fered to rest upon the sides of the rick, but, in case of high Avinds, it will be requisite to fasten it with ropes. In erecting the stacks, great caution is necessary that the hay be not put together before it is per- fectly dry; in Avhich case it not unfrequently happens that whole stacks are suddenly reduced to ashes. To prevent such accidents, a chimney or funnel is usually made in the centre of the stack, but it then becomes necessary to form adverts beneath the stack, by digging three or four trenches; co- vering them with boards or sticks ; and exposing their apertures in every direction to the Avind, in order to ensure continual ventila- tion. VOL. III. As the erecting of funnels in stacks is not universally adopted, it is of consequence to ascertain the degree of heft which the stacked hay has acquired, lest it should at any time take fire. One of the easiest methods is that pursued by Mr. Ducket, and Avhich consists simply in thrusting a scaffold-bolt, or some long iron bolt into the hay rick, and then introducing a gun, or ram-rod, furnished with a strong Avorm, and screAving cut a sample, by Avhich he not only discovers the heat, but also the colour ofthe hay; and if the stack require air, he per- forates it in several parts Avith si- milar holes, Avhich thus ansAver every purpose of a ventilating fun- nel. In Lancashire, bams have, Avith- in these few years, been erected for the preservation of hay, Avhence they are denominated hay-barns. They are built upon pillars, and covered with slates. Sometimes they are provided with floors board- ed with planks, loosely placed, per- forated with holes, and lying hol- Ioav for a certain space aboA-e the ground, for the purpose of admit- ting a free circulation of air be- neath. These buildings are cheap, useful, and very convenient in bad weather: they afford such advan- tages in the preservation of hay, as will in a short time amply repay the expence of erecting them. Having already pointed out the necessity as Avell as the utility of riving salt to cattle, Ave shall here only remark, that the most intelli- gent farmers sprinkle the salt while the stack is raising, alternately be- tAveen each layer of hay, in the proportion of 1 cwt. of salt to se- ven or eight tons of hay. Pi very species of cattle will prefer inferi-.r food thus prepared, to the finest M M 266 H A Z HA2 hay in its raAV state : for the salt assimilating Avith the juices of the hay, prevents too great a fermenta- tion, and imparts a superior fla- \rour. Farther, the salting of hay- ricks effectually secures them from becoming over-heated, or mildew- ed ; so that the hay may be put to- gether, Avithout the least danger of its taking fire, in a much greener state than would otherAvise be safe. An excellent apparatus for se- curing hay and corn-stacks, has been contrived by Sir Joseph Banks ; but, as an adequate idea of it cannot be conveyed Avithout the aid of an engraving, we refer the reader to the 10th vol. of Annals of Agriculture, where its description is illustrated by a plate. A patent was granted in Febru- ary, 1801, to Mr. William Les- ter, of Cotton End, Northamp- tonshire, for his improved engine for cutting hay, straAV, tobacco, Sec. of Avhich Ave shall give a farther account under the head of Straav- CUTTER. HAYS, signify a particular kind of net, for taking rabbits, hares, Sec. As rabbits frequently straggle abroad at mid-day for fresh grass, two or three of these nets are di- rected to be pitched at the entrance of their burroAvs. The sportsman then goes round their haunts Avith a clog, and drives them into their burrows, Avhere an assistant seizes thein as they enter. HAZEL-NUT TREE, or Co- njlus, L. a genus of plants con- sisting of four species : one of these is a native of Britain, namely, the uvcllana, or Common Hazel-nut tree. It grows in Avoods, copses, and hedges ; fioAvers in March or April. All the different species of the hazel are large, hardy, and deci- duous shrubs; they have several varieties, valuable for their fruit, Avhich, in a cultivated state, are known under the name of Filberts. These shrubs prosper in almost any soil, or situation : and may be propagated either by layers, or by planting their nuts in February ; for which purpose the latter should be preserved in sand, in a moist cellar, inaccessible to vermin ; but they should not be secluded from the external air, for Avant of Avhich they will become mouldy. When reared in coppices, this shrub pro- duces abundance of underwood, that may be cut every 5th, 7th, or 8th year, according to the purpose for which it is designed. The uses of this avoocI are vari- ous : it is employed for poles, hoops for barrels, spars, hurdles, handles for implements of hus- bandry, walking-sticks, fishing- rods, S:c. Where beautiful speci- mens are required for veneering or staining, the roots of the hazel-nut tree are preferable to the branches. In Italy, the chips are used for fin- ing turbid Avines ; and in countries where yeast is scarce, the twigs of this shrub, dried, and afterwards soaked in the fermenting liquor, serve as a substitute for that arti- cle in brewing. Painters and en- gravers prepare coals for draAving outlines, from the wood of this plant, by the following process : Pieces of dried hazel, about the thickness of a finger, and four or five inches in length, are put into a large pot filled Avith sand, and the top of which is closely covered with clay. In this manner they are placed in a potter's oven, or other- wise exposed to a sufficient degree of heat; and, on cooling, the sticks are found to be converted into char- coal, which draws freely, and is H AZ easily effaced with India-rub- ber. According to Evelyn, no plant is better calculated for thickening copses than the hazel ; Avith this vieAv he recommends the following expeditious method : Take a pole of hazel (for Avhich ash or poplar may be substituted) of 20 or 30 feet in length, the head of which is somewhat lopped'vntothe ground; the pole should likewise be chopped near the soil, in order to make it yield : thus fastened to the earth Avith a hook or two, and covered Avith fresh mould sufficiently deep, it Avill produce an incalculable num- ber of suckers, speedily thicken, and furnish a fine coppice. The kernels of the fruit of the hazel-nut tree, though difficult of digestion, have a mild, farinace- ous, oily taste, Avhich is agreeable to most palates; yet yilFrt* are said to be more nourishing than nuts : both, however, operate as a cathartic, Avhen cheAved small and taken in considerable quantities ; but produce constipations of the bowels, if SAvalloAvedin large pieces; and dysentery, if eaten unripe. A kind of chocolate has been prepar- ed from this fruit, which has also occasionally been converted into bread. An expressed oil is ob- tained from the nuts, which is lit- tle inferior to that of almonds : it is often preferably used by painters, as it readily dries; and chemists employ it as the basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines with, and retains, odours. An emulsion made ofthe kernels, and taken Avith good old mead, is recommended for invete- rate dry coughs....Squirrels r.rd mice are excessively fond of the nuts; goats and horses eat the H E A 267 leaves, but they are refused by sheep and hogs. HEAD, the uppermost or fore- most part of the animal body. As the foundation of many dis- eases is laid, by taking cold in this part of the frame, we shall offer a few hints relative to its covering.... For neAv-born children, an easy and moderately warm head-dress is fully sufficient during the first weeks of their existence; as su- perfluous ornaments only tend to encumber and to fatigue teem. The infant's cap, however, ought not to be narrow, nor tied too closely, lest the head be compres- sed, the muscles of the ears crip- pled, and the sense of hearing im- paired. It is equally hurtful for children and adults to walk in the sun Arii.ii the head uncovered, yet our cum- bersome black hats, though sanc- tioned by custom and fashion, are generally too heavy for the hot days of summer; they ought to be ma- nufactured of lighter materials, and either white, or dyed of some light colour, especially for soldiers, tra- vellers, and persons labouring in the field. Such individuals should wear hats made of oil-clovh, sup- ported by fine wires, or of straw, chips, S:c. In this temperate climate, youth may Avith safety be accustomed to go with their heads uncovered; but, in those countries Avhere either of the two extremes of heat or cold prevail, the opposite practice must be adopted. Many diseases, hoAvever, might be avoided, were the trite, but true maxim of "keeping the head cool," more strictly attended to. Hence the Avearing of thick and warm nmhl-caps, whether at night, or in 268 H E A HE A the day time, cannot be too much reprobated ; as those who indulge in this Avhimsical habit, render themselves continually liable to take cold from the slightest change in the atmosphere. [The dress of the head both clay and night, should be accommodat- ed to the state of the weather. A chip hat in winter Avould not be more absurd than a netting night cap in Avinter. In cold Aveather the head should be defended at night by a thick cap of cotton or flannel lined Avith muslin, in order to pre- serve an uniform temperature of body, and thus prevent the undue action of the external coic! air upon the head....See Teeth.] PIE AD-AC H, or Cephalalgia, a painful sensation in the head, pro- duced by various causes, and at- tended with different effects, ac- cording to its various degrees, and the part of the head Avhere it is si- tuated. Plead-ach, in general, is only a symptom of disease, and frequent- ly occasioned by effusions of blood on the brain, as also by ulcers, accretions, Sec. on that sensible or- gan. Persons of a sedentary life, or those subject to costiveness or indigestion, are more peculiarly li- able to the attachs of the head-ech. An acrimonious state ofthe fluids ; the stone : catarrhs ; contusions on the head ; a diseased state of the teeth ; piles; hysterics ; strong odours of every kind ; the fumes of tobacco ; rheumatism ; gout ; scurvy ; worms, both in the intes- tines and in the head ; too much hair; grief; and intoxication, are among the numerous causes of this affection, which is sometimes so violent as almost to deprive the unhappy sufferer of his senses. Where the head-ach originates from an internal cause situated Avithin the brain, it is seldom cur- able. In nervous affections, re- lief may sometimes be procured by venesection, cupping, or leeches ; by sneezing remedies, blisters, is- sues, or other topical discharges near the head; by purgatives ; or by determining the fluids to other parts. Frequent combing and cut- ling of the hair, as avcII as bathing the feet in tepid water, w ill likewise be found very serviceable. A poul- tice of elder fiowers applied to the part affected, has been sometimes attended Avith good effects, as also has the holding of a piece of helle- bore in the car. According to Thunberg, Ca- jeput oil, applied to the head, will afford considerable relief. Simi- lar success has attended the ap- plication of xther and spirits of hartshorn as a sternutatory, and as a local remedy. It is asserted, that the most acute and obstinate head- achs haA-e been removed by the use of vervain, both internally in the form of a decoction, and also by suspending the herb round the neck. - Strong coffee has likeAvise been of considerable service, espe- cially to phlegmatic habits, and those Avhose digestion is impaired. [The nervous head-ach, to Avhich women are peculiarly liable, is a distressing complaint ; it may be greatly alleviated by taking ten, fifteen or twenty dropsof laudanum on the approach of the symptoms, and by retiring to a dark silent room. A cup of coffee Avithout milk, taken Avhen the first effects of the anodyne are over, will prevent or mitigate the sickness of stom- ach, Avhich sometimes ensues a dose of opium.] The diet of persons afflicted with the head-ach outfit to consist HE A H E A 269 of such emollient substances as will p-event costiveness; for in- stance, stewed prunes, apples, spi- nach, Sec. The drink should be diluting, such as barley-water, or infusions of malt, Sec. Their feet and legs should be kept warm, and the head shaved, frequently bathed with warm Avater and vinegar, re- taining it as much as possible in an erect posture. Head-wake. See Red Poppy. HEALTH, is a proper disposi- tion of the several constituent parts ofthe body, by Avhich they are en- abled to perform their respective functions Avithout any impediment. The continuance of health de- pends chiefly on what has been professionally called, the six iv.n- naturals ; namely, air; food ; ex- ercise ; the pavmjns ; evacuation and retention ; sleep and Avaking : treating of these subjects in their alphabetical series, and the restora- tion of health being the object of medicine, Ave refer the reader in both respects to the different ar- ticles, according to the order in which they occur. Moderation, hoAvever, in the strictest sense ofthe word, is equal- ly essential to the preservation of health, as a pure air, and Avhole- sonie food. Cleanliness, too, ought by no means to be neglected ; for an unclean person very seldom en- joys good health. Hence, frequent washing; ofthe skin is of the first impormnce ; and Ave arc fully per- suaded, that most of the diseases, with which the low-er classes of people are afflicted, especially in crowded neighbourhoods, originate from the filthy state which is but too evident in many of their wretched habitations. With respect to those persons who propose to reside in hot cli- mates, we shall state only a feAv simple rules, by an attention to Avhich their health may be effectu- ally preserve''. 1. Abstain from all excess in spirituous liquors. 2. Avoid Avith the utmost care the evening cIcavs, or wetting of the feet on the approach of night; as fatal sore throats not unfrequent- ly arise from this source. Should the feet, however, have been Avet- ted by any accident, let the Avhole body be speedily immersed into cold Avater. .1. Bathe every morning in the sea, or, if possible, in sea-Avater ; but, Avhere that cannot be procur- ed, dissolve an ounce of salt in a bason of Avater, and wash the skin Avith the solution, after Avhich put on the clothes without drying the skin. This operation strengthens the muscular fibres, and covers the skin v, ith a kind of saline crust, which, in th.e opinion of Dr. Hales, effectually prevents all fe- brile infectious. With these pre- cautions, he a' serts, a person of a sound constitution may enjoy as good a state of health in the hot- test as ii the most temperate cli- mates. HEAP. ING, is one of the exter- nal senses, and e?:presses the act or facuh.y of perceiving sounds. Animals possess this sense in a more acute degree than m m ; the owl and the hare enjoy the fa- culty of hearing in a pre-eminent degree : by means of it, the for- mer perceives the slightest sounds, and is thus enabled to seEe her prey, while the timed hare is o.u- liuned against approaching clan- ger. This very delicate sense is liable to be impaired by a A-ariely of accidents ; hence arises that un- pleasant defect cailed Doafne^s, 270 H E A of the causes and cure of which Ave have already treated. HEART, a IioIIoav muscle of a conical form, situated at the bot- tom of the thorax or breast: its basis is turned towards the right, and its point towards the left side. The former, Avhence the great blood-vessels take their origin, is covered Avith fat, and has two hol- low appendages, called auricles, from their resemblance to an ear. The whole consists of two caA'ities, which are separated from each other by a thick muscular septum : one of these is called the right and the other the left ventricle. The heart, which may be consi- dered as the most powerful muscle in the animal body, serves to faci- litate the motion or circulation of the bleed, which is communicated to the different parts of the frame, by means of various arteries and veins. These, hoAveA:er, it is the province cf anatomy to describe ; and as that subject does not enter into our plan, we trust this brief explanation will suffice. HEART-BURN, or Cardialgia, an uneasy sensation of heat in the stomach, Avhich is frequently atten- ded with nausea and sickness. The heart-burn generally arises from a preA'ailim; acidity, indiges- tion, the eating of tough fat meat, and unfermented mealy substances. Those persons who are subject to this affection, ought to drink no stale or acid liquors, and to ab- stain from flatulent food. If indigestion, or debility of the stomach, be the cause, the patient may take infusions of Peruvian bark, valerian, or any other sto- machic bitter. Moderate exercise in the open air will contribute to promote digestion, and consequent- ly remove the complaint. HE A Should the heart-burn originate from acidity of the stomach, the general practice is to administer absorbent medicines,.such as pre- pared chalk, crab's ciaws, calcined oyster-shells, Sec. a tea-spoonful of either being given in a glass of peppermint-water, which frequent- ly procures relief. There are, hoAvever, many cases in Avhich absorbents tend to aggra- vate rather than to cure this trou- blesome affection ; namely, when it proceeds from an acrid and em- pyreumatic oil generated on the stomach. In such instances, a tea-spoonful of the powder of gum- arabic dissolved in half a tea-cup- ful of Avater, and repeating this dose three or four times, if neces- sary, has been attended with im- mediate success; and, Avhere the gum cannot be procured, a feAv blanched sweet-almonds finely chewed, and swalloAved, have often produced a similar effect. If the heart burn originate from flatulency, the remedies pointed out for that affection, may be here safely resorted to ; such as infu- sions of anise-seeds, ginger, and other carminatives. HEART'S-EASE, or Herb Trinity, Viola tricolor, L. an in- digenous annual plant, growing in corn-fields, S-c. It produces gene- rally white and yellow blossoms, intermixed Avith purple, which flower from May to September. This plant has almost endless va- rieties, and, Avhe.t reared in gar- dens, is known under the name of Pansies. It Avas formerly in great repu'e for epilepsies, asthmas, See. At present, however, it is used only in the disorder peculiar to children, called crustet luctea, or a species of scald-head affecting the face. A handful of the fresh. HE A H E A 271 or half a dram of the dried leaves, is boiled in a point of milk, and if continued to be drunk for some weeks, both in the morning and evening, it has invariably been at- tended with success. HEAT, signifies either the pe- culiar sensation Ave feel on the ap- proach of burning bodies, or tlie cause of that effect, Avhich is Fire. Heat is now universally consi- dered as a modification of a fluid ; but, after the various inquiries of the most able chemists, much re- mains to be clone towards ascer- taining all the phenomena of this subtle and imisible element. In this place, Ave shall only select a few principles in some degree il- lustrative of its nature and proper- ties : 1. Heat and cold mutually expel each other. 2. Heat is viii- bly occasioned by the concentration of the rays of the sun, and also of the electric fluid. As fire, there- fore, is evidently the cause of heat, it follows that both the light of the sun and the electric fluid are ele- mentary fire. 3. Heat expands bodies in every direction ; hence the elementary fluid, Avhen pro- ducing heat, acts from a centre towards a circumference; and, Avhen it ge nerates ro/rf, .|noves in a contrary direBion. 4. It is, therefore, impossn^e to calculate the precise quantity of heat Avhich any substance contains. 5. Heat assists the progress of vegetation, but too intense a degrceflbf it pro- duces effects te/iSjtfy different. 6. When latent heatls transferred to externa! bodies, vapours become conelt used, and in some cases return to their o;.ginal state: in oth is, they are productive of light, and a vehement degree of sensible heat, w hence the different phenomena of Distillation, Evaporation, Sec. W ith respect to the purposes to which heat is applicable, such as the Avarming of apartments, &c. we refer the reader to the arti- cles PhuE-PLACE, Grated, Hot- houses, Lee. [Substances differ greatly in their power of conducting heat, and this quality directs our use of them in a variety of Avays, in the arts and domestic ceconomy. The simplest mode of determining Avhether any substance is a good, or bad con- ductor of heat, says Ms-. More, (Essay on Ice Houses) is by heating or burning one end of a small piece of some material, and holding the other end in the fingers, if it can be ignited or burnt close to the fingers, Avithout much sensation of heat, it is a sIoav conductor: if on the contrary, a sensation of heat is perceived when the ignition or burning is at some distance from the fingers ; it is a good or quick conductor of heat. Metals differ A'ery sensibly in their conducting power. By ava- riety of experiments, conducted by the celebrated Dr. Ingenhoiz, by the direction of Dr. Franklin, it appears that the powers of the se- veral metals in concluding heat from the best to the Avorst, appear to be in the following or.'.er. Silver, Iron, Co'.par, Steel, Tin, Lead, Gold, Charcoal and wood are very slow conductors of heat: a quality which renders both of extensive utility for various purposes....See articles, Kitchen, Fire-places.] HEATil, or Erica, E. a genus of plants comprising 100 species, five of Avhich arc natives of Britain. The principal of these is the vut- 272 H E C garis, Common Heath or Ling. It groAvs on heaths and in woods ; flowers from June to August. In the island of Islay, in the west of Scotland, a Avholesome ale is prepared, by brewing one part of malt, and two parts ofthe young tops of heath, to Avhich hops are occasionally added. In England, the common heath is employed in making brooms and faggots, Avhich last are used either as fuel in ovens, op for filling up drains before theyli&re covered.... Horses, sheep, and goats, eat the tender shoots of heath....The stalks and tops are of considerable ser- vice in tanning leather, especially for soles; and, if Avoollen cloth, be boiled in alum-Avater, and after- Avards in a strong decoction of the tops, il will acquire a fine orange colour....Bees are very partial to the fioAvtm of this species; bul, where heath abounds, the honey acquires a reddish, tint. HEATH, the 'Berry-bearing, Black Crow-berries, or Crake- KEaniEs, Empeirum nigrum, L. an indigenous plant, groAvmg on moist. mountains and elevated heaths, in the driest and most barren lands, as Avell as in be vs and moorlands. It abounds in Eerovriuro, Staf- fordshire, and the northern coun- ties ; floAvers in the months of April and May. Its black berries are eaten by the Highlanders ; but, if taken in large quantities, they occasion violent head-achs : hence they are more proper for grouse. The plant is not relished by goal.?, and is totally refused by horses, cows, and sheep:....if boiled with mum, the berries impart a purplish eive. ' FiECTIC FEVFT1, a species of slow Ever, returning daily, with paroxysms at noon, and in the HEC evening; generally attended with profuse perspiration at night; and the urine depositing a sediment like brick-dust. Causes : Persons of tender con- stitutions, and those who indulge in violent passions, especially grief, are chiefly liable to the attacks of hectic fevers....Besides, luxurious living, abuse of Avine, the drink- ing of impure v/ater, the exces- sive use of perfumes, as Avell as the suppression of natural dischar- ges, and an injudicious treatment of catarrhal, putrid, inflammatory and intermittent fevers, are among the numerous causes of this elis- or ner. Prognosis: Plectics arising in consequence of favourable suppu- ration of a Avound, or uicer, are the least dangerous. But, where they are confirmed, it is in vain to attempt a radical cure, as medi- cine can only mitigate the symp- toms, and protract a lingering ex- istence. The changes of the sea- sons are particularly fatal to young hectic patients who if attacked in the spring, generally languish till the succeeding autumn ; or, if they become subject to the disease dur- ing the sunjmer solstice, they lin- ger out a,AVretc1h|d existence, till about thejfcame ppriod arrives in the folldpng year. Method-of treatment: As this fever arises, from various causes, it must nedpsarMvu-equire differ- ent remedies. In general, howe- ver, the cl|jef object to be attended to, is the mjt'u^pn of the symp- toms, by preA'Wnng both costive- ness and looseness ; by procuring sleep, and checking the night- sv.eaos. The use of Peruvian bark has been attended with considera- ble success ; for it tends to stop the progress of gangrenes, and the H E D H E D 273 suppurations become more favour- able. Cauteries applied to the head, antiscorbutics; together Avith gelatinous, or mealy substances, and the moderate use of generous wine, may be safely administered. In the beginning of the disease, soft, stewed eggs, and raw oys- sters eaten in small portions, have often proved very beneficial. Dr. Hulme recommends the inspira- tion of fixed air, in hectic fevers accompanied with pulmonary complaints. Much, however, de- pends upon the diet, air, and ex- ercise. The diet, indeed, ought to consist chiefly of milk and vege- tables. Half a pint of either goats' or asses' milk, which last is less viscid than any other kind, should be drunk three or four times in the course of a day, and continued for weeks, and even months. Some authors preferably recommend I .ut- ter-milk, which in their opinion is equal to that of asses ; observing that many persons have recovered by the free use of it; nevertheless, it should be sparingly taken at first, and gradually increased till it become almost the only suste- nance. ^^. Persons who h^Mfcfin accus- tomed to animal 8oa VB^strong liquors, must effect this change by imperceptible deffie.srffcind, by persisting in the cc&rse w5ove men- tioned, they Avill jjfmoSLcases re- cover, unless tbAfever «p made such progress |ra to n^Bce the frame to a confirmed coi^Bnption. HEDGE, in aglHy^i^a fence inclosing a field, or garden, £ro. generally made byMntertwining the branches of trees. Hedges are usually divided into two classes: 1. Outward fences, VOL. III. planted either with hawthorn or black-thorn, of Avhich we have al- ready treated under the article Fence ; and, 2. Those intended for gardens, Avhich are planted ac- cording to the fancy of the pos- sessor, Avith holly, yew, or other e\'ergreens. In forming outside hedges, the plants ought to be as nearly as pos- sible of the same size. The sets should be one-third of an inch in diameter, freshly taken up, straight, smooth, and avcII rooted. The best season for planting them out, is late in the autumn ; and the young hedge ought particularly to be attended to during the first two years ; because, if it be then ne- glected, no future care can recover it. The top-shoots must not be shortened, but the sides regularly pruned for some years, while the inclosure is young; for, only by adhering to this practice the hedge will attain a proper degree of close- ness and stiength. The late Mr. Bakewell was remarkably curious in his fences : he used to plant one row at the dist- ance of a foot from set to set; and, after making the ditch, to lay the earth dug out of it, so as to form a bank on the side opposite the quick. In other parts of England, the bank is made on the side of the quick above it. The advantage of Mr. B.'s method is, that the plants glow only in the surface-earth, not secluded from the atmosphere ; whereas, in the common practice, the best earth is generally loaded by a thick covering of mud taken from the ditch, and placed oblique- ly on the bank. There is, how- ever, a considerable Avaste of End in the fo.mer method : for after N n 274 H E D HED the whole Avas thus formed, he usu- allv added a double post and rail; one on the outside of such bank, and the other on the outside of the quick. Hedges designed for ornament in gardens, are sometimes planted AA'ith evergreens, among Avhich the holly is preferable to any other; next in rank is the yeAv, but the dead colour of its leaves renders such hedges less agreeable. The laurel is another plant that may be employed as a fence for gardens ; as it is one of. the most beautiful evergreens ; but it shoots forth Avith such luxuriance, that it is very difficult to confine it to any shape: its leaves, too, are very large, and, if cut through Avith the sheers, present a A'ery disagreea- ble appearance : hence they ought to be pruned Avith a knife, and the shoots exactly cut down to each leaf. In the 3d. vol. of the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, Sec. Mr. Lea- tham, of Barton, gives an account of his method of planting quick- set hedges on dry, gravelly, or thin soils. He considers the cau- ses which render such hedges very indifferent, to be....l. That they are set too Ioav or flat on the sur- face, to allow the roots to strike deeply into the soil. 2. That, Avhen planted higher, they are ge- nerally too near the slope of the bank, and thus cannot receive the benefit of the rain. To remedy these inconveniencies, two lines are marked out, 12 feet apart; the upper part of the soil is taken from three feet within each line, and throAvn into the centre of the space, so as to form a flat bed, three feet in breadth, in the midst of Avhich the quicks are planted ; the remaining space of IS inches on each side is filled up Avith the earth, gravel, or sand taken out of the ditches on both sides, by which means the bed is extended to five feet, allowing six inches for the slope of the bank. Quicks, thus planted, will find sufficient nou- rishment in the soil, before the tap- root reaches the barren gravelly bottom ; and the earth thus plac- ed, will retain moisture enough to nourish the plants ; so that they will in a short time form an excel- lent fence, which, by elevating the bank on each side at pleasure, may be protected at a small ex- pence from the ill effects of sharp winds, or the air of the sea. Mr. Leatham observes, that the space, on such loAv-priced ground, is but small ; and, as a good, thriving fence is obtained, it amply compensates the expences. A hedge, constructed according to the dimensions above stated, cost him fifteen-pence per rod of seven yards in length. In the 1st vol. of the Letters anel Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, Ave meet with a communication, in Avhich elms are recpmi^ided for fences. When clm-tir3yer is felled in the sprinfflthe chij|s made in trim- ming^fc trees are to be soavii on a piece^of neAviy-ploughed land, and harj(pwe;ceed belief; especially as they were directed by one branch of a numerous family against another, not even except- ing infants. When suspicions arose against those miscreants Avho Avere guilty of secretly mixing this bane- ful vegetable with ale and beer, they had the inhuman audacity to introduce the poison betAveen the soles of the shoes ; and after these were secured, between the seams of shirts that were suspended on the hedge....We have mentioned these flagrant instances of depravi- ty, in order to caution the credu- lous reader, and to shew that the extraordinary effects of this poison- ous application arise from natural causes, and ought not to be ascrib- ed to witchcraft, as Avas unfortu- nately the case in Shropshire, till the whole mystery AVas satisfacto- rily explained. The Avriter of this article, having contributed to de- tect the delusion, thinks it his duty to warn the public against certain grave and Avhimsical matrons, as Avell as old men lurking about country places, who, under the pre- tence of fortune-telling, and amus- ing the harmless listeners with spell-craft, cunningly enter into the secret history of different families, avail themselves of the most poAV- erful herbs, and thus become sub- servient to the most nefarious pur- poses. Notwithstanding these virulent properties, the hen-bane has lately been employed Avith considerable success in the most obstinate dis- eases, such as epilepsy, internal spasms, madness and melancholy ; though we trust that no circumspect person will ever resort to its use, Avithout consulting a medical friend ....If, hoAvever, any small portion of the leaves should have been ac- cidental y swalloAved, brisk emetics, ought to be instantly, taken ; and after discharging the contents of the stomach, it Avill be necessary to administer emollient and oily clysters, to repeat them as often as they are ejected, and to drink as large portions of vinegar or juice 284 HEN H ER of lemons diluted with vrater, as the stomach is able to support. In recent cases, where the poi- sonous ointment of hen-bane has been absorbed by the skin, mild sudorifics, joined Avith mercurial frictions, will then be very proper; in order to excite a slight salivation, and expel the virus ; but, if some time after the accident has elapsed, end the patient become delirious, paralytic, consumptive, or blind, recourse must be had to profes- sional advice. Hen-uit. See Fetid Hore- hound. HEN-HARFIER, Dove-co- loured Falcon, or Blue Hawk, Falco Cyuneui, E. a native bird, found chiofly in the northern parts of Britain. It is about 18 inches in length ; the female breeds an- nually on the Cheviot Plills, and other precipices in that neighbour- hood ; and makes her nest on the ground, Avhere she deposits four eggs. The hen-harrier flies Ioav, skim- ming along the surface of the earth in search of its prey, con- sis ing of lizards, reptiles, and birds, especially poultry ; among which it commits great deprecia- tions. HEN-MOULD-SOIL, in agri- culture, a term used in some parts of England to denote the black, mouldering, hollow, spongy earth, which is usually found at the bot- toms of hills. It is better calcu- lated for grazing, than for the cul- ture of grain ; because it does not adhere sufficiently close to the corn tokeep the stalks firm, Avhile groAv- ing ; r. B i l l i n g s l e y prefers 1 arge hogs to small, for profit: and ob- serves, that small growing- pigs ate nearly as much food as the large full-grown hogs, and yet they did not appear proportionably to im- prove either in size or fat; that ad- vantage was derived from mixing up a quantity of meal a week or two before it Avas used ; that no kind pay more for food than spay- ed sows ; they fatten quicker and on less food..../'o//i Soc. Trun.ac- tions. In April 1769 a hog Avas killed at Wiiiiamsburg, \ irginia, which weighed 1050 11.i>. after the bh.ol, boAvels, and har had been taken from him. It is supposed he weigh- ed upwards of 1200 lbs. when alive. In March 1787, another hog was killed at NeAV Port, Rhode Island, which weighed, when gutted and dressed 834 lbs. The length ofthe animal is said to have been nine feet, and height six feet. The owners cf these hogs were guilty of a very unpatriotic act, in sacrificing animals Avhich would have been so hiriily valuable for breed. In future it is to be hoped, a similar error will not be com- mitted. . k> A sow kept at Hollowmire, near Ulverston, only four years old last September, has farroAved 229 pigs, Avhich is on an average of 57 per year, and except at the first time, ahvays brought up thirteen. Within 19 Aveeks and three days she has farrowed twice. The ani- mal went to the male the next day after the pigs were taken away, which was done when they were three Aveeks old... L^n. Mont. Mag. Jany. 1798." Under the article Clover, it was said, hopes Avere entertained of being able to g'iAe the particulars of an experiment in feeding a num- ber of hogs upon a small clover patch, but the Editor has not been able to succeed, notwithstanding his exertions for the purpose.... Though it Avould have been agr.ee- ble to state the precise number, yet the utility of the p a tice of feed- ing hogs Avith cut c over, is Avell known to many farmers, and can- not be too strongly recommended to those who haA'e not yet adopted it. Parsnips aie said to be highly fattening for hogs, and to give a fine fLvour to tlie meat. This vegetable ahoun Is with sugar, and therefore mus. be nourishing ; 300 HOL H O L but it is probable that Indian Corn (mayz) Avould be required to har- den the flesh before killing. Under the article Cattle, the economy of feeding with boiled food was mentioned with confidence, though no direct experiment Avas adduced to support the opinion...; The following comparative experi- ment, hoAvever, settles the point. Mr. Timothy Kirk of York ToAvn Penn. fed one pig Avith boiled po- tatoes and Indian corn, (mayz) and another Avith the same articles un- boiled. The tAvo animals were weighed every week, and the dif- ference between them was as 6 to 9. The experiment was continued several Aveeks, and the animals alternately fed upon boiled and un- boiled food, with an uniformity of result, which sufficiently proved the very great profit arising from boiled food. Mr. Kirk's very excellent and economical boiler shall be describ- ed under the article avater. There are few domestic conveniences that exceed this in point of utility.] Hog's Fennel. SeeCommcnor Sea Splphur-avort. HOGS-HEAD, in Commerce, a measure of capacity Avhich contains 63 gallons. Hog-aveed. See Cow-pars- nip. HOLLY, or Ilex, L. agenus of shrubs consisting of 16 species; one of which is a native of Britain, namelv, the aquifolium, or Com- mon Holly-tree : it groAvs in Avoods or hedges, and produces small whitish floAvers in the month of May, which are succeeded by scar- let berries that are ripe in Decem- ber. This eArergreen is propagated by seed ; for which purpose the ber- ries are to be put into the ground lor one year, after which they should be taken up, and sown at Michaelmas : the young plants will appear in the succeeding year.... These are to be transplanted in the summer ; and, if the operation be carefully performed, their growth Avill be rapid, especially if they be watered in dry seasons, and the soil about the roots to be frequently loosened. There is a great variety of this cultivated shrub, all of which are propagated by budding, or en- grafting them on stocks ofthe com- mon green holly. This species is of great utility : the croppings of its leaves afford, in winter, a grateful food to sheep ; and its berries support the feather- ed creation, during that inclement season. The holly makes an im- penetrable fence, and is eminently calculated for the formation of hedges, as it admits of being crop- ped, and retains its verdure, and the beauty of its scarlet berries, Avithout receiving any injury from the severest Avinters. The com- mon bird lime (which see) is pre- pared from the bark, after it has been fermented, and cleared from the Avoody fibres. Its Avood is much used in veneering, and is frequently stained black, to imitate ebony.... It is likeAvise advantageously em- ployed in the making of handles for knives, and cogs for the Avheels of mills. In medicine, the leaves of the holly lave lately been employed Avith uncommon success in cases ofthe gout, agues, colics, Sec. the birdlime obtained from the bark is said to be an excellent application to obstinate SAvellings. HOLLYPIOCK, or Alcea roeec, L. a beatiful exotic plant, frequently cultivated in our gardens. It is a native of China; grows to the HON height of 8 or 9 feet; and nearly the whole of its stalk is covered with white, red, brown, yellow, or variegated flowers, that continue to blow till September. The hollyhock is propagated either by seeds, deposited in drills, about the middle of April, on beds of light earth, and afterwards co- vered with soil about half an inch deep ; or, by separating and set- ting the roots. As soon as the plants shoot forth a feAv leaves, they are removed into nursery beds, where they require to be Avell watered till they have taken root ; after which no farther care will be necessary till the month of Octo- ber, when they should be trans- planted to those places where they are intended to remain. Beside the ornamental appear- ance of this majestic plant, Dr. Bohmer informs us that the soft, fibrous, and woody parts of its stalks, Avithout any addition of rags, produce a Avhite and fine paper. Honesty. See Traveller's Joy. Honewort, the PlEdge. See Bastard Stone Parsley. HONEY, a sweet fragrant vege- table juice, collected by the bees from the floAvers of various plants, and deposited in the cells of the comb. Having already treated of the best methods of taking the honey from hives we shall in this place only observe, that the honey pro- duced by young bees, and which flows spontaneously, is purer than that expressed from the comb ; whence it is called virgin honey: the best sort is of a thick con- sistence, and of a Avhitish colour inclining to yelloAv; it possesses an agreeable smell and a pleasant taste. HON 301 As an article of food, when im- moderately used, honey is perni- cious to weak stomachs ; it ought, therefore, to be avoided by persons liable to eruptions of the skin, or in Avhom there is a redundancy'of bile. This vegetable essence con- tains an acid, similar to that of su- gar, but is more spirituous : hence it readily ferments, occasions fla- tulency, and in some habits pro- duces gripes and looseness. As a medicine, however, it is a very useful aperient and expecto- rant, especially when it has been previously boiled ; in which state it may be used with safety and ad- vantage by asthmatic patients ; for it tends to dissolve viscid humours, and to promote the expectoration of tough phlegm....See also Chapped Hands. Notwithstanding these salubri- ous properties of honey, it is apt to produce effects very detrimental to those plethoric, bilious, febrile, or cachectic patients, who trust to it as a remedy in coughs, arising from, or connected Avith, pulmonary com- plaints. The writer of this article has lately seen two mournful in- stances of young females, each of whom, by a singular infatuation, had sAvallowed such quantities ot a quack medicine, called " the bal- sam of honey," as amounted to the sum of ten guineas, in order to cure a catarrhal cough, and to prevent it from attacking the lungs. Un- fortunately, however (and let it be recorded here as a warning to others,) they had proceeded too far in slighting an organic affection, Avhich preyed on tlu_ functions of life ; and both, in the course of six months, fell victims to a fatal de- lusion. Honey is also convertible into an agreeable liquor, termed Mead, of 302 HON HON which the reader will find an ac- count in its alphabetical o. cier. Although Prof. Loavitz has sa- tisfactorily proA-ed that honey may, by a chemical process, be consoli- dated into sugar; yet, as such a change would not be profitable, where the former is sold at a much higher price than the latter, Ave shall suggest a more advantageous mode of employing this balsamic juice. If a pound of honey be dis- solved in three or four quarts of Avater, and exposed to a tempera- ture between the 70th and 80th de- grees of Fahrenheit's thermo- meter, it Avill in a short time be- come a very agreeable acid liquor, which possesses an aromatic fla- vour, and strength, superior to that of the best vinegar made of white wine. As the latter is frequently adulterated, and incomparably more expensive than the substitute Ave have proposed, this appears to de- serve every attention in domestic economy. HONEY-DEW, or Suffusio mel- lita, a SAveet substance found on the leaves of oal:, hazle-nut, hops, and other plants; and Avhich has been erroneously supposed to fall from the sky. According to Dr. Da ravin, the honey-dew is a saccharine juice that exudes from trees, in conse- quence of the retrogade motions of the cutaneous lymphatic vessels connected Avith the umbilici, or Avith the common sap-vessels of plants ; instead of being carried forward to increase the growth of the present leaf buds, or to accu- mulate nutriment for the buds, which are in an embrvon state. This emulation is consequently very injurious to the trees which are subject to it; especially from its great sweetness, which attracts immense numbers of bees and ants. Mr. Forsyth directs those trees, Avhich are most liable to such dis- temper, to be sprinkled with a mix- ture of limewater and urine ; after which they should be Avashed Avith the liquid, stated in the article Plight. These remedies, how- ever, ought to be applied early in the morning; in order that the trees may become dry, before the solar rays produce intense heat; as, otherAvise, the blossoms and leaves are apt to be scorched, and thus to be materially injured. rE/NLY-SL'CKLE, or Lonice- ra, E. a genus of plants consisting of 20 species, two of which are na- tiA'es of Britain, viz. 1. The Periclymenum, Common or Woodbine Honey-suckle, Avhich groAvs in hedges and avoocIs, and flowers from June to August. It is eaten by coavs, goats, and sheep, but refused by horses. The beauty and fragrance of its variegated flowers, render this species a pleas- ing ornament of our gardens, hedg- es, and arbours. The best, as well as the easiest method of propagat- ing it, is by layers and cuttings, both of Avhich readily strike root, and form plants that are fit to be set out in one year. The ripe ber- ries are strongly purgative. 2. The XyFsteum, or Upright Honey-suckle, which grows on walls and in hedges ; it fiowers in May. According to Linnaeus, t.iis shrub forms excellent garden hedges in a dry soil, especially where flocks of sheep are frequent- ly passing, as these animals do not eat the leaves. Its wood is ex- tremely hard, and makes the best ram-rods, as well as pegs, or pins for musical instruments, teeth for H OO rakes, and similar articles. The small reddish and juicy berries ex- cite vomiting, and are so powerful- ly laxative, that they are not touch- ed even by birds. Honiy-suckle, the Dwarf.... See Dwarf Cornkl. HtJOF, the horny part which covers.the feet of many valuable quadrupeds ; but, in this place, Ave shall treat of it only so far as it relates to that useful animal, the horse. A perfect hoof should be round, smooth, tough, and short, so that the horse may tread more upon the toe than upon the heel: it should also be rough and somewhat hollow Avithin, having a narrow frush and broad heels. On the contrary, im- perfect hoofs are rather broad than round ; and, if spreading out ofthe sides and quarters, the heels of such a horse are generally narrow, and will sooner or later becomefiat- hoofed, have a weak foot, and not carry a shoe long, nor travel far Avithout surbating : thus, by tread- ing more upon his heels than upon his toes, he will walk low on his pasterns, and his feet, through weakness, will become subject to Avhatare called false quarters, gra- velling (which see,) and other ma- ladies, of Avhich Ave have subjoined a short account. HOOF-BONEY, a distemper arising from external injury, either a stripe, blow, or by a horse bruis- ing himself in his stall, by attempt- ing to strike at the next animal, but missing his aim, and dashing the foot against the post or rail that separates them. It consists of a round homey swelling on the up- permost part of a horse's hoof. To bring this hard tumor to ma- turity, it may be covered either with a poultice of hay boiled in stale H O O 303 urine, or with a plaster of wine-lees and wheat-flour simmered together over a fire. By such applications, it is generally dispersed ; but, if itshould come to a state of suppuration, it must be lanced in the soft, loAver part, to giA'e vent to the matter; and then covered Avith a plaster made of the following ointment: Take equal parts of turpentine, suet, and wax ; melt them together carefully over a slow fire. The use of this salve should be continued, till the ulcer is perfectly healed. HOOF-BOUND, an unnatural contraction of a horse's hoof, on the top and at the heel, so that the slein appears to grow over the hoof. It is easily discovered by the frequent halting of the horse, and the hol- low sound of the diseased hoof: it arises from various causes, such as keeping him too dry in the stable ; an injudicious method of shoeing ; paring the soles as often as the animal is shod, Sec. As this malady always approaches gradually, it may be relieved at the commencement of every stage, or species of it, by proper manage- ment; but, if it become inveterate, no art whatever can effectually re- move it. The first species proceeds, in general, from the injudicious use of concave shoes, or from paring and holIoAving out the sole and binders as ofven as the shoes are renewed. Hence, the heels become so thin, that the crust at the ex- tremity may be forced into contact by the slighest pressure ; the con- traction of the hoof at length be- comes general, and incurable. The only remedy in this case is, to keep the hoofs cool and moist, never to suffer them to be greased, or the soles to be pared, and to use only flat, narrow, and openhceled shoes. 304 H O O HOP Thus the stricture on the heels and frog will be in some measure re- moved, the animal affected consi- derably relieved, and the disorder at length so far palliated, as to enable him to Avalk with more firm- ness. Another species is a contraction of one, or frequently of both heels, in fiat feet, from the use of con- cave shoes, Sec. The best remedy in this case is, to lay aside sucb improper shoes ; to pare or rasp to the quick the whole contracted quarter of the crust near the heel, but Avithout draAving blood : a bar- red shoe is then to be put on, so as to make the bar of the shoe press upon the frog ; the hoof should be kept moist, and the diseased ani- mal turned out to grass. Thus the stricture of the hoof will gradually disappear, the contracted part ex- pand, and a neAv hoof groAV from the coronet doAvmvards, that will acquire a round, proper shape, and in a short time the horse will be restored to his former activity. HOOF-BRITTLE, or Brit- tlehoof, a disorder in horses, which is either constitutional in the animal, or arises from a surfeit, and as farriers express it, falls doAvn into his feet; or, \i the con- sequence of the horse having for- merly been foundered (which see.) To remove this malady, some pre- scribe the following ointment to be liberally applied to the hoofs two or three times a day : Melt equal quantities of turpentine, mutton- "Suet, raw bees-wax, hogs-lard, and salad-oil, in an earthen pot. HOOF-CASTING, a misfor- tune that sometimes befals a horse, when the horny substance entirely separates from his foot, in conse- quence of his foundering or slip- ping, which breaks it on the top round the coronet, so that it at length drops off. [The hoof must be defended with care, by wrapping it up in tow cov- ered AA*ith bees-wax and oil, and any fungous flesh that may appear, tak- en down by burnt alum or blue vit- riol, whilst the animal must be suf- fered to rest. Where the disease proceeds from improper hay, as mentioned in vol. 2d. p. 52, or from meadow grass not duly watered, (see p. 196) the remedy is obvious.] HOOF-HURT, an injury inci- dent to Avorking cattle, especially to oxen, which are sometimes Avoundedbya coulter or share of a plough in any part of the dees. [The remedies in this complaint are, a softening ointment and rest.] Hooping-cough. See Chin- cough. HOP, the Common, or Humulus Luputus, L. an indigenous plant, growing in hedges, and flowering in June. Hops delight in a good rich loam, with a deep sub-soil or stratum of a loamy brick-earth, in a southern or western exposure ; though they groAV in almost any ground that is not wet. They are chiefly culti- vated in the southern counties of England, and are propagated either by nursery-plants or by cuttings. These are set in hills, formed by digging holes in the spring, Avhich are filled with fine mould and the number of which varies from 800 to 1000, or 1200 per acre. One, two, or three plauls are put in each hill; but, if hops are designed to be raised from cuttings, four or five of these, from three to four inches in length, are planted and covered one inch deep Avith fine mould. At the end of the first year it becomes necessary to put poles into HOP HOP 305 the hills, round Avhich the bines reared from plants are wound : at the expiration of the second year, full-sized poles from 15 to 20 feet are set (though the hop-bines will run to the height of 50 feet,) in the proportion of two poles to each hill, and a similar number of hop plants are fastened loosely round each pole, by means of withered rushes. Hops begin to blow towards the middle of June, and about the end of August they are generally fit to be gathered. The most propertime of collecting them is, when the leaf rubs easily off the bine, Avhen the hops have a strong scent, and the seed assumes a brownish colour. The culture of hops, though pro- fitable when it succeeds, is very precarious : as soon as the plant appears above ground, it is attack- ed by an insect somewhat similar to the turnip-fly, which devours the young heads. Hop-gardens, situated on chalky soils, are pecu- liarly subject to its depredations ; and the best remedy is to manure the soil highly Avith malt-culm, which adheres so strongly to the insects, as to prevent them from creeping over the plant. [The Hop is an article of growing importance in the United States, and should be cultivated by every farmer more or less, as they re- quire little trouble and pay well.... Farnham hops are the best. The following directions for rais- ing andcuring Hops, are taken from tlie Trans. Agric. Soc. of New- York. A rich deep soil, rather inclin- ing to moisture, is, on the whole, the best adapted for the cultivation of hops ; but it is observable, that any soil, (stiff clay only excepted) Aviil suit the growing of hops when properly prepared....and in many parts of Great-Britain they use the voi. in. bog-ground, Avhich is fit for little else. The ground on _which hops are to be planted, should be made rich Avith that kind of manure best suited to the soil, and rendered fine and mellow by being plowed deep and harrowed several times. The hills should be at the distance of six or eight feet from each other, according to the richness of the ground. On ground that is rich, the vines will run the most, the hills must therefore be farthest apart. At the first opening of the spring, when the frosts are over, and vegetation begins; sets, or small pieces of the roots of hops, must be obtained from hops that are esteemed the best*....cut off" from the main stalk or root, six or eight inches in length. Branches, or suckers, most healthy, and of the last year's growth, must be sought for. They may easily be known by their looking Avhite. ....Two or three joints or buds should be left on each set. The sets should be put into the ground as soon as taken up, if possible ; if not, they should be wrapped in a cloth, kept in a moist place exclud- ed from the air. A hole should then be made large and deep, and filled with rich mellow earth. The sprouts should be set in this earth, Avith the bud upAvards, and the ground pressed close around them. If the buds have begun to open, * Of the different kinds of hops, the long white is most esteemed- It yields the greatest quantity, and is most beautiful. The beauty of hops consists in their being of a pale bright green colour. Care must be taken to obtain all of one sort, but If different sorts are used, they must be kept separate in the field; for there is in differ- ent kinds of hops a material difference in their time of ripening; d I if intermixed, will occasion extra trouble m gathering. R R 306 HOP HOP the uppermost must be left just out of the ground ; othenvise, cover it Avith the earth an inch. Two or three sets to a pole will be suffici- ent, and three poles to a hill will be found most productive. Place one of the poles tOAvards the north, the other two at equal distances about two feet a part. The sets are to be placed in the same man- ner as the poles, that they may the easier climb. The length of the poles may be from fourteen to eighteen feet, according as the soil is for richness. The poles should be placed inclining towards each other so as to meet at the top, Avhere they may be tied. This is con- trary to the European method, but will be found best in America. In this Avay they will strengthen and support each other, and form so great a defence against the violent gusts of wind, to Avhich our climate is frequently subjected in the months of July and August, as to prevent their being blown down. They will likeAvise form a three sided-pyramid, which will have the greatest possible advantage from the sun. It is suggested by ex- perience, that hops which groAV near the ground are the best. Tco long poles are not good, and care must be taken that the vines do not run beyond the poles : twist- ing off their tops will prevent it. The best kinds of wood for poles are the alder, ash, birch, elm, ches- nut and cedar. Their durablencss is directly the reverse of the order in Avhich they stand, and burning the end put into the ground, A\ill be of service to preserve them. Hops should not be poled till the spring of the second year, and then not till they have been dressed. All that is necessary for the first year, it to keep the hops free from Aveeds, and the ground light and melloAV,by hoeing often, and plowing if the yard is large enough to require it. The vines when run to the length of four or five feet, should be twist- ed together to prevent their bear- ing the first year, for that Avould injure them. In the months of March or April of the second year, the hills must be opened, and all the sprouts, or suckers, cut off within an inch of the old root, but that must be left entire with the roots that run doAvn ;* then cover the hills with fine earth and ma- nure. The hops must be kept free from Aveeds, and the ground mel- low, by hoeing often through the season, and hills of earth gradually raised around the vines during the summer. The vines must be as- sisted in running on the poles Avith woolen yarn, suffering them to nan with the sun. By the last of August or first of September, the hops will ripen and be fit to gather. This may easily be known by their colour chang- ing, and having a fragrant smell: their seed grows brown and hard.t As soon as ripe, they must be ga- thered Avithout delay, for a storm, * Hops must be dressed every year as soon as the frost will permit. On this being well done, depends in a great mea- sure the success of the crop. It is thought by naany to be the best method to manure the hop yard in the fall, and cover the hills entirely with manure; asserting, Avith other advantages, that this prevents the frosts during the winter, from injuring the hop. The truth of this may be de- termined by experiments in our climate and ecu a try. f Hops had better be gathered before they are quke ripe, than remain till they are overripe; for then they will lose their seed by the wir.d, or on being handled. The seed is the s'longest pzrt ofthe hop, and they will luse their f;reen colour, which is very valuable. HOP HOP 307 or frosts, will injure them materi- ally. The most expedient method of picking hops, is to/mt the vines three feet from the ground, pull up the poles and lay them on crotches horizontally, at a height that may be conveniently reached. Put un- der them a bin of equal length, and four may stand on each side to pick at a time. Fair weather must be taken to gather hops in, if possible ; and hops ought not to be gathered Avhen the clew is on them, for dew is apt to make them mould. They should be dried as soon as possible after they are ga- thered ; if not immediately, they must be spread on a floor to pre- vent their changing colour. The best mode of drying them is with a fire of charcoal, on a kiln covered with hair-cloth, in the manner of a malt-kiln.* The fire must be kept steady and equal, and the hops stir- red gently. Great attention is ne- cessary in this'part of the business, that the hops be uniformly and sufficiently dried : if too much dri- ed they will look brown, as if they were burnt; and if too little dried they will loose their colour and fla- vor. They should be laid on the hair-cloth about six inches thick, after it. had been moderately Avarm- ed ; then a steady fire kept up till the hops are nearly dry, lest the moisture or sweat, that the fire has raised, should fall back and change their colour. After the hops haA'e been in this situation about seven, eight or nine hours, and have got through sweating ; and when struck with a stick, will leap up,then throw them into a heap ; mix them well and spread them again, and let them remain till they are all equal. • Mats made cf the splintersof walnut, pr ash, will answer tlie purpose, and come cheaper tlv.ci haircloth. ly dry. While they are in the sweat, it will be best not to move them, for fear of burning them. Slacken the fire Avhen the hops are to be turned, and increase it after- wards. Hops are fully dried when their inner stalks break short, and their leaves are crisp and fall off easily. They will crackle a little when their seeds are bursting; and then they must be taken from the kiln. Hops that are dried in the sun, lose their rich flavor, and if under cover, they are apt to fer- ment and change with the weather, and loose their strength. Fire preserves the colour and flavor of hops, by evaporating the Avater, and retaining the oil of the hop, Af- ter the hops are taken from the kiln, they should be laid in a heap to acquire a little moisture to fit them for bagging. It would be Avell to exclude them from the air, by covering them with blankets. Three or four days will be suffici- ent for them to lie in that state. When the hops are so moist that they may be pressed together Avith- out breaking, they are fit for bag- ging. Bags made of coarse linen cloth, eleven feet in length, and se- ven in circumference, which hold two hundred pounds weight, are most commonly used in Piurope: but any size that best suits may be made use of. To bag hops, a hole is made through a floor large enough for a man to pass with ease ; the bag must be fastened to a hoop larger than the hole, that the floor may serve to support the bag, and For the com-enience of handling the bags, some hoops should be tied in each corner to serve as handles. The hops should be gradually thrown into the bag, and trod doAvn continually till the bag is filled. The mouth ofthe bag must then 308 HOP be sewed up, and the hopf; are fit for market. The harder hops are packed, the longer and better they will keep ; but they must be kept dry. In most parts of Great Britain A/here hops are cultivated, they estimate the charges of cul- tivating an acre of hops at forty- two dollars, for manuring and til- ling, exclusive of poles and rent of land. Foles they estimate at sixteen dollars per year, but in this country they would not amount to half tnat sum. An acre h comput- ed to require about three thousand poles, Avhich will last from six to twelve years,according to the kind of Avood used. The English groAvers of hops think they have a very indifferent crop, if the produce of an acre does not sell for one hundred and thirty three dollars, and frequently tbey sell for two hundred dollars; and have been knoAvn to rise as high as four hundred dollars. In this country experiments have been equally flattering. A gentleman in Massachusetts, in the summer of 1791, raised hops from one acre of ground that sold for three hun- dred dollars ; and land is equally good for hops in this state. Upon the loAvest estimate Ave may fairly compute the nett profit of an acre of hops to be eighty dollars, over and above poles, manure and culti- vation. There is one circumstance far- ther Ave think has Aveight, and ought to be mentioned. In the Mn- gll ;h estimate, the expence put clo.'.n. ri, what tbey can hire the la- bor clone for b\ those who make it tlrii- business to perform ihe dif- ferent parts of the cultivation. A great saving may therefore be made by our farmers in the article of labor; for much of it may be HOP performed by women, children, and the aged. Add to this, Ave h .v » another advantage of no small mo- ment. In this country the hop harvests will come betAveen our two great harvests, the English and Indian, and interfere Avith neither: but, in England, the grain and hop harvests interfere, and create a great scarcity of hands, it then being the most busy time in the year. It is found by experience, that the soil and climate of the eastern states are more favourable to the growth of hops than Great Britain ; they not being so subject to moist fog- gy Aveather of long continuance ; Avhich is most injurious to hops. And the southern states are still more favourable to the hop than the eastern states, in point of flavor and strength. The state of New-York unites some adA'antages from either extreme of the union. The culti- vators of land in this state have every inducement Avhich policy or interest can afford, to enter with spirit into the cultivation of hops. We shall, therefore, be enabled to supply our oAvn demand, and export tins article, instead of send- ing abroad for all we use ; and no crop that can possibly be put on land, Avill yield an equal profit.... This culture will require but. little land....the labor may be performed at intervals, so as not to interfere or injure the other business of the farm, by the aged, Avomen, and children. There is no farmer of this state but may, Avith ease, raise from one quarter of an acre, to as much as three ov four acres of hops, the advantage of which Avould in a feAv years, be most sensibly felt, both by the Individual concerned, and by the state at large.] In tne months of June and July, HOP H O I* 309 [in England] the hops are liable to be blown by a species of aphis, or lly, that poisons the leaf, by voiding its excrement; which is particu- larly injurious during hot, cloudy, and moist weather. This insect, hoAvever, does not endanger the growth of the plant, unless it be in a Aveak state, in consequence of the depredations committed on its root by the larvae ofthe ottermoth, or Phaloena liumuli, L. For the expulsion of these vermin, Dr. Withering recommends to cover hop-gardens Avith stones or flags ; because, Avhen hops groAV Avild in stony places, Avhere the moth can- not penetrate to deposit its eggs, they are never affected with the honey-dew. There are two other distempers incident to hops, namely, the Fen and the Smitt, for which no effec- tual remedy has hitherto been dis- covered. Hops may, hoAvever, when gathered, be perfectly se- cured from the future depreciations of insects, by putting a small quan- tity of brimstone in the fire, while they are drying in the kiln, by which means the vermin is not only destroyed, but the superfluous moisture is more speedily evapo- rated, and the hops acquire a brighter colour. The hop is a most valuable plant: in its wild state it is relish- ed by coavs, horses, goats, sheep, and SAvine. When cultivated, its young tops are eaten, early in the spring, as substitutes for asparagus, being Avholesome and aperient; they are sold under the name of Hop-tops. The principal use of hops, Iioav- ever, is in brewing, for the pre- servation of malt liquors, which are thus rendered more salubrious, and less liable to become sour.... Pic-nee vast quantities are consum- ed in Britain : but, having already pointed out the most proper me- thods of using them, under the head of Brewing, Ave refer the reader to that article. A decoction of hops diluted Avith water, and given to cattle in very severe Aveathcr, is said to be of great service, and remarkably to improve their strength. In SAveden, the stalks of hops are successfully converted into strong cloth; for which purpose they are gathered in autumn, soaked in Avater during the Avinter, and in the succeeding spring, after being dried in stoves, they are dressed like flax. This object has been attempted in Bri- tain, and from an experiment made, in consequence of the premium offered by the patriotic Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. it appears that hop-bines afford a ma- terial for spinning yarn, Avhichmay be Avoven into fine sacking, as v. ell as coarse bags for hops. The bines are also employed for binding the sheaves of corn ; and they have lately been converted into strong paper. From the leaves and flow- ery stalks of this plant, Avhen dried, Dambourney dyed avooI of a fine cinnamon brown, having previous- ly dipped it in a diluted solution of bismuth. Bkrthollet remarks, that the expressed juice of hop- bines affords a vevy permanent red- brown colour. In medicine, decoctions and sy- rups of hop-flowers are said to be attended with much benefit in pes- tilential fevers : a pillow filled with them, and laid beneath the head, has been found to procure sleep to patients afflicted Avith delirious fe- vers. The heads and tendrils arc 310 HOR HOR likewise of considerable service in the scurvy, and other cutaneous af- fections. Hop-trefoil : See. Clover, the Hop; p. 152 of vol. n. HOREHOUND, the White, or Marrubium, L. a genus of plants comprising 12 species, oneof which only is indigenous, viz. the vulgare, or Common White Horehound, which grows on road sides, and among rubbish ; it flowers from July to September. This Arery bitter plant possesses an odour sufficiently grateful; when given in large doses, it operates as a purgative. It is reputed to be both attenuant and resolvent ; an infusion of the leaves in water, sweetened Avith honey, is recom- mended in asthmatic and phthisical complaints, as Avell as in most other diseases of the breast and lungs.... We believe, however, it may with equal, or greater advantage, be em- ployed in currying or tanning soft leather. Bees collect honey from the flow- ers of the Common White Hore- hound, but the herb is not eaten by either horses, coavs, sheep, or goats. HOREHOUND, the Black, Fetid Horehound, or Hen-Bit, Ballota nigra, L. an indigenous perennial plant, groAving on rub- bish and in hedges ; fknvering in the months of July and August.... No species of cattle will touch this vegetable, which is, neA'ertheless, highly prized by the Swedes, Avho consider it as an almost universal remedy in the diseases of cat- tle. A strong decoction of the Fetid Horehound has been much recom- mendedin hysterical and hypochon- driacal cases. An infusion, or tea, made of equal parts of this plant, of betony leaves, and Avhite hore- hound, is asserted by Ray, both to prevent the gout, and mitigate the attacks of that painful disorder, if three or four tea-cupfuls of it be regularlv drunk every day. HOREHOUND, the Water, or Gypsyavokt, Lycopus Europaeus, L. an indigenous perennial plant, which grows on sandy ground, on the banks of streams and ponds ; it floAvers from July to September. The French manufacturers are chiefly indebted to this plant for the deep black colour of their cloth , its juice imparts a permament dye to avooI, silk and linen, and is much used by travelling gypsies, for the purpose of staining their faces. HORN, a hard substance grow- ing on the heads of various animals, particularly on cloven-footed qua- drupeds. The oil extracted from it, by repeated distillations, becomes extremely subtle and volatile ; in Avhich state it is called oil of Dip- pel, being the name of its inven- tor. The horns of stags yield the greatest proportion of rectified ani- mal oil, as they contain a larger quantity of that species of earth Avhich is found in bones, than those of any other animals. Horns form a considerable article in the arts and manufactures.... Those of bullocks, when softened by heat, are converted into lan- thorns, combs, knives, inkhorns, Sec. After the horn is roasted.ovev a fire made of the stalks of furze, so as to render it sufficiently soft, it is slit on one* side, and spread out between a pair of flat tongs, large enough to keep it expanded a second time over the fire, and reduce it to a flat state; it is then put into a press between iron plates which are heated and greased. Here the HOR HOR 311 horns are suffered to remain till they are gradually cooled ; next they are soaked in Avater, till soft enough to be pared clown to a proper thinness, with a large knife >vorked horizontally on a block.... Thus, they acquire their transpa- rency ; and, after being immersed in urine, they are polished, by rub- bing them with whiting and tlie coal of burnt Avillow. The refuse or shavings of horn are of considerable utility as a ma- nure for chalky land, on which they are strewed in the proportion of fourteen bushels per acre. Their efficacy Avas not exhausted after a succession of four crops, each of Avhich Avas remarkably improved. Hence they are advantageously em- ployed on light and gravelly soils, together Avith hotter manures, pre- a enting the latter from burning the crops ; because horny substances have been observed to attract the deAV, and retain moisture. HORN-BEAM, or Carpinus, L. a genus of plants consisting of five species, one of which is a native of Britain ; viz. the Betulus, Common Horn-beam-tree, Plard-beam-tree, Horse or Horn-beech-tree. It groAvs in avoocIs and hedges ; fidw- ers in the month of May. The horn-beam -will thrive on poor, stiff soils, on barren and ex- posed hills ; and, if intended for trees, it is propagated by seed, as soon as it is ripe. It vegetates eighteen months before the plants appear above ground ; and the young trees ai-e transplanted at the age of two years, to the spots Avhere they are intended to remain. When designed for hedges and underwood, it is propagated by lay- ers. The horn-beam is a very valua- ble tree, and grows to a large size ; its leaves afford a grateful food to cattle, but no grasses will flourish under its shade. Its Avcod is very tough, Avhite, and burns like a candle ; it is much employed by turners ; is very useful for various implements of husbandry ; and is wrought into cogs for the Avheels of mills, presses, S:c Avhich are farsu- perior to those made of yew. The inner bark imparts a permanent yellow colour to yarn....See also Pence. HORN-DISTEMPER, a disor- der incident to horned cattle: it gradually wastes the internal sub- stance of the horn, commonly call- ed the pith, which is the spongy part of the bone, and the cells of which are filled with an oily mat- ter. Thus, at length, the horn be- comes hollow. From an . account published by Dr. Tofts, in the 1st vol. of the Memoirs of the American Academy, it appears that this spongy bone is sometimes partially, and sometimes entirely, consumed. The horn is deprived of its natural heat, and on touching it feels unusually cold.... When this malady is suspected, other symptoms should be particu- larly attended to ; such as dullness in the countenance; a sluggish motion ; want of appetite ; a desire to lie down ; and, if attended Avith an inflammation of the brain, a gid- diness, and frequent tossing of tfie head. Stiffness, as in the rheuma- tism, affects the limbs ; the milk often fails in cows ; the udder is hard, and there is in most cases a sudden Avasting of the flesh. As soon as the distemper is dis- covered, an opening should be made in the diseased horn, Avith a gimlet of a moderate size, two or three inches above the head. If it be found hollow, and the gimlet S12 HOR HOR pass through without any discharge ,of blood from the aperture, it Avill be advisable to bore lower, and as near to the head as the hollowness may probably extend. This aper- ture is asserted to be a necessary operation, and frequently affords speedy relief. It should, hoAvever, be carefully kept open, as it is lia- ble to be filled up by a thin fluid that gradually oozes out, and ob- structs the passage. Sawing off the horn has sometimes been adopted ; but, from the best observations, boring is a preferable expedient.... Dr. Tofts supposes injections to be useless ; as nothing more is re- quired than to perforate the horn in an early stage of the distemper ; and to keep it open, in order to ad- mit fresh air, to prevent compres- sion, and to promote the discharge of fluctuating matter. Should, how- ever, the distemper have affected the brain, so as to produce a high degree of inflammation, no method of cure is likely to succeed; and the animal ought to be killed with- out farther delay ; as otherwise its flesh Avould become useless. Horned Poppy. See Poppy, the Horned. HORNET,.or Vcspa Crcbro. I., a well knoAvn insect, which is about one inch in length, and builds its nest in hollow trees. Hornets are very voracious, de- vouring other insects, and even bees. Their sting is severe, and occasions a considerable tumor, ac- companied with intense pain ; for the mitigation of which, there is no better remedy than sAveet oil, or honcy-Avattr, immediately applied to the iifjured part. Different methods have been sug- gested for exterminating these per- nicious insects ; th.e most simple of which appear to be the following: ToAvards the end of April, hornets are found on rotten plank*, gates, and posts, in a torpid state : each of these insects contains the gene- ration of a swarm ; and as they may then be easily taken, the de- struction of one, before they breed, "is equal to the extirpation of num- bers. After they aie hatched, hornets chiefly infest melon-beds, where they occasion great injury to the fruit. In order to .prevent these depredations, it has been re- commended to procure slender rods of different lengths, and to rub the ends of them with bird lime. By touching the insects with these rods, they may easily be taken ; and, as the females only proceed in quest of food, by destroying these, the whole brood will consequently perish. HORSE, or Equus, L. a genus of quadrupeds consisting of five species: the principal of these is the caballus, or common horse, Avhich has a flowing mane, and the Avhole of its tail is covered with long hair. There are, strWly speaking, no wild horses to be met with at pre- sent ; and those which are suffered to roam at large in Tartary, Sibe- ria, and America, are of a small size, inelegant form, and extreme- ly intractable. In a domestic state, the horse is bold, intrepid, docile, and attached to the company of man ; indeed no quadruped is so eminently qualified for both purpo- ses, the saddle, and the harness.... In the breeding of horses, however, sound and well-shaped animals ought to be selected with particu- lar care ; as the strength and ex- cellence of the race entirely de- pend on this circumstance. For elegance, the Spanish and Italian breeds are preferable ; but, for the HOR HOR 313 more useful purpose of draught those of Britain, Normandy, and Holsterin, are the most esteemed. The females, or mares, bring forth one colt, after a gestation of eleven months : none ofthe parent creatures should be under four years of age. Castration is com- monly performed Avhen the colt is twelve or eighteen months old ; but the most general, and, we believe, the best practice is, to delay that operation till the animais attain the age of at least two years ; for they Avill then retain a greater degree of strength and spirit. If properly kept, they live to the age of forty years ; but mares do not breed after eighteen, and stallions are useless at the age of twenty, so that they are fit only for the harness. The horse being an animal of ex- tensive utility, the most proper and least extravagant manner of feeding. and keeping him, becomes an ob- ject of considerable importance.... Hence, potatoes, carrots, furze, cabbages, Sec. have been success- fully tried as substitutes for oats, and the mom expensive method of corn feeding: where, however, grain is used, the most economical way will be to boil, and give it in a cool state to the animals, together Avith the liquor ; by Avhich simple means one half may be saved. Carrots are particularly serviceable, as broken-winded horses, Avhen fed on these roots, speedily recover.... A considerable reduction may also be made, by cutting the hay into a kind of chaff, and mixing with it straAV, or the broken ears of corn, which arise in dressing grain ; and also by soiling horsas Avith lucerne, tares, or clover, instead <-f turning them cut to grass in the summer; for, if they be Avell littered, the dunghill w'ill nearly repay the ex- voi.. m. pence of their ma'ntenance....See also the articles i ukze, and Lin- SEkD. The management of horses, af- ter having performed the labour of the day, is a matter of equal mo- ment with their feeding ; and, as considerable expence has injudici- ously been incurred, by erecting elegant stables, we propose the fol- lowing practice to the consideration of the rural economist. It consists, simply, in forming a small yard provided with a shed that is open in the front, and furnished with racks, as well as a pump and cistern placed in one of the corners. A superstructure of this kind, if Avell littered, is in every respect prefer- able to a stable, and will preserve horses in better health, Avithout re- quiring any other currying or dres- sing, than is usually given by farm- ers' servants. The utility and con- venience of such a yard have been fully evinced by a patriotic noble- man, the Earl of Darlington, who has followed this practice Avith great success for several years, and ob- served, that horses thus managed, not only are more healthy than in stables, but at the same time able to Avork well, even after the age of twenty years. The diseases of horses are va- rious ; but as we treat of them in their alphabetical series, Ave shall here only offer a few hints to the proprietors of these useful animals, by which many disorders may be easily prevented. In all fresh wounds, the princi- pal objects of attention are, to keep them clean, and protect them from the air ; but, if any swellings or local humours arise, or the skin be bruised Avithout being broken, they will be effectually removed, by ap- plying Goulard's mixture, Avhich S s 314 HOR HOR is prepared by adding' tAvo tea- spoonfuls of extract of lead, and one large spoonful of strong cam- phorated brandy, to a pint of water; the whole is to be Avell shaken to- gether, and set apart for use. [Lead Avater, prepared by adding one table spoonful of sugar of lead to a pint or pint and a half of soft water, is a more certain remedy than the extract of lead.] There are many diseases in which clysters are an excellent re- medy ; but ihey are frequently ad- ministered with so little skill, by means of the common clyster-pipes, that they are of no service. Plence it will be useful to procure a pipe made of peAvter, the body of aa hich should be larger and longer than a quart pot: at one end let a handle be fixed, and at the other a lube Avhich lessens gradually, in the same manner as a common squirt. This A\ill absorb a pint or quart of any preparation, and discharge it with proper force. Numerous disorders, hoAvever, arise from excessive labour ; and the injudicious application of ill- formed shoes. To remedy this se- rious evil, the attention of farriers has lately been directed toAvards the improvement of horse-shoes, and the invention ef such as may pre- vent pain, arid render this valuable animal sure-footed. We shall, therefore, take notice of the differ- ent patents that have been granted for this purpose, under the article Shoe. We have already observed, that the iingiish horses are eminently adapted to the different purposes of agriculture. The breeds of cart- horses, which deserve more parti- cular attention, are the large black ones bred in the counties of York imd Northampton, and the sorels, foi'Avhichthe sandy tract of land in the vicinity of Woodbridge, Suf- folk, has long been celebrated. The foimer are chiefly used by those farmers who are in the habit of pur- chasing two-year-old col's, which they work lightly for two or three years, and then sell them for coach- horse. . This practice merits severe reprehension ; for independently of the great risk in keeping valu- able horses during the most critical period of their age, such precaution is necessarily attended with addi- tional expence. The York and Norihanf.ton breeds, hoAvever, are reputed to be much inferior to the Suffolk punch sorels, which are ad- mitted to be the best cart-horses in England. These are of a bright sorel colour ; have very low fore- hands, large bodies, somewhat si- milar to those of cows, short legs, and ill-shaped heads ; yet, though their appearance be thus aukAvard, they exceed every other breed in draught. These animals are of all sizes ; but the smaller ones, Un- hands high (the price of which is from 401. to 501. per pair), will be of great service. The long-contested question, Avhether oxen or horses are pre- ferable for agricultural purposes, Ave shall not • venture to decide ; though it will be useful fairly to appreciate the advantage-, as Avell as the disadvantages, Avhich attend the maintenance of cither. 0:.en will draw the plough on tough clay soil and hilly lands, Avhile horses stand still; but, on even and light ground, the latter not only Avork faster than oxen, but are incomparably more active for carriage. It deserves, how- ever, to be remarked, that oxen may be maintained at a verv small expence. The price of two horses H O R is computed to be equivalent to that of nine oxen : the food of the latter, during summer, consists merely of gram;, and in Avinter of straw, on which provender they may perform moderate labour; and, Avhen worked hard, they are allowed a little ha-:. On the con- trary, the food of a horse generally is hay, oats, beans, Sec. The num- ber of cart-horses constantly em- ployed in Great Britain, is calcu- lated at 500,000,....300,000 of which are allowed, by the most competent judges, to be superflu- ous. These consume daily, upon an average, during nine months in the" year, one peck of corn each ; which amounts to sixty-three bu- shels each per annum; that is, (alloAving one quartern loaf per week to every person, and com- puting only 12 loaves to the bu- shel) as much corn as will support seven persons ; so that 300,000 superfluous cart-horses, moderately fed, require for their support a quantity of corn sufficient to main- tain 2,100,000 persons ! which number, if the inhabitants of Great Britain amount to ten millions, is nearly one fourth part of the Avhole population. To invalidate this statement, it has been objected, that though oxen may be maintained at a less expence than horses, yet the latter are far preferable, as they perform their Avork with much greater ala- crity ; and that the extra plough- ing Avhich a pair of horses will ac- complish in one week, will fully pay the balance of keeping. Such is the difference of opinions, in the communication of Avhich we have strictly adhered to facts; yet it ought in justice to be added, that an ox improves in value 21. per an- num, upon an average, from the HOR 315 tine lie is used and fed as an ox ; and, Avhen fattened, affords gcocl and wholesome meat; while a horse progressively declines t,;l he, literally, » is of no value." [This subject shall be rcneAVecl under the article oxtm] In this place Ave are induced severely to censure the inhuman practice of docking and nickmg their tails, for no other reason, than to improve the beauty of their appearance, and to prevent them from " flinging the dirt;" thus de- priving them of a very useful part, which was certainly designed by Nature for defending them from flies and other insects, during the summer heats, if for no other ostensible reason. Besides, it is highly probable that the tail as- sists the animal even in his com- mon exertions ; balances his body when trotting, and thus prevents him from stumbling; for it has been observed, by those who are conversant with the manners and customs ofthe East, that the horses of Turkey and Persia seldom stum- ble ; a circumstance easily account- ed for, as the absurd and brutal practice of docking is unknown in those countries. Another operation, equally cruel and injudicious, is that of cropping the ears oi horses, Avhich may per- haps be justified, where an animal has large, wide lopping ears, des- titute of all spring or motion, and which are in some degree a de- formity. But to cut oft" a pair of fine ears from a horse's head, mere- ly to gratify the ridiculous taste of grooms and jockies, is, if possible, still more absurd than to dock or nick his tail. It is, indeed, utterly indefensible: for the ears neither retard the animal's motion, nor " fling dirt."....We trust the day 316 HOR HOR is not far distant, when this sense- less prejudice will lose its influence over those men of sense and under- standing Avho are now fascinated by it; and when the vitiated taste of horse-dealers will be treated with merited contempt. Independently of the important services which the horse renders mankind by his labour, his dung affords an excellent manure. The urine, or stale, of these animals, likewise furnishes an ex- cellent fertilizing liquor, if pre- served Avith the brine, suds, Sec. of the house : some cauticn, Iioav- ever, is necessary, in applying it to the soil. Horse urine is equally beneficial to all lands ; but it should be pre- viously diluted in a proper vessel, with half the quantity of pond-wa- ter, and in that state poured on the ground. Thus, the great heat of this manure, Avhich, in particular seasons, is apt to burn some crops, may be easily corrected. As the utility of horses exceeds that of all other domestic animals, Ave shall subjoin a feAv characteris- tic marks, by Avhich their general qualities may be ascertained, and some of the numerous frauds com- mitted by grooms, iockies, Eec. op- portunely prevented. In olcl horses, the eye-pits are generally deep : this mark, how- ever, is very uncertain, as it is also found on young animals descended from aged stallions. But the most certain criterion is that derived from the teeth, the number of which amounts to 40 ; namely, 24 grinders, or double teeth, 4 tushes, and 12 fore-teeth :* these last are the surest guides for discovering the age of a horse. They appear about 12 clays after the colt is foal- ed ; are round, short, not very so- lid, and successively cast and re- placed by others. When two years and a half old, the tAvo middle fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and those in the lower jaAv, are cast: in the course of another year, four others drop out, one on each side of the former. At the age of about 4F years, the horse loses four others, and always, next to those which have already fallen out and been replaced. These four foal- teeth are succeeded by four others, but do not groAV so quickly as the eight first, and Avhich are called corner-teeth. They replace the four last foal-teeth, and are the chief marks by Avhich the age of a horse may be ascertained: they are the third, both above and be- low, counting from the middle of the jaw, being hollow, and hav- ing a black mark in their cavity. When the horse is four years and a half old, they are scarcely visi- ble above the gum ; and the cavity is very sensible : in the course of a year and a half, they begin to fill; and the mark continually di- minishes and contracts, till the animal attains the age of seven or eight years, Avhen the cavity is com- pletely filled, and the black spots disappear. These teeth cease to afford any knoAvledge of a horse's age, after eight years, when it is ascertained by the tushes, Avhich are the four teeth next to those last mentioned, and Avhich, like the grinders, are not preceded by any other teeth. The two in the low- er jaAV usually begin to shoot at 3t years; those in the upper jaw at 4; and both continue very sharp pointed till the animal is 6 years of age. At 10 years, the teeth in the upper jaAv appear blunted, Avorn out, and long ; the gum con- tracting in proportion to the in- • HOR HOR 317 creasing years; and the more ex- posed the teeth are, the greater is the age of the horse....Prom 10 to 13 or 14, little can be preceived to determine the age ; but at that time of life, the upper teeth seem blunted, the gum contracts, and these useful bones are left bare. In proportion, therefore, to the greater or less degree of these marks, the age of a horse may be determined ; and likewise, though not perhaps Avith ecpial accuracy, bv the bars in the animal's mouth, which decrease as he advances in years....On this occasion, it will not be useless to point out an odi- ous practice, of Avhich many ost- lers and stable-keepers are guilty, especially towards the horses of strangers. When provisions are at an exorbitant price, those inhu- man monsters have sometimes the cruelty to mix a feAv leaves of the bird-cherry among the hay, or to rub the fatigued animal's teeth with tallow, or soap: in either case, it will obstinately refuse food, and not eat, till the hay is charged, or the teeth have been properly scoured Avith common salt. In a horse that is free from ble- mish, the legs and thighs are well shaped ; the knees straight : the skin and shanks thin ; the back si- news strong and firm. The pas- tern joints should be small and ta- per, and the hock lean, dry, and not puffed up with wind. With respect to the hoof itself, the coro- net ought to be thick, without any tumor,or sAvelling; the horn bright and of a grayish colour. The fi- bres of a strong foot appear very distinctly, running in a direct line from the coronet to the toe, like the grain of wood. Such a foot, however, ought to be kept moist and pliable; as it is subject to fis- sures and cracks, by which the hoof is sometimes cleft through the whole length of the coronet. A narrow heel is likewise a great defect; and, if it do not exceed two fingers in breadth, it forms an imperfect foot. A high heel often causes a horse to trip and stumble; Avhile a low one, with long, yield- ing pasterns, is apt to be worn away on a long journey. On the other hand, a foot disproportion- ately large, renders the animal Aveak, and clumsy in its gait. The head of a horse ought to be small, and rather lean than fleshy; his ears should be erect, thin, sprightly, and pointed ; the neck arched towards the middle, taper- ing gradually towards the head ; the shoulders rather long; the avI- thers thin, and enlarge by degrees as they extend downwards, yet so as to render his breast neither too gross or too narrow. Such are the principal characters, by Avhich the best form and proportion of that useful animal may be deter- mined....Those of our readers avIio Avish to obtain more extensive in- formation relative to this interest- ing subject, may with advantage peruse Ten Minute's Advice to every Gentleman going to purchase a Horse, Sec. (12m. Is.); a small Avork, but Avhich is replete Avith practical information. [The very imperfect knowledge generally prevalent, of the anatomy of this truly noble animal, has in- duced the Editor to gi\'e an engrav- ing of the skeleton of the horse, from Bi.aine, the latest writer on the subject. The skeleton of the horse is di- vided by 15LAiNE,into head, trunk, and extremities : 318 HOR HOR Explanation. A Bones of the head. B 7 Vertebrae ofthe neck. C 18 Dorsal Vertebrse. D 6 Lumbar Vertebrx. E 18 Bones ofthe tail. P The Scapula or shoulder-blade. The spire dividing the fossx is represented by the plain sur- face. G The Sternum or breast bone. PI The humerus or bone of the arms, its head articulates Avith the shoulder blade. 4 5 6 7 8 The eight true ribs so called, their cartilages being con- nected Avith the breast bone. I The false ribs, so called from their cartilages not being insert- ed into the sternum, but into each other. K The leg bones. L The knee, formed of seven bones. M The sliank bones to which are joined, two imperfect shank bones, on the back part, called by the trench Epineux. N Tavo triangular bones fmed to the back and upper part of the great pasterns, forming the fetlock. O Great pastern bones. P Little pastern bones. Q Coffin bones. II Pelvis, or hip bones. S Thigh bones. T Stifle, or knee bone. U Hind leg bones. V Heel of the hock. W Oslets, or small bones of the hock. X Instep bones. An attention to the improvement of the breed of horses in the U. States, is a matter of great conse- quence. Our countrymen appear to be aware of this, and have of late imported some valuable horses; but it is still to be regretted that the country is filled with a set of worthless Stallions, possessing no prominent good quality, from which an imperfect race is propagated, to the great injury of the general in- terest. The' following observations on this interesting subject are taken from a pamphlet published in Phi- ladelphia in 17 V 5. " It is the union of a pedigree possessing particular qualities, Avith a stranger, also possessing some good property, which gives perfec- tion. By a strict attention to this principle, the English have greatly improved their breed Avithin a few years past. They commonly dis- tinguish horses into four kinds. 1. The race horse. 2. The hunter, uniting force with speed and spirit. 3. Coach horse, to draw light Aveight with agility, and to figure in Cavalry. 4. Cart or draught horse. The race horse is the offspring of a Barbary or Arabian horse, and an English mare of the first blood. The Hunter is the offspring of the race horse, and a mare three quarters blood, but more strongly limbed than the former. The coach horse is the offspring of a hunter and a mare still more strongly limbed than the hunter, and half a degree less in blood. The draft horse is the offspring of a coach horse, and the strong country mare. This distinction of the different classes of horses, arises from phy- sical causes, and Ave seldom find them employed for any purpose but that for which they are natu- rally fit, unless they are rendered ^^'•'••^T«°58!!5vl HOR HOR 319 inadequate by age or accident; as it well known that a saddle horse requires a different character from that of the draught, and that the same qualities are not adapted to swift and slow motion, or to draAV- ing heavy or light loads. Those Avho wish for good horses should pay the utmost attention to the geneology of both sires and mares ; the leading qualities of both should be ascertained, for, imper- fections as well as perfections are transmitted to their posterity. The race horse breed, is only a source of expence and distress to the owner, and should not be encouraged. The hunter deserves the preference ; his beauty is per- fect, the mode of training simple, and he demands no other attention, than that which reason prescribes. In peace he contributes to the plea- sure of his owner, and in war he preserves his rider by his speed and spirit. When unfitted by age for the saddle, he answers for a coach horse. To succeed in pro- pagating this valuable species of horses in the United States, Ave must be particular in our choice of stallions, and attend to, 1. 1 heir breed; 2. Their make ; 3. Their leading character. The breed ought to be Avell known ; the half blood answers very well. When the pedigree is ascer- tained, and he is found free from hereditary defects, as spavin, shoit breath, sore ey< s ; his figure, pro- portion, strength and character should be examined. The prefer- able kind, is the lofty, stout horse, light but not gigantic, fine figure, small head, short e.rs, hold front, a broAvn full eye A\ith little black spotS, within prominent and high ; fore legs thick and broad from the shoulder to the knees, and from the knees to the joints next to the foot, lean and fiat ; joints thick and short; hips broad and square, buttocks large and fleshy; hams broad. It is on this construction, that the perfect equilibrium of this fine animal depends: when he walks or trots, he should carry his fore feet in a perpendicular direction before him, without turning them either in or out, or rising them too high, which occasions a loss of time ; the hind feet should ex- actly replace the fore, for if they spread, it makes him overreach himself, and occasions him to strike his hinder hoofs against his fore heels. The mare should not haA-e high bones, her ribs should be round, body long, and loins large. The sire and clam being matched, their leading qualities must be ascer- tained. A heavy, cold, slow mare, should be joined with the fire and action of the southern horse ; and on the contrary, two fiery spirits must not be united. A horse should cover but once a day, and stimu- lating drugs intirely avoided. April is the best month for a mare to foal, on many accounts. Eight days after bringing forth, the stallion must be presented to the mare, a:;d if necessary, the presentation should be repeated. Common mares may be continued in u>e, with safety and advantage, till some v eeks before they foal. \V hen near their time, they should be ccufined to a certain regimen of food, in order to avoid overload- ing the intestines, and thereby re- tarding their delivery. After foal- ing, the pasture should be rich, or in defect of that, short feed should 320 HOR be given, such as broken Indian corn, or coarsely ground oats or beans. Horses reared in marshy shady meadoAvs neA'er thrive." The general opinion of breeders has been, agreeable to the advice above given, respecting the cros- sing of the breed : and a decided testimony in favour of it has lately been given by Mr. A. Knight, in the Transactions ofthe Royal Soci- ety, London, 17'.)'J, part 2d ; and yet it is Avell knoAvn that the cele- brated English breeder, Bake- well, did not accede to the opi- nion, but always bred from his own stock, until he procured another, the qualities of Avhich he Avished to propagate, and unite to those of his own. The proper mode of shoeing horses, being an affair of great con- sequence, and as little understood by the greater part of those who own horses, as by the blacksmith; ample directions shall be given on the subject, taken from the late excellent work, by Jvir. F. Cole- man, professor of the Veterinary College, London, entitled " Obser- vations on the structure, &c. of the foot ef the Hors-," London, 1798. The whole of the hoof is com- posed of horny fibres, Avithout sen- sation. The crust or wall sur- rounds the anterior and lateral parts of the foot. It is the only part that can receive nails Avithout mischief, is thicker at the toe than the quarters, and generally thicker at the outer than at the inner quar- ter. The union of the crust Avith the coffin-bone sustains the Aveight of the animal. The horny soal is concave on the outside, beginning at the junction with the crust, and increasing as it advances towards the centre, so that the edge ofthe Eoie, united to the crust, is least concave. HOR The bars or binders are two in number, and are placed between the frog and sole ; and at the heels, form a broad solid junction with the crust. Their use is to keep the heels expanded. In a natural hoof there are two large cavities between the frog and bars. The frog is an insensible body, placed in the centre of the sole, of a Avedge-like form, pointed toAvards the toe, and expanded as it advan- ces to the heels. In the centre of the broad part there is a fissure or separation. The practice of shoeing very much depends on the functions of the frog being understood. As its convexity must make it liable to touch the ground at every step, we conclude it was intended to re- ceive pressure. Paring the frog therefore, and raising it from the ground by a thick heeled shoe, annihilates its functions, and pro- duces disease. Common practice of shoeing Horses, and its consequences. Before any shoe is fitted to the hoof, the bars are totally, and the frog partly removed by the hut- tens. This removal is termed opening the heels ; Avhen the hoof is thus prepared, a shoe is applied thicker at the heel than at the toe, broad in the Aveb, having its upper surface convex, and four nails placed in each quarter. The high heels ofthe shoe prevent t;ie frogs from embracing the ground, and the concavity of the shoe at, the quarters, and the nails (that are placed near the heels) will con- fine the growth of the crust, and contract the hoof. Practice of shoeing Horses, which preserves the foot in health. The first thing to be attended to, is to lake aAvay a portion of the sole, between the Avhole length of HOR the bars and crust with a drawing knife. The heels of the sole, can- not receive the pressure of the shoe, Avithout corns. The sole must be made concave, and not allowed to come in contact with the shoe. The heels of the shoe should be made to rest on the junction of the bars with the crust, but if the bars be removed, then the shoe is supported by the crust only, and not by the solid broad basis of crust and bars united. When the shoe is applied, the ca- vity between the sole and shoe, should be large enough at every part to admit a large horse pick- er, and particularly between the bars and crust. If a picker can- not be admitted, then it is requi- site to make either the sole or the shoe concave. The bars and frog should never be removed, but ragged parts ofthe latter may be cut away. Where the heels are higher than the frogs, lower the heels by a rasp or but- teris, for in every case we are to endeavour to bring the frog in con- tact with the ground. Neverthe- less, where the frog has been dis- qualified for its functions for a considerable period, and become soft, it must be accustomed to pressure by degrees. Thus at every time of shoeing, the hoof may be loAvered about the tenth of an inch, until the frog be hard, and equally prominent with the heels; or if the horse be not required to work, great advantages Avill be de- rived from standing Avithout shoes on hard pavement. By reducing the heels of the shoe, in the same proportion as the hoof groAvs, a thin heeled shoe, may, in a few months be employ- ed ; and yet the horn being pre- served at the heels, and cut at the vol. in. HOR 321 toe, every time of shoeing, the heels (shoe and hoof together) will be as high, and frequently higher, than Avhen the former thick heeled shoes were applied. The crust that descends at the heels, we allow to remain, but sub- tract an equal quantity of iron from the heels of the shoe, and as much horn as possible from the toe of the hoof. This system should be continued, until the heels of the shoe are about one third the thick- ness of the toe. But as the feet of horses are so variously deformed by bad ma- nagement, it will be requisite, in shoeing, to attend to each particu- lar kind of hoof. If any form of shoe be indiscriminately employed for all kinds of feet, it must fre- quently fail of success, but by at- tention to the different hoofs, Ave can generally improve the whole foot so as to adapt the shoes here recommended, with advantage. The shoe must be varied in its length, breadth and thickness at the heel, and surface, according to the hoof. If the heels of the fore feet, are two inches and a half, or more in depth, the frog sound and prominent, then only the toe of the hoof requires to be shortened, and afterwards protect- ed by a short thin heeled sh.nj. A common sized saddle horse shoe, may be about three-eighths of an inch thick at the toe, and one-eighth at the heel. But unless the hoof has been properly pre- served, the heels and frog are ge- nerally too low, to receive the short shoe. The toe of the hoof requires to be shortened as much as possi- ble, but if the frog touches the ground, no part of the heels should be cut. During the wet months, Ave protect the whole crust by * T r 322 HOR HOR long shoe ; and if the heels of the hoof are low, Ave employ the same shoe in summer. Young horses Avith perfect feet, that have neA'er been shod, or hor- ses taken from grass, do not al- ways admit of horn being taken from the toe ; and Avhere only a small quantity of the toe of the crust can be removed, the heels of the shoe should not at once be made thin, as a temporary lame- ness may ensue. But if the crust can be removed at the toe, nearly in the same degree as the part is to be covered Avith iron, and if the frog be sound and prominent, then a thin heeled shoe may at once be employed Avith success. A shoe and nails for a mode- rately sized coach horse, should Aveigh from 18 to 20 ounces. A saddle horse shoe Avith nails, about 12 or 14 ounces; width at the toe six-eighths of an inch,butone-fourth less at the heel. The toe of the shoe may be three-eighths of an inch thick on the outside , the inside of the toe and the heel one-eighth. Some little A-ariations will be occa- sionally requisite. The shoes of cart-horses, should he three times thicker at tlie toes than atthe heels, provided this quan- tity is not Avorn out before the toe. In general the heels of the short shoe, should terminate about three- fourths of an inch from the heels of the crust (see the plate), but the heels of the long shoe should rest on the junction of the bars Avith the crust, behind the seat of the corns. The length of the shoe commonly employed, is between both ; the heels are generally op- posite the seat of corns, and the length of the shoe contributes to produce the disease. The shoe when first applied, is adapted to the hoof, but before the expiration of the month, the hoof descends, is expanded, and frequently be- comes too large to fit the shoe; and then the heels of the shoe, that Avere at first equal with the crust press upon the hornv sole, bruise and inflame the sensible sole, and occasion corns. The short shoes are not allowed to approach the seat of corns, and then the heels of the sole having great free- dom of motion, this disease is pre- vented. And Avhere long shoes are properly employed, if the heels rest on the junction of the bars with the crust, and if the sole be- tween the bars and the crust is re- moved, corns are equally aA-oided. The shoe mostly recommended by the Veterinary College, is pn-tly flat, and in part concave, on its up- per surface. The flat portion of the shoe, is intended to rest only on the crust, while the concavity of the shoe is supposed to be op- posite the sole, and the nails are placed in the center of the seat, or flat part of the shoe. The princi- ple of this shoe, is to prevent any part of the sole from receiving pressure, and to oblige the crust to support the Avhole weight of the aninu'.l. If the w hole of the sole be suffi- ciently thick to admit of being con- cave, then the whole internal sur- face of the shoe may be made flat. But Avhere the sole towards the toe is convex, or flat and very thin, a shoe altogether flat, or a flat seat, with the nails in the middle can- not be applied, without improper pressure. But I have scarcely ever seen an instance, where the sole, could not be removed, the first or second time of shoeing, be- tween the Avhole of the bars and the cimt. HOR HOR 323 For flat soles, the form of the shoe is concave at its upper part, opposite to the flat or convex por- tion of the sole, with a narrow sur- face, only equal to the crust and nails; but at the quarters and heels, Avhere the sole can be made concave there it.is necessary to em- ploy a flat surface. If the bars and sole at the heels have been destroy- ed by the farrier, so as to prevent the possibility of making a conca- vity between the bars and the crust, and if the horse be obliged to work, then it will be necessary to employ a bar shoe to rest on the frog, and raised from the sole at the heels. But Avhere the sole can be preserv- ed only for a few weeks, it will groAV sufficiently to be made con- cave with a drawing-knife between the bars and crust, and then the heels of the shoe may be flat, Avith- out touching the sole. The best form for the external surface of the shoe, is a regular concavity; that is, the common shoe reversed. The nail holes, and the nails, are stamped with a punch of a wedge- like form (see the plate), and the heads of the nails are of the same figure, namely conical, and receiv- ed into the nail holes; and then so long as the shoe remains, so long there are heads to the nails. The shoe should be nailed all round the toe of the crust. The toe is by much the thickest part of the crust in the fore hoof*, and therefore capable of receiving nails, with 1 ss danger of wounding the sensible parts within, than at the quarters, where the crust is gene- rally thin, and by preserving the greater part of the quarters free * In the hind feet, the quarters and toe are nearly all of the same su'osiaa.e. from nails, the heels are allowed to expand. About one inch and a half of the heels of the shoe may be general- ly left without nails : but on a bar shoe, the nails should be carried nearer the quarter on the outside, than the common shoe, or it -will be liable to be detached from the hoof. When a horse cuts, the outer quarter of the crust should be low- ered, and the interior quarter pre- served. But Avhen the sole is thin, the inner quarter of the shoe should be thickened, and the outer quarter made thin, Avhich will pro- duce the same effect as altering the horn. If the toes of the hoof turn in, the inner quarter of the hoof only, should be lowered, and the outer quarter of the shoe made thicker than the inner quarter. Explanatibn of the Plate;. Fig. I. A view of the natural hoof of the horse, being of a circular form, and shod Avith a short shoe. a a a The external surface of the sole, of a concave form. b b The inferior edge of the crust at the heels. c c The junction of the bars Avith the crust. d d The point of the bars. e e The sole between the heels of the crust and bars, the seat of com. f f The heels of the short shoe, not allowed to reach the seat of the co;n at e e. g The toe of the frog. h h The heels of the frog, i i The cleft between the heels of the frog, the external scat of thrushes. k k Tavo cavities between the sides of the bars, and the sides of the frog. 324 HOR HOR A hoof shod Avith a long shoe, of the " Repertory of Arts," with Avould extend to e e, and if there_ a plate.] be a corn on the foot, a semi- HORSE-BREAD, an expensive circle must be ctft out of the preparation given to horses, and shoe, directry over it, to prevent consisting of Avheat, oats, and pressure from the shoe., / ■ beans ; to Avhich are sometimes Fig. 2. Vievrtof the hoof, with con-'.added, aniseed, liquorice, eggs, tracted heels, produced by the and ale ; at others, rye pnd white- common, method of shoeing. , wih%. a a a The sole. v. - ' There are three kinds of bread b b The original $@at of the bars, usually alloAved to race-horses, for c c The seat of-the original cavhrii the second, third and fourth nights' ties, between the bars and the feeding: all of Avhich are prepared crust, but now, from contrac- with wheat, and beans worked with tion, solid horn. yeast; the difference in the propor- d d The frog very much compres- tions is as follows: in the first sort, seel by tne contraction of the a triple quantity of beans is used to heels of the crust. one part of Avheat; in the second, e e The Avidth of the hoof at the equal portions of both are employ- heels, not being more than one ed ; in the third, three-fourths of half of its length, from f to g. wheat are added to one part of f The extremity of the heels of beans! the frog. .A These artificial stimulants, how- g The toe of the crust. ever, procruce only a temporary ef- Pig. 3. A punch 'Avith a Avedge feet; nor do they contribute to the point to mAke the nail holes. future health and prosperity ofthe Fig. 4. Anafl Avith a wedge .head, horse. Indeed, Ave doubt whether, of the saiie form as thef point in the present unprecedented state of the stamp. ofthe market, horse-racing can be Fig. 5. A nail Avith a common reconciled to the principles of jus- head. ' tice and humanity; unless it be ad- A patent has Jlately been taken mitted, that the fluctuating, though out by John Williams, in Eng- always exorbitant, price of corn, land,'for a method of disengaging within the last two years, must he horses from carriages, when they) attributed chiefly to the vile arts take fright. The simplicity of the and evasions of the laAV, practised process is said to be so great,'that by monopolizers, regraters, fore- the operation is performed Avith as staffers, Sec. These pests of soci- much facility as the pulling of a ety have apparently succeeded in check-string, Avhile at the same creating a constant fictitious scar- time horses are as securely attach- city, which, it is] to be Apprehend- ed to the carriage, as upqn^ the ed, Avill prevail, and elude the ut- common construction. most vigilance of the magistrate, Andrew Leeth and Co. Shoe- till the circulating medium be re- lane, Fleet-street, London, are the gulated, and thej bank-ijotes of pri- manufacturers of these "Safeguard vate individuals reduced to their Splinter-bars." true value. The specification is detailed in After this involuntary digression the first volume of the new series from the subject, Ave shall conclude Fix. 7. /'». 5, *s. HOR with stating a very useful practice, that is folloAved in many parts of Denmark and Germany, wi.h a view to preserve the health of that noble animal, the horse ; and at the same time to keep liim in "• good order." It simply consists in mix- ing a handful of the dried and pul- verized seed of the common nettle, every morning and evening, Avith his allowance of oats. Others add a handful of salt to each meal, and occasionally a few boiled carrots, Avhich remarkably contribute to render his flesh plump and firm. Of the good effects of nettle-seeds, we can sneak from experience, having frequently observed that they improve the coat or hair of the animal, by producing an un- common gloss and smoothness. [HORSE-CHESNUT, or JEs- culus, L. See Chesnut.] HOP.SE-FLY, or Ilippobosca, L. a genus of insects, comprising four species : the principal of these is the equina, or Common Horse-fly, which equally torments horses and cows. The horse-fly is broad, flat, shining, and apparently cpvered with scales, its head, breast, and belly, are of a yeiloAvish colour, streaked with brown. These in- sects are very difficult to be killed, on account of the hard scaly wings with which they are covered ; and r,o firmly do they adhere to the poor animals, that these can nei- ther rub nor bite such pernicious vermin off their shin, Avithout severely wounding themselves. Hence the only preventive we can devise, is a net for covering the horse in hot weather, or in travelling through Avoods, or such places ;s are infested Avith these troublesome flies. HORSE-MEDICINES, an ap- H O R 325 pellation given to such drugs as are prepared exclusively for the use of horses, in particular disor- ders. As many accidents happen from the ignorance of pretenders, Ave shall offer a few hints, toge- ther with recipes, that may be use- ful in ordinary cases. I. Purges are frequently ren- dered necessary in full grown hor- ses of gross habits, for disorders of the stomach and liver ; they ought, however, to be administered Avith great caution, and their strength proportioned to that of the animal; for, as these medicines frequently continue 22 hours in the body pre- viously to passing off, they are apt to cause gripes, accompanied with excessive cold sweats, and to occa- sioninflammations, which frequent- ly terminate in gangrene and death. Purges ought to be given early in the morning, upon an empty stomach ; three or four hours af- terwards, the horse should be fed with scalded bran, when a little hay may be allowed him. All his drink ought to be lukewarm, and a little bran should be mixed with it; but, if he refuse this mesh, pure water may be given. While the dose is operating, the animals should swallow copious draughts of warm Avater ; or, in case of re- fusal, be indulged with cold drink, in order that the purge may pass off the more speedily. The following preparations are extracted from those, tlie charac- ter of which is established among sportsmen, for their utility on sud- den emergencies. I. Take from 10 to 12 drams of aloes ; of myrrh and ginger, each half an ounce ; of saffron half a dram ; or, if bolts are suspected, add one scruple (20 grains) of eu- 326 HOR lomel, or fifteen of red precipitate. 2. Let 10 drams of Socotrine aloes: half an ounce of myrrh finely pulverized ; one dram of saffron, and a similar quantity of fresh jalap, both in powder, be well mixed together, and formed into a solid ball, Avith the addition of [molasses.] 3. Infuse two ounces of senna in a pint of boiling Avater, with three drams of <,alt of tartar, for tAvo hours ; when it is to be poured off, and four ounces of Glauber's salt dissolved in it, together with two or three ounces of cream of tartar. This preparation is reput- ed to be cooling, easy, and speedy in its operation ; it is preferable in cases of sudden inflammations to any other dose; as it is said to pass into the blood, and also to operate by urine. The following- cathartic balls are recommended by Mr. Taplin ; and the ingredients of which they consist, are proportioned to the age, strength, size, and constitution of different horses. 1. Socotrine aloes, one ounce ; rhubarb, tAvo drams ; jalap and cream of tartar, each one dram ; pulverized ginger, two scruples; oil of aniseed, twenty drops ; and as much [molasses] as will form the Avhole into a ball. 2. Socotrine aloes, ten drams , rhubarb, jalap, and ginger, each tAvo dranij ; cream of tartar, three drarm.; and a sufficient quantity of [molasses] to form the ingredi- ents into a bail. 3. Barbadoes aloes, nine drams; jalap, Castile roap, and cream of tartar, of each two drams; ground ginger, one dram ; and the same proportion of [molasses] as above stated. 4. Barbadoes aloes, ten drams; HOR Castile soap and Jalap (in powder), of each half an ounce ; cream of tartar and ginger, each two drams; oil of aniseed, forty drops ; these are to be formed into a ball, Avith syrup of any kind. In preparing these balls, it will be requisite tc give them an oval form ; but, if they exceed the size of a small hen's egg, they ought to be divided into two doses, and dipped in oil, in order that they may pass the more easily down the horse's throat. II. Clystehs are of consider- able service, in relieving the ani- mal from various acute com- plaints : hence they should be carefully administered lukewarm. Their composition ought to be extremely simple, so that they may be easily prepared, and given on sudden emergencies. Clysters are distinguished by va- rious names, such as emollient, laxative, diuretic, oec. of these Ave shall specify such as may be spee- dily procured, together Avith the cases in which they may be resort- ed to wiih advantage. 1. Laxative Clyster. Let two or three quarts of thin Avater-gruel be mixed with eight ounces of Glauber's salt, to which are to be added, six ounces of sweet oil. 2. Emollient Cly.Uer. Take two or three quarts'of thin Avater-gruei, six ounces of coarse sugar, and a similar proportion of salad-oil. The whole is to be well mixed, and injected lukewarm. These two preparations w ill be fully suf- ficient to pro;note a free discharge in sudden obstructions, inflamma- tions, 8ec.; they are, in general, fully as efficacious as the nmre costly compounds. 3. Purging Clysters, Infuse two ounces of senna in boiling water; HOR HOR 327 after having stood a sufficient time it is to be strained, and [half a pint of molasses,] with an equal quan- tity of salad-oil, are to be carefully incorporated with it....This Avill operate more speedily than either of the preceeding mixtures, and is therefore preferable, Avhen imme*- diatc discharges become neces- sary. [Another. Common salt a small handful, lamp or sweet oil, a pint, molasses a pint, Avater one quart, inject by means of a large peAvter syringe. This remedy is highly useful in cases of over feeding, and should be repeated every half hour, until the bowels are fully evacu- ated.] In case of sudden or apprehend- ed inflammations in the boAvels, the folloAving is the most proper: 4. Anodyne Clyster : it consists of one pint of the jelly of starch, or infusion of linseed, and one ounce of liquid laudanum, properly mixed, and immediately adminis- tered : if the symptoms increase, from 30 to 40 grains of opium may be substituted for the laudanum, according to their urgency. 5. Nourishing Clyster. Three quarts of thick water-gruel, with two or three tabfo-spoonsful of ho- ney. When clysters of this kind become necessary, they ought to be given four or even five times in the course of a clay, as circum- stances may require. They are \ery serviceable incases of locked jaw, inflammations of the throat, Su:. 6. Diuretic Clyst-r. Take Ve- nice turpentine, two ounces ; Cas- tile soap, ore ounce. These are to be avc-11 beaten up Avith the yolk of tw o eggs, and then diluted Avith two quarts of Avarm water. Such a clyster is of great service in the strangury, and all obstructions of the urinary passages : if speedily administered, it seldom fails to af- ford complete relief. These feAv clysters are amply sufficient for common exigencies ; and, with a few alterations, Avhich every skilful person is able to adopt, will answer almost every purpose. [Diuretic mash. Dissolve half an ounce of salt petre (nitre) in a quart of strained flaxseed tea, and mix it Avith bran for his food.] 111. Poultices are of such uti- lity, as to deserve a place in this collection. We shall, therefore, subjoin two preparations Avhich may be safely applied in cases of accidental wounds. 1. Digestive Poultice: Take such a cpiantity of oat-meal or coarse wheaten flour, and beer- grounds, as may be required on the occasion : Avith these are to be mixed common turpentine and hog's lard, one ounce of each, pre- viously melted together, and the whole boiled to the consistence of a poultice. 2. Emollient Poultice: 'Pake half a pound of oat-meal, or coarse Avheaten flour, and a similar quan- tity of pulverized linseed. These are to be boiled in milk or water, to the consistence of a catapla-,ui, when one ounce of sal-ammoniac in powder should be added....The emollient poultice may be applied to Avounds attended with great heat, inflammation, or swelling: by the addition of fresh butter, lard, or oil, it may be rendered more relaxing, so that it will spee- dily remove the tension of the skin, while it attenuates the viscid and obstructed juices. IV. Powders. The chief pow- 328 HOR HOR der employed in farriery is that of Dia-pente ; Avhich consists of equal quantities of gentian, bar-berries, myrrh, the shavings of ivory, and round birtliAyort (Aristob.e.hia ro- tunda, L....These are to be care- fully pulverized, sifted, and Aveigh- ed, so that the exact proportions be mixed ; after which they are to be kept perfectly secluded from the air. This poAvder generally forms an ingredient in other me- dicines, and is of considerable ef- ficacy in the Farcy (which see): it is likewise mixed with musca- dine Avine, sack, or ale, and given as a kind of diet-drink to horses affected Avith colds, coughs, inflam- mations in the blood or liver, and Ararious other affections : as it tends to purify the humours, and to clear the boAvels of infectious or corrupt matter. The last class of medicines that deserve attention, are : V. Diet Drinks, which are generally used in cases of surfeits, or similar disorders ; for this pur- pose, the following recipes may be useful : 1. Lime-water, prepared Avith shavings of sassafras and liquorice, is Avell calculated to purify the blood, and may occasionally be given, together, Avith balls consist- ing of pulverized salt-petre, mixed Avith honey ; so that two or three ounces of nitre be taken in the course of twenty-four hours. 2. Tar-water may in many ca- ses, and especially when the ap- petite is impaired, be administer- ed Avith advantage ; but let it be remembered, that all medicines of this nature ought to be continued for a considerable time, in obsti- nate maladies ; for, otherwise, there will be no chance of suc- cess. Lastly, as many diseases of the horse arise from obstructed perspi- ration, in consecpience of his being suffered to stand in the stable, and become cool after fatiguing labour, we can from experience recom- mend a mesh, consisting of two or three gallons of lukeAvarm water, in which half a pound of honey is dissolved, with the addition of a few handsful of barley-meal,' or malt dust: such a draught ought to be allowed morning and even- ing, for several days, whenever it is apprehended that the animal has taken cold, or been otherwise in- jured by violent exertions. [For Sore Eyes. Dissolve half an ounce of sugar of lead in a quart of Avater, and bathe the eyes frequently with a linen cloth dipped therein. When the inflammation has subsided, and the eye continues to run from weakness, add i oz. of white vitriol to a pint of the a- bove Avater. For other diseases See the seA'eral articles. Under art. Horse it was intended to treat ofthe best draught of horses' or oxen, but in order to make this article more complete, it must be deferred until avc come to the arti- cle Wheel-carriages.] HORSE-RADISH, or Cochle- aria Armoracia, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing on the sides of ditches, the banks of riv- ers, and other damp places ; flow- ering in the month of May. It has a strong pungent smell ; a penetrating acrid taste; and is refused by every kind of cattle.... The root, Avhen scraped, is much used at the table as a condiment for fish, roast beef, Sec.; it is also em- ployed for many other culinary purposes ; and might, in times of scarcity, afford flour for bread. With this intention, however, the HOR HOR 329 roots ought to be collected in au- series of years, it is generally re- tumn, and treated in the manner garded as a sign of weakness, or already described. [See art. Cas- short life. In this case, the usual sava and Chesnut.] But, if practice is to rub the head occasion- horse-radish be intended for im- ally Avith Avarm rum or brandy, mediate use, it ought to be dug mixed with the white of an egg, or out of the ground fresh, only from a little palm-oil: it will also be ad- October to March ; or to be ga- visable to wear a small cushion thered in the spring, then dried, over such aperture, by which it reduced to powder, and preserved will not only be protected from the in bottles closely stopped, for oc- cold air, but likewise from receiv- casional use ; when it should be ing sudden injury ; and conse- previously moistened with spring quently the closing of it Avill be water....When steeped and digest- promoted. Such infants ought to ed in vinegar, during a fortnight, be watched Avith additional care, to this root is said effectually to re- prevent any accidental falls, or move freckles in the face. blows, on the head, Avhich to them In paralytic complaints, horse- Avould be fatal....See also Pood. radish has sometimes been applied, HORSE-TAIL, or Eauisetum, with advantage, as a stimulating L. a genus of perennial plants, remedy to the parts affected....A comprising eight species, six of strong infusion of it excites vomit- which are, indigenous : of these, ing ; and is greatly recommended the following are the principal: by Sydenham in dropsies, particu- 1. The Sylvaticum, or Wood- larly such as succeed intermittent horse-tail, which grows in moist fevers....Prof. Beckmann menti- woods, shady places in the aicini- ons this vegetable among the most ty of rivers, and on boggy soils : it proper substances for tanning or floAvers in the months of April and currying leather. May. Horses eat this plant with [A syrup made by boiling sera- avidity ; and, in some parts of ped horse radish in broAvn sugar, SAvedcn, it is collected for the pur- is an excellent remedy in the de- poseof serving them as Avinter-food. cline of colds and of pluerisies, to 2. The arvense, Common, or promote expectoration. A tea Corn horse-tail, groAving in Avet spoonful may be taken frequently, meadows and moist corn-fields. It and permitted to dissolve in the is a most troublesome weed in mouth.] pastures, and is seldom touched HORSE-SHOE-HEAD, an af- by cows, unless pressed by hunger, fection of the heads of infants, in Avhen it occasions an incurable di- which the sutures of the skull are arrhcea : it is eaten with impunity too open, or too great a space oc- by horses, but is noxious to sheep. curs between them ; so that the This rough grass is employed for aperture is frequently not closed, cleaning and polishing tin vessels. or the cranium in that part does According to GlEditsch, this not become hard and firm, till the species, as Avell as the fiuviatile, or age of puberty. This opening in- River-horse-tail, are of considera- creases as often as the child takes ble service in tanning or dressing cold ; and, if it continue for a long leather. vol. in. U » 330 H O S HO T 3. The palustre, Marsh-horse- tail, or Paddock-pipe, which flou- rishes in marshy and Avalery pla- ces ; floAvers in the months of June and July. It is not so strong as the preceding species, but is equal- ly prejudicial to cows: farther, it is very troublesome in drains, with- in which it vegetates, and forms both stems and roots, several yards in length : thus the course of the Avater is interrupted, and the drains are totally obstructed. To remedy this inconvenience, the reader Avifl consult the article, Draining. 4. The hyemale, Rough Horse- tail, ShaA-e-grass, Pewterwort, or Dutch Rushes, is found in marshy, Avatery soils, and floAvers in the months of July and August. This species is Avholesome for horses, by Avhich it is eaten ; but it is hurt- ful to cows, and disagreeable to sheep. It is chiefly employed by turners and cabinet-makers, for po- lishing their work ; as well as by dairy-maids, for cleaning pails and other wooden utensils. Horse-worm. See Botts. HOSPITAL, a building proper- ly endowed, or otherwise main- tained by voluntary contributions, for the reception and support of the poor, sick, infirm, or helpless. PeAv countries abound with a greater number of these humane institutions than Britain ; yet they are often calculated to generate disease rather than to cure it, on account of their croAvded wards, or from their confined situation in populous cities, Avhere tlie most pestilential vapours are in a man- ner condensed ; and thus, in too many instances, the victims of po- verty, age, infirmity, or sickness, eventually perish by mutual con- tagion. Much, Ave are convinced, has already been done towards reme- dying an evil of so serious a na- ture ; but still more remains to be accomplished, before salutary changes produce the desired effect in this neglected department of medical police. We mention these few circumstances, in order to ex- cite a greater degree of attention to this important object, in Avhich the salubrity of the metropolis is particularly concerned. Those of our benevolent readers who wish to acquire further information, ought to read the Extracts from an Account of the Institution for the Cure and Prevention of Contagious Fevers in London, lately published; as Avell as Mr. Aikin's Thoughts on Hospitals (8vo. Is. 6d. John- son, 1771) : both pamphlets equal- ly abound with interesting facts and observations. HOT-BEDS, in gardening, are made either Avith fresh horse-dung or tanners' bark, and covered with glasses, to protect them from the severity of the wind and Aveather. Where horse-dung is employed, a trench should be dug, of a width and depth proportioned to the size of the frames intended to be used; and which, in dry ground, ought to be a foot, or a foot and a half, deep ; but, if the soil be Avet, it should not exceed six inches. The dung is then to be spread even and smooth on every part of the beds, laying the finer manure on the surface : if the bed be intended for planting out cucumbers, a hole should be made, about ten inches broad, and six inches deep, in the middle of the place destined for each light, and then filled up Avith good fresh earth. The bed is next to be covered, to the depth of four HOT HOT 331 inches, with the earth taken out of the trench, and the frame fixed over it, to remain till the earth become Avarm, Avhich commonly takes place in the course of 3 or 4 days after the bed is made; Avhen the cucumbers may be planted. In case the hot-bed be designed for other plants, it will not be ne- cessary to make holes in the dung; but, after levelling the surface, good earth ought to be spread over it, to the depth of three or four inches ; the frames and glasses be- ing put on as before. In making such beds, the dung should be set- tled close with a fork ; and if it be full of long litter, it must be trod down equally in every part. In the first Aveek, or ten days, after the hot-bed is made, the glasses should be slightly covered, during the night, and cautiously opened in the day time, to give vent to the steam; but, as soon as the heat abates, the covering should be in- creased by mats or straw; and, Avhen the bed becomes cold, fresh dung should be applied to its sides. Plot-beds made with tanners' bark are preferable to those above described, especially for tender exotic plants and fruits; as they require a more ecpial Avarmth than can be produced by horse-dung. The method of making them is as folloAvs : a trench is dug about three feet deep, if the ground be dry; but, if the soil be Avet, it ought not to exceed the depth of a foot, and should be raised two feet aboA'e the ground. Their size must be in proportion to the frames in- tended to cover them ; though they ought to extend at least 10 or 12 feet in length, and six feet in width. The trench should be lin- ed with bricks on each side, to the height of three feet, and filled in the spring with fresh tanners' bark, Avhich should be previously thrown up into a round heap, in order to drain for three or four days. When the tan is laid on, it ought to be gently beaten down Avith a dung- fork ; for, if it be trodden in, it will be prevented from heating, as it settles too close. The frame and glasses are noAV to be fixed; and, in the course of ten days or a fort- night, the bed Avill groAV hot, Avhen pots or plants of seed may be plunged in it; care being taken that the bark be not compressed. These beds will preserve a proper temperature of heat for three or four months, which may be con- tinued two or three months longer, by adding a load or two of fresh bark, as often as the warmth be- gins to decrease. Frames vary in size, according to the plants they are destined to cover. If designed for ananas or pine-apples, the back should be three feet high, the lower part fif- teen inches : Avhen the bed is in- tended for taller plants, the frame must be made proportionally high- er ; if for seeds only, it will not be necessary to employ frames more than fourteen inches in height at the back, and seven in the front. Thus, the heat w ill be increased, and the growth of the plants con- siderably promoted. HOT-HOUSE,a building erect- ed for the purpose of raising such exotic plants, as, from their ex- treme tenderness, are unable to Avithstand the effects of a cold or variable climate. The construction of hot-houses, in general, differs little from that of Green-houses ; because the design of both is to receive as much benefit as possible from the genial Avarmth of the sun, assisted by the 33-2 HOT HOT heat artificially procured from Sub- terraneous stoves and flues....We shall, therefore, at present, only give an analysis (from the 1st. vol. of the second series of Recreations in Agileutture, Sec.) of the princi- ple on which Dr. Anderson's im- proved hot-houses are constructed, and for Avhich he has lately obtain- ed a patent. He first points out the defects in the present method of erecting hot-hoUses ; in consequence of which the heat of the sun is not employed with that advantage of which it is susceptible. In the prevailing mode of building these houses, the roof glasses are, Avith very few exceptions, laid into the frames, by folding one frame over the other, and thus leaving an open space between each pane ; through which the air has a free passage, v''Vthe frrv-.t panes are closely coAcred round with putty. This communication with the open air at the upper part ofthe house, fo their chief imperfection ; for the p wer ofthe mm-iing sun i= thus lost for several hours ; and, m the evening, Avhen the warm air Avith- in begins to cool and to contract in bulk, the cold air from without rushes in through the top or roof- glasses, cools the wimle house in the most expeditious manner, and thus counteracts the influence of the solar rays. To remedy these inconvenien- cies, the patentee proposes the fol- loAving plan of construction, for houses designed to force vines, or such plants as require a similar temperature. The houses is to be built of the usual dimensions, but with a glass roof perfectly flat; and, as it never requires to be open- ed, all the seams or junctures be- tween each pane are to be care- fully closed with lead and putty. Over this flat ceiling, another slop- ing roof is to be erected, and co- vered either with slate, or likewise Avith glass, which -will better an- sAver the purpose. The upper chamber, which will thus serve as a reservoir for the heated air, com- municates Avith the common at- mosphere only at its lower part, that is, immediately over the roof of the lower house ; and there is a contrivance for another occasional communication with the latter, by means of a pipe or tube, that ex- tends from the top of the upper chamber, almost to the ground bcloAv. Ly this construction, as soon as the sun expands the air in the low* er house or chamber, a part of that air rises through the tube into the upper chamber ; Avhere it ascends to the top or roof, forcing out the cooler air contained in the upper chamber, which passes off through the openings left aboA'e the floor of tiiis chamber, or in the roof of the lower room. During the Avhole of this heat- ing process, the vines, Avhich are trained along, beneath the glass roof of the lower chamber, are sur- rounded Avith heated air. In the evening, when the influence of the sun is withdrawn, the Avarm air be- gins to cool, and consequently to contract its bulk ; thus the exter- nal air rushes in, through the aper- ture immediately over the loAver glass roof, into the upper cham- ber. This cold air being heavier than that Avithin the house, it can only enter as the latter recedes ; the current through both chambers is now exactly reversed ; and the lower room receives all the Avarm air from the reservoir or upper one, before the cold can reach it. HOT HOU 333 Dr. Anderson is of opinion, that a feAv hours sun-shine will at any time be sufficient completely to heat the house in which vines are planted ; and thus, without any artificial heat from fuel, a perma- nent warmth may be maintained, which is sufficient to ripen grapes, in favouiable Aveather, as early as in the months of June, July, and Augu.i. He farther suggests, that the upper chamber may be convert- ed into an hot-horse of inferior rank ; and that it would be emi- nently calculated to serve as a sub- stitute for a green-house or con- servatory. Such is the outline of this very ingenious plan, and the inquisitive reader Avho Avishes to acquire more minute information on this subject, Avill probably resort to the volume already quoted, where it is amply treated, and illustrated with cuts. [Dr. W. adds the following ac- count of a new plan in his supple- ment.] A glass frame for buildings of this description has lately b\.en in- vented by M. Benard : it posses- ses considerable advantages over those in common use. The lower part consists of a double square of glass-panes set in Avood, or in wood and lead. The upper part is composed of panes of glass fix- ed in Avood, and terminates in an oblong six-sided prism : it may be taken off ut pleasure, by a ring connected with the top.....The whole of this fabric has the singu- lar advantage of throwing a great holy of light on the plants, Avhile it prevents \hat sickly growth, de- nominated ctiola'.ion ; and renders it easy to produce a variety of tem- peratures, as occasion may require. M. Benahd's hot-hoiii»e is suppli- ed vs ith heat, at a trifling expence, by common oil; the smoke of winch is conveyed round the frame, by means of a flue. HoMiouses are liable to be in- fested with a variety of insects known under the different appella- tions of Cocci, Aphides (lice), Sec. that harbour in the Avails, and among the trellises, which fasten up vines, and other Avail-fruit trees, especially during the Avinter. In order to destroy these vermin, Mr. Speech ley recommends the Avails to be washed with common soap- suds, early in the spring, Avhile they are in a torpid state : this li- quor is to be poured out of a wa- tering-pot from the top ofthe Avail downwards , and ought Avhen us- ed, to be considerably warmer than new milk : thus, if the suds be properly and plentifully applied, the Avail will assume a pale red colour, and the insects be effectu- ally destroyed. HOUND, an appellation given to dogs of chace. Hounds of the middle kind are deemed to be the best, being stronger than such as are either very small, or of a large size..... The shape of these animals should be carefully attended to, as they can neither run swift, nor perform great tasks, if their limbs are not well proportioned. A good hound ought to have straight legs, round small feet, and well-formed shoul- ders ; his breast should be rather wide than narrow ; his chest deep, his back broad : his head small ; his neck thin ; his tail thick and bushy. Young animals that are Aveak from the knee to the foot, should not be suffered in the pack; and all the hounds should be uear- ly of a size. Particular attention is rerjuiri'e in the breeding cf hounds. No old 534 H O U dogs should be admitted,nor should any attempts be made to cross the' breed. The months of January, February, and March, are the best for breeding.....As, hoAvever, this quadruped is less connected with purposes of economy than amuse- ment, Ave shall content ourselves Avith referring the curious reader to Mr. Beckeord's " Thoughts on Hunting," (4to. 10s. 6el.) in which the subject is fully and perspicu- ously treated. Hound's-berry. See Cornel- tree. PIOUND's-TOXGUE, or Cy- noglossum, L. a genus of plants consisting of eight species, two of Avhich are natives of Britain : the principal of these is the officinale, Common Great Hound's-tongue, or Dog's-tongue, Avhich is fre- quently found on road sides, and among rubbish ; Avhere it flowers in June.....It is eaten by goats, but refused by sheep, horses, hogs, and cows.....Its scent is Aery dis- agreeable, and resembles the odour of mice. This plant has a bitter taste, and is so powerfully narcotic, that persons Avho had eaten it as a cu- linary A'egetable, Avere laid into a profound sleep for fourteen hours ; and others died in consequence. The roots, hoAvever, Avere, ac- cording to Ray, employed by Dr. Hulse, Avho prescribed a decoc- tion of them internally, and cata- plasms externally in scrophulous cases. The leaves and roots have likewise been recommended for the same purposes, and also for coughs, dysenteries, £cc. on ac- count of their mucilaginous, astrin- gent, and sedative qualities, of Avhich we have had no experi- ence. HO U [The Cynoglossum Virginianum, is a native of the United States. The leaves Avhen used as tobacco to smoke, intoxicate. According to Clayton, the root is astringent, and is given in diarrhoeas.] HOUR, a measure of time, equal to the 24th part of the na- tural day, or that space of time which the earth requires to per- form its diurnal revolution round its axis. The hour is divided into 60 minutes, each of avhich is divid- ed into 60 seconds, as eA'ery second is into 60 thirds.....See Time and Watch. HOUR-GLASS, a kind of chro- nometer, employed by navigators, as Avell as by some artisans and mechanics, to measure the passing of time, by means of the descent or running of sand, out of one glass into another. The best hour-glasses are those Avhich are filled with egg-shells, Avell dried in an oven, finely pul- verized, and sifted ; as they sheAV the passing of time Avith greater exactness than common sand. HOUSE, a habitation or edifice suited with conveniencies for the abode of man. The chief requisites in construct- ing houses are, situation, durabili- ty, and convenience, of which avc have already treated under the ar- ticle Building ; Ave shall therefore only notice an expired patent grant- ed in 1786 to Mr. Dennis M'Cah- thy, for his then neAV-hwented compound, applicable to the for- mation of tiles. The patentee directs three bush- els of Thames sand, or any white fluxing sand, to be mixed Avith a bushel of salt, and calcined in a kiln or furnace till it become a hard substance. These ingredients are HOU HOU 335 then to be ground fine, and one bushel of them mixed with an equal quantity of white clay, or whiting, to which are to be added one bushel of calcined ground flint, or ground glass ; plaster of Paris may also be mingled with the clay, if the lat- ter article cannot be easily procur- ed ; and, by the addition of smalt, the compound may be made of a beautiful slate colour. When the ingredients are mixed together, and moistened Avith Ava- ter, they should be worked till they acquire a consistence proper for casting them into moulds. The pieces, or tiles thus formed, are next to be burned in a furnace, or kiln, the fire being confined by ' funnels or muffles. The size of these tiles depends on the distance of the rafters, on which they are to be placed in such a direction, that the joints may meet in the centre, and either fold over, or fix into each other exactly ; in Avhich state they are to be fastened by pegs, screws, spikes, 8cc. when the joints are to be closed with stone cement, tarras, or fine mortar.... A more particular account of this invention will be found in the 11th vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, where it is fully spe- cified. [Under the articles, Coun- try-house, Architecture, and Building, may be found some general observations on this sub- ject, which deserve attention. At present, some additional instruc- tions shall be given, as the result of muchrinquiry among practical men. 1. In the first place, it is ofthe greatest consequence to procure well seasoned timber for joists. Wood differs very much in dura- bility, and yet the opinion of men whose judgment upon this subject is matured by repeated experience, authorises the assertion that the durability of any particular species of Avood is not so much connected with the nature of it, as Avith its seasoning. Hemlock spruce, (Pi- nus Abies Americana) is a very perishable wood, if used when re- cently felled and saAved; but it is a fact, that young hemlock, free from Avind shakes, duly seasoned, and not floated, will last as long as most other kinds of wood un- der similar circumstances. Mr. D. Evans, jun. of Philadelphia, an experienced builder, in altering his house, found a bond piece of hemlock sound, Avhich he kneAv from the age of the house must have been at least 80 years old. The Senate chamber in Con- gress hall; and the building erect- ed for the President of the United States, and row occupied by the University of Pennsylvania, were striking inbtances of the perishable nature of unseasoned hemlock : but it is also a fact, that Avhite- oak if unseasoned, will not last longer than hemlock Avhen put in- to brick or stone-work. Of this many facts might be produced. The necessity of attention to the timber is the more earnestly en- forced, because, from the rapidity with which houses have been built in Philadelphia for some years past, much timber, fresh from the saw-mill, has been put in dwellings intended by the owners to be du- rable, but Avhich have already be- gun to decay, and will continue to rot. Some serious accidents will one day occur, to rouse people from their inattention. 2. .The thickness of the Avails of a house is an object nearly of e- qual importance, Avith that of the 336 HOU HOU first article. Independently of the increased durability of a house, ari- sing from thick Avails, the consi- deration of our comfort ought to excite to improvement in that par- ticular. Houses Avith thick walls are cooler in summer and Avarmer in winter. In Calcutta the Avails of houses are nearly three feet thick, and the outsides are coA'ered with a mortar called Chunam, (see Cement) which reflects the heat, so that they are rendered cooler than many houses, in the United States, notwithstanding the greater heat of the climate of India. In winter also, the quantity of fuel saved by the thick Avails of a house confining the heat, must be obvi- ous. At present the Avails of most houses built in Philadelphia are much too thin, as they seldom ex- ceed nine inches, and derive the chief part of their support from the adjoining houses. It is not unusual to perceive day-light thro' the walls of the garret of a house, a circumstance Avhich must neces- sarily render these apartments un- comfortable at all seasons; but there is anothei disadvantage Avhich ought to be mentioned : should the house take fire and the rafters of the roof be destroyed, the gable end for Avant of support will pro- bably fall in, and endanger the liA'es of those who meritoriously risk their safety for our benefit. Such an accident happened in a large brickhouse last spring, (1803) and occasioned the death of one person, and seriously Avounded some others. Count Rumford has clearly proved, that " though the indivi- dual particles of air, can receive heat from other bodies, or commu- nicate it to them, yet there is no communication of heat between one particle of air, and another parti- cle of air. And hence it follows, that though air may, and certainly does carry off heat, and transport it from one place, or from one bo- dy to another, yet a mass of air, Avith all its particles at rest, could it remain in that state, Avould be totally impervious to heat; or in other Avords, such a mass of air Avould be a perfect non-conduc- tor. " Noav if heat passes in a mass of air merely in consequence of the motion it occasions in that air, it is clear that Avhatever can ob- struct and impede the internal mo- tion of the air, must tend to dimi- nish its conducting power. I found that a certain quantity of heat Avhich Avas able to make its way through a wall, or rather a sheet of con- fined air i an inch thick in 9| mi- nutes, required 21|- minutes to make' its way through the same Avail, Avhen the internal motion of the air Avas impeded by mixing Avith it Jg- part of its bulk of eider down, of very fine fur, or of fine silk, as spun by the avoitii." Hence probably if a room Avere lined Avith canvass nailed on bat- tens tAvo or three inches thick, and the space filled up Avith rabbit-fur, cotton, feathers or wool, very great advantages Avould be derived in respect to saving the heat. On the north-Avest and north-east sides of an exposed house, the experi- ment might at least be tried. If fur be AA'antirg, the same end may be nearly as Avell»answered by the folloAving plan. Place bat- tens from one and a half, to two inches thick at proper distances against the Avail, and the heigth of the room, and secure them by stay* HOU HOU 337 nails driven in between the joints. Upon the battens lay the laths. The stay-nails may be of the fol- lowing form. Thus by confining a column of air between the Avail and the laths, the air of the room is less affected by the diminution or increase of heat in the external atmosphere, and by the dampness which so commonly penetrates walls, to the injury of paper, pictures and fur- niture, is effectually prevented. It is a common practice to Avork blocks of Avood into the walls, and to fasten battens to them for the pur- pose of lathing, but Mr. Evans, (before mentioned) assured the edi- Ur. that some Avails thus treated, have been thrown several inches out of plumb, in consequence of the expansion of the blocks. 3. Cedar or cypress shingles are generally employed in the United VOL. III. States for coA'ering houses: the clanger arising from their combus- tible nature, is obvious, and the ef- fects of this combustibility have been frequently felt. Houses distant from a scene of conflagration, have been often set on fire in consequence of sparks and burning flakes be- ing carried to the roofs by the Avind. NeAV-York indeed is an ex- ception to the general passion for shingling. There tiles have been used for many years, and lately, from the fortunate discovery of a. slate quarry in that state, this su- perior substitute is coming rapidly into use. The expence of a slate roof is but little more than a roof of shingles, and w ill last for ever, Avhereas a shingle roof must be re- paired every twenty or thirty years. 4. Stone cornices are of great uti- lity in prcA-enting the progress of fires. Where a row of houses is continued for some hundred feet, their utility must be particularly obvious in interrupting flames. A battlement, (parapet) and stone bracket in the cornice, (if of Avood) would also ansAver the same pur- pose. These Avere formerly in use in Philadelphia, but have been a- bandoned in later times. 5. Chimneys should uniformly be built in Avith the wall against which they are intended to run up; and Avhen a chimney is carried up in a brick or stone bouse, not ori- ginally intended for a fire place, it should be clamped Avith irons, and pinned on the outside of the wall; otherwise in case of fire, the chim- ney will f .11 Avhen the trimming joices on which it rests are burnt, and endanger the lives of those Avho may be meritcricr.slv exert- ing themselves to save our pro- perty. Such an accident, and from. the very neglect, against which the X x . 538 HOU HOU reader is now cautioned, happen- ed lately at a fire in Water-street, Philadelphia, where by the falling of a chimney, society and their families were deprived of some very valuable citizens. 6. The Avind from the north-east in the United States being cold, and generally moist; and the north- west wind, though dry, being also cold; a house should be so contriv- ed if possible, as to occupy the above quarters Avith entries and stair-cases. 7. Count Rumeord has taken notice of the benefits that are de- rived in cold countries from the use of double Avindows, (that is, one paned window near the outer surface, and another near the in- ner surface of the wall in each case- ment, with a vacant space between them) for a defence from the cold in high latitudes ; and he wonders that it never should have occurred to any one, that double AvindoAVS Avould be equally beneficial in keep- ing out the heat as well as cold ; but to render this contrivance as beneficial for th.e purpose of cool- ing houses, we must add the fol- lowing caution of Count Rum- ford. " When double Avindows are used in hot countries, to keep chvelling-houses cool, great care must be taken to screen those Avin- dows from the sun's direct rays, and even from the strong light of day ; otherwise they will produce effects directly contrary to those intended. This may be easily done, either by Venetian blinds or by aAvnings. In all cases where rooms are to be kept cool in hot weather, the less light that is per- mitted to enter them, the cooler they Avill be." Dr. Anderson (Recreations, vol. 1.) has suggested an improvement in the construction of double win- cIoavs, but of a questionable nature. 8. The utility of stone stair- cases Avas mentioned under the ar- ticle "Fire." See also Stair- case. 9. In this climate, no house should be erected without a con- ductor of lightning. The prefera- ble mode of securing a house from this aAvful agent, is described under the article " Conductor." 10. Where shingles are used to cover roofs, the courses ought to be regulated by the following rules: When cedar shingles are used, they may be laid in courses of nine or ten inches ; but Avhen short cypress shingles are employ- ed, the courses may be seven in- ches. In both cases, they Avill be but three thick, Avhich is a point to be aimed at. Such a roof will dry sooner than when thicker, and will not be so likely to leak as when thinner. An honest carpenter of note in Philadelphia, made his courses ve- ry short with the express intention cf preventing the decay of the roof; but it was generally remarked that houses which had been shingled by him, required new roofs sooner than others Avhich had been roofed by other carpenters. Some very old houses in Philadelphia, the roofs of Avhich have not been renewed for many years, have their courses of shingles longer than more mo- dern houses. Shingles are of late bevelled at their butt-ends, to per- mit an easy passage to rain, which by dropping from the abrupt thick end of the shingle, has been found to wear the roof; the bevelling hoAvever should be done before the shingles are taken up to the roof; for if afterwards done by a hatch- et, the part intended to be pared HOU HOU 339 will be missed by that instrument, which will penetrate the shingles already laid on,thus making nume- rous cavities for the reception of rain, and cause a rapid decay ofthe roof. An instance occurs in Phi- ladelphia, of three adjoining hou- £' ses, on one of which the shingles from being bevelled on the roof, leaks; while on the other two, they were put on as they came from the yard, and do not admit a particle of water. Shingles if dipped in fish oil, Avill have their durability great- ly increased. In South Carolina and Georgia, **} houses are built of a composition called tabby, which is ornamental, and very durable. It is made in the following manner. Oyster shells (of Avhich immense banks are found in those states,) are burnt to lime,and mortar made, j; into Avhich are incorporated as ma- ny small dead shells as it will con- tain : this semi-fluid mass is then poured into frames ofthe size ofthe »• intended walls, and well pounded ; Avhen dry, the frame is raised, fresh tabby poured in, and again pound- ed: in this way the walls are built, and in a short time they become " as hard as stone; and, being Avhite, are particularly Avell calculated to reflect the intense rays ofthe sum Mud-houses. " The way of building mud-houses, and walls for fencing in seA'eral parts of Engr land, is as follows. They take any kind of soil of a loamy or clay- ey nature ; but such as has been tempered in the bye-ways by cat- tle and horses is preferred : tiiis is la d in a ring or circle, if there be sufficient room, and thereon a quantity of coarse hay or cut straw about four inches long, is laid, and upon that another coat of soil, and then oxen or horses (the former being preferred) are driven round over it as in threshing, and v hen sufficiently mixed by being tims trodden ; and occasionally forked up, it is fit to begin the building Avith. A foundation of stone, about 12 inches above ground bring first laid, a man takes a three pronged fork, whose prongs are flatted ; and with it builds a Avail of this tem- pered earth about 18 inches thick, and according as the Aveather is, sometimes two and sometimes three feet high, taking care to pack it as closely as possible. It is noAV left to become sufficiently dry to bear another layer of 2 or 3 feet high upon it. The operation is thus continued until the desired height is obtained. If it be a house of more than a single story, a curb frame of light scantling may be throw^i round, and buried in the next layer, upon which also the ends of the beams may be laid. When these wallb are for fenc- ing orchards, gardens, Eec. the top is capped wLh a thatch of stubble, coveied in the centre Avith a light layer of mud ; and when for houses, the roofs are generally thatched with straAV, and Avithout any cover- ing to the outsides of lime or plais- ter. These walls have been known to stand upAvards of a century. The advantage of building in this Avay, over the pi e building used in France, is peculiar to those countries Avhere labour is high, because very little art is necessa- ry; the commonest labourer being competent to the task ; and there being very few situations chat doth not admit of soils proper for the vrork; moreover it is not necessary to have the mud freed from small stones ; Avhereas in the pie build- ings a considerable portion of art is practiced in erecting the frames 340 HOU .HUN and in beating the work all over equally hard. For small dwellings, stables, sheds, fences, ice-houses or other out offices, this is the cheapest and best mode that I knoAv of; neither cold nor heat can penetrate these walls, and if plaistered on the out- side, and painted or lime Avashed, they Avould appear as elegant as any common stone house, and A'ery far superior to brick. The advocates for phe building complain, but Avithout reason, of the use of straAV or hay in the above described buildings, but the author of this article has knoAvn villages Avhere almost every house was of this kind, and never re- membered any inconvenience to arise from the supposed decay of that article : indeed the quantity is too small, and the soils when tempered properly and well pack'd on with the fork, will not admit of air, nor derive injury, from the par- tial and very imperceptible decay of the hay or straw therein." For the above account of the mode of making mud-Avails, the editor is indebted to S. W. John- son, esquire, of New-Brunswick, NeAV-Jersey.' Owing to an accident, the cut of the " fire escape," p. 10, Avas used before being perfectly finish- ed. A more correct view of that excellent contrivance is therefore now given.] K(iys on Husbandr-;, Deane's New-England Fen-mer. Transactions of the -\lussachu.-ett* 344 H Y D HYK and Connecticut Societies of Agricul- ture deserve to be mentioned.] HYACINTH, Hyacinthus, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising 16 species, one of which is indigenous ; namely, the nonscrip- tus, English Haycinth, or Hare- bell Playacinth (Scilla nutans, or Wild Hyacinth of Dr. Sjiith ;) it grows in Avoods and hedges, where it flowers in the month of May. The fresh roots of this plant are poisonous ; but it ap- pears from experiments, that they may be advantageously converted into starch. The most admired of the exotic species is the Orientalis, or Eas- tern Hyacinth, which is cultivated to a great extent, and with success, by the florists of Holland, Avhence it has been lately imported. It is one of the most odoriferous flow- ers, and has several hundred vari- eties, the price of Avhich is from three-pence to20/. or 30/. per root! The hyacinth is a hardy plant, and will prosper in any soil, though the more delicate varieties require to be sheltered during the severity of Avinter. They may be propa- gated either from the seed, or by- planting off sets from the roots, in autumn ; in Avhich latter case the bulbs ought to be previously cleaned and dried. [P1YDRASTIS CANADEN- SIS, Canadian yelloAv dye. The root is composed of thick fleshy tubers, of a deep yelloAv co- lour Avithin, but covered by a brown skin. The fruit is red and succu- lent ; it delights in shade and mois- ture ; floAvers in May and June. The Indians dye a.fine yelloAv co- lour Avith the root.] Hydrocephalus. See Water in the head. HYDROMETER, an useful in- strument for measuring the gra- vity, density, strength, Sec. of spi- rits, or other liquids. For this purpose, various hydro- meters have been contrived on dif- ferent principles; but the most simple of Avhich appears to be that devised by Mr. AVilliam Jones, mathematical instrument-maker, Ilolbom. It requires only three weights to discover the strength of spirits, from alkohol doAvn to Ava- ter, and is adjusted to the tempe- rate state of the air, or to 60° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Far- ther, as an alteration of this tem- perature has a very material effect on the gravity of spirits, by caus- ing them to appear much stronger during warm weather, and the re- verse in cold seasons, it was for- merly requisite to place a thermo- meter in the spirits, previously to immersing the hydrometor, and to make a certain, but inaccurate, al- lowance for the several degrees the mercury may be above or below, the temperature before mentioned. In order to remedy this inconve- nience, Mr. Jones has contrived to unite the thermometer with his instrument; and, from experi- ment, to adapt the divisions to the different degrees above or below the temperate state. Thus, his hydrometer is rendered easy in its application, and sufficiently accu- rate for tlie common purposes of distillers, or dealers in spirits. [The hydrometer of Baume is universally used in France, but in England it is neA'er employed. Mr. Jones' contrivance above mentioned, supercedes any other.] PIydrophobia. See Bisk of a Mud dog. HYKES, a species of blankets, commonly used by the inhabitants of Barbavv. They consist of a HYP HYP 345 light woollen cloth, woven by wo- has gained full possession of their men, Avlm conduct every thread fields. with their fingers, and without the Dr. Wili.ich says, art.St. John'* aid of a shuttle. This manufac- Wort. That the Hypericum Per- ture appears to be a coarse kind of foratum, or Perforate, St. John's * shawl, and is the more remarkable, Wort, is eaten by goats, though as each of such hykes is from five refused by horses and hogs. The to six yards in length, and breath : leaves are said to destroy worms, it forms the whole apparel of the and the semi-pellucid clots found on wretched natives, and serves them them, yield on distillation, an es- as a covering for their beds during sential oil. In SAveden, the Aoav- the night. ers are used to impart a purple [HYPERICUM, Saint John's tinge to spirits, and the Avhole plant, Wort. A genus of plants includ- when dried, and boiled in allum Ava- ing a great many species. Profes- ter, communicates yellow or brown sor Martyn, in his late edition of red shades to yarn. The seed, Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, bearing tops contain a fine red co- enumerates 7 species, natives ofthe lour, that appears on friction be- United States. It is to be sincere- tween the fingers, and more than ly regretted that this destructiA'e any other vegetable, resembles plant is found on any part of our Gum-lac] soil. Probably the farmer has not HYPOCHONDRIAC AFFEC- a greater enemy to contend with, TION, or Hypochondriasis, may be the Avheat fly excepted. Mr. Pe- defined to consist in a corrupted ters says he " knows none in the state of the stomach and intestines, pestiferous catalogue so exhausting accompanied with languor, dejec- and destructive as the St. John's tion of mind, and fear arising from wort. Besides being injurious to insufficient reasons, in persons of cattle and other stock, it is the a melancholy disposition. greatest enemy the clover husban- Among the numerous causes dry has to contend with. It grows contributing to generate this tor- from roots, slips and seed, and so menting affection, the most fre- difflcult is it to eradicate, that quent are acrimony of the bile ; though two Avell attended crops of plethora; a preternatural viscidity, Indian corn (zea mayz) may con- or stagnation of the blood ; and quer the old stock of this Aveed, a suppressions of the customary eva- new growth v/ill spring up from cuations. To these may be added the seeds which had dropped and re- an hereditary disposition ; too free inained in the earth. Mr. P. de- indulgence in Avine ; repelled erup- stroyed this ucav growth by turning tions; violent passions ofthe mind, up the roots, by shallow ploughing Sec. to the frost of a severe Avinter, FeAv persons of a sedentary life Those who have not been visited are entirely free from this com. by this scourge, should be watchful plaint; Avhich, if neglected, is more to eradicate it at any expence or troublesome than dangerous; but labour, on its first approaches. A if it be improperly treated, it may small degree of expence and atten- occasion various diseases of a more tion will then /irevi /■', Avhat it is ex- fatal tendency, such as melancho- tromely difficult to raiudy, when it ly, jaundice, palsy, apoplexy, Sec. 346 H Y S H YS The cure or removal of hypo- chondriasis must be attempted by those medicines which are cal- culated to counteract occasional causes, and obviate the more ur- gent symptoms : hence gentle lax- atives, acidulated and chalybeate waters, as also copious draughts of cold Avater, have often been pro- ductive of the best effects. Emol- lients, diluents, the cold-bath, Pe- rmian bark, and exercise, especi- ally riding on horseback, if judi- ciously resorted to, have all been found of service. Hypochondriac patients ought never to fast long; their diet should be solid and nourishing, they ought carefully to avoid all acescent and flatulent vegetables. One of their principal objects, however, ought to be that of preserving the mind constantly in a cheerful and serene state. Nor should they neglect to rub, if possible, the Avhole body, every morning and evening, for teir minutes, m- longer, Avith coarse flannel cloths......Where the pa- tient's circumstances can support the expence, a voyage to a warmer climate will be af greater advan- tage man medicines; though a ri- gorous adherance to a proper diet and regimen, at home, may also' restore his health, and more cer- tainly than luxury and dissipation abroad. HYSSOP, or Hyssopus, L. a genus of exotic plants, comprising three species,the principal of which is the ofjicir.alis, or Common Hys- sop. It grows to the height of IS inches; is a very hardy plant, and may be propagated either by slips or cuttings, or by seeds. The leaves have an aromatic smell, and a AVarm pungent taste : they are particularly recommended in hu- moural asthmas, coughs, and other disorders of the breast and lungs ; being supposed powerfully to pro- mote expectoration....According to Ray, these leaves are of great ser- vice when applied in cataplasms to bruises, the pain of which they speedily mitigate, and at the same time disperse every mark, or spot, from the part affected. HYSTERICS, a spasmodic or convulsive disease, to Avhich fe- males chiefly are subject. It at- tacks them at uncertain intervals, and is usually preceded by alangour and debility of the Avhole frame. There is a violent pain in the head ; the eyes become dim, and shed in- voluntary tears; a sensation is felt similar to that of a globe rising from the lower part ofthe abdomen to the stomach ; and, at length, it reaches the throat, Avhere it pro- duces a sense of suffocation, a dif- ficulty both of breathing and swal- lowing, while it is accompanied with groai pains in the lower belly. The general cause of hysterics is supposed to consist in too great a degree of mobility and irritability of the nervous system: whatever tends to enervate the body, may induce this complaint. Such are excessive heat, cold, terror, fear, grief, rage, acrid humours, ill smel1 ■•■>, scorbutic affections, and •Fandular obstructions. Hence it chiefly attacks females of Aveak, relaxed habits, though a feAv in- stances have occurred, in which men have also been aff.cted. Notwithstanding the very alarm- ing nature of this disorder, it sel- dom terminates fatally, unless from erroneous treatment. It, hoAveA'er, admits only of palliation, as it has but in few instances been complete- ly removed. The chief object is to counteract or prevent the pecu- liar convulsive affection Avjiich im- H YS H Y S 347 mediately precedes the attack. And though Ave are in possession of a remedy, sufficiently povA-erful to effect that desirable purpose, yet great circumspection is required in its use ; as, otherwise, the conse- quences might be more distressing than the disease. This medicine is laudanum; Avhich, judiciously administered, checks the most vio- lent paroxysms for a considerable time, but cannot accomplish a cure. Hence asa-foetida may be given with greater advantage, though it disagrees Avith some persons, and occasions pain in the stomach and vomiting. Ipecacuanha, taken fre- quently in small doses, has some- times been attended with success. To these may be added electricity, Peruvian bark, fetid matters pre- sented to the organ of smell, such as burning feathers, or the smoke of sulphur, and the application of jether, strong volatile alkali, or other pungent matters to the nos- trils. Relief has also been obtained by the sudden affusion of cold Avater on the face and hands, but more frequently from the applica- tion of warm water, especially to the feet and legs....In order to ef- fect a radical cure, it will be re- quisite to resort to chalybeates, mineral Avaters, or other tonics, and especially to the cold bath, where the constitution can support it. The diet of hysteric patients ought to be light and nourishing; they shoukl carefully avoid Avhat- ever tends to relax the bcwels or debilitate the system. Gentle ex- ercise, and cheerful society, ought by no means to be neglected. Thus, by proper attention, this painful malady may possibly in the course of time be removed ; or at least so far palliated, that its attacks- will be less frequent and violent. I. and J. J AC JAC JACK, a Avell-known machine no attempts have till lately been for raising timber, or other ponde- made, to protect the Avorkmen on rous bodies. such occasions. In order, there- Although numerous accidents fore, to supply this deficiency in almost daily happen in using the mechanics, as far as our opportu- common jacks, for want of a con- nities will admit, we offer the arr- trivance to prevent the machine nexed cut to the consideration of from taking a retrogade course, if those readers who are not yet ac- the weight should, from any cir- quainted with the improvement it cumstance, overbalance the power, represents. This machine was, in the year Mr. Mocock, of Southwark, for 1794, presented to the Society for which he was rewarded Avith apre- the Encouragement of Arts, &;c. by mium of 20 guineas. i AC Description of the Cut of Mr. Mo- cock'* Improved Machine for raising large weights. A A, are the double handles of the winch. B, represents the large toothed wheel, in which the pinion on the axis C works. D, a ratchet-wheel. E, the clink, or pall, Avhich falls into the teeth of the ratchet, and thus prevents the machine from running back, in case the a- eight should at any time overcome the power. F, the rack, as appears in jacks of the common construction. From a comparison of Mr. Mo- cock's jack Avith those in common use, the former differs from the latter only in one respect; namely, that, in the improved machine, a pall, or chick, and ratchet, are ap- plied in such a manner as to stop the machine in the case above men- tioned, and thus to prevent those melancholy accidents Avhich fre- quently occur, especially on board of ships engaged in action ; when, from inattention, or neglect in fix- ing the hooks, or from any other cause, the conymon jacks fail: and, as the difference in its mechanism is not material, the improvement may be easily applied to the instru- ments already manufactured. Jack-by-the-hedge. See Gar- lic Hedge Mustard. JACK-DAW, or Corvus mone- du/a, L. a notorious bird, that is a native of Britain. It breeds in steeples, old castles, and on lofty rocks, Avhere the females deposit five or six eggs. The jack-daAV is a gregarious bird, feeding on insects, seeds, and grain. It is equally mischievous in the fields as well as in the gar- dens, and is so prone to stealing, \ J A L 34! that it carries aAvay more than is ne- cessary for its subsistence. Hence various methods have been con- trived for taking this depredator : one of the most effectual is that \ practised in some parts of England, * and Avhich is so ingenious, that it ' deserves to be more generally knoAvn. A stake, about five feet long, is first driven firmly into the ground; the upper point is previously made so sharp that no bird can possibly settle on it. Within a foot of the top is bored a hole, three quarters of an inch m diameter, through which a stick is put, about eight inches in length. A horse-hair noose is next fixed to a thin wand made of hazel, Avhich is passed through the hole : the remainder being left open beneath the trans- verse stick. The other end of the hazel rod is then introduced into another hole in the stake near the ground, Avhere it is fastened. The stake should now be placed in a situation which is frequented by the bird in quest of food, when he Avill consequently be induced to alight on it; but, on finding the point too sharp, he will probably settle on the little transverse stick: as this sinks Avith his weight, his leg will be effectually secured in the * noose. JALAP, in medicine, the root of the Convolvulus Jalappa, L. an er- otic species of bindweed. This root is imported in trans- verse slices from Xalapa, in South America. The best pieces are com- pact, hard, Aveighty, of a dark co- lour, and have black striated cir- cles. It is frequently mixed Avith slices of bryony-root, which, how- ever, may be easily distinguished by their paler colour and porous texture. 350 JAP J AS Jalap possesses no smell, and leaves very little taste upon* the tongue ; but, when swallowed, it affects the throat with a sense of heat, and occasions a plentiful dis- charge of saliva. It is advanta- geously employed in various disor- ders, but chiefly as a purgative ; for which purpose from 15 to 30 grains, and upwards, are taken in powder: its action, in general, is mild, without causing nausea, or gripes, except in hot, bilious habits, and hypochondriacal cases: nor should it be indiscriminately given to children or young persons, Avhose boAvels it relaxes, and at length destroys the appetite. James's Poavders. See Fe- ver-powders. JAPANNING, the art of var- nishing and drawing figures on Avood, in the manner practised by the inhabitants of Japan, and other parts of India. It may be applied to almost every substance that is dry and rigid; such as leather, me- tals, and even paper, previously adapted to the purpose. If wood or metals are to be ja- panned, it is sufficient that their surface be smooth and clean; but leather requires to be carefully stained on frames, to prevent it from cracking, and consequently parting with the coats of varnish. Paper is managed in a similar man- ner, and is generally coated over with some kind of size. The japan is then laid on ; but as this art is in the hands of extensive manufac- tures, and is, besides, too expensive to be practised for amusement, we shall only mention a patent Avhich was lately granted to Mr. Joseph Eyre, of Sheffield, for a method of impressing japan upon the orna- mented handles of knives, and other articles.....His process is very sim- ple : as soon as the pattern is im- pressed on the handle, Sec. it is taken out of the press (being pre- viously marked, so that it may be replaced in the same situation), and the japan laid on. The press is then heated to a certain degree, and the japanned article returned to it; by which means the varnish is pressed in, rendered more firm, and made capable of receiving a high polish. This method is ap- plicable to ornamented handles of knives, forks, Sec. made of wood or paper, in imitation of carved horn, or bone....See Varnish. Jasmine, or Jess amine-tree, Jasminum, L. a beautiful exotic plant, consisting of nine species, three of Avhich are reared in Eng- land, See. 1. The officinale, or Common White Jasmine, with shrubby, slen- der,long stalks and branches,which grow,Avhen supported,to the height of 15 or 20 feet: it has numerous Avhite flowers, that blow at the ex- tremities or points, and emit a very- agreeable odour, especially in the eAening.....The Italians prepare a fragrant oil from these flowers, by the following easy process: Cotton- avooI is previously soaked in bon- duc-oil (Oleum Behen), which pos- sesses no flavour Avhatever ; a thin layer of such cotton is then placed in a glass vessel, and a stratum of flowers over it; another parcel of cotton is spread over the latter, and this alternate stratification repeated every clay, till the oil is completely saturated Avith the grateful odour of jessamine; Avhen the whole is carefully expressed. It is worthy of notice, that neither spirits nor Avater will combine with this fa- vourite perfume; and that there is no other method of fixing it than by means of vegetable oils. J AU 2. The fruticans, or Shrubby Jasmine, which has long shrubby, trailing stalks andbranriies, on the sides and ends of Avhich appear yel- Ioav floAvers, in the month of June. This species is remarkable for the numerous suckers Avhich spring from its roots, and overspread the adjoining ground, if they be not an- nually taken up: its branches and leaves impart a fine citron colour to cloth previously immersed in alum-water: but solutions of tin and bismuth produce a much brighter shade. 3. The humily or DAvarf Yellow Jasmine, has firm stalks, low bushy branches, and produces yellow Aoav- ers in the month of July. The Avhole' plant yields a fine olive co- lour, if the avooI or cloth be first prepared in a solution of green vi- triol. All these species thriA'e in our gardens, and are easily propagated by layers and cuttings; but they require a Avarm, and rather humid, soil. Beautiful shrubs may be pro- duced, by inoculating the first spe- cies with that called grandiflorum, or the Great-flowered Catalonian Jasmine. JAUNDICE, or Icterus, a dis- ease in Avhich the skin and eyes are yelloAv: the feces of a Avhitish co- lour; and the urine of a dark red hue, tinging cloth or other substan- ces immersed in it, of*a yellowish shade. Various causes produce this ob- stinate disease; such as a very di- luted and acrid state ofthe bile; in- durated SA'.ellings of the intestines; the colic, when occasioned by eat- ing unripe fruit; accumulations of humours near the liver; suppres- sion ofthe natural evacuations, Sec. It may also arise from coarse and unwholesome food; as Avell as from J A U 351 the effects of fear, terror,' anger, or any other passion; and likewise from suddenly drinking coLl water, while the body is overheated. Persons of a sedentary life and sanguine temperament, especially females, and liable to be attacked by the jaundice. Even infants be- come subject to the disease, if the breast be given them, while the mother is under the influence of passion. The chief object, in curing the jaundice, is to remove the cause Avhich occasions the accumulations of bile and humours at the liver; but. as it is very difficult to ascer- tain the precise nature and opera- tion of that cause, various means ought to be employed, as circum- stances may require. If, however, the jaundice arise from indurated swellings in the viscera, it is seldom curable; yet, as this symptom can- no: always be discovered, the most judicious method will be that of treating the disorder conformably to the manner practised in calcu- lous affections, or the stone; with a view to dissolve the concretions, and to prevent their future accu- mulation. For this purpose, gen- tle emetics should be frequently taken, and constant exercise on horseback; which, from their con- cussion of the viscera, dislodge the obstructing matter, and thus re- move the complaint. But, if there be any tendency to inflammation, the patient ought to lose a little blood, previously to taking any emetics. Should, however, no re- lief be obtained after two or three vomits have been administered, it will be advisable to delay the repe- tition. Honey, antiscorbutics, aroma- tics, bitters, blisters applied to the regions of the liver, have all been • 352 Y J A U found serviceable in the cure ofthe jaundic^. But, if these remedies fail, as \n cases of scirrhous and glandulai* concretions, recourse can only be had to such medicines as may palliate the symptoms. Of this nature are diuretics (which see); though, if the pain or imitation of the skin be violent, opiates must be resorted to; and, if the blood has a tendency to dissolution, it must be courueractedby proper an- tiseptics, conjoined Avith the inter- nal use of sal ammoniac. Wfren the disorder Avas suspected to arise from a rheumatic cause, Dr. Selle successfully prescribed the sulphu- rated oil of turpentine, in combina- tion Avith vitriolic a.ther; a power- ful medicine, Avhich has even ex- pelled biliary concretions. Should it, however, (as often happens), spontaneously disappear, it will be advisable to prevent its return, by a course of tonic remedies, and es- pecially the Peruvian bark. The Avater of [Bristol, Pennsylvania,] v, 11 also be found very serviceable; and, if the patient have no oppor- tunity cf bathing in it, affusions of common water may, according to Dr. Sims, be advantageously sub- stituted. The diet of persons affected with the jaundice, ought to be light, cod, and diluent; consisting chief- ly of ripe fruits and mild Aegeta- bles: many haA'e been effectually cured by living for several days on raw eggs alone-. Butter-milk, Avhey SAveetened Avith honey, or decoctions of marsh-mallow roots, and other aperient vegetables, ought to con- stitute the Avhole of their drink. Gentle and daily exercise in the open air ought by no means to be neglected; Avhile the mind should be kept serene and cheerful. JAW Jaundice, in horses, a disorder which is by farriers usually called the yellows. It is divided into two species, the yellow and the black. In the former kind, the whites of the animal's eyes assume a yellow- ish cast; his tongue and his lips also partake of the same colour, though in a slighter degree. In the black jaundice, those parts are tin- ged with a blackish hue. The re- medy commonly administered for the cure of this malady, consists of one ounce of mithridate (which see) dissolved in two quarts of strong beer, and given warm to the animal affected, once in twelve hours: by continuingthese draughts for a feAv days, the distemper ge- nerally disappears. The jaundice also attacks sFep, and imparts a yellowish cast to their skins. It may be cured, according to Prof. Bradley, by giving them internally some stale human urine, at frequent intervals. JAW, or Jaw-bone, in anatomy, is th.e bone which contains the teeth within their sockets. The jaAV is liable to a variety of disorders, occasioned by colds or other accidents: the most fatal are, 1. The dislocated and fractured jaw, the treatment of Avhich, being merely chirurgical, is foreign to our purpose; and, 2, the Locked Jaav, or Trismustraumaticus, Avhich is a spasmodic rigidity chiefly of the under jaw. This alarming complaint attacks persons of all ages, and is fre- quently fatal in the East and West Indies. It is generally occasioned by sudden colds ; Avounds of the nerves, and nervous parts of the body, hoAvever slight; drawing of the teeth, and affections of the gullet or wind-pipe,...Suppression JAW JAY 353 •f the erysipelas or rose, hysterics, rheumatism, Atorms, and the bite of Aenemous set pants, are among the many causes of this dangerous disorder. [In the United States, this dread- ful disease most commonly pro- ceeds from the following causes. 1. Wounds from nails, or other pointed instruments, in the hands or feet. When these occur, Avarm spirits of turpentine, or common salt must be applied, and the Avound enlarged if the remedy cannot reach to the bottom. The object is to raise a slight inflamation, Avhich will prevent the general affection. The irritation should be kept up for ten or fifteen days, Avhen the wound may be permitted to heal. If symptoms of the disease ap- pear, Avhetherthe local application has, or has not been made, the wound must be immediately en- larged, and filled Avith the above stimulating applications, or pow- dered cantharides (Spanish flies). If the patient be robust, some blood may be advantageously taken away: cold Avater must then be dashed every twenty minutes upon the bo- dy, Avhich must be rubbed dry, and the patient put to bed. Wine must be freely, but regu- larly given, and alternated Avith brandy and water; when the for- mer ceases to produce an effect, oil of amber may then be substi- tuted. Opium internally does no good, but externally applied in the form of laudanum, is highly bene- ficial ; sweet oil also may be rub- bed over the throat with great ad- vantage. When the violence of the disease has subsided, Peruvian bark may be freely given, Avith ge- nerous diet. The warm bath must never be used. VOL. III. 2- The second cause from which this disease proceeds in the United States, is, exposure of the body to night air, after being much heated. The general treatment is the same, as in the former case, except that when a sickness at stomach occurs, an emetic should precede the use of other remedies. The quantity of stimulants, Avhich a sufferer in this complaint Avill take Avithout injury, is immense : The only rule to be observed Avith regard to their administration, is, to give them in regularly increased doses until the desired effect be produced. An obstinate costive- ness attends the disease,and is very difficult to remove. Calomel in doses of ten or fifteen grains with as many of jalap, or clysters of to- bacco Avater may be giA'en. A sali- vation quickly raised, has frequent- ly proved a cure. The editor has been particular upon this aAvful complaint, because it is one which is very frequently ' fatal in the country, during the summer season.] During the continuance of this spasmodic disease, the patient can only receive sustenance through his teeth, or by means of nutritive clysters. His food ought, there- fore, to consist of the: most nourish- ing broths and jellies ; thus, by the judicious application of the differ- ent remedies above stated, and by carefully avoiding to take cold, the locked jaAV may probably be restor- ed to its former situation, in the course of a feAV days. JAY, or Corvus g/andarius,L.. a ^ well-known British bird, remarka- ble for its beauty. It is about 13 inches in length ; its forehead is Avhite streaked with black; the head is covered with a tuft of Ion- Z z 354 ICE feathers, Avhich the bird erects at pleasure into the form of a crest: the Avhole neck, back, breast and belly, are of a faint purple colour, intermir.ed Avith grey. Jays build chiefly in woods, where they construct their nests with sticks, fibres of roots, and tender twigs, in which the females, deposit from five to six eggs of a dark olive colour. They feed on acorns, as well as every kind of grain, and are very mischievous, frequently destroying young chick- ens and eggs: nor do they spare birds that have been caught in a trap, or entangled in bird-lime.... The most effectual method of tak- ing them is that already pointed out in the article Jack-daw. ICE, a solid, transparent, and brittle body, formed of some fluid matter by the power of cold, or, more properly speaking, by the ab- straction of beat. Ice concretes generally on the surface of Avater; but this effect frequently A-aries under different circumstances. In the northern parts of Europe, there are three species of ice: 1. That which is formed on the surface. 2. Ano- ther kind, Avhich congeals in the middle of the water, and bears some resemblance to small hail; and, 3. Ground-ice, that is pro- duced at the bottom ; especially where it meets Avith any fibrous substance to which it may adhere. The last species is full of irregular cells; and, on account of its infe- rior specific gravity, it produces ^ many singular effects, by bringing up heavy bodies from tbe bottom el the Avater in which it is formed. The ice that concretes in the mid- dle of the water, rises to the top, where it unites into large masses: the formation, however, both of IC E this, and of the ground-ice, takes place only during the intense and sudden frosts, in shallow Avaters, the surface of which is disturbed either by the Avind or the current of a stream, so that it cannot be easily consolidated. In many countries, the warmth of the climate renders ice not only a desirable, but even a necessary article: hence it becomes an ob- ject of some importance to procure it in a cheap and easy manner.... For this purpose, in the East In- dies, three or four pits are dug on a large open plain, each of which is about thirty feet square, and two feet deep ; the bottoms are covered to the depth of eight or ten inches Avith dried straw, or the stems of sugar-canes. On this bed are arranged, in rows, a num- ber of unglazed pans made of po- rous earth, about a quarter of an inch thick, and an inch and a quar- ter deep, Avhich are filled about sun-set, with Avater that has been boiled and become cool....Early in the morning, a coat of ice is found on the pans, Avhich is broken by striking an iron hook into its cen- tre, and then conveyed in baskets to the place of preservation. The mos't expeditious method, hoAvever, of producing ice, consists in a combination of sal ammoniac with nitre. It was first discovered by Boer ha ave, whose experiments were repeated and confirmed by Mr. Walker, apothecary to the Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford; but he found that his thermometer sunk 32° in a solution of sal am- moniac, Avhen Boerhaave's fell only 28° : nitre alone reduced it to 19°. On mixing the two salts, in equal proportions, the poAver of generating cold Avas considerably increased ; so that the water wa. I C E cooled to 22°, while the thermo- meter stood at 47° in the open air. By adding some poAvder of the same composition, and immersing in the mixture two small phials filled with Avater, he found it in a short time frozen. Having observed that Glauber's salt, when it retains the water of crystallization, produces cold in a state of solution, Mr. Walker made an experiment of its effects Avhen mixed with the other salts before mentioned ; in consequence of Avhich the thermometer sunk from 69° to 19°, and he obtained ice, while the thermometer stood as high as 70°....Lastly, by pre- viously immersing the salts in the water of one mixture, and then making another of the cooled ma- terials, he was able to sink the mercury in the thermometer to 6 i u. Thus, he froze a mixture of spirits of Avine and water, in the proportion of seven of the latter to one of the former ; and, by adding a quantity of the cooled materials to the mixture in which this was frozen, the quick-silver fell to the extraordinary depth of 69 degrees). Various other methods of pro- curing artificial ice have been con- trived, particularly by the aid of Ether; but that volatile spirit is too expensive for domestic pur- poses, and a satisfactory account of the process would exceed our limits. Ice has lately also, been intro- duce d into medicine ;' and its ex- ternal application was attended with success in various disorders, especially in typhus fever, acute rheumatism, strangulated ruptures, and chronic inflammations of the eyes, after proper evacuations had prcieuhd. It has likeAvise been advantageously employed for re- I C E 355 moving a retention of urine ; and an instance lately occurred, -in Avhich a person Avas effectually re- lieved, by immersing his legs for five minutes in a pailful of ice and Avater taken fresh from the river. At first, it occasioned intense pain, but in a few minutes after the pa- tient had retired to bed, his com- plaint Avas alleviated ; and, in the course of twelve hours, he was perfectly restored....Such a power- ful remedy, hoAvever, should be resorted to only under medical su- perintendance. Ice-Boat. See Boat. Ice-cream, is prepared by mix- ing three parts of cream Avith one part of the juiczi or jam of rashcr- rics, currants, Sec. The mixture is then Avell beaten ; and, after being strained through a cloth, is poured into a peAvter mould or vessel, add- ing a small quantity of lemon-juice. The mould is iioav covered, and plunged in a pail about two-thirds full of ice, into which two hand fills of salt should be previously scat- tered. The vessel containing the cream is then briskly agitated for eight or ten minutes, after which it is suffered to stand for a similar space of time; the agitation is then repeated, and the cream al- loAved to subside for half an hour, when it is taken out of the mould, and sent to table. Ice-house, a repository for th.e preservation of ice during the sum- mer months. [An ice-house may be built at a very great expence, but it may also be built for a sum, which no farmer hoAvever poor, ought to ob- ject to. If he wish one, he may have it. At Gloucester Point ta- vern, below Philadelphia, on the banks of the Delaware, is an ice- house, which fully sIioavs with w hat 356 ICE IC E little expence, how simple the man- ner, and under Avhat supposed dis- advantageous circumstances, an ex- cellent ice-house may be built. The ice-house alluded to, is 16 feet square ; four feet above, and nine feet beloAV the surface. The marshy nature of the soil, does not permit a greater depth. The pit which slopes a little, is lined Avith logs, as far as the surface, and faced with slabs, which are continued above ground. There is a sink at bottom covered w ith logs, upon which the ice rests, and this sink empties into a pipe, Avhich conveys the water of the melted ice, or of the river, to a hogshead sunk about eight or ten feet from the corner of the house, whence it is pumped up by a common ship pump. A thick bank of earth is thrown up outside, as high as the ice extends. The roof is boarded ; and the en- trance is through a small door at the gable end, next the tavern Avhich is south of the ice-house, and but four feet from it. Straw is liberally used to cover the ice, and to line the pit. A large Avil- low shades the ice-house on the north-east, and Avest; and the tavern protects it on the south. The ice- house holds 9 1 one horse-cart loads, and keeps ice enough to supply the house, until the succeeding winter, in Avhich it is filled. TheGloucester ice-house may be considered as a valuable model for all those Avh.o Avish to enjoy this summer comfort, and Avho live in marshy countries. But in dry si- tuations, other plans may be adopt- ed. The following is recommend- ed by Mr. Thomas Moore, of Montgomery county, Maryland, in his late excellent treatise on the subject. " The most favourable situation is a north hill side, near the top. On such a site, open a pit twelve feet square at top, ten at bottom and right or nine feet deep : Logs may be laid round the top at the begin- ning, and the earth dug out, raised behind them, so as to make a part of the depth of the pit. A drain should be made at one corner; the spout to carry off the water should descend from the pit except a short piece at the outward extremity Avhich ought to rise th\\s,r======^? the depressed part will always stand full of water, and prevent commu- nication Avith the external air. Dig holes in the bottom of the pit, and set therein four perpendicular cor- ner posts, and an intermediate one on each side; let the insides of these posts form a square of eight feet in the middle of pit. Then, in order to avoid dampness from be- low, cover the bottom three or four inches deep with dry sand, if it can be conveniently got. The next thing to be done, I consider as the most meterial, and also expensh'e part ofthe business; Avhich is fix- ing a proper floor for the ice to rest on. In order to do this, let three or four sleepers supported at the ends, be placed across the square included by the posts; their upper edges about a foot from the bottom, but so that the plank laid thereon, may have a descent of a few in- ches towards one of the sides next the drain. The plank should be tAvo inches thick and about half sea- soned ; jointed,grooved andtongued or lathed, and grooves cut near the joints, in the upper side so as to prevent any Avater from going through. The floor must extend a little Avithout the inner sides of the posts; so that the water drip- I C E ICE 357 ping from the sides may fall on the floor. Then fix a plank, or spout at the lower end ofthe floor in such a manner so to convev the Avater into the drain. The floor being compleated, begin at the bottom and plank up on the in sides of the posts with | or | plank, [boards] lapping the lower edge of each a little on the one beloAV so that the Avater may be kept on the inside: this done to the top of the posts (which should be even with the top of the pit) and the inside -will be compleated; except that it Avill be proper to cover the floor Avith loose plank previous to putting in the ice. The roof may be composed of any materials, and in any form that will defend the contents of the pit from Avet, from the direct rays of the sun, an also admit a free circulation of air; I do not think any could ansAver the purpose better than one made of thatch, supported by posts a few feet from the ground. The mode of filling the house remains now to be considered; and on this much depends. Early in the winter fill the inter- stice between the ice chamber and the bank Avith clean dry straAV close- ly pressed; this being clone early, Avill prevent the earth from freez- ing: which would be injurious to the sides of the pit. The ice should be collected in the coldest weather; let it be exposed at least one night to the cold atmosphere after it is removed from the Avater; Avhich will reduce its temperature many degrees, if the Avcather is severe. When put into the house, it should be beat small, and I think it would be useful frequently to sprinkle it with a watering pot Avhilst putting in: the mass would by that means be rendered more compact. When the chamber is filled, cover the whole with a good thickness of straw; but 1 should suppose it Avould be best to cover the ice first with plank, supported by the sides ofthe chamber, only leaA'ing a door to descend through. Such a house as has been des- cribed will contain about ten tons, and I am persuaded will be found sufficient to afford an ample sup- ply for almost any private family. This is nearly the kind I had in view when I estimated the expence Avould not exceed twenty dollars; and if we calculated on a great part ofthe work being done by the fami- ly ; which in the country in general, it very Avell may: the actual out lay, in many places need not be five dol- lars. Those Avho are less sparing of expense, if they choose, may wall, or Avhat is better, plank up the sides ofthe pit; and finish the roof in a stile of elegance. In level situations, Avhere a drain cannot be conveniently dug out from the bottom ofthe pit: I should supT pose it would ansAver very well to enclose the ice by a mound raised entirely above the surface of the earth, through Avhich the Avater may be discharged; in other res- pects to be similar to the foregoing description. This perhaps would not be quite so cool a repository as if under the surface of the earth ; unless the mound was very thick; but I am persuaded that the loss of a feAv degress in temperature bears very little proportion to the advan- tage resulting from dryness. If it were certain the floor Avould be perfectly tight, the passage of heat to the ice would be rendered still more difficult by confining a quantity of dry ashes, saw-dust, straw, or some other nonconductor between the floor and the bottom of the pit." 358 ICE IC E In Italy, Avhere ice is much u:cd, both as a medicine and in diet, it is formed in the following manner. Balls of snow are Avetted, and pla- ced one on another in the ice house. The bottom parcel rests on logs, through the interstices of Avhich the dissolved Avater drops; and the whole mass is formed into a r.oiid body of ice in the course ofthe win- ter. The following points should be carefully attended to in building an ice-house: 1. Whether the pit be lined Avith stone, brick, or logs, a vacancy should be left, of at least one foot, between the surrounding earth and lining, and filled with straAV. The quality possessed by straw of slow- ly conducting heat, is advantage- ously acted upon, in many instances by those Avho are ignorant of the principle, Avhich is finely illustrated and proved by Count Rumford. A second Avail, leaving less space between it and the first, than be- tween this and the surrounding earth,and likewise filled Avith straAV, would tend more effectually to ex- clude the heat, which is commohly observed to cause great Avaste of ice at the slues. Straw should like- Avise be liberally used between the wall and body of ice. 2. A chimney, to convey away the heated moist air, is an essen- tial reepiisite to all ice-houses not much used, and Avhich are placed in unfavourable situations: it is the w ant of this chimney Avhich occa- sions the disappointment of many persons, anxious to preserve a sup- ply of ice in summer. 3. Mr. Moore suggests the pro- bability of a thatch roof being equal to any, for the purpose of covering an ice-house; but there can be no room to doubf of straw being the very best material for a roof within reach of the farmer. If a single roof be used, the thatch should be as thick as possible, but a double roof (each roof being thatched) Avould more completely keep out external heat. Where the roof consists of boards or shingles, the inside may be covered with straw, to be supported by battens. In South Carolina and Georgia, where the ice must be imported from tlie northern states, and still greater precaution is necessary, the space betAveen the double roof may be lined Avith poAvdered charcoal, or ashes, Avhich are Avell known to be the Avorst conductors of heat.... The body of charcoal need not be more than six inches thick. 4. A floor over the body of ice would further protect it from Avaste by excluding heat. This floor should be covered Avith straAV, and also have a door, to enable a person to descend to the ice. 5. Ice houses should be filled in the coldest Aveather, and the ice broken into lumps about the size of a man's head. Cold water may be dashed on every layer of ice, but salt must not be used. During very cold nights, the door of ice- houses should be left open. 6. Pits for ice houses should be dug down to gravel, or have a drain to carry off the dissolved Avater. Ice is not only a great comfort in summer, but may be rendered essentially profitable to the farmer, by enabling him to take butter and meat to market in such order, as to command an extraordinary price. A very simple plan has been contrived, for this purpose, by Mr. Moore, before mentioned, and thus described in his treatise on ice hou 'eS. JEL J E L 359 "I had a cedar vessel made in the form of an oval tub, nearly as Avide at bottom as top ; in this was fitted as large a straight sided tin vessel as it Avould contain, open at top. The interstices between the sides of the two vessels was co- vered by an edging of tin, soldered to the upper edge of the tin ves- sel, and extended on to the upper edge of the wooden vessel, to which it Avas nailed, [but this edg- ing ought to have been wood.] Through this last Avas cut a hole about an inch and a half space on each side, for the purpose of put- ing in ice; over the Avhole was fitted a Avooden lid fastened by a hinge on one side. A coat or case of coarse cloth lined Avith rabbit skins, the fur side next the cloth and the pelt next the wood. The coat Avas in two parts for the con- venience of raising the lid : the part attached to the lid, had an edging which hung doAvn and co- vered the joint when shut. The tin vessel was 14 inches long, 6 wide, and 12 deep, and contained 22Ibs of butter Avrapped in linen cloth, and put in edgways". Machines upon the principle of that just described, may be ap- plied, as Mr. M. observes, to a variety of purposes in families. Mr. Moore's inventions are se- cured by patent, but his terms for permits are so easy, that no one can object to them. He directs letters post paid, to be addressed to, Thomas Moore, Brookville, Maryland, and they will be at- tended to.] JELLY, a form of food, pre- pared either from the juice of ripe fruits, boiled to a proper consist- ence with sugar; or Avithout it, from the flesh, intestines, or bones of animals, which are stewed so as to become perfectly stiff and firm when cold. The jellies of fruits are cooling, and acescent; in all disorders of the first passages, they are of emi- nent service, especially Avhen di- luted Avith water....On the other hand, those prepared from animal substances are very nourishing, and useful to invalids. They ought, however, to be uniformly made of young meat; as the flesh of old qua- drupeds and birds is hard, tough, and productive of a thick glutinous jelly, Avhich is extremely difficult of' digestion. A Avholesome jelly may be ob- tained by boiling a large portion of blanched oats, Avith some harts- horn shavings and currants, toge- ther with a leg of veal cut to pieces, and the bones of Avhich are broken. These ingredients are to be boiled or stewed over the fire, in a suffi- cient quantity of Avater, till the whole be reduced to a kind of jelly, Avhich, Avhen strained, and suffered to grow cold, will become firm and elastic. Such a preparation is much used on the Continent, in all hectic disorders, and eaten Avith broth of snails, or cray-fish [! !] A few spoonfuls of the jelly are taken every morning, diluted Avith a ba- son of either of those broths, or any other Avarm liquor; a dish Avhich furnishes grateful and invi- gorating aliment to phthisical pati- ents, or those who are afflicted with lingering complaints. Although we are no advocates for liquid food in general, Avhich is apt to distend the stomach, and impair the poAvers of digestion, by not affording them proper exercise ; yet such prepara- tions may ocasionally be very useful if conjoined with a due proportion 360 I L I ILI of either well baked bread, or other substantial nutriment.....See also Broth. [Bones.] Jerusalem-artichoke. See Artichoke. Jessamine. See Jasmine. JET, a black inflammable con- crete Avhich becomes electrical by friction ; attracts light substances, in the same manner as amber, and, when burning, emits a bituminous smell. It has the grain of Avood, is but moderately hard, and splits most easilyin a horizontal direction. Jet is alAvays found in detached masses, lodged in other strata ; it abounds no where so plentifully as in England, being very common in Yorkshire, and other northern counties, though it is also disco- vered in many clay-pits about Lon- don. Ireland, SAveden, Prussia, Germany, and other parts of Piu- rope, as Avell as the East Indies, produce this fossil. It admits of a high polish, and is chiefly con- verted into small boxes, buttons, bracelets, and other toys. In con- junction with oils, it forms an in- gredient in varnishes ; and, when mixed with pulverized lime, it is said to produce a hard and dura- ble cement. ILIAC PASSION, or Ileus, one of the most dangerous maladies Avith which mankind is afflicted, and in which the motion of the boAv- els is totally inverted. It general- ly arises from spasms, or obstruc- tions in the alimentary canal, by Avhich the passage or decent of the excrements is impeded ; an unna- tural stricture ofthe intestines, rup- tures, Sec. violent exertions of the body, such as leaping, running, or riding ; the lifting of great Aveights; eating of unripe fruits, especially pears and nuts; the drinking of sour and ill-fermented liqours ; the use of too strong laxatives, worms, and obstinate costiveness, are among the many causes which generate this fatal disorder. Where the rliac passion pro- ceeds from a distortion of the in- testines, there is little hope of re- covery. Various remedies, hoAve- ver, have been used, Avith different degrees of success. Thus, large blisters applied to the most painful part, Avhile emollient clysters are in- jected; fomentations; camphor ex- externally and internally ; ipecacu- anha in tbe smallest doses frequent- ly repeated; linseed oil, both in small draughts, and in the form of clysters ; as Avell as the warm bath, have all been found some times of service, but more fre- quently unavailing. And though experience has but too often evin- ced, that this obstinate disorder is not under the control of medicine, yet it may, in many instances, be arrested in its progress, and perhaps eventually cured, when a just diag- nosis can be formed of its nature. [Frequent andcopious bleedings, repeated clysters of cold water, oily injections, blisters to the bowels, and in case of obstinate costiveness, dashing cold water upon the feet, are the most effectual remedies for this disease. Quicksilver has been often re- commended, and may be tried Avhen other remedies fail.] The diet of patients affected Avith the iliac passion, ought to consist of very light food, taken in moder- ate quantities, and neither too warm nor too cold. Wines, spirits, acri- monious and irritating substances, as well as heating liquors, ought to be carefully avoided; because they are always productive of bad consequences. Thin gruel, pre- pared from barley or oatmeal or IMP weak chicken broth, are equally proper ; and the patient's drink ought to consist of decoctions of emollient vegetables, or Avater in which toasted bread has been boiled, or clear whey. Particular attention ought also to be paid to the mind, which should be preserv- ed in a state of cheerfulness and serenity. Imfatient. See Balsemine. IMPLEMENTS of Husbandry, denote those machines or instru- ments which are used in the dif- ferent branches of rural and do- mestic economy ; such as ploughs, harrows, hoes, chums, threshing- machines, straw cutters, Sec. The improvement of husbandry, by the construction of more per- fect implements, calculated to fa- cilitate its operations, has within the last fifty years become an ob- ject of general attention; and, with this view, the patriotic agri- cultural societies, especially those of Britain, have granted liberal premiums to the inventors of use- ful and ingenious machinery, on condition that such contrivances should be communicated for the benefit of the public. Much how- ever, remains to be done in this important department of economy ; Avhich, avc apprehend, Avill not be carried to its relative degree of per- fection, till the science of husbandry form a more leading part of educa- tion at public schools. The ancients have bequeathed to us a variety of excellent and classical books on the subject: hence it Avere sincere- ly to be wished, that, by accurate translations of these works, accom- panied with critical and explana- tory notes, by professional farmers, the study of agriculture may be re- \ ived, and thus our knowledge of vol. in. IN A 361 this important science progressive- ly enlarged. Lately, indeed, a repository for agricultural implements has been opened in the vicinity of Hanover- square, we believe, under the in- spection of Mr. Marshall, Avhose name Ave have had frequent occa- sion to mention in the progress of the present work. This repository is daily open to the view of th- public, at a trifling expence; and, Ave understand, is designed to con- tain models and specimens of the most valuable and practical im- provements in husbandry: by such an institution, Ave trust that the pre- judice in favour of antiquated, and aukward implements, Avill be gra- dually vanquished....Several socie- ties of agriculture have lately been re-established in France, and they have devoted their attention more especially to this interesting sub- ject. Ploughs, adapted to differ- ent soils, are doubtless the most essential requisites to the success- ful management of a farm; and several of these primary imple- ments having recently been con- trived, Avhich promise to be emi- nently useful, Ave shall give an ac- count of their construction, illus- trated with such cuts as may ap- pear necessary, under the article Plough. Imposthume. See Aescess. INARCHING, in gardening, is a method of engrafting, denomi- nated grafting by approach; and is employed Avhen the stock in- tended to graft on, and the tree from Avhich the scion is to be taken, are situated so near that they may be easily joined. This operation is performed in the month of April or May, in the folloAving simple manner: The 3 A 362 I N D IND branch designed to be inarched, is exactly fitted to that part of the stock ay ith Avhich it is to be united, after having previously pared away the rind and Avood on one side of both the stock and branch, about the length of three inches, that they may uniformly combine, and thus promote the circulation of the jui- ces. A little tongue is then cut upAvards in the graft, and a notch made in the stock for inserting it; so that Avhen they are joined, the tongue will prevent their slipping, and the graft more closely adhere to the stock. They are next tied Avith some bass, or worsted; and, to exclude the air from the Avound- ed part, it is covered over with grafting clay. Lastly, both the graft and stock are fastened to a smooth and proportionate stake, which is driven into the ground, in order to withstand the effects of high Avinds, that Avould otherwise displace them. After having re- mained in this situation about four months, they will be sufficiently combined, and the graft may then be separated from the mother-tree; sloping it close to the stock, and laying fresh clay around the wound- ed part. Inarching is chiefly practised with oranges, myrtles, Jasmines, walnuts, firs, Sec. which do not flourish by the common mode of engrafting. It ought, hoAvever, on no account to be performed on such orange trees as are designed to groAV to a considerable size; for they seldom live long after this ope- ration. Inclosures See Commons, Fence, and Hedge. Incubus. See Night-mare. INDEX, in literature, expreses that part of a work, or single vo- lume, Avhich is generally subjoined to its conclusion, and arranged in alphabetical order, Avith particular references to the pages Avhere the respective matters or subjects are discussed. An Index should be distinguish- ed from Avhat is usually called, Table of Contents, Avhich affords an analytical view of the different to- pics, progressively, Avhile the index is intended to facilitate occasion- al reference. Both are useful: the former, to enable the reader to take a comprehensive survey of the Avhole Avork, and to appreciate at once the author's logical talents of dividing and arranging the subject of which he treats, as well as to form an idea of its extent and im- portance. In an economical respect, however, the latter is a more valu- able addition to a book than an ana- lysis of its contents, Avhich are in a manner evident from the heads of chapters or sections; Avhereas an Index tends to save time and labour, that are often unnecessarily Avasted in searching for particular passages. Hence a large, ponder- ous A'olume, Avithout an alphabetical index, may be aptly compared with an extensive street, or town, the houses of Avhich are not provided with numbers. Indian Berry. See Cocculus Indicus. Indian Corn. See Corn. [Indian Turnip. See Turnip.] INDIGESTION or Dyspepsia, a complaint Avhich chiefly consists in the loss of appetite, and is ge- nerally attended with nausea, fla- tulence, vomiting, heart-burn, cos- tiveness, as well as other unplea- sant symptoms, without any im- mediate affection either of the sto- mach or other parts. IND IND 363 Indigestion arises from a variety of causes, such as the eating of hard, unwholesome food, and unripe fruit; drinking too large draughts of liquor during, or immediately after dinner, the immoderate use of opium, and of spirits; taking too large quantities of tea, coffee, or any warm relaxing liquors; tam- pering with emetics or laxatives; the Avant of free air and exercise; and in consequence of indulging in any of the depressing passions. Persons of Aveak, delicate habits particularly the sedentary and stu- dious, are frequently subject to in- digestion. A radical cure of it can be effected only by removing the debility of the stomach and whole system. With this intention, eme- tics, or gentle purgatives, should be previously administered, in or- der to clear the alimentary canal. Next,tonics, such as valerian,Peru- vian bark, 8cc. may be resorted to with advantage; and, if the com- plaint be accompanied with putrid eructations, or other signs of putres- cency, it will be advisable to take the strongest antiseptics, especially the marine acid, or spirits of salt, sufficiently diluted with water. Ma- ny, however, have been effectually cured by the liberal use of cold Avater alone. In great laxity ofthe stomach, considerable benefit has been derived from the use of the columbo root, in small and fre- quent doses....The chalybeate wa- ters arc, to phlegmatic habits, in general, of great service; and the moderate drinking of sea Avater has often been productiA'e of good ef- fects. Medicines, however, will be of little or no advantage, unless the patient take moderate and daily exercise in the open air, and en- deavour to preserve a cheerful, con- tented mind. Early rising ought to form an indispensable part of his attention; while his diet should consist principally of solid, but ten- der aliment, which he, from expe- rience, has found easy of digestion. INDIGO, a drug for dyeing blue, prepared from the indigo plant, or Indigofera tinctoria, L. a native of the warmer parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Instead of describing the parti- cular culture of this exotic, Avhich cannot be raised with success, even in the hot-houses of our climate, we shall briefly point out the cha- racters of the best indigo that is imported, and which has frequent- ly undergone the various processes of adulteration Avith earth, ashes, and pounded slate....The genuine drug ought to be of a rich dark blue colour, approaching to black, and, when broken, to display the lustre of copper: nor should it sink in Avater, or leave behind any sediment, after being dissoh'ed....The purest indigo is brought from Guatimala, in South America. Although large quantities of this dyeing material are annually pro- duced in the British colonies, and thence imported, yet we might easily dispense with this costly drug, which, to the detriment of native productions, and especially that of woad, was first brought to Europe by the trafficking Dutch, about the middleofthe 16th century—Indeed, there is every reason to believe, that many plants of English growth would yield excellent substitutes for indigo....We have, in the progress of this Avork, already hinted at se- veral vegetables of this description; and, as a repetition of their names and properties would be here super- fluous (though incomplete, at the present letter of the alphabet) wc 3r34 IND IND shall purposely delay that useful task till the conclusion of our la- bours, Avhen it will appear in the General Index of Reference. Indigo is much used in Avashing, to impart a blueish cast to linen; painters also employ it as a water- colour; and dyers consume large quantities in the various tints of blue cloths. In March 1797, a patent Avas grant- ed to Mr. Joseph Barton, chem- ist, for an improved method of preparing indigo for dyeing wool, Sec. in a more perfect manner than has hitherto been discovered. As, hoAveA'er, this patent is not expired, and the process is too expensive to be attempted for the gratification of the experimenter, we refer the in- quisitive reader to the 9th volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manu- factures, where it is minutely des- cribed. INDUSTRY, Houses of, are building's erected in various parts of England, in order to maintain the sick, infirm, and aged poor; while children and healthy adults, who are received into the house, labour for their support, and are allowed a certain part of their earn- ings, as an inducement to industri- ous habits. These buildings, doubtless, con- tribute to the comfort of the poor, and are calculated to lessen the se- vere burthen of parochial rates: they conduce to the rearing of an healthy, honest, and virtuous race of peasantry. Of this patriotic ten- dency is the Shrewsbury House of Industry; Avhich, being excellently adapted to the purpose, has given birth to many similar institutions lately formed in various parts of Britain. We are no advocates for the toleration of beggars, Avho, un- der the imposing appearance of misery, extort alms from credulous charity: nor is it consistent with good policy to tolerate those hordes of idlers and drunkards, especially in the metropolis; for numbers of such as do strictly belong to the list of mendicants, might be very proper- ly committed to the Avork-house, under the description of vagrants; because they prey upon the vitals of a deluded public. On the Avhole, however, we are of opinion, that in- dustry would be more effectually promoted, if the poor Avere alloAved to retain their little independence, and encouraged to persevere in their honest endeavours, by small boun- ties, occasionally bestowed on them by the parish. At the same time, a comfortable provision might be made for the infirmitis of age, by means of friendly societies, Avhich, in the course of a feAv years, Avould supercede the necessity of build- ing houses of industry. And, if those benevolent associations could be so organized that the rich and poor should contribute according to their respective abilities," Ave hesi- tate not to say, that the latter Avould be better assisted than they can be at present, on the irregular plan of parochial assessments, Avhich, in too many instances, nearly double the rent of the premises. The opu- lent Avould become better acquaint- ed Avith the real wants and miseries of the poor, Avhile these Avould gradually acquire both principles and habits of industry: in short, they would thus be reconciled to theirlot, and prosper under the man- agement ofthe wealthy. Many objections have been urged for and against houses of industry. Those readers who wish to peruse the arguments on both sides of the question, will derive equal amuse- ment and information from Mr. INF INF 365 - Wood's pamphlet, entitled, Some Account of the Shrewsbury House of Industry, (8vo. 5th edit. 3s. 6d. Longman and Rees, 1800) in Avhich several objections are ably ansAver- ed. INFANCY denotes the first pe- riod of human life, previous to the age of seven years. Having already treated of the diet proper for infants, under the article Food, and of their amuse- ments, under the head of Exer- cise, Ave shall at present offer only a few remarks, chiefly relating to their dress. The most fatal'period to infants is, doubtless, during the two first years of their existence; for it has frequently been observed, that greater numbers die under that age than at any subsequent stage of life. This mortality is suppos- ed principally to arise from the er- roneous practice of confining their tender bodies, as soon as they be- hold the light, by means of tight bandages, so that neither the boAV- els nor limbs have sufficient liberty to act in the easy manner designed by Nature. In order to obviate the abuses before mentioned, the infant's dress should be so contrived, that it be neither too Avarm nor too tight, and that not only the influence of the air may have its full effect, but also the motion of the body be duly facilitated. Hence a roller, about six or seven inches broad, should be made, either of linen or woollen cloth, as the season may recpiire, though a knitted bandage Avould be far preferable ; as, from its more elastic nature, it may Avith less pressure or constraint be turned round its body. It Avould be super- fluous to enumerate the other parts wf the upper dress, as every judi- cious parent will readily accommo- date it to age and circumstances. The head should be lightly cover- ed ; and, while travelling, in cold or hot weather, a cap or hat may be safely used, but again laid aside, as soon as the infant returns to the house, or to a mild temperature, Avhere every compression of the head is useless, and frequently hurtful....Indeed, the Avhole dress ought to be as loose as possible, be- cause ruptures, and other fatal con- sequences, often originate from a contrary treatment. Stockings are by many considered as unnecessary articles of the dress of infants ; yet, as our offspring is not intended to go bare-legged, when adults, Ave conceive no rea- son for depriving them of proper hose, especially if they can be kept dry, and be adapted to the length of the foot, both in the winter and summer; though such covering will be more useful in the former season: their shoes also ought to be sufficiently wide....See Foot Prom the first moment of their existence, infants are liable to the attacks of disease. It deseiwes, however, to be remarked, that the descendants of sedentary, idle, ner- vous, or Aveak persons, are chiefly exposed; while those of the pea- sant and husbandman, being early inured to fatigue and hardships, are not only more healthy, but also less reduced by occasional indisposition, and better able to bear external in- juries....We cannot, in this place, enter into any details respecting the management of infantine disor- ders, as they are discussed in the alphabetical series. (See also Viti- ated bile): hence we sha'l conclude these remarks with adding, that, 1. The dress of children ought materially to differ from that of 366 INF INF adults: 2. No distinction ought to be made in the dress of either sex during the first years of infancy: and, 3. Let the dress of children be clean and simple, but never too Avarm....See also Sleep. INFECTION, the communica- tion or contraction of some disease, from the effluvia, Avhich arise either from the sick, or from the apart- ment in Avhich they reside: hence it does not necessarily imply actual contact. Having already pointed out the proper means of avoiding personal infection, under the article Con- tagion, Ave shall at present con- fine our attention to the most effi- cacious method of preventing the propagation of infectious diseases This important object has lately been investigated Avith equal zeal and success by the patriotic Society for increasing the Comforts, Sec. of the Poor; from Avhose abridged Account of the Cure and Prevention of Contagious Fevers in the Metro- polis, (8vo. 2d edit. 6d) it appears that not less than three thousand one hundred and eighty-eight per- sons have annually died, upon an average (Avithin the last hundred years) in consequence of infectious fevers. The alarming increase of this malignant epidemic, is justly attri- buted to the close and confined dwellings of the poor, Avhere the circulation of fresh air is almost entirely prevented. With a view to check such rapid progress se- veral benevolent members of the society above mentioned have form- ed a Avell-digested plan; in confor- mity to Avhich, appropriate houses are to be opened, and provided Avith the requisite medical assistance of every kind for the reception of such diseased poor as it may be deemed necessary to remove from their own habitations: others in the mean-time, will receive profession- al advice at home, and be regu- larly visited by the physician ap- pointed for that pUrpose....This laudable establishment is support- ed by subscription ; and Ave trust, from the known liberality of Bri- tons, that it will neArer fail for want of effective support. In places Avhere infection has actually prevailed^ the necessary precautions are immediately taken to prevent its return ; and the so- ciety has, therefore, appropriated a certain sum of money for puri- fying the tainted habitations of the poor. Their method consists, sim- ply, in washing the Avails of the room Avith hot lime Avhich will ren- der the place perfectly sweet. The following rules are to be observed in houses during the pre- valence of contagious fevers : they are extracted from an interesting letter lately published by Dr. Hay- garth, on the prevention of in- fectious diseases. 1. As safety from danger de- pends entirely on cleanliness and fresh air, the door of a sick room, where a person labours under an infectious fever (especially in the habitations of the poor), ought ne- ver to be shut: a window in it should generally be opened during the day, and frequently during the night. 2. The bed-curtains ought never to be closely draAvn round the pa- tient; but only on the side next the light, in order to shade the face. 3. Dirty utensils, clothes, Sec. ought to be frequently changed, immediately immersed in cold wa- ter, and washed clean when taken out. INF 4. All discharges from the pa- tient should be instsntly removed, and the floor near the bed be rub- bed every day Avith a Avet mop or cloth. 5. As some parts of the air in a sick room are more infectious than others, both attendants and visitors should avoid the current of the patient's breath, the exhala- tion ascending from his body, espe- cially if the bed-curtains be closed, and also the vapour arising from all evacuations......When medical or other duties require a visitor or nurse to be in such dangerous si- tuations, Dr. Haygarth observes, that infection may be frequently prevented by a temporary suspen- sion of breathing. 6. Visitors ought not to enter infectious chambers, fasting; and, in doubtful circumstances, on their departure, it will be advisable to bloAV from the nose, and spit from the mouth, any infectious poison which may have been inhaled by the breath, and may adhere to those passages. As these directions are highly important, we trust they will be scrupulously followed, in all cases Avhere any infectious disorders un- fortunately prevail. INFLAMMATION, in medi- cine, is a tumor attended with unnatural heat, redness, painful tension of the skin, and febrile symptoms, which are more or less violent, according to the nature of the part affected, and the extent of the swelling. Almost every part of the body is liable to inflammations, but chiefly the bowels, breast, eyes, Sec. of which wc shall treat in the pro- gress of this article. The termination of inflamma- tory tumors depends on their dif- I N F 367 ferent degrees of violence, and the causes whence they originate, as well as their treatment. Where they appear in consequence of colds, without any previous disposition of the system, they may often be dis- persed by the usual applications ; but after fevers, and in persons of gross habits, they generally termi- nate in suppuration. In aged, in- firm, or dropsical persons, how- ever, they frequently produce mor- tification or gangrene. In treating external inflamma- tions, the chief object is to relieA'e such of the smaller vessels as are obstructed ; thus to restore the na- tural circulation of the blood, and to effect the dispersion of the tu- mors. Swellings of this nature, if attended with mild symptoms, or arising from external injury, may be safely discussed. Hence various applications may be resort- ed to, according to the tempera- ment of the patient. For persons of hot, gross habits, cooling ex- ternal remedies are the most ser- viceable : by those of an opposite nature, cataplasms of warm emol- lient herbs may be used Avith ad- vantage. The effect of these ap- plications will be considerably pro- moted, by taking at the same time cooling and attenuating medicines while the diet ought to consist of nourishing aliment, that is easily digested; carefully avoiding all salt- ed meat, pickles, spices, fermented or spirituous liquors, and Avhatever tends to irritate and inflame the body. The most proper food in sucb cases, is broth, barley-water, and decoctions of sorrel, endive, or the like cooling herbs, mixed with small portions of lemon-juice, or other vegetable acids ; to Avhich may occasionally be added a lit- tle nitre, when the inflammation 368 INF threatens to increase. But, if the tumor incline to gangrene, it re- quires a very different treatment, and more particularly relates to surgery.....See the article Gan- grene. Inflammation of the Blad- der, or Cystitis, an affection of that part of the human frame, ac- companied Avith SAvelling and pain in the lower region of the belly, frequent and difficult discharge, or total suppression of urine, Sec. Inflammations of the bladder arise from calculous concretions; obstructions in the urethra; Spanish flies, either taken internally, or ap- plied to the skin ; from Avounds, bruises, Sec. In this dangerous malady, it will be advisable to resort imme- diately to medical assistance; but, if it cannot be easily procured, the patient may apply leeches round the abdomen. Purgatives should likewise be administered; and clys- ters prepared from a decoction of poppy-heads, may be injected every second or third hour. It Avill also be beneficial to apply continually fomentations of the same decoction to the loAver belly, and to immerse the patient in the tepid bath. Should the disease, howeA'er, terminate by suppuration, and the matter be discharged with the urine, it will be requisite to use the utmost precaution. The patient's diet ought, during the Avhole pro- gress of the disorder, to consist of the mildest, though nutritive, ali- ment. He should also avoid every species of food and drink that is stimulant, saline or acrid; and subsist chiefly on milk, puddings, weak broths, fruits, butter-milk. Sec. Inflammation of the Bow- ki.s, or Enteritis, an accute, fixed, INF burning pain in the lower belly, which is attended with a considera- ble degree of tension in the epi- gastric region (see Abdomen). The principal symptoms that characte- rize this fatal malady, are obstinate costiveness ; a hard and small pulse; a painful, and almost con- tinual hiccough, together Avith fe- ver, and a constant inclination to vomit. . Inflammations ofthe bowels may arise in consequence of swallowing any acrid substance ; from violent passion; drinking large draughts of cold water Avhile the body is overheated; the suppression of any cutaneous eruptions ; repulsion of the gout; external injuries ; such as wounds, contusions, Sec...Per- sons of a plethoric habit suffer more acutely from this disorder than those of a contrary tempera- ment. Cure: If the belly be swelled, firm, and painful to the touch, Avhile the pulse is hard and con- tracted, it will be advisable to take some blood from the arm. A blis- ter should next be employed as speedily as possible,and mild emol- lient injections of barley Avater, gruel, Sec. administered, till stools be obtained : the patient should be placed between blankets, and sup- plied moderately with diluent li- quids, such as barley water, rice- gruel, Sec.....When the violence of the disorder is someAvhat abated, opiates may be administered in clysters, which will be of great ad- vantage in mitigating the pain. As soon as the stomach is able to retain any laxative, the mildest aperients, such as tamarinds with manna, or phosphorated soda, may be taken by the mouth ; but, if the disorder tend to a mortification, the treatment before stated should be INF INF 369 steadily pursued; and, if gangrene eventually take place, or the dis- ease terminates in suppuration, its course must be left to Nature, the patient being kept as quietly as possible. During the continuance of this most alarming disorder, the diet ought to be very light; the drink- ing of all stimulating, fermented, or spirituous liquors carefully a- voided ; and the mind preserved in a state of tranquillity. [See Bowel.] Inflammation of the Female Breast, is generally occasioned by exposure to cold, repression of the milk, or external violence. It is known by the redness, heat, and pain, either of part or the whole of the breast; and, if the disease be considerable, it is usually pre- ceded by a shivering, and accom- panied by fever. Where the inflammation is vio- lent, the usual practice is to take large quantities of blood from the patient ; but, in common cases, small local bleedings, by means of a few leeches, are fully sufficient. Considerable benefit will also be derived from the application of emollient poultices, prepared Avith bread, milk, and cold-drawn linseed oil. The maternal milk may like- Avise be extracted at intervals, and the breast suspended by means of proper bandages. In some recent cases, a solution of sal ammoniac has been externally applied Avith success. If the inflammation continue, it will be requisite to persevere in the use of emollient cataplasms and fomentations ; but, as the com- plaint is of a delicate nature, it will always be advisable to resort to proper medical assistance. [Sec Breast.J TO!.. III. Inflammation of the Ear, or Otitis, a painful affection of the cavity of the ear, which is some- times consequent on the Mumps, but is more frequently occasioned by exposure to the cold. In slight cases, this affection may be remov- ed by dropping a little Avarm oil of almonri; into the ear, and by the application of a common poultice of bread and milk, or of a bag of chamomile flowers ; either of which ought to be made sufficient- ly Avarm. Should the disorder, however, not yield to these reme- dies, surgical assistance ought to be procured Avithout delay ; lest a suppuration take place, and be at- tended with total loss of the organ of hearing. Inflammation of the Eye, or Ophthalmia, an uncommon red- ness of, and acute pain in the part affected ; an inability to bear the light; and involuntary shedding of tears. This malady is often occasioned by external injuries, such as blows, burns, bruises, and the like. It al- so arises from splinters, dust, sand, lime acrid fluids, or other extra- neous substances insinuating them- selves under the eye-lids ; from affections of the teeth ; the preci- pitate healing of old ulcers ; and long exposure to the night air. Peculiarities: Inflammations of the eye are frequently annual; and instances have occurred, in Avhich they returned at stated periods, and even became chronical; they are farther contagious, and may be caught by mere intuition of the ophthalmia in others. Method of Cure : When the dis- ease is of a mild nature, it will be useful to put leeches to the tem- ple of the eye affected, in a nnm- 3 B 370 INF IN F her proportioned to the age and strength of the patient: after the bleeding has ceased, a blister may be applied [behind the ea; ] and brisk purgatives given. To obviate the mischief arising from the use of quack medicines, such as lotions, Lc. Ave shall briefly observe, that there is no better collyrium than simple rose-Avater[oi'Aveak lead Ava- ter ] Beside these remedies, much benefit has been received from shav- ing the head, or cutting the hair ; from bathing the feet and legs fre- quently in warm water ; and, where the inflammation succeeds the small-pox, from applying infusions of marsh-mallows Avith sal ammo- niac to the inflamed parts. In case of periodical ophthalmia, emetics have been of eminent service, and in some instances completely re- moved the complaint; but, if it have arisen from particles of iron accidentally dropped into the eye, they may be easily extracted by means of the magnet, and thus the disease checked in its progress.... Thunberg advise the vapour of cajeput oil to be frequently applied ; and Mr. Ware, in his practical " Remarks on the Ophthulmy, Lee.7' recommends a feAv drops of lauda- num to be introduced into the eye ; such a powerful remedy, however, should be administered only by the expert practitioner. If the means before stated proAre ineffectual, and the pain in the in- flamed parts rather increase than abate, professional assistance must be speedily procured. Meanwhile, the eye should be carefully seclu- ded from the influence of light, or the patient may confine himself to a dark room, haA'ing a temperature neither loo cold nor too Avarm, and cautiously avoid a draught of air. His diet cannot be too mild...i Lastly, in this, as Avell as every other species of inflammation, it is of the utmost importance to ab- stain from all heating or stimulat- ing aliment and liquors, from all violent efforts both of body and of mind; and to encourage an in- clination to sleep. Inflammatory Fever, a sud- den and acute febrile disease, chief- ly prevalent in hot climates. It commences its attack Avith a con- siderable degree of shivering, and severe pain in the small part of the back which are succeeded by an intense heat of the Avhole body. The eyes are red, and incapable of supporting the light; the pa- tient suffers an insatiable thirst. The cure of this fever is general- ly effected by repeated bleed- ings, proportioned to the patient's strength, and the violence of the disease : antimonial and aperient medicines ; the liberal use of ve- getable acids ; neutral salts ; and sudorifics, are given in the va- rious stages, according to the ur- gency of symptoms. As, hoAvever, this fever is attended Avith great danger, it Avill always be more prudent and advisable, on its first appearance, to call in medical as- sibtanic. Regimen and Diet: The room of the patient should be kept cool, by a constant succession of fresh air, and somewhat darkened ; while every precaution is taken to ensure a state of tranquility. All animal food, and even broths, must be carefully avoided, as well as aromatic, fermented, and spiritu- ous liquors. The insatiable thirst during the paroxysms of this fever, may be quenched by the free use of barley-water, balm tea, or other mild vegetable infusions, acidula- ted with tlie juice of oranges, ie- INF ING 371 mons, currants, and other sub-acid fruits. Beside the different inflamma- tory diseases, of Avhich we have briefly treated in the preceding sections, there are various other species, of inflammation, denomi- nated from the particular organs or parts affected. Thus, the rea- der will find some useful hints un- der the article Brain, and, Avith respect to the subsequent letters of the alphabet, avc refer him to the heads of Kidnies, Liver, Lungs, Mesentery, Pleurisy, Quinsy, Rheumatism, Spleen, Stomach, Tonsils, Sec. [Inflammation (Spontaneous,) Many substances under certain circumstances, are disposed to spontanous inflammation, respect- ing which, it may be useful to caution the reader. I. Oiled cloth, which had been painted on one side, dried in the sun, and stowed away in a store house in the town of Brest, inflam- ed, and destroyed the house. 2. Heaps of linen rags, which are thrown together in paper- manufactories, the preparation of which, is hastened by means of fermentation, often take fire, if not carefully attended to. 3. Parched Rye bran, Avrapped up in a linen cloth, smoaked in a feAv minutes, and in a short time the rag became black ; and the bran being hot, fell through it on the ground in little balls. Mr. Tooke, from whom the above fact is taken, accounts for the frequent fires in Russia, from the common practice of binding roasted bran a- bout the necks of cattle, when af- fected Avith thick necks. 4. Mr. Tooke also mentions, that the hemp magazine at Pe- tersburgh, containing several hun- dred thousand pounds of hemp and flax, took fire Avithout any apparent cause ; that a roll of cere-cloth took tire in a vaulted shop, Avhere neither fire nor can- dle were allowed ; and that a bun- dle of matting, cont-lining Russi- an lamp-black prepared from fir- soot, moistened with hemp-oil var- nish, caused a fire in a ship's cab- bin, in the road of Cronstadt. S'-e the account, at length by Tooke in the Re p. of Arts : 5 Pieces of Avoollen cloth unscow- ered, heaps of moist Avoollen yarn, or avooI combings, impregnated Avith rape-oil mixed with butter, Avhich is used in the combing ; and packed away in unvenlilated rooms, haA'e also inflamed. 6. Cotton cloth Avettecl Avith dry- ing linseed-oil, and confined in a box, began to smoke in three hours ; and on the box being o- pened it immediately inflamed. 7. A quantity of candles had been melted by a talloAV chandler in Philadelphia, and put in a brass sieve to drain, in the evening: in tlie course of the night they in- flamed. A similar accident occur- red to the same person from a mass of candle-Avick having been thrown into a barrell, after the fat had been melted from the candles. 8. A child at Hartford Connec- ticut, having been burnt, was an- noinled with oil in March, 1803. About three gallons Ave re consum- ed, and a great part of that quan- tity was absorbed by the bed. The bed afterwards lay until June, in a garret, Avhen it inflamed. 9. The spontaneous inflamation of stacks o! hay is well known to farmers. The method to prevent this accident, is detailed under ar- ticle Hay, p. 265.] 1NGROSSIXG, is the act 372 INK INK of accumulating or buying up corn or other provisions, by Avholesale, Avith a view to sell the same articles at a higher price, and thus to oppress as well the poor, as those Avho cannot conve- niently purchase a large stock. This atrocious practice has at all times been subject to severe pe- nalties ; and, having already treat- ed of them, under the head of Forestalling, Ave refer the rea- der to that artich . INK, a black fluid employed in writing, and usually prepared v ith an infusion of galls, copperas, and gum arabic. The chief requisites for the mak- ing of good ink, are, 1. Limpidity, so that it may flow freely from the pen. 2. A deep, uniform and black colour. 3. Durability, so that the letters be not liable to be effaced by age ; and 4. It should be divested of any corrosive quali- ty, by which the substance of the paper may be destroyed, or the Avriting rendered in any degree il- legible. No ink, however, hither- to used, possesses all these proper- ties ; hence several ingenious che- mists have been induced to make experiments, in order to render it more perfect. hi. RiiiAucouRT, in the "An- nates de Chimie," directs eight ounces of Aleppo galls, and four ounces of ldgAvood, to be boiled in twelve pounds of water, till the c;uantity is reduced to one half; Avhen the liquor should be strained through a linen or hair sieve into a proper vessel. Four ounces of sulphate of iron (green vitriol ;) three ounces of gum-arabic ; one ounce of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol;) and a similar quantity of sugar -candy, are noAV to be added : the liquid should be frequently shaken, to facilitate the solution ot the salts. As soon as these in- gredients are perfectly dissolved, the composition is suffered to sub- side for twenty-four hours : when the ink may be decanted from the gross sediment, and preserved for use in glass or stone bottles, well stopped. This ink exhibits a purplish- black colour in bottles; but the Avriting performed Avith it, is said to be a of beautiful black cast, Avhich it retains, unaltered, for a consider- able length of time. Each quart of the preparation contains : oz. drs. grs. Of galls 2 5 20 Green vitriol 1 2 40 LogAVOod 1 2 40 Gum 1 0 0 Blue vitriol 0 2 40 Sugar-candy 0 2 40 M. Ribaucourt is of opinion, that ink thus prepared, may be preserved several years in a state of perfection, Avithout depositing either galls or iron. The ink commonly used, is ma- nufactured by stationers, according to Dr. Lewis's recipe ; but it is ill calculated for keeping, as it de- posits a black sediment, Avhile the fluid itself is of a pale colour. Each quart of this ink contains : oz. drs. grs. Of galls - 3 O 0 Green vitriol 1 0 0 LogAVood- - 0 5 24 Gum 1 0 0 Neither blue vitriol nor sugar are employed in this preparation. As, hoAvever, both the ink made after the latter method, and that compounded according to other recipes, are not adapted to resist INK INK 373 the effects of acids, and are conse- quently by no means fit for records, deeds, and other documents, M. Westrumb recommends the fol- lowing ingredients, as being Avell calculated to remedy this incon- venience. He directs one ounce of Brazil-wood, and a similar quanti- ty of gall-nuts, [Nicholson directs three oz.] to be boiled in forty-six ounces (somewhat less than three pints) of Avater, till the whole be reduced to thirty-two ounces, or about two quarts. This decoction is to be poured, while hot, upon half an ounce of copperas, or green vi- triol; a quarter of an ounce of gum- arabic, and a similar quantity of white sugar. As soon as a perfect solution of these substances has taken place, one ounce and a quar- ter of indigo finely pulverized is to be added-; together with three quarters of an ounce of the purest lamp-black, previously diluted in one ounce of the best brandy. The whole is to be well incorporated, and, after it has subsided, M. Westrumb asserts that it will form an ink absolutely indestructi- ble by aids. [It is essential, that the above ink be well stirred, every time it is used.] A more simple composition, is that proposed by M. Bosse, who directs one ounce of Brazil-wood to be boiled in twelve ounces of Ava- ter with half an ounce of alum, till the liquid be reduced to eight oun- ces ; Avhen one ounce of calcined manganese is to be mixed with half an ounce of gum-arabic, and added to the liquor, which should be previously decanted, in order to render it perfectly limpid. This preparation is said to possess the property of being indelible by the use of any kind of acid, and to be superior to that proposed by M. Westrumb. A durable ink may also be pre- pared by washing paper, parch- ment, Sec. with the . Prussic acid, Avhich will not in the least injure ei- ther of these substances. Tbe ma- terials, thus prepared, may be writ- ten on with common ink, and a ground of Prussian blue will be formed beneath every stroke, which will remain long after the black has decayed by the influence of the air, or been destroyed by acids. The latest, and perhaps most simple, preparation of black ink, is that contrived by Van Mons, who observed that sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, Allien calcined till it became white, uniformly afforded a very beautiful black precipitate. According to his experiments, the following ingredients produced an excellent Avriting ink : four ounces of galls, two ounces and a half of calcined vitriol of iron perfectly Avhite, and two pints of Avater. The Avhole Avas infused in a cold place for twenty-four hours ; add- ing ten drams of pulverized gum- arabic, and preserving it in a glass bottle, or glazed earthen vessel, slightly covered with paper. [The best ink is thus made. To four ounces of good logwood well bruised or rasped, add four quarts, beer measure, of hot v/ater. If the wood is only coarsly brui- sed, use 5oz. and keep the water in scalding heat (not quite boiling) for near an hour. The next day strain off the liquor, add to it Avhile hot, 16oz. of poAvdered blue galls, or 20or. of galls in sorts. Calcine to w hiteness five ounces of green vitriol, and grind it up Avith half an ounce of blue Aitriol, and half 374 INK IN K an ounce of allum: add these to the logwood liquor: stir them well, then add four ounces of poAv- dered gum arabic, and three oun- ces of Avhite sugar. Let all the ingredients be well and frequently shaken together, and kept for a Aveek in a warm place. Pour off the liquor for use, and the remain- ing ingredients will make another quart of good ink. To improve the colour and per- manence of ink. Take some of the above ink, and rub it in some Indian or China ink. To make an indelible Ink. The bleachers saturate any quan- tity of dilute nitrous acid Avith sil- ver, to which solution they add an equal quantity of thick gum wa- ter, with some lamp black in it. They write on the unbleached lin- nen with this, and let it dry slowly : no bleaching destroys it. For common marking ink, iron may be used instead of siher. Cotton should always be kept in an inkstand; for the ink in the cot- ton is kept blacker by the suspen- sion of the colouring part; and if no more ink be present than per- fectly to fill the cotton, the pen Avill always receive a fluid black ink, and may be charged at plea- sure by a greater or less gentle pres- sure, at the time of taking it up, or discharged, by lodging the point for a moment upon the cotton.] Indian Ink, a valuable black for water-colours, imported from China, and other parts of the East Indies, generally in oblong square cakes, impressed Avith Chinese cha- racters. The preparation of In- dian ink Avas discovered by Dr. Lewis, according to whom it con- sists of lamp-black and animal glue. In order to imitate it, he directs as much lamp-black to be mixed Avith the glue, as will be sufficient to give it a proper tenacity for mak- ing it into cakes. This composi- tion is said fully to answer the dif- ferent purposes to Avhich the genu- ine Indian ink is subservient, both Avith regard to the colour, and the facility Avith Avhich it may be ap- plied. Dr. Leavis farther found that ivory-black, and other Jacks obtained from charcoal finely levi- gated, may be advantageously sub- stituted for lamp-black : ivory and charcoal, hoAvever, are generally sold in so gross a state, as to prove gritty Avhen Avorked, and to sepa- rate too speedily from the water. Ink-poavder is prepared chiefly from the acid salt of galls, Avhich may be obtained by the following process : Take two ounces of pul- verized galls, and infuse them in twelve ounces of rain or river-wa- ter ; expose the Avhole for a feAv days to a warm temperature, and stir it occasionally : after having extracted the colouring matter, fil- tre the solution, and suffer it to stand in the open air for several weeks, in a vessel slightly covered. A sediment will then be gradually formed ; which, after removing the mouldy skin from the top of the liquor, should be carefully collect- ed. Hot water is next poured on this sediment, when it is again fil- tred and evaporated to dryness : thus, a grey crystalline salt will be produced, that is the essential basis of black ink ; and which may be still more purified by repeated solution, filtration, and evaporation. If one dram of this salt of galls be triturated Avith an equal quanti- ty of the purest vitriol of iron, and about tAventy grains of perfectly dry gum-arabic, a composition Avill be obtained, which, on adding a proportionate quantity of Avarm Ava- INK INK 375 ter, instantly affords an excellent black ink. Blue Ink. One ounce of the finest indigo is first levigated in a glass mortar; then four ounces of the most concentrated vitriolic acid lire very gradually poured on the powder; and, on every addition, it is stirred Avith a glass pestle, so that the whole mixture will require several hours. Such precaution is indispensible, as otherwise the heat generated on adding the vitriolic acid, would impair the brightness of the colour. After standingfromtAvelvetoeigh- tcen hours, in a moderately warm place, this dense mixture must be diluted Avith Avater; not by add- ing this fluid to the composition, but by introducing small portions of the latter into a vessel contain- ing such a quantity of water as may be recpiisite to produce a lighter or darker shade. In general, from 30 to 40 parts of water Avill be ne- cessary to reduce it to a fine blue liquid. This diluted solution of indigo is, however, in too caustic a state to be employed either as a blue dye, or as writing ink. Hence the vitriolic acid ought to be divested of its corrosive quality, by means of such a substance as may form a chemical combination Avith the acid, and not precipitate the indigo. If the solution be intended merely for colouring or Avriting on paper, it will be sufficient to add pulverized chalk in :-mall portions, till it cease to effervesce; because a large quan- tity of this poAvder, at a time, would cause the liquid to rise above the brim of the vessel. It is easy to ascertain the point of saturation ; for, when the powder of chalk scat- tered on the surface no longer pro- duces any bubbles, the solution should be suffered to stand for 24 hours, then filtered through blot- ting paper, and preserved in bot- tles....If, hoAvever, this preparation be designed for dyeing silk, such as stockings, Sec. it will be prefer- able to neutralize the vitriolic acid by the addition of aluminous earth, instead of chalk, as the former renders the colour more durable. And, if the solution is to be used for painting on silk, it ought to be previously mixed with gum traga- canth. Green Ink. Take a glass re- tort containing about one quart; pour into it one pint of distilled vin- egar; place it OA-er a sand heat, and Avhen it begins to boil, intro- duce into the liquid small portions of powdered verdigrease, till a sa- turated solution is obtained, or till no more colouring matter can be dissolved. In order to keep the latter suspended, and prevent the formation of crystals, it w ill be re- quisite to add about the sixth part of gum-arabic, in proportion to the verdigrease. For preparing red and yellow ink, see the articles Red and Yellow. Printing or Printers' Ink, differs greatly from every other species. It is an oily matter ofthe consistence of an ointment, the composition of Avhich is, at present, \ ery imperfectly known, excepting to the feAv avIio are employed in its manufacture. The following recipe, however, has been found to make printing ink of a tolerable good quality: Let tAvo quarts of linseed- oil be boiled in a vessel capable of holding a triple quantity, over a strong fire, till it emit a thick smoke. It is then to be kindled with a piece of paper, and suffered 376 INK INK to burn for the space of a minute, Avhen the flames must be extin- guished, by closing the vessel. As soon as the oil becomes cool, two pounds of black rosin, and one pound of hard soap, cut into thin slices, are to be added; the mix- ture again placed over the fire ; and, when the ingredients are per- fectly dissolved, a pound of lamp- black, previously sifted, must be incorporated Avith the mixture , af- ter Avhich the Avhole is to be finely ground on a marble stone. This method of making printers' ink is acknoAvledged to be prefera- ble to the different recipes hitherto published. It is, however, much inferior in beauty of colour to the ink generally used, and is apt to ad- here to the types, so as to make an indistinct impression. Good printers' ink, which is easily Avork- ed, Avithout daubing or tearing the paper, A\hile it imparts a fine co- lour, is a desideratum that will am- ply repay the attention and time, bestowed upon its preparation.... See Printing. [T. Cooper, Esy. furnished the editor with the following receipt.... " Into a vessel that will hold about ten gallons, put six gallons of lin- seed oil, and one pound of litharge; boil, or rather simmer the oil for about sixteen hours. About an hour before you finish, add three or four pounds of rosin, stir it Avell at the time. Take some of the oil, and Avhile warm, grind it very Avell with lamp-black, of which the above quantity will take aboutfourpounds. In a large Avay, it should be made in A-essels, of Avhich one close fire- place will heat above five vessels. A wet blanket thrown over the ket- tle, is the best thing to extinguish it." A veb.icl proper to boil oil in, will be described under the article Oil. A good copper-plate printing ink, is a great desideratum in the Uni- ted States.] Sympathetic Ink, a liquor em- ployed for Avriting on paper, so that it may retain its natural white- ness after the letters are formed,' till it is held near the fire, rubbed Avith another liquor, or some other expedient used to render the cha- racters legible. Sympathetic inks are prepared from various substances, such as bismuth, lead, Sec. Thus, a solu- tion of common sugar of lead in water, if employed with a clean pen, Avill remain concealed till it is wetted with a solution of the li- ver of sulphur, or is exposed to the vapours of such liquid; ia which case it will assume a deeper or lighter brown shade, in proportion to the strength of the sulphureous gas. By the same process, words written with a solution of bismuth in spirit of nitre, will appear of a deep Ijlack colour. Another sympathetic ink may be easily prepared, by diluting oil of vitriol Avith a sufficient quantity of Avater, to prevent the paper from being corroded. Letters drawn with this fluid are invisible when dry, but, on being held near the fire, they assume a perfectly black colour. The juices of lemons, or onions; a solution of sal amoniac, < 1 13 3 1 14 11 2 i: INT Another method of insuring for the benefit of survivors, consists in paying an annual premium for a certain sum recoverable on the death of one person named out of two ; but, as this mode of securing ^competency is doubtless more ob- jectionable to the party that is obliged to pay the annual premium, than either the preceding simple, or Age. /. 8. d. 10 2 17 1 15 3 5 0 20 3 13 11 25 4 0 10 30 4 8 11 35 4 19 0 We have purposely omitted, in this table, the intermediate as well as the unequal ages of the parties whose lives are jointly insured; be- cause the reader will be enabled to form a sufficient idea of the differ- ent rates, by comparing the pre- sent abstract with that of the pre- ceding calculation......Lastly, the same duties are imposed by go- vernment for insurance on lives, as those Ave have mentioned against losses by fire. INTEREST, implies the pre- mium or sum, paid for the loan or use of money. The rate of legal interest has va- ried, and been progressively re- duced, during the last two centu- ries; according as the quantity of specie has increased by accessions of trade, the introduction of paper- credit, and other circumstances. INTERFERING, a local dis- ease incident to horses. It arises from various causes; and though this malady is sometimes constitu- tional in the animal, yet it is more INT 383 subsequent double chance of obtain- ing an equitable reimbursement, Ave have been induced to subjoin the following table, which exhibits the premium of insurance of one hundred pounds, payable when ei- ther of two persons shall die within the limits of Europe, but not upon the seas. Age. /. *. d. 40 5 11 9 45 6 y 4 50 7 7 8 55 8 12 2 60 10 4 9 67 13 15 8 frequently occasioned by an im- proper method of shoeing ; in con- sequence of which the horse moves his hind feet so closely together, that hard scabs are gradually form- ed by their continual friction, and the disorder at length is attended with halting or lameness. According to professor Brad- ley, interfering may be cured by a compound made of three parts of fresh sheep's dung, and one part of rye or wheaten flour, well dried. These ingredients should be form- ed into a cake, then baked in an oven, and applied Avarm to the part affected, which Avill thus speedily heal; or, it may be anointed with a mixture of turpentine, and verdi- grease finely pulverized, by the use of which the scabs in general short- ly disappear. Interment. See Burial ; and Apparent Death. Intermittent Fever. See Ague. INTESTINES, in anatomy, are those holloAv membranous tubes of 384 INT INT the human body, commonly term- ed the guts or bowels, which ex- tend from the right orifice of the stomach to the anus. They are six times longer than the whole body, and by Nature destined to receive the chyme, or the aliment, so called after it is converted into a kind of pulp, which they retain for a time; then to mix it with the intestinal juice and bile, to separate and pro- pel the chyle into the milk-vessels, and to eliminate the excrements. The intestines are extremely ir- ritable. If one of'the bowels be slightly cut, the edges ofthe wound retract equally ; and if it be pene- trated or cut through, they curl themselves back so as to envelope the upper parts ; and the inside is thus completely turned outAvards. For an account of the constituent parts and denominations of the in- testines, the reader will consult the article Abdomen.....See also In- flammation of the Boavels. INTOXICATION is a term expressing that depravity of human nature, which requires no further explanation, as it is but too often practised both by the vulgar, and those whose professions lead us to expect a very different conduct. Having already exposed the mo- ral turpitude of Drunkenness, under that article, we shall now point out a few ofthe consequences that necessarily result from the brutal indulgence in that odious vice. The state of intoxication greatly resembles that of an incipient palsy or apoplexy. Inebriated persons stagger in all directions; they stam- mer; every thing appears double ; their tongue is in a manner paraly- tic, and they are deprived of the faculty of speech. This imbecility extends to the mind, Avhich is thus rendered totally incapable of reflec- tion. As the brain is overcharged with blood, the vessels pressing on that part are very liable to burst, from the least accidental concus- sion; and the unfortunate victim of such folly may expire, while he remains insensible of his danger. Hence he ought to be conveyed into a cool rather than warm room, and placed between blankets, with his head considerably raised; but the legs should be in a pendent situa- tion, and the feet bathed in luke- warm water. Every tight ligature of the shirt, waistband, garter, Sec. must be immediately relaxed, and diluent drinks, such as barley or rice-water,plentifully given, though in small portions. Next, a gentle emetic is to be introduced, and the throat stimulated with a feather dipped in oil: after vomiting, the patient generally falls into a pro- found sleep, from which he awakes weak, trembling, and affected with a violent heart-burn, and acidity of the stomach; especially if wine has been the favourite liquor. To re- move the latter complaint, calcined magnesia may be taken with ad- vantage, and afterwards moderate draughts of negus, or coffee. Ple- thoric individuals, however, will better consult their health, by drinking cold water only, Avhich is one of the most salutary restora- tives : and during the fit of intoxi- cation, it Avill sometimes be neces- sary to open a vein ; an expedient Avhich may rescue such persons from the brink of destruction. But, if they have been inebriated by ardent liquors, so that a vapour or smoke proceeds from their mouths, equal quantities of milk and barley- water ought to be instantly poured in; or, where these liquids could not be easily procured, the fresh J O I urine of a healthy subject has been found to afford an excellent substi- tute. Nor can there be any rea- sonable objection against this re- medy, in cases of a desparate and degrading nature. [A labouring man some years since assured the Editor, that a draught of his own urine would at any time restore him Avhen drunk, to perfect sobriety.] Instead of expatiating on the long train of miseries and painful disorders with which habitual in- toxication is sooner or later at- tended, and of which we treat in the alphabetical order of human maladies, we shall conclude in the words of the philosophic Shake- speare, who very pertinently re- marks, that " Drink provokes or stimulates the desire, but it takes away the performance." JOHN's-WORT, or Saint John's-wort. See Hypericum. JOINT, generally speaking, sig- nifies the juncture of two or more things: it is also applied to the human frame, in which case the joints are anatomically called arti- culations. The joints, like other parts of the body, are subject to a variety of disorders, such as sprains, rheu- matism, Sec. of which we treat in their respective order. We shall, therefore, briefly mention a patent granted in 1796, to Mr. Francis Lowndes, foraneAV invented ma- chine, called Gymnasticon, which is peculiarly calculated for exercising the joints and muscles. The whole frame may be constructed of wood only, or conjointly with metals, of any shape or dimensions, so ar- ranged, by means of cranks, fly- wheels, and treading-boards, as to give motion, both A'oluntary and involuntary, to the joints, limbs, vol. m. J O U 385 and muscles of the human body. As, hoAvever, this patent is unex- pired, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, without the aid of an en- graving, we refer the inquisitive reader to the 6th vol. of the Re- pertory of Arts and Manufactures, where it is fully specified. JOURNAL, or Diary, proper- ly signifies a day-book, register, or account of particular circumstances occurring daily, and deserving to be noted. Journals are of extensive utility, in an economical point of vieAV ; and Ave are convinced, that all per- sons engaged in any active pur- suits, especially those of rural and domestic economy, would avoid many inconveniences, by keeping regular accounts. This object, Ave conceive, might be easily attained, by arranging the pages, ruled Avith columns, and pointing out the names of workmen, together Avith the several days of the week, in which the duration and nature of the work done, and the industry or idleness of labourers, might at once be exhibited, by means of simple characters. To these may be add- ed four columns, one specifying the rate or price of the labour per day, another containing the num- ber of days, and length of time in- dividuals have respectively work- ed ; a third, for the sum total due to them; and the last for the in- sertion of occasional remarks. This plan is Avell adapted to ge- neral purposes; but those Avho wish to avail themselves of an useful form, solely calculated for agricul- tural affairs, will find an excellent plan engraven in the 17th vol. of Annals of Agriculture. Journal also denotes a critical account of literary performances. Of this kind we haA'e several month- 's D 386 JOU ly publications, which, in general, do strict justice to the works that pass under revieAv. In the present state of society, however, it has of- ten been seriously lamented, that any journal should be made sub- servient to party principles ; espe- cially Avhere religion or politics are concerned. Hence it has frequent- ly been suggested, that, instead of anonymously undermining the re- putation of literary Avorks, and in- juring literary property, rcvieAvers ought, on such occasions, to affix their signature to eA'ery critique, and support their strictures by fair quotations selected from the book Avhich is submitted to their judg- ment. Thus, their criticisms Avould become less dangerous, but more authentic vehicles of information. The character of a neAV work would likewise claim greater attention, from those Avho are in any degree acquainted Avith the merits of the reviewer : and, though a plan of this nature may probably, at first, meet with many objections, especi- ally by those authors and publish- ers who are supposed to live upon friendly terms with the dictators of the secret tribunal; yet Ave hesitate not to say, that many and great ad- vantages Avould eventually result from this candid and impartial measure. On the other hand, it is maintained, that the free republic of letters, by disclosing the names of critics, Avould be deprived of numerous valuable observations, which are equally pointed and in- structive :....This powerful objec- tion, hoAvever, appears to be incon- clusive ; because impartial justice is the first maxim of every moral institution. Besides, anonymous writers, when influenced by party- zeal, (as frequently happens), pos- sess an undue advantage over au- IPE thors who risk their reputation be- fore a discerning public ; and, ac- cording to general principles of equity, every man has a right to know his enemy, provided he does not conceal himself in an ambus- cade. JOY, one of the most powerful mental emotions, accompanied with an extraordinary degree of pleasure. The effect of this sen- sation, if not too violent, invigo- rates the whole animal frame, and facilitates the cure of diseases. Sudden joy, however, is often as injurious as the operation of either grief or terror; and many instances are recorded, in which the preci- pitate communication of unexpect- ed news has proved immediately fatal. In order to prevent so dread- ful a misfortune, such information ought not to be imparted, till the person to whom it relates, has been cautiously apprised, and thus prepared to undergo the various emotions and sensations that ne- cessarily arise in an organized sys- tem. Hence Ave should fortify the mind equally, for encountering the most agreeable as Avell as the most disastrous tidings. IPECACUANHA, a medicinal root imported from the West-In- dies. There are three kinds dis- tinguished by the eye, namely, the ash-coloured, or grey, brown and Avhite ; but the first of these is justly preferred ; for it is more ef- ficacious than the Avhite, and less violent in its operation than the brown sort. The ash-coloured epicacuanha, as imported from Peru, is a small Avrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great variety of figures ; its cortical part is com pact, brittle, and on breaking, presents a smooth, resinous surface; it has little smell, IPE IRO 387 but a someAvhat bitter and sub- acrid taste, so that it covers the tongue Avith a kind of mucilage. According to Geoffroy, Neu- mann, Dale, and Sir Hans Sloane, the roots of a kind of dog's bane (apocynum), are fre- quently substituted for the genuine ipecacuanha, and haA'e in various instances produced fatal effects.... But, if the above-mentioned cha- racters be attended to, accidents of a similar nature may easily be ob- viated. Ipecacuanha ir, one of the safest and mildest emetics, and possesses this peculiar advantage, that it passes off by the skin or bowels, if it should not operate by vomiting. In dysenteries, it is almost a spe- cific, and Often contributes to per- form a cure in a very few days.... When given in powder, its action is more certain than in any other form: hence it is now employed in many diseases, where full vo- miting is indicated ; for which pur- pose from 15 or 25 grains are pre- scribed for a full close. It is also beneficially administered in very small doses, so as neither to ope- rate by vomiting, purging, nor sAveating; for instance, a third or fourth part of a grain, to be taken every half-hour or oftener, Avith a view to vellicate the intestinal ca- nal, and by its nauseating effect, to give a different tone to the action of the stomach and boAvels. Thus, it is recommended to be given in the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma, as Avell as in obstinate coughs ; and a dose of three or four grains every morning, in chronical asthmatic cases. [There are several native plants which, from possessing ap emetic quality, are called in the country, Ipecacuanha. The chief are, 1. Eu- phorbia-Ipecacuanha, or Spurge.... This is very common in many parts of the United States, particu- larly in the dry and sandy soils of New-Jersey. It flowers early in the spring. The root boiled in water is extremely active, and should on- ly be used in cases'Avhere poison has been SAvalIowed....2. Spiroea, trifoliata, or Indian physic, Bow- man's root, is a common shrub : It's emetic power resides in the bark of the root. It may be safely given in doses of tAventy-five or thirty grains; and is a common remedy in the country for the in- termittent fever. It is also occa- sionally given to horses to mend their appetite.....3. Asarum cana- dense, or wild-ginger; called colt's- foot in Virginia. This plant has already been noticed under the head Asarabacca. Both root and leaves are used, but the juice of the latter is commonly given, and is powerful in its operation....4. 7b- dophyllum peltatum. In South-Ca- rolina, this plant is called Hippo, and according to the information of Mr. Wm. Bartram, is also a powerful vermifuge. From twenty to sixty grains ofthe root are given, in proportion to the age ofthe pa- tient.] IRON, the hardest and most ex- tensively useful of the imperfect metals: it is naturally of a livid, whitish-grey colour, and found in great abundance in various parts of the world, both in a pure state, and intermixed with other fossil mat- ters. The iron manufactured in Great Britain is obtained from three dif- ferent kinds of ores: 1. The Lan- cashire ore, thus denominated from the county where it abounds ; be- ing very heavy ; of a fibrous tex- ture ; a dark purple colour, in- 388 I R O IRO dining to black; and lodged in veins like other metals. 2. The bog ore, which resembles a deep yellow clay, and has probably been deposited by some ferruginous ri- vulets : it is found in strata from 12 to 20 inches thick, and of vari- ous breadth. 3. Iron stones, of an irregular shape, which frequently lie in beds of great extent, and, like other stony masses, are some- times intersected with seams or veins of pit-coal. After the ore is dug out of the earth, it is crushed in a mill, and Avashed in a stream, in order to separate the grosser particles of earth. Next, it is melted in fur- naces, heated Avith coke, charcoal, peat, or turf; near the bottom of which, by means of a tap-hole, the liquid metal is discharged into fur- rows made in a bed of sand. The larger mass, which settles in the main furrow, is called by the Avorkmen, a sow ; and the smaller ones, pigs of iron. Stoves, grates, Sec. are formed by casting ladles full of the rough metal into proper moulds made of sifted sand. In this state it is called cast-iron ; but if cooled too hastily, it becomes brittle, and is apt to crack like un- annealed glass: it is not malleable, and is so hard as to resist the file. With a view to improve it, the raw iron is now melted down a second time in another furnace, where a strong blast of air is impelled on the surface of the metal; in conse- quence of Avhich its fusion is con- siderably facilitated, and the iron concretes into a mass called a. loop, that is conveyed beneath a large hammer raised by the motion of a water-Avheel. The metal is there beaten into a thick square form, again heated so as nearly to melt it, and then forged. By repeating this process, the- iron is rendered perfectly malleable, and at length formed into bars for sale. Lately, hoAvever, cast-iron has been reduced to a state of malle- ability, by passing it through rol- lers, instead of forging it. For this valuable improvement Ave are in- debted to Mr. Henry Cort, of Gosport, who in the year 1783, ob- tained a patent for preparing, weld- ing, and working various sorts of iron, by means of machinery, Sec. As, hoAvever, this specification Avould be intelligible only to iron manufacturers, the inquisitive read- er will consult the 3d. vol. of the Repertory of Arts, &c. Yet jus- tice requires us to observe, that the raw, or cast-iron is, by Mr. Cort's process, perfectly freed from those impurities which are not discharged by the common me- thods of rendering this metal mal- leable ; and that it has been proved by experience to be equal, and, in some cases, superior, to the best SAvedish iron- As Mr. C's patent is noAV expired, Ave trust it will be generally adopted at Birmingham, Carron, Colebrook-Dale, and the other iron manufactoriesof Britain; because the metal thus treated, may not only be procured at a cheaper rate than it is sold at pre- sent, but a saving will be made of one million sterling per annum, Avhich is now paid to SAveden and Russia for bars, Avhile we possess a sufficient quantity of the raw ma- terials, which may be worked at home to that amount. Beside the cast and forged iron, there is an intermediate state, in which that metal is soft and tough. This is calied steel,and is usually made from the best forged iron, by cementation with certain inflam- mable matters : some account of IRO I R O 389 the process Avill be inserted in its alphabetical series. Iron being of such essential ser- vice for a great variety of purposes, several persons have obtained ex- clusive privileges for different in- ventions to which it may be ap- plied......Among these, the patent granted to Mr. Jonathan Taylor for casting oval-bellied pots, and nealing, turning, and finishing the same, Sec; then Mr. Rowland Burdon's, in 1795, for a method of making, uniting, and applying cast-iron blocks, to be substituted for key-stones, in the construction of arches ; and Mr. John Wilkin- son's, in 1794, for making cast metal or pig iron from the ore, and manufacturing it into bar, or any other malleable iron, deserve par- ticular notice. The reader will findthese,together with the various patents relative to the iron manu- factory, minutely described in the different volumes of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures. Beside its utility as a material for implements of agriculture, Sec. iron is eminently adapted to the purpose of dyeing cotton. From the various experiments made by Chaptal, it appears that the oxyd of iron has so great an affinity for cotton thread, that if the latter be immersed in a saturated solution of this metal in any acid, it assumes instantaneously a chamoy-yellow colour, Avhich becomes more or less deep, according to the strength of the liquors, and the length of time it has been exposed to the air. The colour thus communi- cated is fixed ; resists both air and water, and also alkaline leys; nor is its durability in the least affect- ed by Avashing it with soap ; Avhich, on the contrary, imparts to it ad- ditional brightness. The oxyd of iron, if precipitated on any stuff, easily unites with the fawn colour obtained from vegetable astrin- gents; and, by varying the strength of the soda, soap, or other mor- dants employed in dyeing, an in- finity of shades may be produced. Thus, by means of a boiling heat, the oxyd of iron may be more in- timately combined with the astrin- gent principle. These colours may likewise be rendered broAvn, as they are susceptible of a variety of shades, from a bright grey to a deep black tint; by simply passing the cotton impregnated with as- tringent vegetable matter, through a solution of iron. When long exposed to the air, iron is very liable to become rusty, especially in moist situations: hence an effectual method of preserving it bright, still remains to be disco- vered. Various compositions have indeed been contrived for this pur- pose ; but none appears to be more serviceable than common oil,though its use is on many occasions both troublesome and disagreeable. To obviate these inconveniencies, it has been recommended to heat the iron to such a degree, that it can- not be touched without burning the hand, then to varnish it with new Avhite Avax, and expose it to the fire, till the wax is completely imbibed by the metal, Avhich should next be rubbed over with a piece of serge.....According to others, this metal may be perfectly secur- ed from the effects of rust, by plunging it, Avhile red hot, into lin- seed-oil, Avhich is suffered to drop off till it become dry, and then w ip- ing the iron with a clean cloth. Thus a black crust or varnish is formed, Avhich renders it imper- vious to moisture. Again, others pour melted lead into the oil, be- 390 I R O IRO fore it is applied to the heated iron ; but both preparations require a con- siderable degree of skill and pre- caution. As vessels, made of this metal, are liable to cracks, Avhich fre- quently render them useless, Ave insert, on the authority of M. Kas- teleyn, the following directions for preparing a lute calculated to fill up such fissures: Take six parts of yellow potter's clay, and one part of iron filings ; incorpo- rate these ingredients with a suffi- cient quantity of linseed-oil, so as to form the Avhole into a paste of the consistence of putty. Although a variety of varnishes have been contrived for securing iron and steel, in a polished state, from the effects of rust; yet Ave are persuaded, that the folloAving is the most simple and effectual method of preserving them. It is well known, that the oil expressed from the fruit of the chocolate-tree never becomes rancid, provided the nuts have been moderately roasted, before they are submitted to the press. This oil is asserted by M. Von Crell, to be eminently adapted to the purpose before stat- ed : and Ave may add, from recent experience, that the animal oil ob- tained from eels, if applied to po- lisheel iron, steel, or other metals, especially when used in machinery, such as wheel-Avork, has been at- tended with similar good effects. In medicine, iron is chiefly em- ployed as a tonic and corroborant: when properly prepared, it is given with advantage in diseases pro- ceeding from laxity and inactivity of the digesti\e organs, such as in- digestion, flatulency, colic, lie. It is also of considerable service in hypochondriacal affections, inter- mittent, tertian, quartan, and other fevers ; but it seldom agrees Avith either bilious or plethoric constitu- tions, and is, like all active drugs, much abused by quacks and other pretenders, Avho should not be suf- fered to trifle Avith the health and lives of the multitude. Iron-moulds,are spots on linen, occasioned by its exposure to damp situations, and also by ink accident- ally dropped on the cloth. They may be removed by moistening the stained part, sprinkling it with a small quantity of the essential salt of lemons; [See Lemons.] after Avhich the linen is to be rubbed over a pewter plate, and the blot washed out with warm water. But a less expensive method consists in Avet- ting the spot, applying to it a few drops of spirit of salt, or lemon juice ; then rubbing it for a minute or longer betAveen the fingers, while it is carefully held over a hot smoothing iron, or a bason filled with boiling water, the steam of Avhich greatly facilitates the re- moval of the stain. [Iron stains on Mahogany, are taken out by dilute spirit of salt con- fined to the spot by Avax. The folloAving account of the present state of the iron works in the state of Pennsylvania, av as com- municated by John Kean, Esq. of Dauphin county, to John A.Hanna, representative in Congress for that state, and published in the spring of the present year. " I have long had a desire to know the state of the iron business in this commonwealth ; believing that correct information of that subject Avould be pleasing as well as useful to you in considering the great national interests, I send you the underAvritten statement, which has been forwarded by application to the representatives from the dif- IRO ferent counties, and is certainly correct as far it goes ; perhaps two or three forges and bloomeries have escaped our notice. " In Pennsylvania there are, fur- naces 28; forges 72 ; slitting mills 11 ; tilt hammers 12 ; steel fur- naces 2, exclusive of air furnaces at and near Philadelphia. The 28 furnaces, at a moderate calculation, will make annually each 750 tons of pig and castings, which would amount on the whole to 21 thousand tons; four furnaces in our neighbourhood have, for the last three years, each made yearly from 12 to 1500 tons; I therefore think we calculate far within what they actually will make, when we state the annual amount at 20,000 tons' " Seventy-two forges, at 180 tons each will annually make 12,960 tons of bar-iron. Some forges run much higher, and some fall short of that quantity, but upon the whole I think we may safely calculate upon that average. "Eleven slitting mills using each 250 tons annually is 27,7 50 tons, and about 150 tons are yearly manufac- tured into steel. " If you Avere in possession of similar information from the other states, Congress would then be able to judge ofthe propriety of laying such protecting duties on iron im- ported as would properly encou- rage this manufacture in our own country. We are at present able to make not only all the iron want- ed in the United States, but a con- siderable quantity for exportation. Our iron is equal in quality to any in the Avorlcl." The reader is referred to.Nichol- son's Phil. Journal, and to Tilloch's Phil. Magazine for a body of very valuable information on the subject IRR 391 of the manufactory of iron. In the latter work, are contained several papers by Mr. Mushet of the Cal- der iron works, which deserve par- ticular attention, being the produc- tion of the important union of a philosophical inquirer, and practi- cal operator.] IRRIGATION, signifies the watering, or artificial flooding of land. The principal objects in irrigat- ing the soil, is a proper supply of water; and, if that fluid abound Avith mud, the land will be more permanently improved, than by conducting a clear spring over its surface : hence it is certain, that if the liquor collected in farm-yards, the Avashings of different sinks, ditches, and the drains ofthe con.- tiguous fields, could be conveyed into the common stream, the wa- ter would acquire a more fertiliz- ing property. But, in order to manage this im- portant branch of rural economy Avith success, it will be requisite previously to ascertain, Avhether the stream will admit of a tempo- rary wear or dam being construct- ed across it; whether the Avater can be raised to such a height as to overflow a particular spot, with- out injuring the contiguous land ; and Avhether it can be drawn off with the same facility as it is con- ducted on the soil. If these ob- jects can be attained, the process of irrigation may be undertaken in the following manner: When the descent cannot be de- termined with tolerable precision by the eye, an accurate level of the ground must be taken, and the most elevated part compared Avith the height of the stream to be em- ployed. The instrument used for 392 I R R this purpose, is called a water- level ; and, as the common ma- chines are but imperfectly adapted to the purpose, we have subjoined the following representation of a simple [American] implement for taking levels. It consists of tAvo legs of common deal, A and • B, about twelve feet in length, which are joined toge- ther at the top, and connected be- low by a cross bar, as above deli- neated. From the angle at the top, a plummet C, is suspended by a small cord ; which, when a mark is made in the middle ofthe connecting bar, and the two legs are perfectly straight, will strike such mark, so that the level may be easily ascertained. In the practical use of this in- strument, a wooden pin, on Avhich one of the legs of the frame may rest, is to be driven into the ground at the level of the water, where the irrigation is intended to commence. The other leg is then to be brought round, till it touch the ground, on a level Avith the top of such pin, when another is to be driven in. After the leA-el has in this manner been perfectly adjusted, the last mentioned pin is to be employed as a rest for one foot, and the other turned about, till the level is found IRR in the same manner. Thus, the precise direction which the stream should take will at once be disco- vered, without any trouble, or in- curring any additional expence by digging through the heights or fill- ing up cavities. The level being taken as direct- ed, a Avide ditch is to be cut as near to the dam as possible, that the water may be conveyed to the highest part of the meadoAV; the sides and banks of the ditch being uniformly kept at an equal height, and elevated about three inches above the surface. Where the meadow is extensive, and the soil uneven, it will be necessary to have three works or dams in different directions, each of which should be five feet in width, if the meadoAV contain fifteen acres; and the highest part be the most distant from the stream. A ditch, ten feet wide, and three in depth, Avill, in general, be fully adequate to over- floAV ten acres of land ; and if there be three works or dams in a mea- dow, and flood-hatches, or flood- gates, be placed at the mouth of each, Avhen the water is not suffi- cient to irrigate the whole soil at once, it may be performed at three different periods ; by taking out one of the hatches or gates for the space of ten days, at the expira- tion of which it is to be let down, and the other two taken up alter- nately for a similar period: thus each division Avill receive a proper share of Avaterin its turn, and de- rive from it equal benefit. Where the fall of the meadow renders it practicable, the bottom of the first work should be made as deep as the bed of the river ; be- cause the Avater in proportion to its depth, Avill carry a larger or smaller IRR quantity of mud Avith it, and conse- quently fertilize the soil in a more or less effectual manner. Small ditches, or troughs, ought likewise to be cut from the Avorks at right angles, about 12 yards apart from each other, and theirbreadth should be adequate to the distance to which the water is to be conveyed: thus a trough two feet in width, and one foot deep, will irrigate a surface twefre yards wide, and forty feet in length. It Avill, hoAvever, be requisite to provide the ditches Avith occasional flood-gates or sluices, especially Avhen the water is rapid, in order to keep it sufficiently high to floAV through the perforations in the gates, or over the sides. Between every second trough, a drain is to be cut at equal distances in a pa- rallel direction, and of a proper depth for receiving all tbe Avater Avhich overfloAvs the adjacent lands, and conducting it to the principal drain Avith such rapidity, as to keep the Avhole stream in constant mo- tion. For, if it be suffered to stag- nate, it will be productive of the worst consequences; as the turf Avould become rotten, the soil be soaked without being ameliorated, and the land produce only coarse grass, rushes, or other aquatic weeds. Where the meadoAvs are cold, flat, and swampy, the width of the bed, that is, of the intermediate space between the trough and drain, ought never to exceed six yards.... In such cases, the land cannot be too much intersected, especially when there is an abundant supply of Avater. The fall of the bed in every meadoAV ought to be in the proportion of one inch to each foot; for a rapid currant always COntri- Vd.. III. IRR 393 butes to produce fine and sweet herbage; but the water ought never to floAV more than two inches, nor less than one inch deep, except during the summer months. Such is the method of irrigation practised in Gloucestershire, and likewise, with very feAv variations, in the counties of Wilts, Dorset, Cambridge, Hants, Sec. It's advan- tages, indeed, are so important that, we trust, no rational agriculturist will hesitate to adopt the practice of floating land throughout Britain, in every situation where a command of water can be obtained....Com^ mon meadoAvs are not only enrich- ed, but those of a SAArampy nature are consolidated by means of the mud conveyed on them.' They are also protected from the effects of frost by the flowing Avater, or by the ice Avhen it is frozen; hence the roots of grass remain unaffected by the cold, and excellent crops are thus produced so early, as to be of infinite service for spring food, be- fore the natural grass appears. By irrigation, good pasturage may be procured in the beginning of March; and, if the season be mild, much earlier. This crop is particularly excellent for feeding such cattle as have been hardly wintered; and so great are the benefits attending the flooding of lands, that the farmers of Glouces- tershire are enabled to commence the making of cheese, at least one month earlier than those Avho do not possess the same opportunity. Tlie utility of Avatering land is still far- ther evinced by this circumstance, that from the^reat forwardness of grass, the feeding between the months of March and May is worth one guinea per acre; in June one acre Avill yield tAvo tons of hav; and 3 i-: 394 IRR IRR the after-grass may always be esti- mated at twenty shillings, Avhether the summer be wet or dry. Land may be floated at any pe- riod of the year. In the months of December and January, the chief care consists in keeping the sod sheltered by the Avater from the severity of frosty nights. It will, hoAvever, be necessary to expose the surface to the air every ten days, or fortnight, during the. win- ter, by laying it as dry as possible for a few days; and to discontinue the flooding, whenever the land is covered with a sheet of ice. In February, greater attention is required; for, if the water be suf- fered to flow over the meadow for several days in succession, a Avhite 6cum will be generated, which is very pernicious to the grass; and, if the Avater be drawn off, and the land exposed to a severe frosty night, Avithout being previously dried for a whole day, the greater part of the tender plants will be to- tally destroyed. In the beginning of March, the grass on Avell-flooded meadows will, in general, be so forward as to fur- nish abundant pasturage; Avhen the Avater should be drained for the space of a week, that the soil may become firm, before heavy cattle be allowed to graze on such land: these, hoAvever, if the season be cold, ought to be supplied Avith a little hay every night, during the first Aveek. In the month of April, the grass may be eaten doAvn closely ; but no cattle should be turned in later ; as olherAvise the crop of hay will be much impaired ; the grass be- come soft or Avoolly ; and conse- quently its value be considerably diminished. In the beginning of May, the Avater is again tnrown over tlie soil for a few days, in order to moisten it; but the practice ought on no account to be continued during the summer ; for it has an unfavoura- ble effect on tlie after-math; and produces in sheep fed on it, the dis- order called the rot. Many other advantages arise from irrigation ; but, as our limits admit only of giving an outline, Ave refer those readers Avho are de- sirous to acquire farther informa- tion relative to this interesting branch of rural economy, to Mr. G. Bosavell's Treatise on Water- ing Meadows, Sec. (8vo. 2s. 6c/. 1780), in Avhich the necessary im- plements, and terms employed in irrigation, are'explained and illus- trated with engravings ; as like- Avise to Mr. Wright's Art of Floating Land, Sec. (2d edit. 8vo. Hatcharel, 1799, pp. 95, 3s. 6d.); where the subject is perspicuously treated, and objections are ably an- SAvered. [The advantages of irrigation are well understood by the farmers of Pennsylvania, and carefully practised by all who have Avater at command. Contrivances are in some instances also made for this invaluable purpose, Avhich are high- ly ingenious, and deserve to be ge- nerally follow ed.... The one by Mr. Witmer, on the Lancaster road, near Conastogoe creek, shall be particularly described under the ar- ticle Water. Dr. W. speaks of the irrigation of England, but all the attempts of that country, are the mill-dams of school-boys, Avhen compared with the great, the noble executions of the inhabitants of PYance and Spain. Arthur Young speaks in IRR IRR 395 high terms of the prodigious ex- ertionsof the inhabitants of Langue- doc and Provence, to irrigate their lands. In Spain, the Norias, or walled-mounds to hold water, ex- cite the astonishment of the tra- veller ; and such a quantity do some of them hold, that serious conse- quences sometimes attend abreach. The city of Larca, in the province of Murcia in Spain, Avas last year inundated by the quantity of water reserved in a .Yoria, upon a neigh- bouring mountain. Semonde, in his late and excellent account of the agriculture of Tuscany, (Gene- va, 1801,) also details the exertions ofthe farmers and gardeners ofthe fertile Vol de Nievole, in irrigation, which are worthy of attention.... Col. Tatham's late Avork, entitled " National Irrigation," (London, 1801), has fully and ably treated the subject, and detailed the va- rious modes pursued in England, America, and Spain,- and gives some plates, which may be useful- ly consulted.] IRRITABILITY, denotes that essential property of animals, in consequence of which their bores, on being touched, contract or be- come short, in a greater or less degree. Chemis's have lately, endeavour- ed to shew, that all animal and ve- getable irritability originates from the oxygen, which is inhaled by the lungs, or respired by the leaves, or absorbed by the roots. And as re- spiration is every minute requisite to the support of animal life, Dr. Daravin conjectures that some- thing immediately necessary to their existence, is acquired by the lungs of animals from the atmos- phere, rather than from the food they digest; and that this name- less something, perhaps oxygen, is mixed Avith the blood, and again separated from it by the spinal marrow, after having undergone certain changes in the course of its circulation, or secretion. In a similar manner, he considers it as probable that the spirit of vegeta- tion may be derived from that source, namely, the uncombined oxygen ofthe air, which is respired by the upper surfaces ofthe leaves, and not from that Avhich is absorb- ed by roots, in a more combined state: farther, that this oxygen is again separated from the juices by the sensorium, or brain, of each in- dividual bud, after having under- gone some change in its passage through the secretory vessels. A long-continued, unusual, or unnatural stimulation of vegetable fibres, by an increase of heat, ex- hausts the spirit of vegetation : hence a slighter degree of cold will destroy such fibres; because, after having been excited for a consider- able time by a more powerful sti- mulus, they will cease to act on the application of one that is weaker, so that in consequence of hot days, tender plants are more liable to perish from the coldness of the night. For this reason, gardeners in the more northern climates, shelter both the flowers of apricots, and the tender vegetables, during the spring-frosts, from the meri- dian sun, as Avell as from the de- structive cold of the night, which is generally the most intense about one hour before sun-rise. In the hot days of the month of June, 1798, Dr. Darwin twice observed several rows of garden- beans to become quite sickly; and some of them even died in conse- quence of being irrigated for one or two hours with Avater from an adjoining canal. Thiscircumstance he attributes to the sudden appli- cation of cold, after the plants had 396 IRR IR R been greatly enfeebled, and de- prived of their irritability by the excessive heat of the season, ra- ther than to the too copious Avater- ing of the dry soil. Some vegeta- bles, hoAvever, such as strawber- ries, onions, Sec. which were equal- ly exhausted, are less liable to be thus injured, and even receive be- nefit from occasionaf irrigation in dry and sultry weather. On the contrary, the spirit of ve- getation acquires additional vi- gour, if plants have been exposed for a considerable time to a less than usual degree of heat; but, if they be suddenly removed from a cold to a Avarm place, they will ex- perience a similar fate Avith those hapless persons, to Avhose frozen limbs sudden heat was imprudent- ly applied: thus, too great in- crease of action occasions inflam- mation, Avhich is generally suc- ceeded by mortification and death. This fact has been ascertained and confirmed by the experiments of M. Van Uslar, avIio kept two species of the spurge, or Avartwort, namely, the Euphorbia Pep'.us, and Esula, L. secluded from the light and heat, with a vieAv to render them more irritable: on exposing these plants afterwards to a meri- dian sun they became grangre- nous, and in a short time decayed. The incresed, or diminished, degree of irritability in plants, is by Dr. Darwin attributed to their previous habits, with respect to the stimulus of greater or less heat. Thus, the periods at Avhich vegeta- bles thrive in the spring, appear to be greatly influenced by their ac- quired habits, as well as by their present sensibility to heat: hence potatoes Avill germinate in a much cooler temperature during the spring than in autumn; hence also, the vernal months are the most fa- vourable to the process of making good malt; because the barley will then sprout Avith a less degree of heat than at any other season. The irritability of plants has been discovered to be greater in the morning than at noon, and less in the evening than at mid-day ; though it is considerably augment- ed during cool and rainy weather. In a similar manner, the limbs of animals acquire a greater sensibi- lity of heat, after having been ex- posed to the cold: thus, the hands, after immersing them for a short time in snoAv, glow Avith Avarmth on entering the house ;....and the late celebrated Spallanzani ob- served several animals and insects, that conceal themselves under ground in a torpid state during the Avinter,and enjoy the genial Avarmth of the spring, again to disappear at a season Avhen the heat of the at- mophere Avas much higher than on their first emerging from their sub- terraneous abode. From these considerations, Dr. Darwin infers, that such plants as are sheltered in a Avarm room, during the Avinter, ought to be oc- casionally exposed to a cooler at- mosphere, in order to increase their irritability; otherwise their groAvth in the succeeding spring will be much retarded. For the same reason, the continual vicissi- tudes of the air and weather are essentially necessary to mankind ; as the frequent changes of heat and cold have an obvious tendency to preserve or restore their irrita- bility, and consequently the activi- ty of the system. Hence not only the health and energy of men are more conspicuous in our variable climate, but their longevity is com- paratively greaterthan onthosetro- pical continents, Avhich experience both a more considerable degree ISI I S I 397 •f heat, and a more steady atmos- phere. Ischury. See Urine. ISINGLASS, or Ichthyocolla, a preparation from different species of a Russian fish, called sturgeon, of Avhich avc have given some ac- count in the article Caviare. It may also be produced from the air-bladders of the cod, or gadus, as Avell as from those of other fish inhabiting fresh Avaters. The method of making isinglass was for ages kept a secret with the Russians, but has lately been dis- covered. We extract the folloAving process from the 63d vol. of the Philosophical Transactions:....First, the sineAvy parts of the fish are boiled in Avater, till they are dis- solved; then the viscid liquor is strained, and suffered to cool.... When cold, the fat is carefully ta- ken off, the liquor again boiled to a clue consistence, then cut in pieces and rolled into a semi-cir- cular twist, in which state they are suspended on a string, till careful- ly dried. The sounds or air-bladders of fresh-Avater fish, in general, are the most transparent, flexible, and delicate substances, and conse- quently furnish the finest isinglass. But the intestines and peritoneum of the fish constitute inferior sorts of this article, denominated book, and ordinary staple. The belugas, being the largest and most plenti- ful fish in the Russian rivers, yield the greatest quantity of this animal glue, which, on account of its strength, is preferred to all other kinds. Isinglass is most successfully prepared in the summer; as frost changes its colour, deprives it of weight, and impairs its gelatinous principle: but the forms into which it is twisted by the Russians are useless, and frequently injurious to its native qualities. These peculiar shapes were probably adopted Avith a vicAv to conceal the real sub- stance, and thus to preserve the monopoly. The NeAvfoundland and Iceland fishermen split open the fish, as soon as they are taken, and throAv the back bones, with the sounds an- nexed, into a heap; but, before pu- trefaction commences, the sounds are cut out, Avashed and salted for use. In performing this operation, the best, namely, the intercostal parts, are left behind....the Ice- land fishermen are so sensible of this circumstance, that they beat the bone upon a block Avith a thick stick, till the pockets come out easily, so that they preserve the sound entire. This isinglass is dried upon nets in the open air, and resolves into fining like that of Russian manufacture, in sub-acid liquors, such as stale beer, cyder, old hock, Sec. Avhilerin equal quan- tities, it produces similar effects up- on turbid liquors, except that it falls sooner and closer to the bot- tom of the vessel; though foreign isinglass, on account of the greater tenacity of its native mucilage, re- tains the poAver of fining preferably in Avarm weather. With respect to the very exten- sive use that is made of isinglass by brewers, and Avine-merchants, Ave have already expressed our dis- approbation, under the head of Clarification, and also recom- mended proper substitutes, especi- ally as li. Jackson informs us, in his Essays on British Isinglass, published about the year 1765, that its yearly consumption in the brew- ery Avas then calculated at 25 tons weijht, and that 40,000/. annually 398 I S I are paid for this article to the Russians. Hence it is sincerely to be Avished, that this importation may be entirely superseded. [This Avish may be well applied to the United States, as our rivers abound Avith sturgeon, and the use of isinglass is yearly increasing.] The finest and most transparent sorts of isinglass are consumed in making mock-pearls, and in stif- fening linens, silks, gauzes, Sec... It may likeAvise be reduced to a jelly, as it dissolves in alkaline li- quors; and even cold lime-Avater converts it into a pulpy mass. Al- though such preparation would be extremely detrimental to health in fining liquors, yet it may be use- fully employed for another pur- pose ; because, on mixing this jelly with compositions of plaster, lime, Sec. for ornamenting walls exposed to vicissitudes of Aveather, it forms a firm and durable cement; and, if worked up with common mortar, it soon acquires the hardness of bricks. With this intention, Iioav- ever, it is more conveniently pre- pared by dissoh'ing it in cold wa- ter, acidulated Avitb oil of vitriol: thus, the acid quits the jelly, and forms Avith the lime a selenitic mass; Avhile the jelly, being de- prived of part of its moisture, speedily dries, and hardens into a firm body; Avhence its superior strength and durability may be ea- sily explained. In a medicinal A'ieAV, isinglass is but seldom employed; though it may with advantage be used in vio- lent bleedings from the nose, by introducing into the nostril a pes- sary made of soft linen, and dipped in a solution of this glue, prepared in equal parts of spirit of Avine and Avater. Isinglass also forms a prin- cipal ingredient in sticking-plaster; ISS and, Avhen boiled in fresh milk to the consistence of a strong jelly, it affords a very nourishing food to invalids; though it should be eaten with precaution by those who pos- sess a Aveak stomach, or digest sloAvly ; as it has a great tendency to turn rancid and putrid. ISSUES, are small artificial apertures or ulcers in the muscular parts of the body, for the purpose of draining superfluous moisture, or of giving vent to some noxious humours. Issues are usually made in the arms, legs, or back, either by caus- tics, or by incision. They are chief- ly applied in disorders of the head, eyes, ears, teeth, Sec. which are thus relieved, and frequently cured. Inveterate complaints generally re- quire two or more issues to pro- duce any considerable effect,name- ly, one in each arm, or on the arm and leg of one side of the body. Artificial ulcers have been much recommended to the consumptive and asthmatic, though Ave doubt their efficacy Avhen the patient's strength is already exhausted.... They have, nevertheless, often been found useful in cases of confirmed melancholy, when placed near the spine, as the unhappy victim of that disorder can seldom be in- duced to take any internal reme- dies. The discharge from these orifices may be promoted by the application of issue pease, and by dressing them with mild blistering ointment. In order to close an issue, it is sufficient to discontinue the pea ; but in case any proud flesh should arise, it may be removed by streAv- ing on it finely poAvdered loaf- sugar, or burnt alum : after which the Avound Avill speedily heal, if it be properly dressed. IT C I T C 399 ITCH, a cutaneous affection, in which the skin is covered with small Avatery pustules, that appear first on the Avrist, or between the fingers, then upon the arms, legs, See. Avhere they are accompanied Avith an intolerable irritating sen- sation. The itch is contagious, but sel- dom prevails Avhere due attention is paid to cleanliness, fresh air, and wholesome food. Unless it be improperly treated, it is in it- self not a dangerous disease : but if it be too long neglected, the whole humours become corrupted; and if it be suddenly suppressed, without proper evacuations, it is apt to occasion fevers, inflamma- tions, pulmonary consumptions, Sec. Hence the extreme absurdity of having recourse to ointments Avhich profess to cure it in a certain num- ber of days, or even hours : such imposition should be punished by the magistrate. When the patient is of a gross habit of body, it will be necessary first to administer one or two brisk laxatives, before he can Avith safety resort to the tepid bath. The parts affected may next be rubbed alter- nately, every second day, one half of the body, with an ointment con- sisting of two ounces of flour of sulphur; tAvo drams of crude sal ammoniac, finely pulverized ; and four ounces of hog's-lard, or fresh butter. To this composition may occasionally be added a small por- tion of the essence of lemons, by which the disagreeable smell ofthe sulphur will be greatly suppressed. During this treatment, the pa- tieut ought to keep the body gently open, by taking every morning and evening from ten to fifteen grains of the flour of sulphur in honey, treacle, or new milk. The same clothes ought to be worn in the whole course of the disorder, ex- cepting the linen ; and, when a cure is effected, the former should by no means be touched, till they have been properly fumigated with sulphur, as otherwise the con- tagion will again be communi- cated. There is another species, called the dry, or malignant itch, which generally arises from the scurvy, and is very difficult to eradicate. In this case, the liberal use of anti- scorbutics, and a vegetable diet, are of equal importance. A strong decoction of tobacco has often been found an efficacious external ap- plication. Mercurial ointments bave likewise been employed Avith advantage, but their use requires great circumspection, as it is abso- lutely necessary to keep the bowels regular, by taking the mildest laxa- tives, and to guard against cold or catarrhs. A neAV remedy for this loath- some affection, has lately been dis- covered by M. Grille. He had observed that persons employed in the manganese-mines, of Macon, in France, Avere not liable to this cutaneous disease ; and that the neighbouring Avorkmen, Avhen at- tacked by the itch, Ave re accustom- ed to resort to these mines, Avith a view to be cured of their complaint: thus, the tormenting irritation speedily ceased ; the eruption dis- appeared ; and the skin became perfectly sound. Hence, M. Grille Avas led to conjecture, that manganese might be employed as a remedy for the itch. Pie therefore formed 6 parts of this semi-inetal in a pulverized state, and 16 parts of fresh hog's- lard, into an unguent: several per- sons troubled Avith this disease were 400 J U I JUL directed to nib such ointment over their bodies ; at the same time, the usual medecines for opening the boAvels, Avere administered; and the malady Avas, in a few days, completely removed. Itch, a distemper in cattle, Avhich is either occasioned by foul litter, and inattention to the skin of these useful animals, or is com- municated from others ; though it sometimes arises from a disorder- ed state of the body. Prof. Brad- ley directs the infected creature to be well Avashed Avith its own urine previously Avarmed, and mix- ed with stale salt butter. JUICE, denotes the sap of ve- getables, or the fluids of animals. See Blood, Plants, Saf, Sec. The juices of several plants and fruits are expressed with a view to obtain their essential salts, and for various medicinal purposes : they are used either without further pre- paration, or converted into syrups and extracts. Such juices are ge- nerally obtained by simply bruising the plant in a marble mortar, and then submitting the pulp to a press: some vegetables, however, require the addition of water in the mortar, to express their juice Avith greater facility. The sap of most antiscor- butic plants, abounding Avith saline volatile principles,may be disposed to filtration, merely by pouring it in close bottles, and immersing them in boiling water : thus, the saline and volatile particles, in which their medicinal A'irtues chief- ly consist, may be easily preserv- ed. See Filtration. Fermentation is another method of clarifying juices that are sus- ceptible of it ; for all liquors Avhich have undergone that process, spon- taneously become pellucid.......See Fermentation. Most vegetable juices coagulate, Avhen exposed to the air, Avhether they are extracted from the plant by Avounds, or flow from it without any external injury : in the latter case, hoAvever, it is generally the effect of a disease in the plant, ei- ther from a species of canker, or some other internal cause. Different parts of the same plant often yield juices of opposite qua- lities. Thus, the sap in the root of the cow-parsnip is of a yellow colour ; Avhile that obtained from its stalk is Avhite. The wild or strong scented lettuce, affords the greatest abundance of milky juice, of any known British plant. On Avounding the stalk Avith a knife, there exudes a Avhite ropy liquor; but, if an incision be made at the top of the stalks, a purple-tinged sap appears, as if cream had been sprinkled over it with a few drops of red Avine. In a short time, it acquires a deeper purple, and thickens so, that finally a separa- tion takes place, Avhen the watery part floats on the surface........See Lettuce. JULEP, a convenient form of medicines, which require no decoc- tion, and are mixed up with syrup or sugar, in order to dilute them properly, or to cover their pun- gency. Acid julep consists of 3 drams of weak vitriolic acid, 3 ounces of simple syrup, and two pounds of spring-water. These ingredients are to be gradually mixed and the Avhole carefully strained. See Vi- triolic acid. Amber julep : Let tAvo drams of tincture of amber, and half an ounce of refined sugar, be mixed with 6 ounces of spring water, and strained in the manner above-men- tioned. Under this form, the tine- JUN ture of amber is rendered an agree- able medicine, which may be sub- stituted for the amber itself, in nervous affections, Sec. for which it is sometimes prescribed. Mther julep is composed of two scruples of pure vitriolic xther, 6 ozs. of spring Avater, and half an oz. of refined sugar, which ingredients are to be mixed and strained. In spasmodic affections, this prepara- tion is often given with advantage, in repeated draughts of about half a tea-cupfnl every hour, or oftener. Saline julep, is a mixture of 3 drams of purified pot-ash and half a pound of Avater ; to which are to be added, one ounce of the syrup of black currants, and half a pound of lemon-juice; or such a quantity of the latter as will be sufficient to saturate the alkali. This com- pound is often used in febrile dis- eases, by taking two or three table- spoonfuls every hour, in order to promote a slight perspiration. It alsoincreasesthe secretion of urine, and is frequently employed to re- strain vomiting. JUNIPER-TREE, or Juniperus, L. a native shrub, comprising se- veral species ; of which the princi- pal is the Juniperus communis, or Common Juniper-tree : it grows in many parts of Britain, upon dry, barren commons ; on hills, or in vallies, in open sandy plains, or in moist and close avoocIs, where it generally continues a Ioav shrub : but, if planted in a good soil, it will attain the height of 15 or 16 feet, and produce ^numerous branches. The juniper-tree rlTay be propa- gated by the berries, if they can be procured in a ripe state. It is remarkable, that no grass will grow beneath this shrub ; though the lat- vol. in. JUN 401 ter is said to be destroyed by the meadow-oat. Juniper-berries possess a strong, not unpleasant smell; and a Avarm, pungent, sweet taste ; which, on chewing, or previously well bruis- ing them, is succeeded by a bitter- ish flavour. They require two years before they ripen, and yield, on expression, a rich, SAveet, aro- matic juice, bearing some resem- blance to the taste of honey. These berries are useful carminatives ; for which purposes a spirituous water, and an essential oil, are prepared from them. The SAvedes eat them for breakfast, in the form of a con- serve....In Germany, they are fre- quently used as a culinary spice, and especially for imparting their flavour to sauer-kraut. The spirit impregnated with the essential oil of this fruit, is known by the name of Gin, to which we refer. According to Hoffman, a rob is prepared ofthe liquor remaining after the distillation of the oil: it is passed through a strainer, and gently exhaled to a due consistence. This he recommends as a medi- cine of great efficacy, in cases of impaired digestion and debility of the intestines ; it is also very ser- viceable to aged persons, labour- ing under diseases of the urinary passages. The rob is of a balsamic sweet taste, someAvhat bitter, ac- cordingly as the seeds have been more or less bruised. One of the best forms, however, is a simple Avatery infusion of the berries, or the tops, Avith the addition of a small quantity of gin : thus, a very useful medicine is obtained for dropsical patients. Linn.eus in- forms us, that the Laplanders are accustomed to drink such infusions as substitutes for tea and coffee. 3 F 402 JUN IV o The oil of juniper, when mixed Avith that of nuts, makes an excel- lent varnish for pictures, wood- Avork, and for preserving iron from rust. The Avood of the juniper-tree is of a reddish colour, very hard and durable: it is employed in mar- quetry and veneering; making cups, cabinets, Sec. Avhile the bark may be manufactured into ropes. The charcoal made from thiswood, affords the most durable heat, so that live embers are said to have been fouud in the ashes, after hav- ing been covered for 12 months. The resin of this plant (gum San- darach), when powdered and rub- bed into paper, is frequently used under the name of pounce........ Thrushes and grouse feed on the juniper-berries, and disseminate the seed in their dung. The sprouts are eaten by horses, sheep, and goats. In the " Transactions of the Eco- nomical Society of Peter sburgh, Mr. Alopaeus has published the fol- loAving facts relative to the more extens'rve utility of the juniper-tree in Finland. 1. The water used for brewing malt-liquors, is previously boiled with juniper-twigs ; Avhich are be- lieved to improve both the salubrity and flavour of the beer. 2. The leaves are employed for fumigating houses, Avith a vieAV to correct foul air, or expel pernicious vapours. 3. Milk-vessels are preferably made of juniper Avood, which is supposed to contribute to the pre- servation of milk in a SAveet state, and to render it more palatable..... When other Avoods are used for such vessels, they are, for the same purposes, washed with water in which juniper - twigs have been boiled. 4. Warm decoctions of this shrub are frequently given to cows, apd sometimes to sheep ; in order to enrich thj quality, and increase the quantity, of their milk. Lastly, juniper-berries are roast- ed, ground, and prepared in the manner of coffee, for which they are frequently substituted ; afford- ing an excellent palliative in calcu- lous and gouty complaints. From these berries may also be brewed a cheap, Avholesome, and well-fla- voured beer, by the following pro- cess, Avhich has but lately become generally known in Sweden : Let 30 lbs. of clean juniper-berries be pounded in a mortar (we suppose, without bruising the stones), and be put in a common mash tub, together Avith 2|- buckets of cold water ; suffering the whole to stand 24 hours. When the juice ofthe berries is sufficiently extracted, the liquor must be draAvn off, and boiled in a copper, being carefully skimmed during the ebullition. A due portion of hops is then to be boiled with a little of the wort; in- corporated Avith the Avhole; and, as soon as it becomes lukeAvarm, the yeast ought to be added in the usual manner. When the fermen- tation ceases, the beer should be poured into a barrel containing a little isinglass ; and carefully closed with a bung. Such beverage is very salubrious and aromatic ; but as it ferments more tardily than common malt liquor, it is apt to become soin*: hence, M. Alo- paeus advises only a small quan- tity to be brewed at a. time. IVORY, the tooth or tusk of an I vo IVY 40S elephant, growing on each side of his trunk, and somewhat resem- bling the shape of a horn. Ivory is much esteemed for its remarkable whiteness, its polish and beautiful grain. Dioscorides asserts, that if this substance be Ixnled with the root of mandrago- ras, for six hours, it may be ren- dered soft and flexible. By steep- ing small pieces of ivory in vine- gar, or any other acid, they be- come ductile, and may be preserv- ed in that state for a considerable time, by keeping them in common Avater. This hard substance may also be softened and whitened, by immersing it in a hot decoction made of red sage leaves, in double- distilled Avhite-wine vinegar, with the addition of a little quick-lime. P'or removing spots, the ivory should be laid in unslacked lime, and a small portion of water pour- ed on it, lest the heat be too intense, and the ivory scale, or become brittle. Others discharge the stains by merely steeping it for some time in strong lime-Avater. Ivory may be dyed green, either in a solution of copper or verdi- grease in aqua-fortis ; or by grind- ing together tAvo parts of verdi- grease and one of sal ammoniac, and dissolving them in strong white-wine vinegar. Farther, by employing four ounces of aqua re- gia, and one ounce of sal ammo- niac, a fine purple colour will be the result. Ivory, bone, horn, and other solid parts of animals, may be stained yellow, by previously boiling them in a solution of one pound of alum in two quarts of Avater; then im- mersing them for half an hour in a liquor prepared by boiling half a pound of turmeric in a gallon of r/ater, till it be reduced to three quarts, and afterwards plunging the coloured substance into alum Ava- ter. All bony matters may also be stained blue: they are first to be tinged Avith green, then dipped in a strong and hot solution of pearl- ashes. See also Bones, Tortoise- shell, and Wood. Ivory may be prepared as a ground for miniature-painting, by cleansing the leaves or plates, and rubbing them over with the juice of garlic, This method is prefer- ably recommended for remoA'ing its greasy quality, Avhich prevents the colours from fixing on the ground, and is said to be more useful than either soap or ox-gall. With respect to the medicinal properties of ivory, its shavings, like those of Hartshorn, may, by- boiling, be converted into a jelly, and possess similar restorative vir- tues. Ivory-black........See vol. i. p. 295. * IVY, the Common, or Hedera Helix, L. a native plant groAving in Avoods, hedges, and about old buildings : it flowers in the month of October. This plant Avas first brought to Europe from Canada, and has been long cultivated in the British gar- dens, chiefly for the purpose of co- vering Avails or buildings. It shoots almost 20 feet in one year, and gradually extends to the top of the highest building. It Is easily pro- pagated in autumn, by its trailing branches; and Avill thrive in almost any soil or situation ; so that in the following October it is fit to be transplanted to those places where it is destined to remain. The leaves of ivy possess a nau- seous taste, though in Germany they are employed as a specific in the atrophy of children. Among 404 IVY IVY the loAver class of people in Eng- land, they are applied to issues ; and the Scotch Highlanders pre- pare an ointment from the leaves, Avhich is much esteemed for the euro of burns. The berries are of a fine gold colour, and possess a slight degree of acidity : Avhen swallowed by children or adults, they occasion vomiting, diarrhoea, and profuse SAveating. The roots of this plant are employed by leather- cutters to Avhet their knives. Boh- mer informs us, that both the leaves and branches are useful in tanning. Apricots and peaches, when covered with ivy during the month of February, have been ob- served to bear abundant fruit....... Horses and sheep eat the common ivy, but it is totally refused by cows and goats. K K AL K AL KALE, the Sea, or Crambe, L. a genus of perennial plants com- prising three species, one of which is a native of Britain, namely, the maritime Cliff-kale, Sea-cabbage, or Sea Cole wort. It grows on sandy soils,near the sea-coast, and floAvers in the months of May and June. This plant is relished by horses, cows, goats, hogs, and sheep. It's young and tender leaves are boiled and eaten as cabbage ; but, Avhen full grown, they frequently occa- sion giddiness. The sea-kale is cultivated in many gardens as an esculent ve- getable. It is also reared in plea- sure-grounds, as a flowering peren- nial ; because the stalks divide into fine branching heads of flowers.... For either purpose, it is propagat- ed by seeds, soAvn in autumn or spring in any common light soil, in Avhich the plants are intended to remain. At the end of two years, they will produce shoots fit for use. and multiply exceedingly by the roots, which continue for many seasons. [The proper directions for cul- tivating sea-kale, Avere improperly given by the author Dr. W. under the head Cabbage. See vol. ii. p. 467.] KALENDAR, or Calendar, denotes either the distribution of time, accommodated to the pur- poses of life ; or a table or alma- nack, comprising the order of days, weeks, months, Sec. There are various systems of chronological computation, accord- ing to the different forms of the year, and the division of time adopted in particular countries; such as the Julian, Gregorian, and the new French kalendar. The Julian kalendar received its name from Julius Caesar, the reformer of the old Roman kalen- dar, and is divided into periods comprising four years ; the first K AL K A L 405 three of which are called common, and consist of 365 days ; the fourth has received the appellation of bis- sextile, or leap-year, and contains 366 days, on account of the six hours, which in the space of four years form a day, within a few mi- nutes, and thus, in the course of 134 years, render it necessary to subtract an intercalary day. For this reason, Pope Gregory XIII, with the advice of able ma- thematicians, appointed that the hundredth year of each century should have no bissextile, except- ing in every fourth century, on ac- count of the deficiency of eleven minutes in the six hours of Avhich a bissextile consists. This reformation, or the new style, as it is noAV termed, com- menced on the 4th of October, 1582, when ten days Avere omitted in the old kalendar; but that change was not introduced into Britain till it was enacted by the 24th Geo. II. c. 23, that the Gregorian compu- tation should be adopted; and it accordingly took place in the year 1752. The kalendar at present used by the French, Avas invented by Fabre d'Eglan tine, during the late re- volution. It commences Avith the autumnal equinox, and is divided into twelve months, each of which contains 30 days, and three de. cades, or periods often days : thus, a decade is a day of rest, similar to our Sunday. To the 12th month, or Fructidor, are added five super- numerary days called sanculottides: and that the reader may form some idea of the neAv French kalendar, Ave have annexed the following tables, in which the new and old methods of computation are placed in parallel lines: Years of Commencement the Gregorian Year. of the Septem- Republic. French Year. ber. 10 1801—02 1801 23 11 1802—03 1802 S. 23 12 1803—04 B. 1803 24 13 1804—05 1804 B. 23 14 1805—06 1805 23 15 1806—07 1806 S. 23 16 1807—08 B. 1807 24 17 1808—09 1808 B. -23 18 1809—10 1809 23 19 1810—11 1810 23 20 1811—12 B. 1811 S. 23 B. Signifies Bissextile, or Leap-Year....S. Sextile, or French Leap-Year. 406 K A L K AL By means of the next Table, the first day of each Month of the New French Kalendar, is made to correspond with that of the common Kalendar. |1. Vendemiuire, or Autumnal Month. 22 Septemb, 23 24 1. Brumaire, or Hazy- Month. 1. Frimaire, or Hoar-frost Month. 21 Novem. 22 ---- 1. Nivose, or Snow Month. 21 Decern. 22 ---- 1. Pluviose, or Rain Month. 20 January 21 ----' 22 ---- 1. Ventose, or Wind Month. 19 Feb. 20---- 21 ---- 1. Germinal, or Germinating Month. 21 March* 22 ---- * 23 ----- * 1. Floreal, or Flower Month. 20 April 21 ----- 22 ---- 1. Prairial, or Meadow Month. 20 May * 21 ____ * 22 ---- * 1. Messiaur, Harvest Mohih. 19 June 20 ---- 21 ---- i. Thermidor, or Hot Month. 19 July 20 ---- 21 ---- 1. FructiJor, or Fruit Month. 8 Aug. First Intercalery Day 17 Septem 18 ---- 19 ---- * When a Gregorian Leap-Year occurs, one day must be subtracted from all those days in the year _ which are marked with an asterisk. In the folloAving Table, the first day of each Month of the common Kalendar is arranged according to the first day of the French Ka- lendar ; and it deserves to be remarked, that when a Leap-Year occurs, one day must be superadded to each of the folloAvmg days. Commencement of the year in the foregoing Gre-gorian year. 1 January 1 February 1 March 1 April 22 September °3 12 Nivose 1 1 Pluviose 12 ---- ] 1 11 Ventose 10 ---- 9,---- 12 Germinal 11 ---- 10 24 10 1 May I June 1 July 1 August 12 Floreed 11 13 Prairial 13 Messidor 1° 14 Thermid. 1° 10 1 i 1 J 1 Septemb. 1 October 1 Novemb. 1 December 15 Fructid. 11 10 Venelem. 9 8 ---:-- 1 1 hrumair. 10 1 1 Frimaire 10 13 9 9 K AL K E L 407 The Monthly Reviewers,in their Journal for March 1797, observe that the new French year appears to astronomers better calculated than our OAvn, because its com- mencement forms a natural date in both the hemispheres, and its four quarter days coincide very nearly Avith the solstices and eciuinoxes. The French months, too, are of equal length; and divided regular- ly by their decades, Avithout a frac- tion ; by Avhich the remembrance of dates, circumstances, &c. is con- siderably promoted. In the con- clusion of their criticism, hoAvever, the Reviewers admit that the names are ill-adapted to the months, which are accommodated only to the climate of Paris: hence they are of opinion that these innova- tions, as well as those respecting weights and measures, ought to have been reserved for discussion in a congress for general pacifica tion. [KALMIA, a genus of native plants, of which there are certain- ly four species, viz. 1. K.latifolia,ox broad-leaved laurel, winter green, callico tree. This is the largest of all the species, growing to the height of seven or eight feet, and sometimes higher. The Avood is hard, compact, and is employed, by turners and joiners, in making work requiring such Avood. It also furnishes handles for scythes. The leaves are highly poisonous to horses, but deer, and the pheasant eat them with impunity. They how- ever, when eaten late in the winter by pheasants, once communicated a quality to the flesh of these birds, Avhich occasioned alarming symp- toms, in many persons, and the death of others Avho eat of them, during the latter end of the winter of 1790-91....An account of the fact as recorded by the Editor of this Avork, may be found in the New-York Med. Repository, vol. 1. 2. A', angustifolia, narrow leav- ed, or chvarf-laurel.....groAvs on sandy heaths, and dry, poor soils. Bees collect a deleterious honey from the floAvers of both species of this plant, which produces A'ery disagreeable symptoms in those Avho eat of it; as mentioned under article Bee. An ingenious experimental in- augural dissertation Avas publish- ed in Philadelphia in 1802, by Dr. Thomas, upon the above species of Kalmia ; from which it appears that the leaves of both abound Avith resin, but that the last is the most active of the tAvo. From the same dissertation Ave find, that a decoc- tion ofthe K. latifolia, prepared by putting one ounce of the leaves in eight ounces of Avater, and boiling it down to four ounces, cured a diarrhoea of eight Aveeks continu- ance. The close at first Avas thirty drops six times a day, but pro- ducing vertigo, it Avas diminished to four times a day. The itch was speedily cured by washing the parts with the decoction. The Scald head, Tinea Capitis, Avas also cured by anointing the head Avith an ointment made ofthe leaves and hog's fat. Dr. Barton bears testimony of the efficacy of this ointment in the Tinea. See "Collectionsfor a Materia Medica.K 3. K. Glauca of Aiton. 4. K. Eirsuta of Walter, or A''. ciliata of Bartram. The last is a na- tive of the Southern States.] KELP, a term used to denote a species of pot-ash, employed in glass manufactories for chrystalliz- ing the metal. Kelp consists of the calcined ashes of the sea-wrack and other 408 K E L KER plants groAving on the sea-shores, between high and Ioav Avater-mark. The preparation of this useful ar- ticle should be commenced in the spring; for, if the burning be de- layed till the harvest is far ad- vanced, the rainy season of autumn renders the process more tedious and difficult....To prepare the ma- terials for producing kelp, the sea- weeds should be cut with hooks or sickles; but the aspect of the shore, together with the time and rapidity ofthe tides, should be pre- viously ascertained. If the coast be level, the plants may be speedi- ly conveyed by horses and carts to the place where they are to be dried and burnt. On the contrary, when the shore is rugged, a strong rope should be laid at Ioav Avater, around the cut grass ; and, in order to increase the diameter of this rope, the longest sea-plants ought to be tAvisted round it. With the reluming tide, the Avhole spot thus surrounded will soon be set afloat, and the cut vegetables may be readily collected; for, as the water advances, they may be gradually dragged towards the shore, by means ofthe rope serving as a net. To facilitate their removal, one end ofthe cord should be draAvn through a ring, applied to the other end, and tightened so as to conti act the plants into a small bulk: thus, they may be easily moved along Avith the tide....After the herbage has reached the place of its destination, it must be dried in a manner simi- lar to hay ; coiled and stacked up for burning; proper care being taken to form the stacks, so as effectually to secure it from the rain. With respect to the burning or melting of kelp, a process very te- dious, and not strictly connected Avith domestic economy, the inqui- sitive reader may consult the 12th vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures; where it is minute- ly described. KENNEL, or Channel, gene- rally signifies a small cavity or hol- low for conducting Avater through the streets; but, in its present sense, it is peculiarly applied to denote a house or building for the reception of a pack of hounds. A kennel ought to be situated on an eminence, in a dry situation, and in the vicinity of a brook or running stream. The strictest cleanliness is necessary, both for promoting the health of hounds, and also to preserve their sense sufficiently acute: for this purpose, kennels should be well aired, and strewed Avith fresh straAV, to pre- vent the mange, or other infec- tious distemper. Mr. Beckford recommends these buildings to be erected in the vicinity of the man- sion; and, on their first establish- ment, to construct them of the re- quisite capacity; because every subsequent addition impairs their external appearance....Those read- ers Avho Avish to acquire farther in- formation on the management of the kennel, will meet Avith amuse- ment in Mr. B.'s Thoughts on Hunting; of which, Ave understand, a neAV edition will shortly appear. KERMES-M1NERAL, one of the best preparations of antimony, which is so termed from its close resemblance to the insect called Kermes, or Coccus ilicis, L....It is prepared by boiling together half a pound of crude antimony reduced to poAvder, and two pounds of pu- rified pot-ash in eight pints of pure Avater, for fifteen minutes; stirring the mixture Avith an iron spatula ; and then expeditiously filtering it KID KID 409 while it is hot. The liquor is iioav suffered to stand in a cool place, where it soon deposits a powder that ought to be repeatedly Avash- ed, first with cold, and afterwards with hot water, till it be complete- ly divested of its taste. This medicine was originally contrived by Glauber, whose suc- cessor sold the secret of preparing it to the French King; in conse- quence of which, it was published in 1720.....If judiciously admini- stered, kermes-mineral is a com- pound of great efficacy, on account of its exciting and evacuating pro- perties. According to the quantity that is taken, it will operate either as an emetic, purgative, sudorific, or expectorant; for it is equally attenuating and resolvent, especi- ally in disorders of the breast, pro- ceeding from obstructions. The particular doses of this powder are mentioned in the accounts of the different disorders in which it is recommended; but, in general, one grain only is prescribed for adults, to be taken every third or fourth hour. KEY, a Avell known instrument employed for opening Locks, of which Ave shall give some account under that article. Key also denotes an extensive Avharf for the convenience of load- ing and unloading goods on board of merchantmen....See Quay. KIDNEY-VETCH, Anthyllis, L. an indigenous biennial plant, comprisingseA'eralspeciesjofAvhich the vulneraria, or Lady's-finger, is the principal: it groAvs in meadows and pastures, in a chalky or calca- reous soil; produces yeliow floAvers from May to August, and its seeds ripen in October. In the cultivation of this vegeta- ble, no particular care is necessary, vol. in. farther than to keep it clean from weeds. It affords excellent pas- turage for sheep. Linn^cs re- marks that, when the kidney-vetch groAvs on a reddish clay soil, the blossoms present a red colour: but, in white clay-land, they are uni- formly white.....Although these flowers were formerly celebrated as vulnerary, yet Ave believe they might be more usefully employed as a dyeing material, and perhaps, as a substitute lor indigo; because, in a dry state, they acquire a blue colour. Country people obtain from them a fine yellow dye....The plant is relished by cows and goats. KIDNIES,in anatomy,are those two viscera which separate the urine of animals. They are situ- ated in the loAver part of the cavity of the abdomen, on each side of the vertebra of the loins, between the last false rib and the hip-bones. The right kidney lies beneath th^ great lobe ofthe liver; and the left, under the spleen: they are gene- rally about five inches in length, three inches broad, and one inch and a half thick, in adults. Their excretory ducts are called ureters, or canals Avhich convey the urine into the bladder. The kidnies of animals are, in general, tough, acrid, and difficult of digestion: hence they ought not to be eaten by persons of a delicate habit, or of a sedentary life. Those of calves, lambs, and other young animals, may hoAvever be used Avith safety ; as they afford a more palatable and congenial food. Inflammation of the Kidnies, or A'ephritis, a painful affection of these parts, attended Avith a fre- quent discharge of Avater, Avhich is either thin and colourless, or very red ; with vomiting, coldness of the extremities, difficulty of breathing, 3 G 410 KID KIN numbness of the thigh, and other febrile symptoms. The remote causes of this in- flammatory disease are, stony con- cretions, external contusions, vio- lent or long continued riding, strong diuretic medicines, such as the spi- rit of turpentine, Sec....The more immediate causes, are the same as induce other local inflamma- tions. Cure: In this, as in similar com- plaints, bleeding is the first reme- dy to be resorted to, especially by means of leeches. It -will also be advisable to apply cloths immersed in hot Avater and wrung out, as nearly to the part affected as the patient can bear, and to reneAV them as often as they grow cool. Emollient clysters are also to be frequently administered; and the same treatment must be adopted, as has been already pointed out un- der the article Inflammation. Should these remedies fail to afford relief, and the numbness of the part affected, together Avith the other symptoms, continue to in- crease, a suppuration will imme- diately ensue. In this disease, the patient must avoid all acrid, sour, and salted provisions, and subsist entirely on mild, mucilaginous ve- getables. Butter-milk, if used to a considerable extent, has been found of excellent service, and in some cases, even proved a specific re- medy for ulcerated kidneys. Goats' milk, and the balsams of Copaiva, or Canada, have been recommended as eminently useful.....Those per- sons who are liable to frequent re- turns of inflammation, or obstruc- tions, of the kidneys, ought rigidly to abstain from Avines, and all ar- dent spirits ; their food should be of the lightest kind, and easy of digestion : they must likewise not attempt to lie on feather-beds, or be covered too warm ; never sleep on their back; and carefully take daily, though moderate, exercise. KILDERKIN,a liquid measure, consisting of two firkins; and two kilderkins make a barrel......See FlItKIN. KILN, a stove used in various manufactures. It also denotes a building for the admission of heat, in order to dry or burn certain ma- terials deposited in such an edifice. See Brick, Malt, and Lime. In 1796, a patent Avas granted to Mr. J. Pepper, of Newcastle- under-Line, for his invention of a kiln, for the purpose of drying malt or other grain. As, however, the ingenious inventor's plan Avould be understood only by architects, or builders, the curious reader will resort to the 5th vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts, &c. where it is illus- trated Avith two engravings. KING-FISHER, or Alcedo, L. a genus of birds frequenting every quarter of the Avorld, and compris- ing numerous species; the prin- cipal of which is the ispida, or com- mon king-fisher. This bird is about the size of a SAvallow; of a clumsy shape; and the bill disproportionately long.... But the great beauty and variety of its plumage amply atone for its inelegant form. The croAvn of its head, and the coverts of its Avings, are of a deep blackish green, spot- ted Avith a bright azure tint; the back and tail exhibit the most re- splendent shades: the Avhole inte- rior side of the body is of an orange cast; and the tail, consisting of twelve feathers, presents a rich deep blue. When flying, in a bright clay, the plumage of this bird exhi- bits a variety of the most dazzling colours. KIT KIT 411 The female king-fisher constructs her nest in holes scooped out ofthe sides of cliffs, to the depth of three feet; and deposits from five to nine eggs, of a semi-transparent white. She begins to lay early in the sea- son, and excludes her first brood about the month of April; as the period of incubation does not ex- ceed twenty days. While she is brooding, the male plentifully sup- plies her with fish; and, unlike most other birds, the female in that season is muscular and plump. King-fishers are the most rapa- cious little animals that skim the deep; and, though of diminutive size, they devour almost incredible numbers offish. Hence, their flesh is unfit to be eaten; but their beau- tiful plumage retains its lustre longer than that of any other bird. KINO, a gummy resinous sub- stance, exuding from incisions made in a tree called Pau de San- gue, a native of the inland parts of Africa, but of Avhich there is no botanical account. From its sensible qualities, and also by its striking a black colour Avith a solution of green vitriol, this drug is remarkably astringent. It Avas first recommended by Dr. Fothergill, and is noAV often pre- scribed in diarrhoeas, fluxes, &c. It affords an extract both in spirits and in water, but is more generally given in the form of a tincture, from one to two tea-spoonfulls, three or four times in 24 hours. KITCHEN, an apartment or room destined for the dressing of provisions, and preparing them for the table. In 1794, a patent Avas granted to Mr. G. Stratton, for an im- proved kitchen-range, or stove, Avith an apparatus for" the prevention of smoky chimnies. His invention is stated to be an improvement upon fire-places, by Avhich great heat may be obtained from a small fire; by means of flues, connected either with the front, sides, back, or bottom of such grates, as occasion may require : it farther contains a contrivance for the immediate extinguishing of fire in chimnies. We refer the reader for particulars to the specification, given in the first volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, Avhere it is illustrated with an engraving. A patent Avas likewise granted in 1780, to Mr. Brodie, for his invention of a shipis kitchen, includ- ing a -stove, hearth, smoke-jack and iron boilers. These contriv- ances, however ingenious, are not connected with domestic economy; and the curious reader will find them detailed in the 7th vol. of the work before quoted. [The very great improvements lately made by our countryman Count Rumford, in the Science of Cooking ; deserve a particular no- tice in an American edition of a work, expressly compiled for the purpose of increasing our knoAv- ledge of domestic economy. Hence the Editor has been at the pains to condense the most important mat- ter on the subject, which is diffused through two thick octavo volumes; and also introduce cuts of some of the kitchen utensils, which from the simplicity of their construction, are most liable to meet Avith ap- probation in the United States. Some general observations shall first be made. 1. Count Rumford has fully shewn, that, water just on the point of boiling, is as hot as it can possi- bly be made in an open vessel; that 412 KIT KIT consequently all the fuel used in making it boil Avith violence, is Avastech Avithout adding a single de- cree to the heat of the water, or o 7 expediting the process of cooking a single instant; and that it is by he.at, its intensity, and duration, that the food is cooked, and not by the boiling*. 2. Food, long and violently boil- ed, is rendered much less savoury, in consequence of the finer and more volatile parts being carried off in the steam rising therefrom, and is also less nourishing. 3. 26-i lbs. of dry pine wood are required to heat 300 lbs. of Avater, and 100 lbs of beef, (both at the temperature of 55) boiling hot, and 3 lbs. more of Avood to keep the Avhole boiling three hours : in all, equal to ■£ of a peck of pit coal. Count Rumford objects, 1st. to the kitchen ranges of England, (and he might include with great prop riety our wood-devouring wide- throated chimnies.) 2. To the iron ovens, and boilers heated by lateral Hues, and 3. To smoke-jacks : both of which are creeping into use here, just as they are exploded in Eng- land 1 He prefers common jacks, as being less troublesome, less ex- pensive, and not so liable to get out of order, or to make the kitchen smoke, and lays down the following objects to be had in vieAV, in at- tempting to improve kitchen fire- places. 1. In general, the boiler, kettle, and steAvpan, should have its sepa- * An attention to the regularity of heat is of great consequence, not only in cook- ing, but also in various arts requiring much heat. The success of many processes de- pends .ipon it.....Editor. rate closed fire-place; its separate grate, on which the fuel must be placed; and separate ash pit, closed by a well fitted door; furnished with a register in the middle of this door, for regulating the admis- sion of air ; and a separate canal with a damper, for carrying the smoke into the chimney. The ca- nal may open into the chimney about a foot above the level of the mantle. 2. In the fire-places for all boil- ers and stewpans, which are more than eight or ten inches in diame- ter ; or Avhich are too large to be easily removed with their contents, with one hand ; an horizontal open- ing, just above the leA'el of the grate, must be made, for introduc- ing the fuel into the fire-place: Avhich opening must be nicely clos- ed by a fit stopper, or by a double door. In the fire-places for small steAvpans, this opening may be omitted, and the fuel may be intro- duced through the same opening, into Avhich the stewpan is fitted. 3. All portable boilers and steAV- pans, should be circular, and be suspended by their circular rims. Fixed boilers should be an oblong square, to permit the free repairs of flues; and all boilers rather broad and shallow, than narrow and deep. 4. All boilers should have co- vers, made of tinned iron, of the form of a holloAV cone, as in the annexed cut. KIT KIT 413 The height of the cone to be one third its diameter; and the bottom closed by a circular plate, or thin sheet of tinned iron ; and fitted to the top of the boiler; which is to be completely closed by means of a rim, about two inches wide, and made to enter the boiler, and soldered to the flat sheet of tinned iron, which formed the bottom of the cover. The steam to be carried off by a tube one half inch in diameter, passing through the cover, and projecting \ an inch above the top, and sol- dered above and below, in such a manner, that the air in the cone may remain completely confined. The same fire-place may serve occasionally for seA'eral boilers or stewpans. But those used in the same closed fire-place, must be of the same diameter, and of different depths : and have their diameters marked on their handles or brims, or covers , these fire-places also should be marked with the same number: and to guard against mis- takes respecting the sizes of uten- sils, and the fire-places to Avhich they belong : the difference of the diameters of two boilers or stew- pans should never be less than one ivhole inch. In some they have been made of 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 inches in dia- meter ; and |, |, and § their dia- meters in depth. The boilers should be placed near the chimney, and in general, in one range, or rather in one mass of brick work. The distance of fit- ting up or settingboilers and sauce- pans, may be taken at a Avidth of a brick or 4| inches ; and the same space alloAved for the distance of the side of the boiler, from the out- side or fronts of the mass of the brick work. The readiest way of proceeding in making a plan of the kitchen machinery, is, to form it on the plan of the room ; and having set- tled the places of the boilers, to trace on this plan, a ground plan ofthe Avhole ; and a sufficient num- ber of sections and elevations should be drawn to shew the situations, forms and dimensions of the fire- places, and of all the other parts of the apparatus. The ash pits are first to be sunk, the ash doors placed, and the foun- dations of the brick-AVork laid. The separate closed fire-places under iron ovens or roasters, must be made very small, otherwise the cook Avill make the fire too large : and it is a great fault to overload the fire-place Avith fuel, especially Avhen the fire is first kindled. The fire-place must be situated directly under the oven or boiler. The fuel should be burnt upon a grate in the form of a segment of a hollow sphere, or of a dish, that the solid pieces of the inflam- ed fuel may fall together in the cen- tre of the fire-place, without any assistance. As to the size of the grate, make it's diameter equal to half the diameter of the boiler at the brim. See the following figures. 414 KIT KIT When wood issued, it must be cut into lengths of six inches. When the fire-place is closed on all sides by a wall, and Avhen the opening by which the fuel is intro- duced, is kept closed; no air can press in laterally upon the fire; but yet, Avhen tbe grate is larger than the heap of burning fuel, which must often be the case, a great quantity of air may insinuate itself by the sides of the grate into the fire-place, without going thro' the fire : but when, instead of an iron grate, a perforated hollow earthen pan is used, by making the bottom of the pan, two, three, or four inches, and making all the air holes point to one common cen- tre, (to the focus or centre of the fire) this furtive entrance of cold air into the fire-place, will, in a great measure, be prevented. These holes ought to be smaller above than below, to prevent their being choaked. This evil may be also preA'ented, when circular hollow iron grates are used ; by narrowing the fire-place immediately under the grate, in the form of an inverted, truncated hollow cone, the open- ing or diameter of which, above, be- ing equal to the internal diameter of the circular rim of the grate, and that below (by which the air rises to enter the fire-place) about one-third of that diameter. See the cut p. 413. This opening be- low, through which the air rises, must be immediately under the centre of the grate, and as near to it as possible : care must be taken, however, that a small space be left between the outside or underside of the iron bars which form the hol- low grate, and the inside surface of this inverted holloAv cone, in order that the ashes may slide doAvn in the ash pit. These directions are more peculiarly applicable to fire- places of a moderate size. The construction of the ash pit door with it's register, maybe un- derstood from the folloAVing figures. KIT KIT 415 The above is a front view of the and the small circular plate (as door with it's register. The whole large as an half crown) in the cen- is constructed of sheet-iron, except/ tre ofthe register, which are made the narrow pieces at the four cor- of brass, on account of that metal ners, which hold down in its place not being so liable to rust as the circular plate of the register, iron. The above cut represents the it, by which the other parts of the plate of sheet-iron, which forms the machinery are fixed to it. front ofthe door, Avith the holes in The above represents the circu- doors, and in general, all iron doors lar plate which forms the register : for fire-places ; the flat surface of to this plate is fixed a projecting the inside of the door should mere- knob, or button, by which it is turn- ly shut doAvn on the front edge of ed about. the door frame, or lie against it, Iu constructing these register touching in all its parts. This 416 KIT KIT edge, by grinding it on the flat sur- face of a stone, should be made level to receive it: doors fitted in rabbits orgrooA'es,are troublesome. When the heat is very intense, the frame of the door should be made of fire stone, [or soap-stone cut edgewise,the necessityof which Avas stated under article Fire- place.] And that part of the door exposed to the fire, should be co- vered, either with a fit piece of fire- stone, fastened to it with clamps of iron; or a sufficient number of strong nails, with long necks and flat heads ; or of staples, being driv- en into that side of the plate of iron which forms the door exposed: that side of it should be covered with a body about two inches thick, of strong clay mixed with a due portion of coarse powder of pound- ed crucibles; which mass Avill be held in its place by the heads of the nails, and by the projecting staples. This mass being put on wet, and gently dried, the cracks being carefully filled up as they appear, and the Avhole well beaten together into a solid mass, will, when properly burned on by the heat of the fire, form a covering, Avhich will effectually defend it from all injury from the fire : and be very lasting. The contrivance for closing the doors for the introduction of fuel, most approved of, is a tile with a conical hole in its centre, 6 inches in diameter externally, and 51 inches diameter within, provided with a fit baked earthen stopper. The annexed cuts will give an idea of their forms. The doors of closed fire-places, if constructed of sheet-iron, must be double, or be covered on the out- side Avith a pannel of Avood. By a double door, is meant, one door constructed of two sheets or plates of iron, placed parallel to each other; and so constructed, that the air Avhich is between the two plates may be shut up and confined. The plates must not touch except at their edges, in order to their being fastened together: they need not hoAvever be more than one inch, or one inch and a half asunder..... One of the plates may be quite flat, and the other a little convex. The end ofthe oven must be made quite flat, or level, so as to be perfectly closed by a flat surface placed against it. The door is that flat surface; and the greatest care must KIT KIT 417 be taken, that it apply with accu- racy, or touch the end ofthe oven in every part, when pressed against it, to prevent the escape of heated air. In constructing closed fire-places for kitchens, I have found it to be a good general rule, to make the distance between the fire-place door, and the hither end of the bars of the grate, just equal to the width of the fire-place, measured just above the bars. In fire-places of moderate size, where double doors are used, it will suffice, if.the dis- tance from the hinder side of the inner door, to the hither end ofthe bars, be made equal to the width of a brick, or 4 -I inches; but if the door be not double, it is necessary that the length ofthe passage from the door, into the place occupied by the burning fuel, should be at least six or seven inches. In setting the iron frame of the door of all closed fire-places, care should be taken to mask the metal, by setting the bricks before it in such a manner, that no part of the frame may be seen, (if I may use that expression)by the fire. Other- wise the frame of the door will be heated ; it's form destroyed by the frequent expansion and contraction of the metal; the frame of the brick-work loosened, and air ad- mitted over the fire, between the frame and the brick-Avork, and like- wise between the frame and it's door, which will no longer fit each other. A good idea of the general plan adopted by Count Rumford, in con- structing his kitchen apparatus ; may be formed from the annexed cut of that of baron Lerchenfi eld at Munich, Avhich the Count ac- knowledges to be the completestof any he ever caused to be construct- ed. Every man may accommodate this plan to his own kitchen, and to his own Avants. VOL. III. 3 H 78�105 1�41746396103 45 418 K I T KIT The mass of brick-work projects flues, that carry off the smoke from into the room, and the smoke is the boilers, stew-pans, and sauce- carried off by flues concealed in pans, into the vertical canals, which this brick-work, and in the thick convey it into the chimney. The walls of an open chimney fire-place smoke from three of the principal which standing on it, on the farther boilers, situated on the left hand, side of it, where it joins to the side is carried by separate canals to a of the room, is built up perpendi- circular cavity, over Avhich a large cularly to the ceiling of the room, shallow boiler is placed, in Avhich At the height of about twelve or water is heated, (by this smoke), for fifteen inches above the level of the the use of the kitchen. This boiler mantle of this open chimney fire- has a Avooden cover, consisting of place, the separate canals for the three pieces of thin flat board uni- smoke concealed in it's Avails, end ted by tAvo pairs of hinges. * in the larger canal of this fire-place: The five fire-places on the left which last-mentioned larger canal hand sideof the mass of brick Avork, slopingbackwards, ends in a neigh- have doors or openings, closed bouring chimney, Avhich carries off Avith stoppers, for introducing fuel the smoke through the roof of the into these fire-places, and three of house into the atmosphere. The these openings are represented in canals are cleansed by means of a the plan as being closed by their strong cylindrical brush, of hog's stoppers, while the fourth (that bristles fixed to a long flexible situated on the right hand) is shoAvn handle of twisted iron Avire. open, or without its stopper. The above cut shews an hori- As all the rest of the fire-places, zontal section of the mass of brick being Avithout any lateral openings, work in which the boilers are set, when any fuel is to be introduced, taken at the level of the horizontal the stew-pan or sauce-pan must * In the Kitchen of the Military Academy at Munich, he added this contrivance....One of the three pieces of flat board forming the cover, is fastened down to the Avooden rim of the boiler, by means of tAvo small hooks of iron; and from the middle of this part ofthe cover, a long tin tube, about 1 A inches in diameter, rises up perpendicularly to the ceil- ing of the room, and carries off the steam from the boiler out of the kitchen.. In the kitchen of Baron L. a steam tube with a register rises from the ceiling of the room, ends in the open air, and is always opened to clear the room of any vapour. In the Public House of Industry at Munich, the steam was carried up into rooms over the kitchen, Avhere it passed through a spiral Avorm placed in a cask of cold Avater, which was thus Avarmed, and made use of the next"day for filling the boilers. That this water might not be cooled during the night, the cask containing it was put into another cask still larger; and the space between the two casks was filled Avith coal...... [Charcoal or ashes will answer; both these sbustancesbeing bad conduct- ors of heat...Edit.]......These hints may be very usefully improved, and actbd upon, on various occasions in domestic life. KIT be removed for a moment for that purpose. It Avill be observed, that seA'eral of the horizontal caqals that carry off the smoke from the boilers, are divided into tAvo branches, Avhich unite at a little distance from their fire-places ; this contrivance is ve- ry useful, as it occasions the flame to divide under the bottom of the boiler, and to play over every part of it a thin sheet. The reason Avhy flues were not made under these boilers, Avas, to render it possible to use occasion- ally several boilers of different depths in the same fire-place; a convenience of no small import- ance. Circular flues prevent this convenience, though they econo- mise fuel. They will be rendered unneces- sary, provided that the flame be made to divide under the bottom of the vessel, (which may be done by causing it to enter the horizon- tal canal by two opposite openings), and provided that this canal be » furnished with a good damper, AVHICH OUGHT NEVER TO BE OMITTED. The dotted lines leading from the front of the brick work to the fire-places, sheAV the position and dimensions of the ash-pit. The whole length of the mass of brick work from A to B is ele- ven feet, and its width, from A to C, is seven feet four inches. The space it occupies on the ground may be conceived to consist of six equal squares of forty-four inches square each : these tAvo i-oavs being joined to each other by their sides, and forming together a parallelo- gram. And in laying out the Avork, when a kitchen is to be fitted up on the plan here described, it will KIT 419 always be best to begin by actually- drawing these six squares on the floor of the kitchen. Nearly the whole of the middle square of the back row is occupied by the open chimney fire-place, and the greater part of the middle square of the front row, is left as a passage for the cook to come to the open chim- ney fire-place. All the boilers, steAv-pans, and sauce-pans, are fitted into circular rings of iron, which are firmly fix- ed to the brick Avork; and are sus- pended in their fire-places by their circular rims. Large boilers have two rings fitted to their rims. Deep boilers economise space, and when furnished with good re- gisters and dampers, the additional quantity of fuel they require, will be too trifling to be considered. Common bricks were used in the construction of the firefplaces, but care was taken to lay them in mortar composed of clay and brick- dust, without any sand, with only a very small proportion of lime. Dampers are essentially neces- sary in the chimney or canal by Avhich the smoke is carried off.... These dampers should be opened more or less, as the quantity of air is greater or less, Avhich is ad- mitted into the fire-place. The register and damper will also be found useful in putting out the fire Avhen not wanted. It is of little importance Avhether the dampers be placed near the fire, or far from it; or what is their form; provided they be so constructed, as to dimi- nish at pleasure, and to close en- tirely the canal by Avhich the smoke makes its escape." * A piece of sheet-iron is the simplest damper we can use......Fdiior. 420 KIT Of the Construction of Kifcmn: Utensils. Iron is certainly the best and safest metal for all Kitchen Uten- sils....The insides should not be scoured, as they are thereby dis- posed to rust: but merely washed out and rinsed Avith Avarm Avater, and Aviped with a dry dish-cloth; the surface of the metal will soon be- come covered with a thin crust or coating of a dark brown colour, re- sembling enamel; which covering, if suffered to remain, and to con- solidate, will at last become so hard, as to take a very good polish, and defend the surface from fur- ther corrosion; and consequently to prevent the food from acquiring that taste and colour, which iron is apt to impart to it. Iron utensils designed for fry- ing, or cooking in fat, must never have hot Avater put in them. But when washed out, must be Avell Aviped Avithadry cloth before they are put away. The most Avholesome material for steAV-pans and sauce-pans, is earthen ware, glazed Avitb salt.... [See article Pottery.] But the application of sudden heat and sud- den cold, must be avoided, as it Avill crack. The globular form is the strongest, and the thinner the uten- sil is made, consistent with strength, the better it will be. The handles of sauce-pans should be rivetted to their insides, and the cover so contrived, as to fit the opening of the sauce-pan, by mak- ing a notch in one side of it to re- ceive that part of the handle Avhich is in the way. But when new pans are to be constructed, a circular rim of iron, flat on the underside, should be provided for each sauce- pan, with a handle belonging to it, of the form here represented: JCIT And by forming this sauce-pan to its rim, its form at its brim will be circular, within and without, kept more easily clean, and rendered more durable, by reason of there being no iron rivetts to be acted upon by the copper of the pan.... The circular plate of tin, or of thin sheet copper tinned, Avhich forms the bottom of the cover, should be ofthe same diameter precisely, as the outside of the brim ofthe sauce- pan....The bottom ot the cover may either be made quite flat, concave, conical, or concave and of a spheri- cal figure. The handle of the sauce-pan should be bended up- wards, so as to be above the level ofthe brim ofthe sauce-pan; other- Avise, Avhen the utensil is in its place, there A\'ould not be room between the handle and the sur- face of the brick-Avork, for the fin- gers to pass in taking hold of the KIT KIT 421 handle to remove the sauce-pan. represents the section of a sauce- This is evident from a bare inspec- pan, fitted into its fire-place, tion of the folloAving figure, which Of the management of the fire in heating an iron oven. The strong draught into a well constructed fire-place, renders it necessary to keep the fire-place door constantly closed, and to leave but a small opening for the pas- sage of the air through the ash-pit register. The fire-place should be small, and particularly the grate on Avhich the fuel burns. For an oven or roaster of sheet-iron from eighteen to tAventy inches wide, and from 34 to thirty inches long, and from tAvelve to fifteen inches high, the fire-place should never be more than six inches wide, six inches deep, and about nine, or at most ten inches long: the grati should be placed twelve inches beloAV the oven, and this fire-place should seldom be half filled with coals. If the oven, or roaster (which see)be set in a man- ner thattheflameor smoke from the fire spread round it on every side, there will be no want of heat for any of the common purposes of cookery, and its intensity may al- ways be regulated by means of the damper in the chimney, and the register in the ash-pit door. It is of great importance to cause the smoke that heats the oA'en, to descend at least as Ioav as the level of the bottom of the oven, after it has passed round and over it, be- fore it is permitted to rise up free- ly and escape by the chimney in- to the atmosphere. The oven will thus retain its heat for a great length of time. More effectually to prevent the fire from operating 4452 122 KIT with too much violence, upon any one part of the bottom ofthe oven, the brick-work may be sloped out- wards and upAvards on every side from the top of the burning fuel, to the extreme parts of the sides and ends ofthe bottom ofthe oven, that the Avhole of the bottom may be exposed to the direct rays from the fire. In some cases the flame passes up both sides, and then de- scends by the end to the level of its bottom, or rather beloAV it; and passes off backAvard and fonvards in horizontal canals by the sides of the oven, before permitted to go off into the chimney. Either of these methods will ansAver, pro- vided the smoke be made to de- scend, after it has left the top of the oven, as above, and provided the smoke canal be furnished with a damper. In setting an oven, provision should be made, by leaA-ing holes, to be stopped upAvith stoppers, for cleaning out all the canals in which the smoke circulates; these canals must never be less than two inches Avide; and Avhere they are not more than four or five inches deep, they should be from three to four inches Avide, otherwise they will be very often choaked up Avith soot. Holes closed Avith stoppers, must also be left in the brick-Avork, for cleaning the flues. The fire-place for an oven of the smallest size should be nearly as capacious as one which is de- stined for heating a much larger oven; and I have found by repeat- ed experiments, that a nest of four small ovens, set together, and heat- ed by the same fire, -will require but very little more fuel to heat them than Avould be necessary to heat one of them, Avere it set alone. KIT A cottage oven eleven inches Avide, ten inches high, and sixteen inches long, will require a lire- place five inches wide, five inches high, and seven inches long: and for four of these ovens, set together in a nest, the fire-place need not be more than six inches wide, six inches high, and eight inches long. I have in my house tAvo iron ovens, each eighteen inches Avide, fourteen inches high, and twenty- four inches long, set one over the other, and heated by the same fire ; and their fire-place is only six inches Avide, six inches high, and nine inches long. Having been thus particular in detailing the important principles respecting the economy of fire ; and the arrangement of the kitchen apparatus of Count Rumford ; the reader must be referred to the ar- ticles Oven and Roaster for ad- ditional information upon this in- teresting subject.] KITCHEN-GARDEN, a piece of ground laid out for the cultiva- tion of fruit, herbs, pulse, and other culinary vegetables. A kitchen-garden ought to be situated on one side of the house, adjoining to the stable, Avhence the dung nfay be easily conveyed into the inclosure. As soon as the wall is built, Miller directs a border to be formed beneath it, from 8 to 10 feet in breadth, on which, if in a southern aspect, the earlier plants may be raised. On those borders which are exposed to the north, some late crops may be ob- tained ; but no pease, beans, or other deep-rooted plants, should be set too near the fruit-trees. The ground is next to be divided into quarters, the size of which ought to be proportioned to the ex- KIT KIT 425 tent of the garden : because, if important points in this, as welt as these divisions be too small, the every other branch of horticulture^ soil Avill be Avasted in Avalks ; and consist in digging and manuring as the quarters are generally in- the land well; in alloAving a proper closed by espaliers of fruit-trees, distance to each plant, according to the vegetables which may be plant- its different growth ; and, particu- ed there, will not thrive for want larly, in eradicating all Aveeds; an of sufficient exposure. The Avalks object that will be considerably fa- should, therefore, be proportioned cilitated by continually extirpating to the size of the ground; and in them from the dunghill; as, others a small garden, they ought not to wise, their seeds or roots will be exceed 8 feet; or, if it be a large constantly introduced into the gar- one, from 12 to 14 feet in breadth, den, and propagated with the ma- It will also be advisable to place a nure. border, 3 or 4 feet Avide, betAveen Another circumstance of equal such walk and the espalier, in importance, is the watering qfgar- which may be sown small salads, dens, for Avhich the implements or any similar vegetables, that do commonly employed appear to be not take deep root, or continue long very inadequate. The filling, and in the ground. These quarters, carrying, of these vessels to the hoAvever, ought not to be planted, spot Avhere they are to be used,are or sown, for raising the same crops attended with great labour and loss two successive years; and the of time. To remedy these incon- warmest soil, or that Avhich is next veniencies,different machines have to the stable, Avhere it is best shel- been invented : one of the most tered from the cold Avinds, will be ingenious and useful, is that con- the most proper for hot-beds, to trived by M. Sylvestre, and of promote the growth of early cu- Avhich the following is an accurate cumbers, melons, kc. The most representation: 424 K N A It consists simply of a cask, ca- pable of holding a sufficient quan- tity of water, for the purpose of irrigating the garden. The hinder part of this vessel is furnished with a cock that communicates with the watering pipes, and the cask is sup- ported on a strong frame, with one or two wheels, calculated for walks about 18 inches wide. The carriage may be drawn by a mule or an ass, and requires a person to guide the animal; to support the vessel Avhen it is liable to be overturned ; and to open and shut the cock as often as is necessary. Thus, one man will be able to water a considerable space of ground in a short time, and to sprinkle that fertilizing fluid in an equable and regular manner. KNAWELL, or Scleranthus, L. a genus of plants comprising three species, one of which is a native of Britain; viz. the annuus, Annual Knawell, or German Knot-grass, which grows in sandy soils and corn-fields ; flowers in the months of July and August. The SAvedes and Germans intro- duce occasionally the steam arising from a decoction of the knawell into their mouths, with a vieAv to cure the tooth-ach. Its SAveetish leaves are astringent. Goats and sheep eat this plant, but coavs to- tally refuse it. - Knee-grass. See Rough Pa- nick-grass. KN I KNEE-HOLLY, or Ruscus, L. a genus of plants, consisting of se- veral species, one of Avhich is in- digenous, namely, the aculeatus, Common Knee-holly, Butchers'- Broom, or Prickly Pettigree. It grows in Avoods, thickets, and hedges ; floAvers in the months of May and June. This plant is much used by butchers, for brooms to sweep their blocks. Branches of it are likewise employed by hucksters, to defend their bacon and cheese from -mice ; because these vermin cannot pene- trate through the prickly leaves.... The root of the knee-holly is re- puted to be aperient, and is chiefly used in diet-drinks, for removing slight obstructions of the viscera, and promoting the fluid secretions. [KNIFE-BOARD. A common knife-board covered with thick buff- leather, on which are put, emery one part, Crocus Mortis three parts in very fine poAA'der, mixed into a thick paste Avith a little lard or SAveet-oil, and spread on the leather the thick- ness of a quarter-dollar, gives a far superior polish and edge to knives, and it does not Avear the knife near so much as the com- mon method of using brick-dust on board. These buff-leather boards are sold in London ready made.] Knot-beuries. See Cloud- berry. L. LAB LABDANUM, or Ladanum, a resinous juice exuding from the Cistus creticus, L. a native of the Levant, whence it is imported.... The best sort, (which is extremely rare even in Turkey), consists of very dark-coloured, soft masses, and almost liquefies, when held in the hand: it emits an agreeable odour, especially while burning, and has a slightly pungent, bitter- ish taste....This medicinal drug is chiefly used externally, for atte- nuating and discussing tumors. [LABORATORY, is an essen- tial part of the farm establishment. In this house, all the operations, which are too commonly perform- ed in the kitchen, to the great dan- ger of those present, may be safely attended to. An important use to which this house may be ap- plied, is, that of smoking the meat hanging on cross-beams above, with the smoke from the fire be- low : For this purpose, there should be dampers of sheet-iron through the flue of the chimney, and holes of the size of a brick edgAvise left for the smoke to issue. When the vol. in. LAB smoke is not wanted, these may be easily stopped.] LABOUR, in a general sense, implies the exertion of human strength in the performance of any kind of work. The price of labour has, at all times, varied; and, as the poorer classes feel, Avith additional rigour, every evil arising from the pressure of the times, different expedients have been devised, Avith a view to alleviate their burthens, supply their wants, and render then* more comfortable. From these investigations, it ap- pears that, in the middle of the fourteenth century, [in England,] the usual price of labour was 2d. per day; and wheat was sold at from 3s. Ad. to 4s. per quarter, of eight bushels. In the middle of the fifteenth century, the pay of a labourer per day, was 3d.; and wheat cost from 5s. to 5s. 6d. per quarter. In the earlier part of the six- teenth century, the price of labour rose to 3^d, and that of a quarter of Avheat to 7*. 6d. About the 3 I 426 LAB LAC middle of the seventeenth century, the pay of a labourer, upon an ave- rage, was (in Essex) 13d.; and corn had risen to 40s. per quarter. Toward the latter end of the eighteenth century, the daily pay of a labourer Avas from \4d. to \8d. in the country, and from 2s. to 2s. 6d. in the metropolis; Avhile the price of Avheat Avas 48s. per quar- ter....We forbear to state the ave- rage pay of labour during the late exorbitant prices of grain, and eve- ry other article of food; when all proportion betAveen merit and re- ward appeared to have been sus- pended. The payment of daily wages, however, serves but imperfectly to ascertain the real price of labour; as a considerable portion of work is performed by the piece ; so that a labourer in general earns from 3d. to 6d. per day more than by the common pay. For, Avithout this, or some similar method, the reward of labour Avould be inade- quate to the maintenance of those numerous persons, Avho possess no other means of providing for their infirm Avives, or hapless children. And Ave conceive, that if their wages could be so regulated as to rise and fall with the price of wheat, considerable benefit would thus result to society. The curious and philanthrophic reader, avIio feels an interest in this popular inquiry, will be fully grati- fied by a perusal of Mr. Davies' Case of Labourers in Husbandry stated and considered, &c. (4to. pp. 200, 10s. 6d. Robinsons, 1795), and SirF. M. Eden's State of the Poor, &c. (3 vol. 4to. 3/. 3s. White, 1797), in Avhich the situation of the labouring classes is clearly de- veloped. LABURNUM, the Bkoad- leafed, Cytisus laburnum, L. a valuable exotic tree, introduced from the Alps, into the Highlands of Scotland. This plant is very hardy, and will thrive on poor shalloAv lands, and in exposed situations: it is propagated by seeds, Avhich should be deposited in March, in a light and rather moist soil, Avhere the tree is intended to remain; and, in the succeeding month, young shoots Avill appear. But, if sown in autumn, the seeds do not ger- minate till the following spring. The broad-leavedlaburnum forms an agreeable ornament for parks and gardens; as it groAvs rapidly, Avith a straight stem, and, in the course of four years, is generally twelve feet high....Its wood is fre- quently employed on the Conti- nent, and in the Highlands, for making chairs, tables, and other articles of household furniture, which are said to resemble the finest mahogany......Suckow re- marks, that a decoction ofthe fresh branches and leaves of this tree, imparted an excellent dark-brown colour to cloth prepared in a solu- tion of green vitriol. Labyrinth. See Maze. LAC, or Gum-lac, a species of Avax, Avith which the Lac-insect, or Coccus Lacca, L. that frequents se- veral species of the fig-tree, forms cells resembling the boney-combs of bees. Gum-lac has receiAred various names, according to the different states in which it is obtain ed. The stick-lac is the Avax adhering to the smaller branches of the tree, and which is unprepared. This is first separated from the tAvigs to Avhich it is attached; and after being grossly powdered, and divested of its colour, by digesting it in certain LAC Jiquors, is called seed-lac. When the stick-lac is melted over a mo- derate fire, then freed from its im- purities, and formed into cakes, it is denominated lump-lac. The last species is termed shell-lac, and is prepared by liquefying, straining, and reducing the cells into thin transparent plates, in a manner pe- culiar to the natives of India. Lac is applied to various pur- poses of ornament and utility.... .Considerable quantities are used in the making of sealing-wax; in ja- panning ; for varnish; and in paint- ing. It also imparts a fine red co- lour to silk and cotton, Avhen these have previously been immersed in a Aveak decoction of the bark, knoAvn among dyers by the name .of load. Lac is likeAvise of service as a medicine: for which purpose the etick4uc is in great esteem on the Continent, especially for relaxed and spungy gums arising from cold, or from a scorbutic habit.... With this intention, it is either boiled in Avater, Avith the addition of a little alum for promoting its solution, or it is used in the form of a tincture, prepared with recti- fied spirit: the latter has a grateful odour, and a bitterish, astringent, though not unpleasant taste, and is chiefly recommended in scorbutic and rheumatic disorders. LACE, in commerce, a texture composed of several threads of gold, silver, silk, or thread, Avhich are intenvoven and worked on a cushion with spindles, according to the pattern designed. There are various kinds of lace, denominated either from the place where they are manufactured, or from the particular method of Avorking. Such are Point, Brus- sels, or Flanders lace, made in the LAC 4£T Netherlands; and blond or bone- lace,Avhich is produced in England, chiefly in the county of Bucking- ham. When gold or silver lace hap- pens to be tarnished, the best li- quid that can be used for restoring its lustre, is spirit of Avine, which should be warmed, before it is ap- plied to the tarnished spot. This, in Dr. Leavis's opinion, is far pre- ferable to soap, or the alkaline li- quors usually employed ; as the former does not remove the colour of the silk or other embroidery, with Avhich the lace may be con- nected. Method of separating gold or sil- ver from lace, without burning it..... Let the lace be first cut to pieces, tied up in a linen cloth, and boiled in soap-ley, till its size be consi- derably diminished: the cloth is noAV to be taken out of the liquid; rinsed repeatedly in cold water; and beaten with a mallet, in order to extract the alkaline particles. On opening the linen, the metallic part of the lace will be found pure, and undiminished, Avhile it retains its natural brightness. LACKER, or Lacqter, is a kind of varnish, applied to brass, tin, and other metals, in order to improve their colour, and to pre- vent them from tarnishing. The best lacquer is prepared from rectified spirit of Avine, and seed-lac, in the proportion of three ounces of the latter to one pint of the former. The mixture is di- gested for some hours in a mode- rate heat; Avhen the liquor is strained, and left to subside. In this state, it is ready-to receive the shade required, by adding gam- boge, annotto, or other tinging drugs. With a view to impart a goldea 428 LAD L AK colour to metals, tAvo parts of gamboge are usually added to one of annotto ; but, a better method is, to dissolve those substances se- parately, and to ascertain the par- ticular shade, by mixing different proportions of the two solutions. If silver or tin are to be lacquered, it will be necessary to employ a larger quantity of the colouring matters t .an is required, Avhen this kind of varnish is to be applied to LACKEY-MOTH, or Phalama Bombyx Neustrix, is a species of moth that commits great depreda- tions on fruit-tress; around the branches of Avhich it deposits nu- merous eggs, that exhibit the ap- pearance of a necklace. These are very hard, and adhere closely to the bark; so that it becomes ne- cessary to remove them by a knife; care being taken to spare the bark as much as possible. Next, the composition and poAvder mention- ed in the article Tree, must be applied to every part which may have been Avounded by the instru- ment. LACTEALS,in physiology, are the absorbing vessels of the mesen- try, and consist of certain small tubes, situated in the intestines; whence they convey the chyle, or that milky fluid Avhich is generated from the food in the first passages, into the common reservatory, or the mass of the blood. They are furnished Avith an incalculable number of valves, which prevent the return of the chyle into the stomach: in their passage through a number of glands, the nature of the last mentioned fluid is consi- derably altered, and prepared for its assimihition Avith the blood. LADIES-MANTLE, or Alche- milla, L. a genus of plants com- prising four species, three of which are indigenous, and of these, the principal is the vulgaris, or Com- mon Ladies'-mantle, growing fre- quently in meadows and pastures: it flowers from June to Septem- ber. This plant might be easily cul- tivated, either by dividing the roots, or scattering the seed in autumn. It requires a moist soil, a shady situation, and to be kept clean from Aveeds. The leaves of the Ladies'-mantle are mildly astringent; though at present seldom used in medicine. ....According to Greditsch and BAUTScH,the whole plant may be advantageously employed in tann- ing.....Horses, sheep, and goats, eat this vegetable, but it is not re- lished by cows; and hogs totally refuse it. LADIES'-SMOCK, or Cala- mine, L. a genus of plants consist- ing of sixteen species, seven of which are indigenous : the princi- pal of which is the pratensis, or Common Ladies'-smock, growing in meadows and moist pastures ; it flowers in the month of May. According to Dr. (now Sir George) Baker, the flowers of this plant may be used with great advantage in hysteric and epileptic cases, if taken twice a day, in doses of from tAventy to ninety grains each. In Cornwall, the flowering tops haA'e successfully been em- ployed for the cure of epilepsy, for several generations. Goats and sheep deA'our this herb, but coavs dislike it, and neither horses nor SAvine Avill touch it. LAKE, in geography, a collec- tion of waters of a considerable ex- tent, and having no immediate communication Avith the ocean. Lakes are divided into two classes: 1. Those, Avhich contain fresh water; and, 2. Such as are L AK LAM 429 saline. The chief lakes in England are those of Keswick and Winan- der-mere, in the northern coun- ties: there are likewise several in Scotland, which are distinguish- ed by the name of Lochs. In cold climates, lakes are of considerable utility ; for the warm vapours exhaling from them, miti- gate the intense frost that prevails during the winter season. They are of still greater advantage in the southern regions, when situated at a distance from the sea; because the evaporation caused by the heat of the sun, refreshes the adjacent country with frequent showers, and thus renders it a beautiful gar- den. Beside the genial tempera- ture to which the British lakes greatly contribute, they contain abundance of fish, and might be rendered still more profitable by conveying to them the spawn of fish from rivers, by means of jars. This method hath been long prac- tised in China, and, we conceive, might be productive of great ad- vantages, if it could be adopted in this country. [See Fish.] LAKE, in the imitative arts, signifies a red colour employed by painters, which Avasoriginally form- ed of gum-lac. It is at present pre- pared chiefly from scarlet rags, cochineal, or Brazil-wood. The best, hoAvever, is obtained from the first of these articles, in the fol- lowing manner: First, let a pound of pearl-ash be dissolved in two quarts of water, and the solution be filtered through paper. A pound of clean scarlet shreds, and two quarts of Avater, are next to be added to the liquor, and the Avhole boiled till the rags are perfectly divested of theirtinge; when they are to be taken out and pressed. Three additional pounds ©f shreds are now to be boiled in the same solution; and, during this process, a pound and a half of the bone of cuttle-fish are to be dissolved in one pound of aqua- fortis. This liquid is next to be combined with the former solu- tion; and the whole, on being suf- fered to subside, will deposit a sediment, which forms Avhat is called lake. The liquor is then to be strained, and the sediment mixed four or five times, success- ively, in two gallons of spring wa- ter, till all saline particles are ex- tracted ; lastly, it is to be drained, and dropped through a funnel on clean boards, when the lake will assume the form of cones or pyra- mids, in which it must be suffered to dry, and the preparation will be fit for use. For a more simple method of preparing different lakes, or pig- ments the reader will consult the article Colour. LAMB, the young of a sheep ; Avhich, if a male, is during the first year, called a wedder, or wether- hog; and if a female, a sheave. The most proper time for eAves to lamb, is from the latter end of April to the beginning of June; -and, in the course of sixteen or eighteen weeks, the young ani- mals may be taken from their dams: they are, hoAvever, very tender, and require the greatest attention, especially during snoAvy weather, when they not unfre- quently perish from want of fresh grass,and their aversion to eat hay. In order to remedy this incom'e- nience, it has been recommended to turn a feAv old sheep that are ge- nerally fond of hay, among the lambs, Avhich Avill thus be speedily induced to follow their example. Lambs are subject to feiv disor- ders:....when they are sick, the drinking of mare's or goat's milk, 430 LAM LAM ■diluted Avith warm water, will greatly tend to preserve them from taking cold; and as many, when yeaned, are apparently dead, it is advisable to bloAv into the mouth and nostrils; by which simple me- thod numbers have been imme- diately restored. The most fatal distemper, Iioav- eAer, with Avhich lambs are affect- ed, is the blood or red-water. The disordered animals are, in general, seized Avith lameness, and a slight swelling of the joints, but which is attended with a violent inflam- mation,that spreads oA'ertheAvhole body, and, if neglected, proves fatal ■in the course of twenty-four hours. The red-water is occasioned by too great a quantity of undigested food remaining on the stomach. As soon, therefore, as the lambs are attacked, the best method hi- therto known is, to take them from grass, bleed them, and administer an emollient clyster, ay hich is to be repeated, in case no evacuation take place in a short time. Two or three grains of tartar emetic, or as many ounces of sweet-oil, are now to be given, and the bleeding repeated, if the animals do not ap- pear to recover. This treatment is to be continued for the space of four or five days, during Avhich the diseased creatures should be fed with milk. Lamb forms a considerable ar- ticle of food: being light and wholesome, it h Avell calculated for weak and delicate stomachs, though less nourishing than mut- ton. House-lamb, which is thus de- nominated from the animals being fed and fattened within doors, is neither so Avholesome nor so nu- tritive as the natural meat. Its flesh, is devoid of taste, and eaten only by epicures; Avho, regardless of the dictates of reason, and the rules of temperance, attend only to the gratification of their sensual appetites....[See Sheep.] Lamb's-Lettuce. See Corn Salad. Lamb's-quarters. See Wild Orache. LAMENESS, a Aveakness that may arise from various causes, in any part ofthe body. Where this defect originates from natural deformity, it is gene- rally incurable: feAv instances, hoAvever, occur in Avhich lameness is hereditary ; though it may also be induced by causes that are dif- ficult to be discovered. If it be occasioned by external accidents, such as luxation of the thigh at the birth, fractures, &c. it can be cured only by a skilful reduction ofthe dislocated limbs, though it will al- Avays be attended Avith halting. Frequently, hoAvever, the leg, in consequence of the rigidity of the muscles destined to put it in motion, contracts to such a degree that it cannot be moved Avithout limping. In this case, it Avill be advisable to apply emollient fo- mentations; to immerse the part affected in mollifying baths; or, for very robust individuals, to ex- pose it frequently to the action of a pump from mineral springs, and to Avear a shoe furnished Avith a leaden sole, the Aveight of which should be proportioned to the con- traction of the limb. Much lameness, as Avell as de- formity, might certainly be pre- vented, if a stricter attention Avere paid to the early treatment of chil- dren. These are often afflicted with a Aveakness of the hips, ac- companied with a lameness of both sides of the body; which is wholly occasioned by inducing them to LAM LAM 43k walk without any assistance, be- fore they have attained sufficient strength to support themselves. Such debility may, in some mea- sure, be counteracted by tying a girdle round the waist, that should extend to the Avhole circumference of the belly; and which, if well braced at the hips, Avill invigorate the loins, while it gradually ena- bles children to walk. It Avill also be advisable to bathe such weak limbs in astringent decoctions, fre- quently in the course of the day, for several months......See Rick- ets. Beside these common causes of lameness, there are various other circumstances which our limits will not permit us to discuss, as they relate peculiarly to surgery. A practical Avork on this subject is much wanted ; and >ve conceive it Avould be of essential service to society, if a popular treatise were properly executed, in which the manifold causes of lameness might be discriminated, and the most ap- propriate remedies judiciously stat- ed, according to the different stages ofthe affection. Lameness, in Horses......See Halting. LAMP, a vessel containing oil, or other inflammable matter, for the purpose of affording light. The utility of lamps in domestic life, is universally acknoAvledged ; we shall, therefore, proceed to state such patents as have been granted for the inventions or improvements relative to this branch of manufac- ture, without discussing those theo- ries in which ingenious men have Occasionally indulged. The first Ave shall notice is, that of M. Arc;and, Avho obtained a patent in 1784 : his privilege be- ing now expired, and his invention generally adopted, we shall briefly observe, that the superiority of his lamp depends on the admission of a larger volume of air to the flame, than is practicable on the common plan. This object is effected by employing a circular wick, so that a strong current of air rushes into the cylinder round which the Avick is placed, and thus, together with the atmosphere, excites the flame to such a degree, that the smoke is entirely consumed. The light and heat are by this method re- markably increased, Avhile the ex- pence of the oil is considerably re- duced; because those particles, Avhich, in the usual lamps, are dis- sipated in smoke, will, by M. Ar- gand's invention,be converted into a brilliant flame. A patent was granted in 1787 to Mr. Miles, for his neAV method of making lamps of different forms, so as to emit an undiminished light, however it may be agitated; and Avhich may also be fixed in halls, shops, Sec....As its specification is too complex to be understood by those Avho are unacquainted with the manufacture, inquisitive read- ers Avill consult the 3d vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures. Another patent Avas obtained in the same year, by Mr. Peter Keir, for a contriA-ance of raising the supply of oil in lam; s. The Avhole effect is produced by the ap- plication of another fluid, the spe- cific gravity of Avhich is greater than that of oil; and Avhich com- municates Avith the latter,by means of certain receivers, tubes, or con- ductors. These are so arranged, that the heavier liquid may press a column of oil upAvards to any- requisite height, for the purpose of supplying the lamp. 432 LAM Farther, by prolonging the con- ductor of the heavier fluid beneath the lower surface of the column of oil, the Aveight of the former will hydrostatically act upon such sur- face, and raise the column. Thus, the lamp will not only be furnish- ed with the purest particles of oil from the upper part, but the flame will also be considerably elevated above the body of the vessel; and, being supplied from a contracted surface of oil, it Avill consequently afford a more diffused light, with a considerable diminution of shade. For a more minute account of this ingenious contrivance, we refer the inquisitive reader to the 8th vol. of the work before quoted. The last patent we shall notice, was granted in 1800 to Messrs. White and Smethurst, for their Improved Lamp-burner. TheAvhole is modestly called an improvement on the burner of the common Ar- gand lamp; and the object of which is, to afford a more free and plenti- ful supply of oil to the ignited part of the Avick; so that it will burn better, require less frequent snuff- ing, and ansAver well, even with oil of an inferior quality. These advantages are obtained simply, by leaving a larger than the usual space between the two tubes, with- in Avhich the Avick is placed. Yet it is necessary to contract such space towards the top, in order that the burnt crust or cinder may be more conveniently removed; an object which may be effected by applying a ring or piece of metal, conically or otherwise formed, so as to reduce the space in the upper part of the lamp to the usual di- mensions. The advantages of Messrs. White and Smethusrt's im- provement, are: 1. That the in- LAM convenience hitherto complained of, respecting the mode of cleaning and dressing the lamps, is thus re- moved; as, upon their plan, the capillary tubes of the cotton wick are prevented from being at any time obstructed by the viscid na- ture of the oil, while its ascent is promoted by such capillary attrac- tion. 2. The quantity of oil con- sumed by these improved lamps is, by the patentees, stated to be less in the proportion of at least four to five. 3. One of y the most im- portant advantages thence derived, is, that of the wick being rendered fit to bum common whale, or seal- oils, which are sold at about half the price of the best spermaceti oil, the only inflammable fluid hitherto used in Argand's lamps ; while the former produce an equal de- gree of light. We have already pointed out,(in article Candle) the superior utili- ty of lamps, especially for sedenta- ry or studious persons; but as the light emitted by them is frequently too vivid for weak, or irritable eyes, we would recommend the use of a small screen, Avhich should be pro- portionate to the disk ofthe flame, and be placed at one side of the light, in order to shade it from the reader's eye, Avithout excluding its effect from others, or darkening the room. Such a contrivance is equally simple and useful: it may consist of either paper, or taffety, slightly gummed; and, being easily folded and carried in the pocket, is* far superior to the common screens. We cannot conclude this article, without pointing out another cir- cumstance in Avhich lamps are su- perior to candles, namely, their cheapness. Fromexperimentsmade some years since, with the express yieAv of ascertaining the expence of LAM LAM 433 burning chamber-oil, it appears that a common taper-lamp, with eight cotton threads in the wick, consumed in one hour Jiaf. parts, or about one-third of an ounce of spermaceti oil, which at that time cost 2s. 6d. per gallon; so that the expence of burning for 12 hours, amounted to 4-57 farthings, or about 1 £ of a penny. The light emitted by such lamp was as clear .and bright as that yielded by can- dles, which run from eight to ten in the pound....Subsequent trials were made Avith M. Argand's lamp; the result of Avhich Avas, that the latter will continue to burn three hours for the value of one penny. And though a candle, when newly snuffed, nlay appear to be preferable, yet the lamp is ultimately superior,both for steadi- ness and durability of light. Nay, one good lamp proved equal in its effect to half a dozen tallow candles, consisting of six in the pound, the expence of Avhich was eight pence, while that of the lamp amounted to only twopence halfpenny, in the space of seven hours. LAMP-BLACK, is one of the black colouring matters, the pre- paration of Avhich has already been stated, vol. ii. p. 179. We again introduce this sub- stance, as it possesses several re-. markable properties : thus, lamp- black is liable to undergo spontane- ous inflammation, if it be kept for some time closely confined, and be afterwards suddenly exposed to the air: there haA'e been instances of its taking fire in shops, and occa- sioning the most distressing scenes of conflagration. But, Avhen lamp- black is combined Avith oil, so as to form a black varnish, it appears from \arious experiments, that bo- dies painted with this compound vol. in. resist the effects of electricity in a most surprizing degree ; and that they have, in a variety of cases, even repelled lightning. In 1798, a patent Avas granted to Mr. William Row, for a neAV- invented mineral lamp-black. This is obtained from pit coal, or any other kind of fossil coal; the black- est particles arising from the smoke of which, are deposited in certain tubes, or receptacles, whence they are removed in the course of six or eight days, and packed up for sale. For the particulars of this unex- pired patent, the inquisitive reader will consult the 10th vcl. of the Repertory of Arts, 8cc. where the process is duly specified. LAMPAS, in Farriery, de- notes an excrescence in the roof of a horse's mouth, Avhich is some- times so luxuriant that it grows above the teeth, and thus prevents his feeding. This malady may be cured by cauterizing the flesh with a hot iron; an operation which should be carefully performed by a skilful Veterinary Surgeon, lest the SAvell- ed part be penetrated so deep, as to scale off the thin bone that lies under the upper bars : after having thus extirpated the tumor, it will be necessary to anoint the sore parts Avith burnt alum and honey, which form a very proper applica- tion to an ulcerated mouth in ge- neral. LAMPREY, or Petremyzon, L. a genus of fish comprising three species, Avhich are chiefly distin- guished by their peculiar back fins. 1. The marinus, or Sea Lam- prey, which, in shape, resembles an eel, has small eyes, covered with a light blue membrane, and the pupil is encompassed Avith a gold- coloured ring. During cold we:\- 3 K 434 LAM LAN iher, this fish conceals itself in ihe crevices of rocks ; on the peb- bly edges of which it is an usual expedient among anglers, to form pits extending to the water-side: inio these a little blood is thrown, to induce the lamprey to put forth its head between iavo rocks. As scon as the hook, which is to be baited Avith crab, or some other fish, is presented, it is greedily SAvalloAVed, and thus the prey is easily taken. 2. The fluviatilis, or Lesser Lamprey ; the mouth of which is like that of the preceding, but the colour of its back is either brown or dusky, sometimes mixed Avith blue, the Avhole underside being silvery. These fish sometimes groAV to the length of ten inches, are found in the rivers Thames, Severn, and Dee; are potted with the larger kind, and occasionally preferred, on account of their milder flavour.,... Vast quantities are taken about Mortlake, and sold to the Dutch, who employ them as bait for their cod fishery. It is computed that above 430,000 have in one season been vended to them at 40s. per thousand ; as they possess the se- cret of preserving the lamprey till the turbot fishery commences. 3. The bronchialis, or Lam- ps kn, which is found in the Isis, near Oxford, and other British ri- vers ; it is about eight inches long, and the body does not exceed the thickness of a swan's bill. Unlike the other species,lamperns conceal themselves in the mud, and never adhere to stones, or other matters. The flesh of these fish, in gene- ral, is Avhite, fat, soft, and easy of digestion: it has an agreeable taste, and is not less nutritive, though more wholesome, than that of the eel: those of a larger size,hoAvever^ possess a superior flavour. LAND, in general, signifies any kind of ground, but is particularly applied to such as is ploughed, or tilled for agricultural purposes. As we treat, in alphabetical or- der, of the different methods of cultivating the earth, we shall at present confine our attention to the proper modes in which Avaste, or other soils, may be most advan- tageously converted from a natural and unproductive, into an artificial state. The best method of meliorating swampy ground, after it has been properly drained, is to pare and burn it. Where the earth, Iioav- ever, is dry, and the soil or mould so thin that it will not admit of paring the surface, the most effec- tual mode of bringing it into tilth, Avill be to plough it well, and turn the grass-sods inward. As soon as the neAV surface is melloAved ay ith frost, the field should be harrowed, in order to fill up all the seams: thus, the air will be excluded, and the sod become perfectly rotten.... In this state, it ought to lie during summer, and the succeeding Avin- ter ; but early in the folloAving May, it Avill be requisite to cross-plough the Avhole, after Avhich the earth must be Avell pulverized Avith a brake-harrow, and thus prepared for a future crop. [Swampy land is recovered sooner by sowing Herd-grass than by any other mode. See that article.] Old heath-lands may be advanta- geously reclaimed from theirbarren condition, by first passing a drill roller over them ; after which they should be soavii with oats and grass- seeds, at the same time. When the harvest is finished, the soil is directed to be fed hard with sheep, LAN LAN 435 For two years ; then repeatedly- ploughed and harrowed, so as to render it fit for the reception of cole-seed: this vegetable is likeAvise to be fed off with sheep, and the soil worked in a similar manner for rye, together Avith which grain, seeds are again to be sown. Such crop should iioav be suffered to re- main as a layer, till it can be Avell manured Avith marl, in the propor- tion of about sixty loads per acre ; after which it may be brought into a regular course of tillage. By this method, the whole flag will have sufficient time to putrefy, and the soil will not be easily exhaust- ed, as is frequently practised Avith new lands. Ground thus mr.naged, has been found to be well calculated for buck- wheat. In the 13th vol. ofthe Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, &c. Mr. Rich. Ramsden Bramley communi- cates the most beneficial method of cultivating meadows or pasture land, that isover-run Avith coarse grasses, or which is either naturally, or has from neglect become, rough and uneven....The first process he states to be paring, after A/Inch a small trench should be dug, in Avhich a row of potatoe-sets may be planted, and slightly covered with the sods, serving as a nourishment to the rising crop, while they greatly con- tribute to form a light soil. The ground is next to be com- pletely cleaned by ploughing, har- rowing, £-c.; then sown either whh oats or barley in the ensuingsprlng; after A\hich sixteen bushels of h: \, ; nd ten pounds of clover-seeds per acre, should be uniformly scatter- ed, and harroAved in. Thus, the soil A\ill be rendered very fertile i- • the culture of com, or other grain; and Mr. Br. am ley adds, that the paring and digging affords so decided an advantage to the crop as amply to compensate for the ad- ditional expense : besides, the land Avill aftenvards be ready for cab- bages, carrots, or onions, in case such crops should be Avanted ; and, if there be any inequalities in tlvj ground, they will, by this manage- ment, be speedily remedied. For the most effectual method of breaking up and meliorating marshy, or moorish soils, the read- er Avill consult the articles Marsh and Moon. In the year 1799, a patent Avas granted to a Mr. Hayes, for his invention of various machines o.* implements for agricultural pur- poses, upon a new construction.... These are applicable to the tillage and culture of every kind of soil; but, as they are too numerous to be detailed here, and as the manufac- ture of them is confined to the pa- tentee, Ave purposely omit their specification, and refer the inqui- sitive reader to the 12th vol. ofthe Repertory of Arts, IFe. where the various articles are minutely de- scribed, and illustrated by an en- graving. [The folloAving excellent prac- tical directions, for bringing Avaste lands into cultivation are tak'. n from Dr. J ames Anderson's Rural Essays, vol. hi.; a work Avhlcli cannot be too Avarmly recommend- ed to all those who wish to derive the greatest profit from their farms. The object that an improver cf waste land ought to have chiefly in view, should be to have it laid do\. .i into profitable grass land, so soon as that can be properly accomplish- ed ; and the undertaker should be cautious not to push forward with his improvements fusier than the 436 LAN LAN circumstances he is in will permit; and, in particular, never to go be- yond the bounds that the manures he can command are sufficient to accomplish completely. Lime is more valuable than any other manure, and the first ques- tions ought to be, in an undertaking of this sort, where can lime be ob- tained, at what price, and in what quantities ? But lime on poor soils is an inefficacious manure, unless where it is applied in very consider- able quantities at once. Less than 300 bushels he accounts too little, in almost any case: and dung ought to be used the same season, as they avIII produce more poAverful and ag- gregate efforts, than if either had been separately applied ; the lime enabling dung to operate upon the soil in a manner it never otherwise Avould have done ; but care must be taken not to exhaust the soil after it has been thus enriched, be- fore it be laid doAvn to grass. In every case, he adds,the sooner the lime is laid upon the soil, after the trenching process has been completed, and the surface smooth- ed, and the more quickly and in- timately it can be blended ay ith the mould, the better it will be on every account. Hence lime should al- ways be spread Avhik it is yet in its dry and powdery state ; and ploughed and harroAved in, as soon as possible after it is spread, to preA-ent its running into clots by moisture. Dr. A. further observes, that it is most advisable to spread the lime when in its dry, poAvdery state, immediately after slaking, and to plough for the first time after, with a more shallow furrow than usual, because at that time, a larger pro- portion of it is turned into the bot- tom of the last made furrow than at any succeeding ploughing, and therefore more of it will be buried beneath the staple, than at any other time, if the furrow shall have been deep. If manure be not at hand, it is necessary to bring crude soils into a proper tilth for grass, by summer fFlowing. In general, one year of falloAv Avill be required at first, a crop of turnips may be had the second season, by which time the field Avill be reduced to that hus- band-like state, Avhich a good farm- er ought ever to aim at. The second ploughing ought to be as deep as the nature of the soil Avill admit. If the subsoil be re- tentive, and the stratum below of a good quality, or better than that on the surface, (which is common Avhere heath abounds) it ought to be op.ned to the depth of twelve inches, and if it be to fourteen or sixteen inches, the soil being still good, so much the better. No plough in stiff soils, will go to such a depth at once ; where, therefore, stones are absent, it may be done by means of two strong ploughs, the one following the other in the same furrow. In this case the first plough must have it's mould-board set so as to make a very Avide fur- row, and the plough that folloAvs, ought to have a narrower mould- board, so as to lift up the earth loosened by it's share, to the top of the other furroAV*. * Richard Peters, Esq. of Philadelphia, has the mortice in the plough beam long, for trench ploughing, so as to admit of altering the inclination of the coulter, as he wishes to go deep or shalloAV. He first runs as deep a furrow as possible, and then pares off the sod two inches deep with a light plough, and broad furrow, turning this sod into the trench, Avith all LAN LAN 437 Turnips are proper for unmel- lowed soils. The Swedish turnip, Ruta baga, is particularly proper.... It thrives exceedingly on stiff ground : but the turnips ought to be drilled, and thoroughly horse- hoed. The dung should be applied in drills before soAving. Two crops of turnips may be taken in succes- sion, and they will reduce it to a fine tilth, and render it in excellent condition to be laid down Avith grass-seeds along with the first corn (grain) crop. Peas, or vetches, may be sown on stiff soils, where turnips cannot be ventured : and those that run much to haulm, should be prefer- red*. Potatoes may also be raised as a first crop, to advantage. Rye and oats likewise succeed well on unmellowed ground. Grass seeds should be soAvn Avith the first corn (grain) crop, Avith an intention to allow the field to remain in grass, till the Avhole portion of Avaste has been brought under cul- ture. Burn breaking....where the sur- face of waste grounds is covered with a thick coat of dry benty grass, it Avill often prove beneficial to pare and burn the surface. This oper- ation does not consume the mould, nor change the soil of waste ground for the worse. All that the fire does is to consume the dried vege- table fibres intermixed with the its weeds and roots. These are covered with the large plough, somewhat nar- rower than the small one, which runs in the same furrow. He is satisfied with finishing three quarters of an acre in a day......Editor. • The Magothay, Ray-bean, would answer very well. See article Cassia, Chamoeousta: as also the Lady pea, and Indian pea of Ncw-Jcrscy....£ erease the price of sole leather ; which, after being a Avhole year in tanning, imbibes water in a much smaller proportion than coAV-leath- er, when dressed Avith fat. We regret that our limits do not per- mit us to specify the very ingeni- ous experiments made by M. de St. Real ; as we are convinced they Avill contribute to improve the art of tanning. Another method of preventing leather from being penetrated by water, consists in exposing it Avith tlie flesh-side towards the fire : af- 454 LEA LEA ter which, a coat of Avarmed tar is to be applied with a proper brush, three or four times successively, according to the thickness of the leather, till the liquid matter pene- trate through the whole skin. The durability and strength of shoes, Sec. will be considerably increased, if, in laying on the last coat of tar, they be sprinkled over with a small quantity of fine iron-filings, which will, in a manner, fill up the pores of the leather. Lastly, shoes may be rendered impermeable to mois- ture, by occasionally rubbing the soles with hot tar: thus the feet may be presen-ed dry and Avarm ; an important object in this climate, especially during theAvinter season. [Leather-wood. See Dirca Palustris.] LEAVEN, strictly signifies sour dough, Avhich acquires its acidity, when preserved after kneading flour Avith yeast, in order to fer- ment a larger quantity of paste.... It is a very imperfect substitute for yeast ; and, as it communicates to the bread an astringent taste Avhich feAv persons relish, it ought to be used only Avhere barm cannot be procured. As, hoAvever, the lat- ter ferment is sometimes difficult to be obtained, especially during the Avinter, Ave shall communicate the most simple methods of pre- paring as well as of preserving it, under the article Yeast. LEAVES, in botany, are defin- ed by Linnaeus to be the organs of motion, or muscles of a plant: according to Dr. Darwin, they constitute the lungs of each indivi- dual buti. See Bud. Leaves are of a deeper green co- lour than the foot-stalks on which they stand; being formed by the expansion of the vessels of such stalks that produce several ramifications; mutually intersect- ing each other, and thus making a kind of net: the meshes of which are filled up with a tender porous substance, variously called thepulp, pith, or parenchyma. This net is provided, chiefly on the surface of the leaf, Avith a great number of porous or absorbent vessels, which are destined to imbibe tlie humidity of the air. The upper surface serves as a defence to the lower; and so essential is this disposition to the vegetable economy, that, if a branch be inverted so as to de- stroy the natural direction of the leaves, these in a short time will spontaneously resume their former position. Leaves,therefore, are not merely ornamental toplants,but contribute in a very considerable degree to promote vegetation : thus almost eA'ery class of the vegetable crea- tion is furnished Avith them, ex- cepting mushrooms, and one or tAvo other productions of the earth. Indeed, if any tree be deprived of its leaves, it cannot shoot vigorous- ly ; and if it be totally divested of them, it speedily perishes. When, hoAvever, vegetation ceases, these organs of respiration and inspira- tion become superfluous: hence there are but feAv plants furnished with leaves throughout the Avhole year; the greater part is entirely deprived of them, and remains nak- ed during the winter, producing neAv fol.age Avith each returning spring. The utility of leaves, in an eco- nomical respect, is Aery great, even after they cease to be essential to vegetation. Hence they should not be suffered to rot upon the ground, but carefully gathered in autumn ; then exposed to a dry air. frequent- ly turned, and thus made subser- LEA LEE 455 Tient to various useful purposes.... Such leaves furnish an Avholesome winter fodder for cows and sheep, either of which animals devour them eagerly. With this intention, they may be dried in a similar manner, and even mixed, with hay ; and, if properly kept free from moisture, they may be easily pre- served throughout the winter. Nor are the leaves of vegetables, especially those of beans, less ser- viceable as a manure, for clay-soils, because the lower ones are very substantial, and yield,in the opinion of Dr. Darwin, a considerable por- tion of carbonic acid: hence it may be explained, that bean leaves, by continually dropping on the surface of the land, supply the earth Avith carbon, and thus render it more nu- tritive to such vegetables as may afterwards be cultivated. In this respect, they are greatly preferable •to sheep's or coav's clung, because they never stook the soil with weeds, the roots or sllJs of which are frequently propagated by the compost of ordinary dung-hills. Tlie leaves of trees may also be advantageously substituted for saw- dust, in wine-cellars; and for horse- litter, or tanner's-bark, in hot-beds, for which they are eminently cal- culated; and. if trodden down close- ly, and properly moistened, they will gradually ferment, Avhile their heat is more uniform and perma- nent than horse-dung: besides, there is no danger of burning or suffocating the plants in the frame. Vegetable foliage, likewise, affords an useful material for the stuffing of beds, bolsters, mattrasses, and cushions. But, to prevent them from crumbling into dust, Avhen frequently shaken, a correspondent, in the 1st. vol. of the Museum Rus- ticum et Commercial, observes, that they should be moistened while drying; as their contexture will thus be rendered more tough and elastic : we are inclined to recom- mend, Avith this intention, a Aveak solution of glue or isinglass. They certainly merit a fair trial ; and, as we have no doubt of their salubri- ty or softness, they might be bene- ficially employed by the poor, Avho may gather and prepare them Avith little trouble or expence. Lastly, the leaves ofthe oak, ash, and alder, have lately been substi- tuted for their respective barks, in the tanning of leather. Concern- ing the physical properties of leaves, in general, we are silent; as Ave treat of the more valuable me- dicinal plants in their alphabetical series; but Ave cannot conclude this article, without stating an in- genious remark of Dr. Darwin : Avho is of opinion, that after their bitter particles have been extract- ed in a hot-bed, the leaA-es may be selected and converted into a spirit- uous drink, similar to small beer, without possessing any disagree- able flavour : there is every reason to believe that such object may be effected by proper management; and the drink thus produced Avill doubtless be more Avholesome than the adulterated liquors, which are imposed upon the public, by design- ing and avaricious persons. LEECH, or Hirudo, L. a genus of insects comprising several, spe- cies; the must remarkable of Avhich are : 1. The medicinalis, or Medici- nal Leech, from three to four inches in length ; its body is of a dark broAvn colour, Avith six yellow spots on the back; and a simil:■•< yelloAv line on each side ; (though, in sonic seasons, these distinguish- ing marks are rather imperfect; 456 LEE LEE and almost totally disappear) : its head is smaller than the tail, and adheres very firmly. This species is viviparous, inhabits clear running waters, produces in July only one young insect at a time, and is va- lued for its use in draAving blood. 2. The sanguifuga, or Horse- Leech, Avhich inhabits stagnant waters, and is larger than the pre- ceding ; it's skin is smooth and glossy ; the body is depressed ; the back is of a dusky colour ; and the belly of a light green, with a yel- low lateral margin. 3. The Geometra, or Geome- trical Leech, is only 11 inch long, and has a smooth, glossy skin, of a dusky brown colour, but in some seasons is greenish, spot- ted Avith white. When in motion, its back is elevated, so as to form a kind of ridge, and it then appears to measure the space it passes over, like a compass ; its tail is remark- ably broad ; and the insect holds as firmly by it, as by the head. This species is commonly found attach- ed to stones in shallow running waters ; and it likeAvise fastens it- self on trout and other fish, after the spawning season. The medicinal leech is the only one used for local bleedings. It may be applied with great safety and advantage, especially for ob- stinate head-aches arising from fulness of blood, as well as in many cases of external inflammation, with a vieAv to extract the thick and superfluous humour with Avhich the vessels are overcharged. If the leech will not readily fix it- self, a few drops of milk may be nibbed on the spot where it is to perform the operation ; or a little blood may be drawn, by making a slight puncture, after Avhich it will immediately settle. When em- ployed for relieving the piles, or to extract blood from the gums, it is requisite to secure the insect with a piece of rush, to prevent it either from creeping into the anus or gul- let, in which cases it would occa- sion great distress, in the stomach or intestines. To induce the leech to quit its hold when it adheres longer than required, oil of tartar, volatile alkali, pepper, or acids, are occasionally employed ; though a little common salt, strewed on its head, will answer the same pur- pose. On the contrary, if it be intended to draw a larger quantity of blood, the tail ofthe leech should be cut off; in consequence of which it continues to draw blood, in order to repair the loss it has sustained. The discharge occasioned by the puncture of a leech, is easily stop- ped with brandy, vinegar, &c or may be kept open by applying warm fomentations. As the geometrical leech often occasions great damage among trout and other fish, it has been recommended to throw a little salt water into the pond ; but we doubt whether this expedient, by reme- dying one evil, would not be pro- ductive of still greater injury, by destroying the fish. LEEK, or Allium porrum, L. a well-knoAvn vegetable, the native place of which is at present un- knoAvn, though it has long been cultivated in iBritain. The leaves of this plant possess a flavour similar to that of onions ; affording a constant dish at the tables of the Egyptians, Avho chop them small, and eat them Avith their meat. They are also in great esteem among the Welch; and their general utility as a Avholesome pot-herb, renders them a valuable culinary spice. For the proper LEM L E M 457 method of cultivating the leek, see Onion. LEG, the lower extremity of animals,which serves both for their support and motion: it is general- ly divided into three parts ; 1. the thigh ; 2. the leg, properly so call- ed ; and, 3. the fool. The human legs are subject to few complaints, except the com- mon ulcers, the proper treatment of which Ave propose to state un- der that article. They are like- wise apt to be sprained, fractured, or broken ; in which cases great caution is requisite ; but as those accidents are briefly discussed in their alphabetical series, the reader will consult the articles Frac- tures and Sprains. See also Bandy-legs. Leguminous Vegetables. See Pulse. LEMON-TREE, or Citrus Li- ma, L. an elegant evergreen, indi- genous in Persia, rising from 5 to 10 feet in height, producing beau- tiful large leaves, with a profusion of sAveet flowers in the spring and early summer ; which are gene- rally succeeded by an abundance of fruit, that sometimes arrives at to- lerable perfection even in Britain. The culture of this plant is, in all respects, similar to that of the Citron ; for an account of which we refer to the 2d A'olume. Lemon-juice, an agreeable acid, obtained from the fruit ofthe lemon-tree. This juice, as well as that of the citron and orange, is of considerable utility in medicine..... Sir John Pringle highly praises its efficacy in the sea-scurvy ; it is also frequently used for neutraliz- ing alkaline salts in the prepara- tion of saline draughts. The yel- low peel of lemons has a more con- von. in. centrated aromatic flavour tlian that of the orange ; and, like that of the citron, is often candied, and sold under the name of sweet-meat. The dried peel is a good stomachic, promotes the appetite, and imparts warmth to the Avhole frame; but it should not be combined Avith spi- rituous liquors in afresh state, ;is it renders the punch or negus still more heating and hurtful, by its highly inflammable oil; Avhich is, therefore, employed chiefly by per- fumers. The juice, as well as the oil of lemons, may be usefully com- bined Avith the saccharine and tar- taric acids, in the form of laxative powder, by the following easy pro- cess : Haifa pound of refined su- gar should be rubbed on the peels of tAvo lemons, till the yellow part is entirely consumed ; then the su- gar is to be triturated in a glass or marble mortar; the juice of the same lemons dropped on the mass, and the whole suffered to stand in a glazed vessel, till it become suffi- ciently dry to be again reduced to poAvder. Eight ounces of pulve- rized crystals of tartar are now to be incorporated with the former : a few small tea-spoonfuls of this mixture, in half a tea-cupful of spring water, taken at night, or an ounce ofthe powder given in divid- ed doses through the day, general- ly produce a mild laxative effect, in costive habits. Lemon-juice is one of the most cooling and antiseptic vegetable productions: it ought to form an article of the side-board, as Avell as the medicine-chest; for it improves the taste, and corrects the putrid tendency of animal food in the summer. Hence lemonade affords a grateful and cooling beverage for febrile patients; but it should 3 N 458 L E N LEN be remarked, that the acid of le- mons must never be freely given to persons, whose breast or respi- ration is affected. [In England, the " Essential Salt of Lemons" is sold to make punch, and to take out ink-spots and iron- moulds. This essential salt is the acid of tartar, procured thus :.... Boil thirty-two ounces of Avhite tartar, (or cream of tartar), in ten pints of water in a pewter vessel. Then add about nine or ten ounces of pounded chalk or whiting, till the effervescence ceases ; the cal- careous earth combines with the acid of tartar, and sets free the al- kali, which remains in the solution. Wash this precipitate Avell. Then add eight ounces of strong oil of vitriol, diluted with about one gal- lon of Avater. This should be done in a glazed earthen vessel. The vitriolic acid, being placed in a warm place for twenty-four hours, decomposes the tartareous sele- nite, and forms gypsum, at ith the chalk, and the liquor contains dis- engaged acid of tartar : evaporate, and you obtain the acid in chrystals. A little lemon-peel squeezed on it, makes it pass for salt of lemons: this rubbed on ink-spots acts like other acids, and takes them out.... The Editor is indebted to T. Coop- er, Esq. of Northumberland, for the above.] LENITIVE Electuary, a pre- paration kept in the apothecaries' shops, and consisting generally of tAA'o parts of pulverized senna ; one part of coriander seeds in powder, incorporated Avith four parts of the pulp of tamarinds; a similar portion of prunes ; and a sufficient quantity of simple syrup, so as to reduce the Avhole into an electuary. It is chiefly employed as a gentle aperient in doses of one tea-spoon- ful, taken frequently in the course of the day; but, as it is apt to be- come mouldy, and to lose its effi- cacy, if kept too long, it ought to be newly prepared, and may be more advantageously employed as a vehicle for administering the more active medicines...Nor should this compound be indiscriminately SAvalloAved by the lower classes of people, Avho thus cloy their sto- machs on every occasion, without knowing whetber it be a proper medicine for their complaint. LENTIL, or Ervum Lens, L. an useful exotic vegetable of the pulse kind, that has long been cul- tivated in Britain. It is propagated from seeds, which are either soAvn in the pro- portion of from one bushel and a half to tAvo bushels broad-cast, or are drilled in rows one foot and a half apart, in order that the inter- mediate soil may be properly clean- ed with the Dutch hoe. Some- times, hoAvever, this vegetable is put in the ground together with oats or barley, at the rate of one bushel of the latter to two bushels of the former. The lentil is an annual plant, growing to the height of about 18 inches, and producing pale purple flowers, Avhich are succeeded by small flat pods, containing two or three round seeds. These are fre- quently used in soups, the flavour of which is thus much improved : the plant itself affords an excellent fodder for cattle.....When, how- ever, lentils grow among oats or barley, they should be cut while in full sap; for, if Avell dried and preserved, they afford an inviting food, though of a heating and fla- tulent nature....Nor is the fruit it- self more Avholesome to mankind ;, and Bechstein observes, that it LEO LEO 459 is hurtful, nay, sometimes fatal to horses. There is another kind of lentil cultivated in this country, under the name of French Lentil, or Tills. It is in every respect a plant twice as large as the preceding, and is supposed to be a distinct species, It is raised from seeds, Avhich are soAvn in March, in a soil that bore corn in the preceding year, and has been once ploughed. Manure is not absolutely necessary, though it will greatly increase the crop; Avhich is said to be very copious, and may be moAvn several times in one season. The stalks and foliage of this kind of lentil, furnish an agreeable and Avholesome food to horses, sheep, and particularly to cows: Avhile they considerably increase the quantity, and improve the qua- lity of their milk. Its long and nu- merous pods ripen late in autumn, 'and produce a ne\v species of pulse, which may be dressed in the same manner as the common lentils : in a fresh state, they may also be used as an excellent ingredient in soup; and, when dry, they are eagerly eaten by poultry. The dried herb, likewise, furnishes a good Avinter fodder for cattle; and, as this ve- getable thrives on the poorest land, it deserves to be more generally cultivated. LEOPARD's-BANE, or Doro- nicum, L. a genus of plants com- prising seven species; the princi- pal of which is the only indigenous one, termed Purdalianches, Great Leopard's-bane, or Wolf's-bane, growing on the banks of rivers, and in the LoAvlands of Scotland: it produces yellow floAvers in the months of May and June. This plant delights in a moist goil, and a shacy situation: its spreading roots multiply so rapidly, and the seeds, if carelessly scat- tered about the land, produce plants so abundantly, as very soon to become a most troublesome Aveed. The roots of the Leopard's-bane were formerly employed in medi- cine, as alexipliarmics and purifiers of the blood; but, on account of their violent operation, have been justly exploded. LEOPARD's-BANE,the Ger- man, or Arnica montana, L. an exotic plant growing wild on the Alps, and on the high mountains of Germany. This vegetable delights in z moist, shady situation : it may be propagated in autumn, Avhen the stalks begin to decay, either by parting the roots, or by soAving the seeds, soon after they become ripe. It is a very hardy plant, and re- quires no other care than to be kept clear from Aveeds. The German Leopard's-bane possesses an acrid, bitter taste; and, on bruising it, emits a pun- gent odour, Avhich excites sneez- ing. Hence the country people, in some parts of Germany, employ- it in snuff, and smoke it as a sub- stitute for tobacco. Various medicinal properties are attributed to this vegetable : it has been chiefly recommended in para- lytic affections, and in cases of gutta serena. For the removal of such disorders, an infusion is to be made, of from one to four drams of the flowers, in a pint of boiling water; and the liquor to be taken in divided doses, in the course of the clay. Although the use of this remedy is frequently attended with no sensible operation, yet some-' times it produces vomiting, sweat- ing, or a copious discharge of urine; + 460 LEP and, in some paralytic cases, the cure is said to be preceded by a peculiar prickling sensation, and by shooting pains in the affected part:;. It has also of late been re- commended as a very poAverful an- tispasmodic ; and it is said to have been successfully employed in agues, as well as in gangrenous affections; where it is asserted to be equally efficacious as the Peru- vian bark, Avhen administered in the form of an electuary with honey. But, as the alledged vir- tues of the German Leopard's- bane, have not hitherto been con- firmed by the experience of British practitioners, the real efficacy of this active plant remains to be as- certained by future observations. If, hoAvever, too large a dose of this medicine should have been swallowed Ly mistake, its most ef- fectual antidote Avill be vinegar, which ought to be taken Avithout delay, in copious draughts. LEPROSY, or Lepra, a cutane- ous disorder, in Avhich the skin is rough, Avith white eschars resem- bling bran, though they are some- times moist beneath the surface, and accompanied with an intense itching. ,• Thisloathsomedistemper, though at present very rare in Britain, is sometimes caused by the gout; melancholy; by touching the tor- pedo ; but more frequently arises from the eating of impure flesh, especially that of sAvine which had been infected with the murrain. Various remedies have been de- vised for the cure of the leprosy : among these, mercury, both inter- nally and externally ; sea-water ; the cold bath; and the purging mineral waters, have been success- fully employed. The expressed juice of the common fumitory (in LET doses from twenty to sixty drops, frequently repeated), has likeAvise been prescribed with advantage; and, according to Dr. Lettsom, a decoction of the inner bark of the elm has removed the complaint, even after antimonials and mercu- rials had failed. The diet ef pa- tients afflicted with this malignant eruption, ought to consist chiefly of milk, carefully avoiding what- ever may irritate the system.... Their daily drink should be either whey or butter-milk. [Many cases of this disease are said to have been cured in New- Jersey, by bathing the parts affect- ed with the following application, twice every twenty-four hours, for two months: Bruise the leaves and berries of night-shade, and let the juice stand tAventy-four hours in the sun, then mix gun-poAvder with it very thick, and reduce it to a thin consistence Avith sweet-oil.] The leprosy is not peculiar to man,but frequently appears among quadrupeds, especially hogs; when it is generally called the Murrain; under Avhich article wc shall point out a few of its appropriate reme- dies. LETHARGY, or Letliargus, a species of apoplexy, Avhich is ma- nifested by an invincible droAvsi- ness, or inclination to sleep, from which the patient is with difficulty awakened ; and, if roused, he re- mains destitute both of sense and memory ; so that he soon relapses into his former sleep. It is attend- ed with an increased degree of heat; slow fever; full pulse; pale- ness ; sAvelling of the eyss; and a coldness of the extremities. Various circumstances concur to produce this affection : the more remarkable of these are, injuries of the brain, arising either from ex- LET L E T 461 ternal or internal causes ; conges- tions of blood in the head ; terror, anger, or other depressing pas- sions ; to which may be added, sneezing medicines, and strong exhalations of floAvers. Many remedies have been em- ployed to remove this growing drowsiness, with different degrees of success. In plethoric persons, blood-letting, blisters, and emetics, have often procured relief. Con- siderable benefit has also been de- rived from the sudden affusion of cold Avater upon the head ; from the use of stimulant clysters ; and the burning of feathers, or other fetid substances, held near the nostrils. The patient ought to avoid whatever is difficult of diges- tion, such as heavy salt meats, fish, milk, and cheese. His diet should be light, and taken in small quanti- ties ; while he must endeavour to resist and counteract the propensi- ty to sleep, by frequenting chearful company, taking daily and mode- rate exercise in the open air, or similar exhilirating means. Lethargy, in Farriery, a dis- order to which horses are frequent- ly liable. It is easily discovered, when the animal rests his head Avith his mouth in the manger ; is often inclined to eat, but generally falls asleep Avith the food in his mouth, and frequently swalloAvs hay or corn without cheAving it.... In such case, emollient clysters arc equally useful and necessary : it will also be advisable, to take a little blood, if the horse be young and robust, but in old animals, di- ligent curry-combing, and mode-. rate walking, or occasional bath- ing in the sea, or a river, will be more conducive to their cure. Vo- latile salts, and other pungent odours, are here likewise of ser- vice, and should be often applied to the nostrils....The following al- terative purge may be administer- ed, and repeated, if there be a pros- pect of recovery : Take one ounce of socotrine aloes, half an ounce of myrrh, two drams of asafcetida, a similar quantity of gum ammoniac, and one dram of saffron. These ingredients are to be carefully mix- ed, and formed into a ball, with syrup. Such remedies are generally at- tended Avith success, if the horse be not old, but in the possession of its vigour. Farther, it is a fa- vourable symptom, if he have a tolerable appetite; drink freely, Avithout drivelling; lie down and rise carefully, though seldom. But, if the contrary circumstances oc- cur, and the animal be altogether listless, taking no notice of Avhat- ever happens about him; if he dung and stale rarely, Avhile he is sleeping and dozing; these ap- pearances prognosticate a speedy dissolution, Avhich cannot be pre- vented by art. LETTER, in its primitive sense, denotes a character of which the alphabet is composed ; but it is commonly used to signify a Avritten address to an absent person. The term letter is often, though ironi- cally, confounded with epistle, which more properly applies to scripture, or the writings of the ancients; but, according to its mo- dern import, to a poetical, or other formal declaration. If the nature and dignity of style be considered, a letter admits of every modification of language.... Hence a confidential tone may pre- vail in friendly and facetious cor- respondence ; a middle style, par- taking of the serious and didactic, in letters on business, as Avell as in 462 LET LET narratives of events, and philoso- phical disquisitions ; lastly, a sub- lime style, when sacred duties are to be inculcated, or exalted ideas to be excited. As a letter is intended to supply the place of verbal conversation, it follows, that the language of civi- lized life, or social intercourse, is the safest guide to epistolary com- position. Let us therefore Avrite as Ave Avould speak, if the person to whom the letter is to be directed, were actually present. Hence an easy and simple arrangement of ideas Avill, in general, be the most suitable. But, as a letter is a more permanent declaration of senti- ments than a verbal profession, the former consequently requires a greater choice of expression, pru- dence and reflection, than is gene- rally bestowed on oral conversa- tion ; hence, it is not entitled to those concessions or indulgencies which are readily granted to the transitory words of the former. Thus, purity of diction, perspicuity and precision of ideas, together v. ith a lively and unaffected mode of expressing them, are the princi- pal requisites of a good letter. One ofthe most necessary rules of letter-writing is conciseness. In addressing our superiors, Ave ought therefore to make use of no phrases or circumlocutions, Avhich tend to confound rather than to explain the subject....Difiuseness breeds ambi- guity, and often represents a num- ber of Avords Avithout meaning. Hence a long letter may not unapt- ly be compared Avith a tedious per- son, Avho is constantly moving, as it were, in a circle, but never ar- rives at the end of his journey. A short and satisfactory treatise on the subject of writing letters, appears to us still wanting ; though many useful remarks and rules are interspersed in the works of Ward, Johnson, Blair, and other didac- tic writers. A new method of copying let- ters has lately been proposed ; which is certainly less expensive, and promises to be nearly as expe- ditious, as that obtained by means of Copying Machines: we have, therefore, been induced to subjoin the following directions. First, the letter to be copied, must be written with good black ink, in which a little sugar has been dissolved. Damp, unsized paper, or such as has previously been ren- dered sufficiently porous by sus- pending it over steam, is then to be adapted to the size of such let- ter, and be laid on the writing, Avhich ought to be in a dry state. Several clean sheets are now to be arranged on the copying paper; and a flat iron, moderately heated, should be passed uniformly over the Avhole, till it be thoroughly dried....If the original be written on both sides, it must be placed betAveen a double sheet of such un- sized paper, and managed in the manner above directed ; Avhen an exact copy -will be procured. In this instance, however, the iron must be applied Avith the greatest expedition, lest the unsized paper become too dry, or communicate its dampness to the ink ; in which cases, either no impression Avould be taken, or the ink would sink : lastly, the iron ought to be pressed on the paper longer than is usual for single sheets ; in order that the heat may be regularly diffused, and the full effect be ensured. LETTUCE, or Lactuca, L. a genus of. plants comprising 15 species, two of Avhich are natives of Britain : the principal of these LET is the virosa, Wild or strong-scent- ed Lettuce, that abounds on chalky soils, and dry banks of ditches; flowers in the months of August and September. It has a strong odour, not unlike that of opium, and is possessed of similar nar- cotic properties, that reside in its milky juice ; small closes of which, newly expressed from the plant, are recommended in the dropsy. It is said to agree Avith the sto- mach, to allay thirst, and to be mildly laxative. Several other species and varie- ties of the Lettuce have, at differ- ent times, been introduced into Britain, and are noAV cultivated for culinary purposes. The principal of these are : I. the Common or Garden Lettuce, which is propa- gated from seeds that are general- ly soAvn early in the spring, that the p'ant may be cut and mixed with other salads. In its more cultivated state, this kind is known by the name of Cabbage Lettuce. 2. The Silesian. 3. The Impe- rial. 4. The Royal Black ; and 5. The Upright White Cos-Let- tuces, which are the most valuable plants of this nature now reared in our gardens. They are likeAvise raised from seed, which should be soAvn toAvards the end of February, or in the beginning of March, on a warm light soil, and in an open situation. As soon as the plants shoot forth, it -will be necessary to thin them, so that they may be 15 inches apart in every direction, after Avhich they will only require to be carefully weeded ; and, as the Black Cos-Lettuce groAvs large, it will be necessary to tie its leaves together, in order to Avhiten the inner part. There are tAvo other sorts, known under the name of Dutch brown LEV 463 and Green CapucIan Lettuce, which may be sown late, under Avails; being very hardy, they Avithstand the severity of tlie Avinter, and will be valuable when no other green salad can be procured.....Bech- stein states a curious fact, Avhich deserves to be recorded, namely, if the two varieties last mentioned be planted together, and suffered to bear seeds, in a rich, warm, but moist soil, the future produce of such seed will be a new and very excellent kind of this plant, form- ing extraordinary large heads, the leaves of Avhich are sprinkled with deep red spots, and uncom- monly tender. Properties....The various kinds of garden-lettuce are emollient, cooling, and wholesome salad- herbs ; they are easy of digestion, someAvhat aperient, and supposed to possess a soporific quality: there is no dotfbt, that by abating heat, and relaxing the fibres, they in many instances contribute to procure rest. But, for this pur- pose, lettuces should not be eaten with oil and vinegar, as the former renders them less digestible ; but, if either or both of those condi- ments must be used, It will be ad- visable to add sugar, Avhich will counteract the rancid nature of the oil; though simple salt is the most proper spice for salads. Lettuce, the Hair. See Com- mon Sow-Thistle. LEVEL, an instrument, by- means of Avhich a line may be draAvn parallel to the horizon, in order to determine the height of one [Fee with respect to another ; for laying grounds, even, conduct- ing water, regulating descents, draining fens, Sec. There are varicus kinds of levels, adapted to diffcient purposes, un- til they are again decomposed and brought into action by other sub- stances. In making composts, rich surface mould is, of all sub- stances, the most proper, when mixed in moderate quantities, to promote the dissolution and com- plete putrefaction of the dung..... [See article Compost.] This pro- cess would be greatly accelerated by the further addition of a due proportion of the vitriolic neutral salts."* See Treatise on the Con- nection of Agriculture and Chemis- try, Lond. 1795. On this subject, Dr. Mitchell observes, " if carbonate of lime [See Calcareous Earth] be thrown into a heap of manure, the fixed air will be expelled, and the septic acid take its place. Thus calca- reous nitre is formed when quick- lime is employed as a manure upon land impregnated with pu- trifying matter, provided there is more lime than the septic acid can saturate ; the surplusage may re- attract carbonic acid, if no stronger one prevent. If mild lime be added instead of quick-lime, the septic acid will, as in the former case, constitute with it, calcareous nitre; but will also cause an extrication of fixed air, which acts, Avhen applied in a moderate quantity, both as a sti- mulant and nutritive ingredient in plants.....Med. Repos. Vol. I. p. 45. Dr. Daravix supposes that lime, and all calcareous earths, prove useful in vegetation : 1. by uniting with the carbon of the soil, or Avith that of vegetable or mineral re- crements during some part of the * The manufacturers of marine salt, at Barnstaple, may profit by this hint.... Editor. L I M LIM 431 process of putrefaction ; and thus rendering it soluble in water, and capable of being absorbed by ve- getables. 2. A second mode, according to Dr. D. of lime serving the purposes of vegetation, is by its union with carbonic acid, and thus rendering it soluble in water, instead of being expanded into a gas ; and thus a great quantity of carbon may be drank up by vegetable absorbent vessels. * 3. Lime may promote vegeta- tion by the phosphorus it contains ; lime may be thus converted into an hepar, and in this Avay rendered soluble in water, without its be- coming an acid by the addition of oxygen. Phosphorus is probably as necessary an ingredient in ve- getable, as in animal bodies, which appears by the phosphoric light visible on rotten Avood during some stagesof putrefaction, which he sup- poses to be the phosphorus set at li- berty from the calcareous earth, (in Avhich it is known to abound) or from the fixed alkali, or the carbon of the decomposing wood, and ac- quires oxygen from the atmo- sphere ; and both warmth and light are emitted during their union. 5. Lime may prove useful by destroying the cohesion of dead vegetable fibres, and thus reducing them to earth. This effect of lime must be particularly advantageous to newly inclosed commons when first broken up ; [and hence the propriety of Anderson's direc- tions, as stated in the article Land.] Lime, by being mixed with clays, it is believed, Avill make them less cohesive, and thus admit of their being more easily penetrated by vegetable fibres. It destroys Avorms, snails, and all other in- bects, Avith Avhich it happens to vol. m. come in contact, and with which almost every soil abounds. This minute investigation into the theory of the action of lime, as a manure, Avas deemed necessary, on account ofthe variety of opinions entertained on the subject by agri- cultural writers, and by prac- tical men. It is not for the Editor to decide, or to attempt to reconcile the opposite theories; and yet a decision is necessary by every prac- tical man, before he attempts the use of this valuable manure ; a random use of a substance Avhich may proA'e useful or injurious, or perfectly inert, is very dangerous ; for, in any of the above cases, a greater or less loss of money, and certainly of time, will be sustained. The farmer, therefore, must make small experiments for himself, as a guide for future conduct in his more extensive cultivations : and, let him be persuaded to keep nunutcs of these experiments, and the re- sults, and to communicate them to the public, as it is only in this Avay, that a decision upon the subject can be obtained, and the true mode of applying lime under various cir- cumstances, be ascertained....For other remarks on lime, see articles Manure. Peter Lossing, of Beekman toAvn, Duchess county, New York, has obtained a patent from the United States for an improvement in the mode of burning lime, Avhich promises to be of great uti- lity. A kiln, containing 1500 bushels, may be completely burnt in forty-eight hours, whereas,in the old mode, at least double that time is required. The saving of Avood is said to be in the proportion of one half. Persons Avho wish to adopt the above mode of calcining lime-stone, are requested to apply 3 Q 482 L I M LIM to Mr. Lossing, Avhose terms are moderate.] LIME-GPASS,or Elymus, L. a genus of plants comprising twelve species, three of Avhich are natives of Britain : the principal of these is the arenarius, or Upright Sea Lime-grass, which groAvs on the sea coast, and flowers in the months of July and August....It is eaten by cows, horses, and goats, but refused by sheep; Dr. Wi- thering questions whether it may not be advantageously formed into ropes, in the same manner as the Tough Feather-grass (Stipa tena- cissima, L.), is manufactured in Spain....This plant is of essential service on the coast, for preventing the encroachment of the sea, in which respect it saves millions of florins to the Dutch, who culti- vate it Avith great industry....Its mealy seeds and roots have, in times of scarcity, been converted into bread; and the grass itself, Avhile young, affords proper food for cattle. LIMES, the fruit of a variety of the Citron-tree (which see) ; groAV- ing abundantly in Jamaica, and other warm climates; it is the smallest production of the kind ; has scarcely any pulp ; but con- tains a very sour juice, of a yellow greenish colour. On account of its strong acid, it is by the West Indians generally used as an in- gredient in punch, though it is fre- quently producth'e of the most alarming colics, especially the dry belly-ache, of the cure of which Ave have already treated under the ar- ticle Lead. The inspissated juice of limes possesses a fine flavour; but, as it is one of the most corrosive acids, ivhich is not suffered naturally to arrive at maturity, Ave cannot re- commend it for its salubrity. Ne- vertheless, the negroes in the West Indies employ this fruit with singu- lar success for the cure of " scor- butic swellings of the legs, and stains of the skin, merely by rub- bing the affected legs, knees, and hams, three or four times a day, with a fresh-cut lime." The same remedy is used in Jamaica, for mitigating those violent pains in the bones, which precede the disorder called the yaws. LIME-TREE, [Linden-tree, Black poplar or Belstead], or Ti- lia, L. a genus of trees consisting of seven species; the principal of which is the Europaa, Common Lime-tree, or Linden-tree, groAV- ing in woods and hedges ; flower- ing in the month of July....In a rich soil, it attains a prodigious size, being sometimes twenty feet in circumference, but frequently hollow: there are instances of lime-trees having survived 800 years, in different parts of Ger- many. Tbe linden-tree is erroneously supposed to be a native of Britain ; for, according to Mr. Pennant, it was imported into England pre- viously to the year 1652....The blossoms of this tree are of a whit- ish colour, possess a fragrant smell, and supply the bees Avith the best honey. Whether fresh or dry, they easily ferment, and Marggraf distilled from them a very fine fla- voured brandy ....The Avood is soft, light, and smooth ; close-grained, and not easily subject to be infest- ed by the worm, if kept in dry places. It is used for making lea- ther-cutters' boards, for carved Avork, and likewise for turnery- ware....The leaves may be dried, and preserved as winter fodder, be- ing eagerly eaten by sheep and LIM LIN 483 goats. Coavs also relish them in the autumn, but their milk thus acquires a very unpleasant taste- Excellent ropes are made of the inner bark on the Continent, and which do not soil the linen sus- pended on them for drying: from the same substance the Russians manufacture mats, shoes, and other rustic garments. Linden cordage is so remarkably strong and elas- tic, that in this respect it is superior to iron chains. The lime-tree is remarkable for the excrescences, or galls, Avhich appear on the edges of its leaves during the spring : they are of an oblong irregular shape; of a red- dish colour, and occasioned by a worm that inhabits them while alive, and which was first discover- ed by Reaumur. These animo- vegetable productions being very numerous, he was of opinion that they might be advantageously em- ployed in dyeing: and, to ascer- tain their properties, he made va- rious experiments, by rubbing the galls on linen, to which they im- parted a beautiful red colour that Avas not discharged, though it had been Avashed two or three times.... Hence, it is highly probable that lime-galls may be rendered valua- ble in the art of dyeing ; and a considerable expence, Avhich is at present incurred by the importa- tion of cochineal, and similar drugs, might thus be saved. This useful tree farther contains a mucilaginous juice, Avhich, by repeated boiling and clarification, produces a substance similar to su- gar : we conceive it may be ex- tracted from it in the manner al- ready stated, under the article Birch-tree. The avooc! of the lime-tree. though affording an indifferent fuel, may be converted into excel- lent charcoal for draAving, and for the manufacture of gunpoAvder. From the external bark, ruger prepared a fine rose-coloured lake. Both the bark and leaves afford materials for a coarse, but smooth, brown paper, of a reddish cast: and that manufactured of the for- mer, is peculiarly Avell calculated for drawings....The seeds yield, on expression, a sweet and agreeable oil, similar to that Avhich is found in ripe cocoa-nuts ; and is of equal service as an ingredient in choco- late. [The Avood of this tree makes durable, but light timber. It will not bear much Aveight. The heart of the tree will last as long as oak in the ground. An infusion of the bark or flowers, in water, is a very useful remedy for sore eyes. Good coarse paper has been made ofthe inner bark. The charcoal of this tree is highly esteemed in Europe in the manu- factory of gun-powder. This fact maybe of use to the inhabitants of the western parts of Pennsylvania, where the linden-tree abounds.] LINE, for angling, a series of threads, or horse-hairs, tAvisted to- gether, suspended on a rod, and furnished at the end with a hook for catching fish. The best material for making lines, is horse-hair, which should be uniformly twisted, as its strength will thus be considerably increased. Silk is also occasionally employed ; but it is by no means equal to hair. The best colours for lines are, sorel for turbid Avaters, and Avhite, or grey, for clear streams....A light green tinge may be imparted to fishing-lines, by immersing the 484 LIN hair in a liquor prepared of alum, soot, and Avalnut-leaves boiled to- gether. LINEN, a well knoAvn kind of cloth, made chiefly of Hemp and Flax. Having already described the different processes Avhich these substances undergo, before they are converted into cloth, Ave shall at present add only such facts as may tend to render our former statement more satisfactory... After the filaments have been properly dressed and combed. See the ar- ticle Flax. The flax is spun into the yarn by the hand, in the usual man- ner : instead, hoAvever, of moist- ening the threads with spittle, or common Avater, Ave would recom- mend the mucilage prepared from the Common Comfrey (which see) to be preferably employed. By such simple means, the saliva, so useful in the process of digestion, may not only be saved, but the yarn will be totally divested of its brittleness, and, in other respects, considerably improved. Next, the yarn is conveyed to the loom, where it is Avoven into cloth (a process similar to that practised with wool, and described under the article Cloth, vol. ii.); after which it is bleached, in the man- ner stated under that head in our first volume. Linen is more difficult to be dyed of a black colour, than either wool or cotton. The black, im- parted to it by means of green vi- triol and galls, soon disappears by washing. It is, therefore, a desi- deratum of considerable import- ance, to procure such a preparation as Avill strike a beautiful, deep, and permanent black: for this pur- pose, Ave subjoin the following ac- count, by Mr. Vogler, of Weil- burg. One quart of pure, soft LIN Avater, is to be mixed in a large bottle, with tAvo ounces, or tAvo ounces and a hall of common aqua- fortis ; to which a similar quantity of litharge should be gradually added : the bottle, after being slightly corked, must be kept in a warm place, and occasionally shak- en. In the course of a few days, the liquid may be poured into a deep earthen, leaden, or pewter vessel; when the linen intended to be dyed, should be Avell Avasbed (though not bleached), and im- mersed in it for ten or tAvelve hours. It is then to be taken out, and, after being Avashed and rinsed three times in pure cold Avater, it ought to be dipped in a weak solu- tion of common glue ; again rins- ed, and then placed in the shade to dry. Three quarters of an ounce of galls, well bruised, are now to be boiled in a quart of rain, or other pure, soft Avater, for eight or ten minutes, Avhen a similar quantity of common salt is to be added; and, as soon as the latter is dis- solved, the linen should be boiled in the liquor for seA'en or eight mi- nutes ; then taken out, Avashed, wrung three times as before, and dried in the shade. By these ope- rations, the stuff will imbibe a dark grey-yellowish tinge, that dis- poses it for the better reception of the colour. Three quarters of an ounce of copperas, or vitriol of iron, and a similar quantity of common salt, are noAV to be dissolved in a quart of pure, hot water, and the linen immersed in the liquid for eight or ten hours ; when it must again be washed, rinsed, and suspended for drying in the shade. In order to strike the black co- lour, M. Vogler next directs L IN three quarters of an ounce of log- wood to be boiled for seven or eight minutes, in someAvhat more than two quarts of rain or river water, when a quarter of an ounce of white starch should be added, having previously been mixed with a small quantity of fresh water, to prevent the rising of lumps. As soon as this is perfectly dissolved, the stuff ought to be boiled in the liquor for seven or eight minutes, after which it must undergo the same treatment as has been re- peatedly specified. The linen will thus acquire a fine black tinge ; but, if the dye be not sufficiently deep, it may again be immersed in the decoction of logwood, and treated in the man- ner above stated, till the requisite shade be obtained. But as the stuff, in this state, will not admit of be- ing washed in ley, or soap-water, without losing its colour, M. Vo- gler farther directs it to be clipped in a cold solution, prepared by boil- ing an ounce of galls, Avell bruised, for seven or eight minutes, in a quart of the glue-Avater, in Avhich an ounce of copperas should then be dissolved. After the linen has remained one hour in this liquor, it must be pressed and dried in the shade: in consequence of these processes, it will acquire a beauti- ful and permanent black colour. A durable, but expensive, purple dye, may be communicated to li- nen, by immersing it in a solution of gold, in aqua-regia....For this purpose, the latter ought to be fully saturated Avith the metal, and be diluted with a triple quantity of water : if a deep colour be requir- ed, the piece, when dry, must be repeatedly steeped in it; and as the tinge frequently does not appear for several days, the stuff should be LIN 483 exposed to the sun or free air, and be occasionally removed to a damp place, or moistened Avith Avater. Various patents have been grant- ed for different processes relative to the bleaching, &c. of linen cloths. Several of these have al- ready been noticed under the arti- cles Bleaching, Cloth, See. we shall, therefore, mention only a few others, to render our account more complete. Among these are, 1. Mr. Ten- nant's, in 1799, for preparing the oxygenated muriates of calcareous earths, &.c. in a dry form, and ap- plying them to bleaching, Sec. 2. Mr. Gillespie's, in the same year, for a new mode of printing linens, &c. 3. Mr. Foden's, in 1800, for a crystalline size, for dressing linen, 8cc. The reader will find an account of these in the later volumes of the Repertory of Arts, Sec. Avhere diffuse specifica- tions are inserted. As various frauds are often com- mitted by unprincipled persons, Avho erase the marks or initials, made on linen Avith silk, we think it will be useful to enmmunicate the folloAving recipe, Avhich Avas recommended by the late Dr. Smellie :....He directs about half an ounce of Vermillion, and two drachms of the salt of steel, to be finely levigated Avith linseed-oil; the thickness or limpidity of which may be varied as occasion may re- quire. This preparation for mark- ing linen is stated to be equal, if not superior, to the various com- positions vended in the shops ; and it perfectly resists the effects both of acids, and of alkaline leys. Lastly, Ave cannot conclude this article, Avithout recommending the strictest care to be taken in avoid- ing the use of damp linen, in any 486 LIN form whatever; as Ave are con- A'inced that many, by neglecting this simple precaution, haA'e met with a premature dissolution. And if some regulations Avere made re- specting inn-keepers, as far as re- lates to this subject, catarrhs, and various other diseases, would fre- quently be prevented. Ling. See Heath. LINIMENT, in Pharmacy, a composition, the consistence of which is of an intermediate nature, between unguents and oils: it is employed for anointing different parts of the body. The common preparations of this kind are : 1. The simple liniment; Avhich consists of four parts of olive-oil, and one part of white Avax: the whole is gradually incorporated, till it acquire a due consistence. It is chiefly used for softening the skin, and healing chaps ; for which purpose, hoAvever, honey-water, in general, is more efficacious. 2. The liniment of ammonia; which is prepared by simply shak- ing equal proportions of the water of ammonia and olive-oil in a phial, till the whole is thoroughly mixed. This'compound is of great ser- vice in inflammatory quinsies ; for a piece of flannel, moistened with it, and applied to the throat every third or fourth hour, frequently carries off, or at least diminishes, the violence of the inflammation. 3. Lime-water liniment; Avhich consists of equal parts of lime-Ava- ter and linseed-oil, properly incor- porated. It is Aery useful in scalds or burns, and if timely applied, ef- fectually prevents the inflammation which generally takes place in such cases. 4. The anodyne liniment, or bal- sam ; is prepared by digesting one chachm of opium, and half an LIN ounce of castile soap in four ounces of rectified spirit of Avine, for the space of three days ; then adding two drachms of camphor, and half a drachm of distilled oil of rose- mary : the vessel should be agitat- ed, that the various ingredients maybe properly mixed. This com- position is frequently employed Avith success, for mitigating the pains arising from sprained limbs, and similar local affections. LINNET, or Fringilla linota, L. is a very elegant bird, of which there are several varieties : it is of a small size, and a greyish brown colour ; the lower part of its breast is tinged Avith a fine blood-red spot, which disappears in the moulting season, and again becomes visible in the spring. Linnets are deservedly esteemed for their song : the female con- structs her nest in hedges and furze-bushes on heaths ; deposits five whitish eggs, spotted similar to those of gold-finches; and broods three or four times in the year. With a vieAV of teaching linnets to Avhistle tunes, or to imitate the notes of any other bird, they should be taken from the parent bird, when only betAveen four and ten days old. If removed at this early age, they may without difficulty be taught to modulate their voice, and strike melodious notes, being re- markably ' docile birds. While young, they should be fed Avith equal parts of bread and rape-seed, bruised and boiled together, which may be given them several times a day, properly moistened ; but this mixture must neither be suffered to become sour, nor dry or stiff; as, in the former state, it will gripe and destroy them ; in the latter, it renders them costive, and thus proves alike fatal. LIN Linnets are peculiarly fond of linseed, or the fruit of the flax- plant, which they divest of its husk or shell, before it is swallowed.... But it deserves to be remarked, that linseed, if allowed them un- mixed with rape-seed, bread, cana- ry-seed, &c. is detrimental to their health, and, in a few weeks or months, proves destructive. It has been attempted to teach linnets to pronounce words like parrots; and they have sometimes, though Avith considerable trouble, acquired the art of speaking in a manner more pleasing to children than adults. LINSEED, or Lintseed, is the fruit ofthe flax-plant, or Linum, L. from the stalks of which, linen, cambric, and other sorts of cloth are manufactured. According to the most experi- enced cultivators of flax, the ex- cellence of the seed depends upon its weight, and the brightness of its colour. But, though such marks of distinguishing old from fresh, or heavy from light linseed, may be sufficiently accurate for the pur- pose of expressing the oil, yet they do not afford a satisfactory criteri- on, in selecting the most proper seed for the culture of this valuable plant. Hence, a handful of linseed should be thrown into a glass of Avater ; and, if the Avhole or great- er part of the grains in a few mi- nutes sink to the bottom, such seed Avill be fit for soAving: or, by put- ting a small quantity of them in a silver spoon, and holding it over a moderate fire, all the grains that contain the germinating principle, will speedily escape. But the most certain method of determining'their vegetating property is the folloAv- ing : Mix three parts of earth Avith one part of slacked lime ; scatter LIN 487 a certain number of grains over this compost, moisten it with a lit- tle Avater, and attentively* observe whether, in the course of 16 or 18 hours, all the grains have com- menced to germinate. As lime uncommonly promotes the process of sprouting, it may be fairly con- cluded, that such of the seeds as evince no disposition to swell, with- in the time above stated, are unfit for being committed to the ground. See farther, Flax. Linseed may be advantageously employed for the feeding of cattle, both Avhen the oil is expressed, and also by boiling it into a jelly, as directed in article Cattle. These seeds are esteemed for their emollient and anodyne vir- tues ; they are used externally in cataplasms, to mitigate the pain of inflamed tumors. Internally, a weak infusion of them, by way of tea, is recommended in coughs, as an excellent pectoral, and as being very serviceable in pleurisies, ne- phritic complaints, and suppres- sions of urine. Linseed has like- Avise been employed in Asia, and, during times of scarcity, in Eu- rope, as food ; but it furnishes neitiier an agreeable nor Avholesome aliment. LINT, in surgery, signifies linen scraped so as to form a soft, woolly substance, which is employed in dressing Avounds. It is made into various forms, denominated ac- cording to the shape of Avhich they consist. Thus, if it be oval, it is called a pledget; and, if cylindri- cal, it is termed a dossil. The purposes to which lint is ap- plied, are, 1. To prevent the flow of blood in fresh Avounds, by filling them Avith thisabsoibentsubstance; before a bandage can be applied ; 3. To promote the healing of 488 L I Q LIQ Avounds, especially when spread Avith some digestive ointment, or balsam ; *3. For drying wounds and ulcers ; 4. To keep them open, in order that the lips may not close before the interior part is perfectly healed; and, lastly, to preserve wounds from the hurtful influence of the air....Trifling as lint may appear, it is an article of consider- able utility, and with which every family should always be provided, to serve in case of sudden emer- gency. LIPS, in anatomy, are the ex- terior edges or extremities of the mouth. Lips are subject to few disorders deserving notice, excepting that called the Hare-lip, in which the upper part of the mouth is cleft, or slit, in a manner similar to that of a hare. Chapped, or sore lips, may be healed by the frequent application of honey-water, and protecting them from the influence of cold air. LIQUOR, a general name for any liquid preparation, but more particularly applied to such as are either fermented, or distilled: of the former class are, beer, ale, wine, &c. ; of the latter, are brandy, gin, rum, and other ardent spirits. A patent Avas granted, in 1797, to Mr. Joseph Bramah, for his invention of certain new methods of retaining, clarifying, preserving, and drawing off every kind of li- quor ; and more particularly por- ter, ale, 8cc. together Avith various improved casks and implements necessary for giving his contriv- ance full effect. Our limits will not permit us to specify the different means em- ployed by the ingenious patentee : we shall therefore, at present, only state the A^arious objects effected by his contrivance. 1. To preserve all liquors, used as beverage, from flatness or acidi- ty, Avhile they are on tap, for any period of time ; by which the ex- pensive custom of bottling liquors may be entirely superseded. 2. To render water, and every other fluid perfectly pellucid, and to extricate it completely from all heterogeneous matters, by means of a forced filtration, without the aid of isinglass, or any other che- mical preparation, known under the name of finings ; and which is usually employed for the purpose of clarification. 3. To convey every kind of liquor through small tubes from the cellar to any part of the house ; by which means the cellar-door may be fastened at all times, and thus secured from the injurious access of either cold or heat; while intoxication, adulteration, embezzlement, &c. will be effec- tually prevented. Lastly, to secure and draAV off liquors, as occasion may require, by means of cocks constructed on a new principle, so that no person can open them, excepting such as have permission to that effect. Thus every person may ascertain, Avith accuracy, the quantity of beer, ale, Sec. consumed....[Such a cock shall be described under arti- cle Tapping.] To publicans, in particular, this invention must be a very great acquisition; as, beside the frauds committed on them by indolent or dishonest servants, considerable quantities of liquor will be saAred, that are otherwise in- evitably wasted by careless draw- ing, 8cc. The reader Avho Avishes to obtain farther information res- L IQ peeling Mr. Bramah's useful in- ventions, will liud them described in the 9th volume of the Repertory (f Arts, c.c. Avhere his patent is illustrated with engravings. LIQUORICE, or Glycyrrliza, L. a genus of exotic plants, com- prising two species, the principal of which is the glabra, or Common Liquorice. Its long, thick, creeping roots strike several feet deep in the ground ; the stalk often attains the height of five feet, and the red or blue fiowers appear between the mucilaginous leaves, in the month of July. This plant is propagated by cut- tings of the fibres that issue from the parent root, near the surface of the earth : they should be divided into sets of six or eight inches in length, each having, at least, one good bud or eye, and platited in February, or in the beginning of March. A light, sandy, and very deep soil should be selected, well manured, and dug three spades deep. The sets ought to be put in the ground by means of a line and dibble, at the distance of 12 inches, in rows with their tops about an inch under the surface ; and the rows should be a foot and a half distant from each other. In three years after planting, the roots of the liquorice Avill be su'ii- ciemly large, and may be taken up betAveen the months of November and February ; for this operation should neither be commenced be- fore the stalks are fully decayed, nor delayed till late in spring; i.i v. hich latter case, the i -o.s are apt to shrivel and diminish in Aveight. Hence, it is advisable to sell them almost immediately after they are removed from the field. They are vended to the druggists at from 20s. to 30s. or 40a. per CAVt. ; and v "... in. L I Q 483 r.n acre of good land produces 3000 roots and upwards ; so that the produce has sometime, exceed- ed CO/. The common liquorice is cri:".- vated in most countries of Europe, for the sake of its siA'eet mucilagi- nous root: but that of Bri rih growth is preferable to the foreign, which is generally mouldy Avhen it arrives; as this vegetable, un- less preserved in a diy piece, is re markably liable to sucb corruption. In order to extract the juice, the Italians first cut the root in pieces then moisten and crush it In a mill ; thus it is formed into a mass simi- lar to dough, ay hich is boiled for eight hours, and occasionally sup- plied Avith wvter. Next, itisUvlce pressed, so that all the nuicilage may be completely separated : in this state it is slowly evaporated in another cauldron lor twenty-four hours, or lucIi time as is re-mired to reduce it to a proper consistence. When ccol, it is cut into cri.es, either of a square or cylindrical form, and packed in chests with bay-lee ves. The poAvder of liquorice, usually sold, is often adulterated with Hour, and probably al»o with artiiks less Avholesome : the best sort is c-f a brownish-yeilov, of a very rich sweet taste, and more grateful than that of the fresh root. As t'ris ve- getable is one of the few sweet sub- stances ten ring to allay thksg it was employed by Galen in drop- sical cases, Avith a mistaken view to prevent the necessity of drink- ing. There is, however, no doubt of its gently detergent qurii-ics, which render it an excellent me- dicine in coughs, hoarseness, asi h- nu, F .; for lubricating the throat, softening acrimonious humours, and affording relief to the orgens 3 R 490 L I R LIT of respiration. But, Avith this in- tention, it ought to be taken as a dict-urink, in considerable por- tions, by Avay of infusion ; while the patient should abstain from tea, and other hot liquids, Avhich only inundate the stomach, and aggra- vate the complaint. In domestic economy, the sound roots of the liquorice may be em- ployed as stopples for beer or Avine- bottles, being more Avholesome and durable than those made of cork.... Bohmer informs us, that sour ale or beer may be completely restor- ed, by suspending in the cask a linen bag containing liquorice-pow- der, Avith a small portion of chalk and pct-arii. This assertion is strongly supported by the account of Tov. nsend ; Avho, in the second vol. of his Travels through ^pain, observes, that of the 200 tons wt. of liquorice, or Spanish Juice, an- nually ] mduce<-i in that kingdom, a considerable part is imported into London for tlie use of our porter- breweries. Liquorice-vetch. See Milk- vetcii. [LIRIODENDRON, tulipifera, or Tulip bearing poplar, tulip-tree, American poplar, Avhite avoocI. A native and Avell known tree, in the United States. It attains to a very forge size, rising as high as any forest tree ; and makes a beautiful appearance Avhen in flower, about the middle of May. There are two Aarieties, the yellow and the white : both of Avhich afford excel- lent timber. The yellow is soft and brittle ; the white is hard, tough, and heavy. The bark ofthe root has long been employed by medical men, and others in the United States, as a tonic ; and when joined with various proportions of black alder, (prinos verticillatus) and dogwood, (cornus fiorida) has a Horded a remedy of equal efficacy with the Peruvian bark. It is a strong, bitter, and considerably aro- matic ; a decoction of it is said to be a common remedy in Virginia for botts in horses ; the powder, com- bined Avith steel-dust, is an excel- lent remedy in cases of general debility, or relaxation of the stom- ach. For a more particular account of the analysis and virtues of this medicine, the reader is referred to two papers in the Amer. Museum, vol. xii. by Drs. Young and Clay- ton, to another by Dr. Rush, in the Transactions ofthe College cfPhysi- cians of Philadelphia, and lastly, to one in a late volume of Tilloch'a Phil. Flagazint.] LITERARY PROPERTY, is that right which an author justly <. laims in his original literary com- pu'. it ions ; so that no person may, v. i;bout his permission, either pub- lish the work, or receive any profit from the printed copies. The question relative to literary property has only Avithin these few years been conclusively settled..... The late Dr. Johnson Avas of opi- nion, that the bookseller, or he Avho pm chases the copy-right of a book, acquires the sole right of printing it, and of selling the copies printed in conformity to the manuscript: but, at the same time, such pur- chaser has no right either to make any additions to, or to expunge any part from, the work, without previously obtaining the author's permission, who still preserves an interest in the performance. The Doctor farther maintained, that abridgements Avere strictly legal, hoAvever the property of the pur- chaser, or the reputation of the LIT author, may be affected ; because every work that comes into the possession of a reader, is liable to be examined, confuted, censured, translated and abridged. The right of abridging books is, therefore, established both by rea- son and the customs of trade..... Independently of the copy-right na-^ turally inherent by our common law, the statute 8 Ann, c. 19. de- clares the whole liberty of printing and re-printing a Avork, to be vest- ed in an author, and his assigns, for the term of fourteen yearn, and no longer: such property is also protected by additional penalties and forfeitures. By the same statute it is farther enacted, that if an au- thor be living at the expiration of that period, his original interest shall revert to him for a similar term of years. LITHARGE, or Litliargyrum, a preparation of lead consisting of soft flakes of a yellowish or reddish colour. It is obtained by exposing calcined lead to a brisk fire, suffi- ciently strong to melt it into an oil; which, on cooling, concretes into a flaky matter. Thus, accord- ing to the different degrees of heat, it assumes a pale or deep red co- lour : the former is generally called litharge ef silver; and the latter, litharge ofgJd. This preparation is of extensive utility for roasting gold, silver, or copper ores,as it liquefies all earthy and extraneous matters into glass, and thus the metal is more easily separated. Litharge is also em- ployed by potters, for glazing their wares (though such vessels are un- wholesome, see vol. ii. p. 377) ; and likewise in the composition of certain glasses ; because it is not only fusible in itself, but contri- butes to the fusion of other sub- L I V 4D1 stances. Lastly, it may be revived into lead: and thus considerable quantities, which are produced by refining metals, are again convert- ed into their original form, by melt- ing them upon burning coals. Litharge plaster is prepared by boiling two parts of olive-oil with one part of litharge, over a mode- rate fire ; adding water, and con- stantly stirring the mixture, till the two former are duly incorporated. This composition, which Avas for- merly called Diachylon, is usually applied in excoriations of the skin, slight wounds, &c. It's action in so far beneficial, as it keeps the injured part soft, and somewhat warm, while it excludes the exter- nal air ; though such plaster ought to be employed Avith due caution. Lithontriptics. See Stone. LIVER, the largest and most ponderous of the abdominal vis- cera, which in adults, weighs about 31b. It is situated under, and con- nected with the diaphragm, by means of the suspensory and other ligaments ; extends oA'er the right side of the stomach, and serves to purify the blood, by secreting the bile. The liver of animals affords nei- ther wholesome nor palatable food. The blood-vessels and biliary mat- ters connected Avith this organ, ren- der it still more objectionable, espe- cially to plethoric persons. From its dry and earthy nature, it cor- rupts the chyle and obstructs the vessels: hence it requires a great quantity of drink, and ought to be eaten only by the robust, whose poAversof digestion are unimpaired. Obstruction of the Liver, a disease in which the blood is apt to stagnate, and form congestions in thatviscus. Its symptoms are, difficulty of breathing, an irregular 192 LI V LI V heat in the whole body, dry coign, loss of appetite, and a straightness about the region of the heart: the urine is at first thin and limpid; but, as the hectic fever increases, it assumes a deep orange-colour, and, at length, deposits a thick sediment. This complaint chiefly affects persons of sedentary occu- pations, or those Ariiose. natural discharges are suddenly obstructed, and such as use too gross a diet, or indulge in too long repose on fea- ther beds. Cure: Blisters applied to the re- gion of the liver ; emetics ; mer- cury, used both externally and in- ternally. Considerable benefit has also been derived from the use of gum ammoniac, in the form of an ointment, Arith oxymel of s pulls, and the application of emollient clysters ; from the extract of the Common Hemlock, prescribed ac- cording to circumstances, [and last, but not least, from regular exereiss on horse back.] The patient's diet should be light and nourishing. Inflammation of the Liver, or Hepatitis, a most dangerous and frequent disorder in hot climates : it is accompanied Avith tension and pain in the right side, under the false ribs ; a difficulty of breathing, ^VjcI lying on the left side ; dry cough, vomiting, hiccough, and loathing of food. The more immediate causes of this affection are, indurations, or hard tumours of the liver; too great fatness in the omentum or caul ; sutklen exposure to cold air, or the drinking of cold water, Avhen the body is over-heated; violent concussions occasioned by too poAV- erful emetics, 8cc. In this, as in other inflamma- tions of the viscera, recourse must be first had to blood-letting, which should be repeated according to turn nature ofthe case ; a blister is then to be applied to the part affected ; mercurial purgatives, together w'r.h emollient and attenuating clysters* are next to be administered, [and a gentle salivation, raised either by the external or internal use of mer- cury.] The abdomen and legs ought also to be frequently bathed in warm water. Lately, the nitrous acid, largely diluted with Avater and mucilage, or syrup, has proved al- most a specific in chronical affec- tions of the liver, in the E. Indies ; but this medicine cannot safely be taken, Avithout medical advice. The diet and regimen to be observed by such patients, Ave have already stated under the article Inflam- matory Fever. LIVERWORT, or Lichen, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising- 363 species, the greater number of which are natives of Britain ; the most remarkable of these are: f. The calcareus, Calcareous, or Black-nobbed Dyers' Liverwort, which grows on lime-stone rocks in the North of England and Wales, and is in flower from July to De- cember. This species is so pecu- liar to lime-stone rocks, that where- ever these are found among other soils, they may immediately be distinguished by the appearance of this plant. When dried, pulveriz- ed, and steeped in urine, the cal- careous liverwort is employed by the Welsh, and by the inhabitants of the Orkney Islands, for dyeing a brilliant scarlet colour. It should be gathered in August, completely dried, then reduced to poAvder, r.nd steeped in urine for three weeks, in a close vessel. 2. Theparcllus, or CraAV-fish-eyc Lichen : it grows on rocks, writs, L I V L I V 493 •tones, and on the trunks of trees; flowers from January to December. This vegetable abounds on the rocks in the North of England, where it is collected, and sent to London in casks. It imparts a red colour, and is used in making the blue pigment, known under tlie name of li'm us. 3. The tartareus, or Large Yel- low-saucercd Dyers' Liverwort, whicii abounds in the Highlands of Scotland, and in the county of Derby: it incrusts most of the stones at Urswick-Mere, and is in flower from January to December. In Scotland, this species is gather- ed, cleaned, and, after being steep- ed in urine for the space of three months, it is formed into cakes ; Avhich, when dried, are pulverized, and employed for imparting toAvool a fine scarlet colour, Avith the ad- dition of alum. In England, it is collected and sold at the rate of one penny per pound, to dyers for striking a purple dye. 4. The omphalodes, or Dark- coloured Dyers' Liverwort, Cork, Corker, or Arcell, which grows on rocks in several parts of Britain, and floAvers the Avhole year. It is prepared in the same manner as the preceding species : with the addition of lime, and a little salt, it imparts a red dish-brown to wool- len cloth ; Avhich, if it be after- Avards dipped in the blue vat, Avill acquire a beautiful purple tinge. The dark-coloured liverwort is an useful styptic : it Avas formerly re- puted in inflammatory fevers, cu- taneous affections, and disorders of the liver ; but is now justly ex- ploded. 5. The vulpinus, or Gold-wiry Lichen, is found on the trunks of old trees, in various parts of Bri- tain, and flowers during the Avhole yea?. It communicates a yellow colour to yarn ; and, when mixed with pulverized glass,'is streAved on carcasses in Norway, to destroy the wolves which infest that coun- try. 6. The pruna;tri, or Common Ragged Hoary Liverwort, Avhich grows on the trunks and branches of trees, and is in bloom from Ja- nuary to December. This species possesses the remarkable property of imbibing and retaining odours ; on Avhich account its leaves, Avhen pulverized, form the basis of seve- ral perfumed powders : they also communicate a red colour to yarn. 7. The caperalu*, or Wrinkled Livenvort, Avhich abounds on the surface of rocks, stones, trees, and pales; it also floAvers throughout the year. In Ireland, and the northern parts of the Isle of Man, it is employed for dyeing wool of an orange colour. If serge be pre- viously infused, and boiled in urine, or steeped in a solution of green vitriol, and then dyed with this plant, it w ill assume a fine russet- brown tinge; but, if it be simply immersed in a decoction of the wrinkled liverwort, the stuff will acquire a lemon shade. 8. The pustuLPue, ov Spotted Livenvort, which is found on rocks in Wales, and the northern parts of Britain; it flowers during the Avhole year. According to Lin- naeus, a beautiful red colour may be prepared from this species; and Dr. Withering states, that it may be converted into an excellent black pi; ;mc:it. 9. The calicaris, or Beaked Li- ver,, urt, grows sometimes upon trees, but more frequently on rocks, near the sea-eo.ut. It is smooth, glos ;y, and whitish, producing flat or convex shields, very near the 494 L I V summits of the segments, Avhich are acute and rigid; and, being of- ten reflected by the growth of the shields, appear under their limbs like a curved beak....This plant yields a fine red colour ; and, in this respect, promises to become a substitute for the famous Lichen Roccella, (see Orchal, which is imported from the Canary Islands, and sometimes sold at the price of 80/. per ton....Both the present and the preceding species (Lichen pustulatus,) were formerly em- ployed instead of starch, in the manufacture of hair-powder. 10. The ap/ithosus, or Green Ground-Liverwort; it groAvs on moist rocks, in shady, stony, and moist places, and, like most ofthe preceding species, it floAvers from January to December....An infu- sion of this plant is made in milk, and given by the country people to children affected with the thrush. A decoction of it, in large dose:;, operates powerfully both as a pur- gative and as an emetic ; it is said to be a good vermifuge. 11. The Islandicus, or Esculent Iceland Liverwort, abounds not on- ly in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland, but is also found in some of the more northern parts of England and Wales....The in- habitants of Iceland boil this bene- ficial plant in several waters, then dry, and make it into bread. They likeAvise prepare from it a kind of gruel, Avhich is mixed Avith milk ; but the first decoction is never used; as it is strongly purgative. A jelly, or thick mucilage, made ofthe Iceland Liverwort, is recom- mended by Heller and Scopoli, as an excellent domestic remedy in consumptions....In Germany, a very durable brown dye is obtain- ed by first boiling linen yam, for LI V one hour, in a solution of alum and cream of tartar; then adding to this licpior the dried Iceland Li- verwort, and suffering it to boil for half an hour at the least, Avhen the yarn is again to be immersed for a quarter of an hour or longer, stirring it properly, and afterwards plunging it in a weak, cold solution of copperas or vitriol of iron....But the Iceland Lichen also imparts a very excellent black to white Avool- len yarn, by previously boiling it for one hour in a liquor made of the dried plant, and an equal quan- tity of copperas, in pure water; then removing it from this broAvn dye, and again boiling it for fif- teen minutes in a strong decoction of log-Avood: thus the wool as- sumes a deep black colour, which presents no other shade. 12. The pulmonarius, Lung- Avort-Livenvort, Hazel Rag, or Ha- zel Crottles, Avhich abounds on the trunks of old trees, especially those of oaks, and on heaps of stones, in moist shady situations....It has an astringent, bitter taste; and is used in Siberia as a substitute for hops, though it renders the ale narcotic, and occasions the head-ach. This plant Avas formerly much esteemed in consumptive cases. According to Dr. Rutty, Avoollen cloth dyed Avith the lungwort, acquires a du- rable orange colour. 13. The caninus, or Ash-colour- ed Ground Liverwort,which groAvs upon the ground among moss, at the roots of trees in shady woods ; and is frequently found on heaths, stony places, and in hedges: it is in floAver throughout the year.... This species has acquired its cele- brity by Dr. Mead's assertion, that it is an infallible preventive of the consequences arising from the bite of a mad-dog. It is, how- LI V L I V 495 ever, to be regretted, that this medi- cine has but seldom, [nay, never,] proved effectual. [See vol. 1. p. 287.] 14. The cocdferus, or Scarlet- bearing Liverwort, Avhich is com- mon on heaths, and flowers from October to April. This species assumes various appearances, ac- cording to its age, situation, and other circumstances affecting its growth. It may, however, be easily distinguished by the fungous tubercles, which are of a beautiful scarlet tinge, and grow on the top of its stalk. These excrescences, Avhen steeped in a solution of pot- ash, are said to impart a fine and durable purple. 15. The plicatus, Officinal Stringy Liverwort, or Tree-moss, which grows on the branches of trees in thick woods, and is in flower from January to December. ....It was formerly used as an as- tringent to prevent hoemorrhages, and to cure ruptures....Linnaeus observes, that the Laplanders suc- cessfully apply the tree-moss to their feet, with a view to relieve the excoriations occasioned by too great exercise. Professor Kalms remarks, that if this vegetable be collected from fir or birch trees, it communicates a green colour to avooI, previously boiled in alum- Avater. 16. The barbatus,v. articulatus, or Bearded Liverwort, thrives in woods, and on the branches of trees; flowering throughout the year. It grows from half a loot to two feet in length, is of a whitish- green ca.t, and possesses consi- derable astringency... When steep- ed for some time in water, the whole plant acquires a red-orange colour, which is employed by the inhabitants of Pennsylvania to im- part that tinge to various stuffs. 17. The Roccella. See Orch- AL. It is remarkable, that the lichens, or mushrooms, cannot be propa- gated by seed ; and that, with these fungous productions, there appears to commence a new and interme- diate kingdom, partaking both of vegetable and animal nature : so that the generation of fungi seems to be involved in a process of fer- mentation, which suddenly assumes a vegetable form. All the indigenous species ofthe lichens contain a considerable por- tion of viscid matter; which has by the Earl of Dundonald, been successfully converted into a gum, possessing all the properties of the Senega, at present used by calico- printers. These vegetables abound chiefly on trees, growing in poor stiff soils : they attain to maturity in three or four years ; so that a crop may be taken from the same tree, every fourth year. The livenvort is furnished with an external skin, beneath Avhich is found a green resinous substance : the remainder is composed partly of gum, and partly of an animal fibrous matter, that is insoluble both by heat and the action of al- kalies. In order to extract the gum from such plants, they are first scalded two or three times in boil- ing water; in consecpience of Avhich, the rind or skin is separat- ed, together with the greater part of the resinous ingredient. The vegetables, thus prepared, are next put into copper vessels and boiled, in the proportion of lib. to 2 gal- lons of Avater, for four or five hours; half or three quarters of an ounce of soda or pearl-ashes, or half a 496 L I X LO A pint of A'olatile alkali, being added to every pound. The boding is continued till the liquor acquires a gummy consistence; when it is strained through a hair sieve, and the residuum is expressed through hair-cloth bags, by means of pres- ses similar to those used by tallow- melters. The extract thus obtained, is then suffered to stand for 10 or 12 hours ; after Avhich it is strained, and evaporated in lead or tin ves- sels, placed over stoves moderately heated by fuel, or by the steam of hot water, till it be of a proper con- sistence for block-printing. If such gum, however, be intended for making ink, manufacturing pa- per, or staining and stiffening silks, crapes, gauze, Sec. Lord Dundon- ald observes (in his circular let- ter addressed to the calico printers of Scotland), that no alkaline suits must be employed for extracting the livenvort; and the boiling be continued for a longer time, and Avith a moderate degree of heat : thus, the gummy extract -will be- come nearly colourless ; but, if vo- latile alkali be used, it Avill be ne- cessary to substitute iron vessels for those made of copper. Lord D's gum has been found to ansAver every purpose for which it Avas designed : as its preparation is not only cheaper, and will pro- duce a considerable saving of mo- ney annually sent to Senegal, but Avill also afford employment to nu- merous Avomen, children, and other::, in collecting, as well a-, in preparing, the lichens, it promises to be a national benefit. LIXIVIUM, or Ley, signifies a solution of salts or ashes in Avater, for the different purposes of bleach- ing, washing, dyeing, Sec. Hav- ing, i;i the progress of this Avork, frequently emplovcd the term lix- ivium, we shall in this place only observe, that a ley may be nacie either ofthe vegetable or ndueral alkali ; that the latter is often found native in some parts of the earth, as well as universally com- bined with the waters of tne ocean; but that the former is uniformly obtained from the ashes of burnt ve- getables. Hence a lixivium may be prepared even from straw re- duced to ashes, if more substantial plants cannot be procured on the spur of the occasion. LIZARD, or Lacerta, a genus of amphibious animals, consisting of several species ; the most re- markable of which is the Agilis, or common green Lizard, a native of Britain. It is extremely nimble; of a green colour; and though perfectly harmless,its form inspires general di- gust. During the heat of summer, this animal delights to bask on the sides of dry banks, or beneath aged trees ; but, as soon as it is noticed, it immediately re- treats to its hole. The food of lizards consists of insects, and they are themselves devoured by birds of prey. But, notwithstanding their terrific appearance, these animals are of real service, especially in gardens ; and ought by no means to be destroyed, merely to gratify an unm.tu a! and cruel aversion. LOADING Of- GOODS, the act of removing ponderous sub- stances, such as timber, corn, or other merchandize, to a cart or waggon. [Mr. George Davis, of Windsor Co. Berks, England, has invented a portable machine for loading and unloading goods, for Avhich the London Society of Arts conferred on him forty guineas, in the year 1797. A plate and description of L O A LOB 497 the machine, may be found in the transactions of the society for the above year ] Loadstone. See Magnet. LOAM, in agriculture, any spe- cies of earth, less cohesive than clay, but more compact than chalk. There are several varieties of loam ; the most common of which we shall enumerate. 1. The clayey, that is likewise called strong, stiff, cold and heavy loam : it consists of a mixture of clay and coarse sand ; is distin- guished by the name of Windsor loam, and is much used for making bricks, building furnaces, Sec. 2. the chalky loam ; the consti- tuent parts of Avhich are chalk, clay, and coarse sand. 3. TFsandy loam, consisting of the same ingredients as the pre- ceding kind, though the sand pre- vails in a larger proportion. The two latter varieties are frequently blended, and compose Avhat is cal- led a deep crumbly loam. This was formerly supposed to be unfit for vegetation, till it had been exposed for several years to the influence of the sun, air, frost, &c. Experi- ence, however, has evinced the contrary ; and it is certain, that though the vegetative powers of this barren earth (as some have disdainfully called it) remain latent for a longer time than in soils Avhich have undergone a proper degree of fermentation ; yet, after its surface is broken up and pro- perly stirred, it Avill, at the expira- tion of one year, be well adapted to the production of crops. A deep crumbly loam is particu- 1 rly calculated for the growth of fruit-trees ; and, if it be laid in ridges during one winter, and the succeeding summer, it will afford YOL. in. ample nourishment to such trees ; even though it should haA'e been turned up from the depth of 6 feet in the ground. Lob-grass. See Brome-grass, the Soft. LOBSTER, or Cancer, L. a ge- nus of insects comprising 20 spe- cies ; the principal of which is the grammarus, or Common Lobster : it has a smooth breast, four pair of legs, six joints in the tail, and rounded trail.-fins. These creaturesinhabitthe clear- est Avater, at the foot of rocks that impend over the sea. They are brought in vast quantities from the Orkney isles, and seA'eral parts of the eastern coast of Scotland, to the London markets. Being ex- tremely prolific, they begin to breed in the spring, and continue to spawn during the greater part of the summer. Dr. Baster counted 12,444 eggs under the tail of one lobster, beside those which remain- ed in the body unprotruded : a'rir being deposited in the sand, these embryons are soon hatched. Lobsters change their shell an- nually, and acquire anew one in a feAv days : like crabs,they will re- new theirclaws,if deprived of them. by accident. These shell-fish are remarkably voracious, feeding on sea-Aveeds, garbage, and all sorts of carcass. Few lobsters are taken by the hand; as the greater number are caught in pcti, or a kind of trap constructed of twigs, baited with garbage, and formed similar to a Avire mouse-trap, so that the insect, after entering it, cannot escape. Such machines are fastened to a cord sunk in the sea, and the price is marked by a buoy. In summer, they are found near the shore, and thence to about six fathoms deep ; 3 S 498 LOB LOC but, in Avinter, they are seldom ta- ken in less than twelve or fifteen fathoms of water. Lobsters continue to grow in size only while their shells are soft. Those selected for the table, ought to be heavy in proportion to their size, and be furnished with a hard crust on their sides, Avhich, Avhen in perfection, will not yield to mo- derate pressure. Barnacles, and other small fish, adhering to them, are considered as certain signs of superior quality. The male lob- sters are, in general, preferable in the winter,and may be distinguish- ed from the female, by their nar- I'oav trains, and a strong spine up- on the centre of each transverse prominence beneath the tail. The meat of a lobster's claw is more delicate and easy of digestion than that from any other part; yet there have been instances where the eating of this shell-fish has been productive of disagreeable effects, especially Avhen it is con- sumed in a state approaching to putridity. Thus, the greater num- ber of lobsters sold in London are boiled and re-boiled, every day, for a Aveek, or longer, to sweeten them externally, though the inner part is generally corrupted. Such a dish cannot fail to be extremely unwholesome; and we advise those who have inadvertently partaken of it, and are in consequence af- fected with putrid eructations, to drink large portions of strong le- monade, or a mixture of vinegar and water; because vegetable acids are in this case the most efficacious antidotes. Sometimes, the im- moderate use of lobsters is attend- ed with eruptions of the erysipe- latus kind in the face, or a species of nettle-rash over the Avhole body; either of which, being salutary ef- forts of nature to expel noxious matter, are more troublesome than dangerous. LOCK, a well-knoAvn contri- vance for fastening doors, chests, or the like ; and which is general- ly opened with a key. From the different structure of locks, adapted to various purposes, they acquire different names.... Those fixed on outer doors, are called stop-locks; those on cham- ber-doors, spring-locks; and such as are affixed to trunks, are knoAvn by the name of padlocks, trunk- locks, &c....Of these, the spring- lock is the principal, both on ac- count of its more general utility, and for the curious intricacy of its structure. Its chief constituent parts are, the main-plate ; cover- plate ; and pin-hole: to the first belong the key-hole, top-hook, cross-Avards, bolt-toe, or bolt-knap, draAV-back spring-tumbler, pin of the tumbler, and staples....With the cover-plate are connected a pin, main-ward, cross-ward, and step- Avard or dap-Avard: lastly, the pin- holes corresponds with the hook- Avard, main-cross-Avard, shank, pot or beard, bow-ward and bit. The excellence of locks consists in the security they afford : and as numberless schemes are continual- ly brought forward by designing men, to elude every contrivance of the most ingenious mechanics, the invention of a durable lock, so con- structed as to render it impossible for any person to open it, without proper keys, has ever been an ob- ject of considerable importance. In the year 1784, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. conferred their silver medal on Mr. Taylor, of Petworth, for his improvement on the latch or spring-bolts of common locks.... L O C LOC 499 This is effected by simply revers- ing the tumbler, so that its curved side acts against two stubs fixed on the tail of the latch, and thrusts back the latter Avith ease; whe- ther the knob be turned to the right or to the left, when the lock is opened. Mr. Taylor has also, behind the tail of the latch, fixed a guide containing a groove, in which runs a small friction-wheel, that serves to keep the latch in its direct situation, and at the same time to diminish its friction : the arms of this tumbler are somewhat contracted, in order that the latch or spring-bolt may move with greater facility. By this construc- tion, the parts of the tumbler and latch, which are in contact, move in a line, so that they pass OA-er the greatest space, under the smallest angle; and the lock itself may be constantly used for several years, without requiring the application of oil. The same Society also granted, in the same year, the sum of ten guineas to Mr. Marshal, for a secret escutcheon, which, when fix- ed to a lock, may be so repeatedly varied, that even the artist who made it, is unable to open the lock : as, however, a satisfactory descrip- tion of its mechanism cannot be given, without the aid of engrav- ings, Ave refer the reader to the 3d vol. of the Society's Transac- tions. In June, 1801, a patent was granted to Mr. Holemuerg, for his invention of locks or fastenings adapted for general use, on a new and improved construction....The i eternal form of the locks, thus manufactured, corresponds with those in common use: internally, however, an orbicular bolt is sub- stituted for a rectilineal one, the security of which is increased by an inside tumbler that is fastened by a hag spring bolt. The whole manufacture of this lock is re- markable for its simplicity and in- genuity, Avith whici: it combines the important advantage of securi- ty ; so that this contrivance justly merits the preference. Various patents have been ob- tained for the construction of locks, so as to preA'ent the possibility of picking them : The principal of these is Mr. Baamah's, register- ed in 1784; and Mr. Spears's, in 1795 ; but, as the account of those would be unintelligible with- out the aid of several engravings, the curious reader -will consult the 5th and 8th vols, of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures, where they are minutely specified. Lock, in inland navigation, de- notes all such works (Avhether of wood or stone) whicii are intended to raise the water of a river; but it is more particularly applied to a kind of car,. 1 inclosed between tAvo gates, the upper of w hich is called a sluice-gate, and the loAver aflood- gate. These serve to confine tiie water, and thus to facilitate the passage of boats, both in ascending and decending the canal. In the year 1791, a patent Avas granted to Mr. James Playfair, architect, for his method of con- structing the locks of navigable canals on a new principle, and also for improving such as are already erected. With this design a cer- tain portion of water, in the ascent and descent of vessels, is conducted into reservoirs or cisterns commu- nicating with the lock upon dif- ferent levels, and thus eventually saved; because their apertures may be opened and closed at plea- sure, so that only the sisA.li part is 500 LOG LOC required for the passage of boats, ous piece of mechanism, to be The particulars of this ingenious affixed to the Avheels of Avaggons contrivance are inserted, and illus- or other carriages, AA'hen descend- trated with engravings, in the 3d ing steep-hills. vol. of the Repertory of Arts and As many distressing accidents Manufactures. happen from carts over powering Another patent Avas granted, in the shaft-horse, Avhen proceeding 1798, to Mr. James Fusskll, for clown declivities, Mr.ThomasCol- his invention of a machine or ba- ley laid before the Society for the lance-lock, serving to raise or lower Encouragement of Arts, F. a con- boats on canals; an account of trivance for preventing such casual- Avhich appeared in the 1 Ith vol. ties; in consequence of which, he ofthe Avork before quoted. was reAvarded Avith their silver me- Locked Jaw. SeeJ.AAv. dal. The following cut represents LCCKING-POLE, an ingeni- this useful invention : A, The holloAv, Avhich lies on the breaking, Mr. Colley directs it to nave of the Avheel. be made of the stem of an ash-tree, B C, The chains that clip the the spurns, that is, the beginning felly of the wheel. of the roots of Avhich, have not been D, The front part of the pole, cut off in felling. He farther re- shod Avith iron ; and which is far- marks, that if a horse, Avhich has ther strengthened by a rib of iron, been accustomed to such situation that is rivetted along its side, as is and to descents,be put in the shafts, indicated by the black line, in the the animal will be so much inclin- cut. ed to hold back, that it will be ex- In order to apply this locking- tremely difficult to make him draw. pole, the chain C is put round the This exertion, however, is abso- felly of the Avheel ; the pin B is lutely necessary ; as otherwise the passed through the last link of C, chain-horse, which should always and turned back through the mov- be linked to the locked side, Avill able ring e : thus the wheel is se- be obliged to pull an unnecessary cured, and any Avaggon, hoAvever Aveight, occasioned by his being laden, may descend the steepest considerably lower than the points hill with safety. of the shafts. To prevent the locking-pole from Lastly, in conveying the locking- L OC LOG 501 pole from one declivity to another, it is to be placed betAveen the lower par' of the cait and the axle-tree, while the smaller end is to be buc- kled with a strap fixed under the body of the cart, on the driving side. L'.vCL VI, or Griflus Locusta, L. a family of insects, natives of Asia and Africa, where chiefly two species are remarkable, namely : 1. The Shielded 1^.curt, so call- ed from the pectinal shield cover- ing its breast. It is marked with a greenish hue, but a deeper yellow beneath its body, and the inside of the hind legs is red : it attains the size of a robust man's finger, and is eaten in the East ; an instance of which occurs in Scripture, where it is recorded that ix. John used this insect as his food. 2. The Migrating Locust, which is of a smaller size, has a greyish- blue head, yellowish and brown spotted Avings above, green ones beloAV, and a reddish belly behind. It's peculiar native soil is Great Tartary, Avhence these insects have sometimes migrated into Europe, (flying at the rate of twenty-five English miles in a day), and com- mitted extensive devastations in corn-fields. They multiply more speedily than any animal in the creation, hut are formidable only in the countries where they breed ; being unable to live in cold cli- mates. In the year 1748, a flight of these depredators was seen in Britain, but they fortunately occa- sioned no damage. If, however, at any future period, they should again invade this island, it will be advisable to burn, previously to their approach, such combustibles as emit a thick and offensive smoke; for instance, turf, wet straw, Sec. sprinkled Avith sulphur. An in- stance occurred many years since, in Germany, Avhere a swarm of locusts was driven from one district to another, by the noise of bells, spades, hammers, and other me- tallic instruments. LOGIC, is the art of thinking and reasoning with judgment and propriety : or, it may be defined to be the history ofthe human mind ; because it traces the progress of knowledge from the first and most simple conceptions, through all their various combinations, grada- tions, and the inferences that are draAvn from a comparison of ideas. Logic, is doubtless, one of the most important sciences that can he impressed on the young mind ; inasmuch as it unfolds the nature of the faculty of reflection, while it displays the proper manner in which the mental powers are to be exercised, in the pursuit of truth and knoAvledge. Farther, it cau- tions us against those errors and mistakes to which we are liable in consequence of inattention ; while it teaches us to discriminate be- tween real and apparent truth ; being thus admirably calculated for the investigation of interesting sub- jects, both of literature and mora- lity ; as it enables parties to detect the fallacy of Argument. We could Avith pleasure point out other essential advantages,resulting from the art of thinking ; and, though a reference has been made from our first volume to this article, for a farther investigation of error in ar- guments, yet, as such discussion would lead us into too wide a field of speculation, Ave refer the reader to the folloAving excellent Avorks, in which the first principles of rea- soning are clearly developed, and the juvenile mind is taught to dis- tinguish betAveen truth and false- hood.......1. w Elements of Logic," 502 LOG L ON by Prof. Dcncan, of Aberdeen, 8vo.; 2. Dr. Tatham's u Chart and Scale of Truth, by which to find the Cause of Error," &c. 2 vols. 8vo.; and 3. Mr. Collard's "Es- sentials of Logic,', &c. 12mo. 2d edit. pp. 223, 1796. LOG - WOOD, Heematoxylum Campechianum, L. an exotic plant, which grows Avild in the bay of Campeachy, Honduras, and other parts of the Spanish West-Indies, where it rises from 16 to 24 feet in height. In the beginning of the 18th century, it Avas introduced into Jamaica, where it is employed as ajpfence against cattle. If the lower branches be pruned away, while the tree is young, it will groAV to a considerable size ; and, when old, its Avood will be of equal value to that imported from Honduras. The trees are cut into billets, the bark and white sap of Avhich are chipped off, Avhile the red part, or heart only, is selected for sale. Logwood is used in great quan- tities for dyeing purple, green, blue, and especially for black colours; according to the different ingredi- ents employed. Thelast mentioned dyes, however, are not durable, un- less previously tinged brown, in a decoction of tlie dried Iceland Liv- erwort ; Avhich serves as the basis of fixing the colouring matter...... Indeed, there are many indigenous plants that may be advantageously substituted for logwood, and other dyeing drugs : a general survey of which, the reader will find in our General Index of Reference, to be given at the conclusion of the pre- sent Avork. Hence Ave shall only add, on the authority of Porner, that in all the experiments made with logAvood,hc found alum, Avith- out adding any cream of tartar, to produce a better effect than in a state of combination Avith this acid; and, for fixing or rendering the different colours more durable, blue vitriol Avas uniformly the most suc- cessful ingredient. Independently of its utility as a dyeing drug, logAvood has lately been found to possess considerable astringency as a medicine : hence a decoction, as well as an extract from it, has been given Avith ad- vantage, in cases of diarrhcEa. LONGEVITY has ever been a desirable object among the rational part of mankind ; though the licen- tious epicure appears to measure the duration of his life by the good things he has enjoyed, rather than by the number of years he has lived. Longevity depends on a variety of circumstances, which, since the introduction of manifold luxuries, rarely unite in the same person : the principal of these is an heredi- tary disposition, Avhich might be more regularly transmitted to chil- dren, if the frequent abuse of solid and liquid aliment, especially the custom of giving them fermented and spirituous liquors, together with the indulgence in the fashion- able enervating passions, were not alike conspicuous in the present state of society, among youth and adults. Other requisites tolongevity are, a perfect birth or formation of the infant, supported by proper and rational treatment; a gradual cul- tivation ofthe mind ; a constitution uncontaminated by hereditary dis- ease ; and a tranquillity that is not easily disturbed by external objects. Where these conditions prevail, and strict temperance is observed, there is a prospect of attaining to a LOO LOO 503 mature old age :....from the con- trary causes, or conduct of indi- viduals, the alarming increase of deaths in large towns, may be ea- sily explained, and especially if it be contrasted with the more sim- ple, though gross, habits of a coun- try-life. See Life and Death. LOOKING-GLASS, a plain glass mirror ; Avhich being render- ed impervious to light, exhibits the images of such objects as are pla- ced before it, apparently at the same distance behind. Looking-glasses are made of plate-glass, Avhich is cast and ground in the manner described under the article Glass. When the plates are polished, a fine blot- ting paper is spread on the table, and streAved over with levigated chalk, which is covered with a thin leaf of tin-foil. Upon the latter is poured the purest quicksilver, that ought to be distributed uniformly over the leaf, with cotton or other soft substance : over the mercury, clean paper must be placed ; and upon this, at length, the glas-plate is pressed down by the right hand, while the paper is gently removed with the left. The plate is noAv covered Avith thicker paper, or cloth, and a heavy weight laid on it, so that the superfluous quick- silver may be expressed, and the tin adhere closely to the glass : Avhen it is sufficiently dry, the weights are taken off, and the work is complete. Looking-glasses are equally or- namental and useful in domestic life : hence they should not be ex- posed to accidents, or placed against damp walls, or in other moist si- tuations, where the quick silver loses its tenacity, and the beauty of the glass will, in a short time, be impaired. Those idle or conceited persons, who Avaste every day a certain portion of time, by exam- ining their dress and countenance before a looking-glass, ought to be- stow an equal share of attention on their moral scrutiny: thus,we trust, they will easily discover how to make a more proper and economi- cal use of their leisure hours, Avhich are literally killed before a mirror, that exhibits only the surface of things. LOOM, a machine, by means of Avhich several distinct threads are combined into one piece, or con- texture. Looms are of various forms, ac- cording to the different materials to be Avoven ; and the various me- thods of weaving. As our limits do not permit us to detail them, and as they would be unintelligi- ble, Avithout the aid of engravings, Ave shall briefly mention Mr. Sa- muel Sholl's improved Silk Loom, for which the Society for the En- couragement of Arts, &c. in 1790, conferred upon him a silver medal. His ingenious contrivance is pecu- liarly calculated for the lighter branches of silk-\veaving: by its construction, it admits more light to the Avorkmen, and may be placed in almost any low garret, Avithout breaking the Avails ; the porry may be made of any length, by only screwing the cane-roll posts near- er or farther from the breast-roll; and it is, on the Avhole, more por- table, and fixed with less trouble, than any loom hitherto invented.... Another advantage is its cheap- ness; the price being one-third less than that of the common looms ; beside Avhich, the most Aaluable parts of the old materials may be still preserved, and adapted to the new machinery. For a more mi- nute account of Mr. S's Contri- 504 L O Q LOT vance, the reader will consult the 8th volume of the Transactions of the patriotic Society aboA'e-men- tioned. LOOSE-STRIFE, the Creep- ing, or Lysimachia nummularia, L. an indigenous, perennial plant, growing in moist, shady meadows; and flowering in the months of June and July. This vegetable affords a wholesome food for cattle and especially for sheep. On ac- count of it's sub-acid and mildly astringent properties, it is consid- ered as one of the most efficacious vulnerary herbs. Bechstein as- serts, that the leaA'es and flowers of this plant, steeped in oil, fur- nish an excellent remedy for de- stroying the worms and insects in- festing the floors of granaries. LOOSE-STRIFE, the Hyssop- leaved, or Ly thrum hyssopifoli- tum, L. an indigenous annual plant, which grows in stagnant Avaters, and marshy grounds : in the month of August, it produces bright pur- ple floAvers, from Avhich a Tisry beautiful pigment may be extract- ed, in the manner pointed out vol. ii. under the head of Colouring- matter. LOOSE-STRIFE, the Purple or Purple-spiked Willow-herb, Grass-poly, Ly thrum Salicaria, L. an indigenous perennial plant, growing in marshes, and on the banks of rivers ; flowering in the months of June and July- This neglected vegetable is remarkable, as every part of it acquires a red colour, when it begins to decay.... Morand observes, in the Memoirs of the French Academy, for 1769, that he found roots and branches of the purple loose-strife buried under ground, between the rind of which were deposited several par- ticles of a beautiful blue colour; and that,by chemical analysis, they proved to be a true native Prussian blue. Suckow obtained from the flowering stalks, on the addition of green vitriol,a deep black dye ; and Dambourney, on preparing the cloth in a diluted solution of bis- muth, a very fine chesnut tinge.... In tanning, likeAvise, the whole plant, while in blossom, has been employed with advantage ; so that, according to Gleditsch, excel- lent sheep-skins were fully dressed, in the course of twelve clays. Lotion. See Washing; and Cosmetics. LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard, Avhich, in this country is managed by commis- sioners appointed by parliament.... It consists of a certain number of tickets, that are drawn out of two different Avheels,one of which con- tains a limited proportion of blanks and prizes ; and the other, the cor- responding tickets. Lotteries were originally insti- tuted with a view to raise money for the service ofthe State; but this method appears to have been con- trived by persons, Avho possessed no practical knowledge of mankind; as it encourages a spirit of gam- bling, that cannot be too severely censured. One of the most co- gent arguments to discourage this practice, appears to be the dispro- portion between the distant gain, and the probable loss of the nume- rous adventurers: nay, it is an in- disputable fact, that if a club of in- fatuated persons (indeed, there are too many of this description) were to purchase the tickets ofthe whole lottery, they would necessarily lose about fifty per cent, of their money; and in a similar situation is the single share-holder, Avho, besides, LO V L O V 505 thcurs the risk of losing the Avhole. It is to be regretted, that the con- sequences of this evil are not con- fined to the more opulent class of society ; but extend even to those industrious members, whose ut- most exertions are frequently ina- dequate to furnish their families with bread. Yet such is their in- fatuation, that nearly the Avhole of their Aveakly earnings is squan- dered on insurances : and it is a melancholy proof of the folly of mankind, that of the bread usually consumed, one-third only is eaten during the eventful period of driv- ing the lottery. Hence Ave think it our duty to state abuses of such magnitude; as they prey on the vitals of the community : and we trust that the wisdom of the legis- lature Avill shortly be induced to reform, or, if possible, to abolish the Avhole department of the lot- tery, and to adopt a less hazard- ous, and more dignified plan of finance. LOVAGE, or Ligusticum, L. a genus of plants, consisting of thir- teen species, tAA'O of Avhich are na- tives of Britain. The principal of these, is the Scoticum, Scottish Lovage, or Sea-parsley, growing on rocks and cliffs near the sea- coast in Scotland, and the Western- Islands : flowering in the month of July. It is relished by horses, sheep, and goats, but refused by cows. This species is greatly va- lued in the Isle of Sky, Avhere it is eaten either as salad, or boiled as greens : its roots are reputed to be excellent carminatives, and an in- fusion of the leaves affords a good phvsic for calves. LOVE,-generally speaking, de- notes all those pleasing sensations which are excited by certain ob- VOL. III. jects, or incidents. It however, more frequently expresses that af- fection which consists of personal desire, esteem, and benevolence ; Avhich forms a bond of attachment, and cements the union of individu- als of different sexes ; so that each feels, in the society of the other, a kind of happiness which no other object can impart. The effects of this passion, on the efforts and disposition of man, are often surprizing: it operates in a manner equally beneficial on the body, and has sometimes remedied the most inveterate complaints, which had defeated the skill of physicians,and resisted the powers of medicine. Though the most impetuous of all the passions, its progress is ge- nerally slow ; and, if due precau- tions were taken, it Avould seldom be attended Avith unfavourable con- sequences. Reason, hoAvever, often fails to subdue the first attacks of love, so that it ceases to excite pleasure, and not unfrequently re- duces its victim to the lowest state of despondency. Hence it is ad- visable to remove every object, that tends to kindle the passion ; and to introduce the patient into cheer- ful society. With the same inten- tion,the strictest temperance should be observed; the mind and body alternately employed, by study or exercise ; while the diet ought to be low, and less nourishing than usual. But the most efficacious remedy in the plurality of instances, Avould be the union of the tAvo par- ties ; and, if parents were more soli- citous to consult the real inclination and interest of their children, Ave are persuaded, that not only the number of wretched couples might be considerable diminished, hut »hr 3 T 506 L O V LOU public streets of populous cities would not be infested with those hapless females, who are at pre- sent doomed to perdition.....they afford, indeed, too many incon- testible proofs ofthe imperfect state of society. LOVE-APPLE, or Solanum Ly- copersicum, L. a native of the East and West Indies, whence it has been introduced into our gardens. The love-apple is greatly esteem- ed at table: it is either used in soups or broths, to which it im- parts an agreeable taste ; or it is boiled and served up as a garnish to dishes of animal food. (The cultivation of this excellent vegetable is rapidly extending in Pennsylvania, where a few years ago, it was scarcely knoAvn. The apples stewed make an excellent sauce for fish ; and a fine catsup* which is used by the French in a variety of dishes. [LOUFFER, an upright post having a number of projecting pieces of Avood, of small diameter, for the purpose of lifting the slats of windows, of work-shops, barns, and stables. The number of pro- jecting pieces are proportioned to the number of slats ; the post is placed on the top and lower part of the window frame, and turns up- on pivots above and below. The LOU LOU 507 slats likewise turn on their centre ; and when it is required to lift them, a person takes hold of the handle Avhich is fixed about the centre of the post and turns it round, the pro- jecting pieces then pass under the slats and elevate them. The an- nexed cut Avill give a good idea of this contrivance, which, though common in curriers' shops, and breweries, is introduced with a vieAV of recommending them to farmers for barns and granaries.] LOUSE, in zoology, a genus of insects too well known to require any description. Lice are not peculiar to man- kind, but infest quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and vegetables. Each class of animals is troubled with a parti- cular species of those vermin ; and birds are remarkably obnoxious to their attacks. There are forty dif- ferent species of lice that prey on the fluids of living animal bodies, and which are distinguished by their colour, shape, and size ; nay, even insects, such as snails, spi- ders, and bees, are not exempt from them. The human race is liable to be exclusively invaded by three dif- ferent species of lice, namely, 1. The Crab, or Body-louse, which never appears in clothes, or on the head, but harbours only in some parts of the bodies of uncleanly, or such persons as are disordered by dissipation: it is easily exterminat- ed, by applying a strong decoction of tobacco, or mercurial oint- ment. 2. The Clothes-louse is larger than the next species, and has a thick head; it visits the skin only for imbibing the neces- sary portion of its nourishment, when it retreats to the folds and f seams of clothes : these vermin may be speedily destroyed by fu- migating the articles of dress with sulphureous vapours. 3. The Head-louse frequents only that part of the body, and is so prolific, that each female, in the course of twelve clays, deposits several hun- dred eggs, or mVs,Avhich are closely cemented to the hair, and hatched in six or seven days, by warmth and perspiration: after 3 weeks, the young brood is fit for propa- gating their species; and as there are, perhaps, a hundred females to one male insect, their rapid in- crease may be easily conceived.... Want of cleanliness; immoderate warmth; violent perspiration ; and a corrupted state of the human fluids, remarkably promote their generation...Among the most sim- ple and harmless remedies for ex- tirpating these vermin, is the seed of parsley reduced to a fine powder. ....But,if the humours of the whole animal body are in so vitiated a state, that the blood is contami- nated by sensual excess of eA'ery kind, there arises the morbus pedi- cularis, or the most dreadful of all diseases, in whicii those disgust- ing insects are bred in ulcers, and cover the whole frame, so that the ill-fated victim cannot be relieved. Some constitutions, hoAvever, are more exposed to these odious vermin than others; and it is re- markable, that sea-faring men, per- forming voyages to the East-In- dies, though infested with them on leaving Europe, lose them in a. certain degree of latitude during their voyage; but, on their return, are again liable to their incursions. Beside the remedies already- suggested, Ave shail only observe, that in cases Avhere danger is ap- prehended from lice, it will be useful to take nourishing, succu- lent food, and to use wholesome 508 L O Z LOZ drink....As a cure for the pedicu- lar disease, Mercurialis advises frequent purgatives ; at the same time, to anoint the parts affected with garlic and mustard; to make use of salted and acid food ; to bathe, and to foment the body with a decoction of gall-nuts ; but the most effectual remedies are, sul- phur and tobacco, mercurial oint- ment, black pepper and vinegar. Louse-berry. See Spindle- tree. LOUSE-WORT, or Pedicula- ris, L. a genus of native peren- nial plants, comprising two species, viz. 1. The palustris, or Marsh Louse-wort, which grows in marshes, ditches, on moist mea- dows, and in pastures; where it flowers in the months of June and July....This vegetable is eaten by goats,though not relished by hogs; and refused by horses, sheep, and cows; in the latter of Avhich, if ac- cidentally swallowed among other grasses, it occasions bloody urine. Hence this dangerous and trouble- some wreed ought to be diligently eradicated. 2. The sylvatica, Common or Pasture Louse-wort, thrives en Avet pastures, and heaths; it fiow- ers in June and July....This plant is refused both by coavs and SAvine : it is particularly noxious to sheep ; which, if fed Avith it, will, in a short time, be covered Avith scabs and scurf; their Avoolwill become loose, and be over-run Avith vermin: the expressed juice, or a decoction of this herb, has been advantageously applied, by Avay of injection, to si- nuous ulcers. LOZENGE, a form of various medicines moulded into small, flat rakes, to be held or chewed in the mouth, till they are dissolved. As lozenges are of considerable utility for various purposes, we shall give a few instructions for preparing them, together with some simple recipes....First, parti- cular care ought to be taken that no decayed or impure matter be admitted into the powder; the dry aromatics shoulcl be moistened Avith a little water during the pul- verization ; and those Avhich pos- sess a greater degree of humidity, ought to be gradually dried in a gentle heat, before they are com- mitted to the mortar. If the mass prove so viscid as to adhere to the fingers in mixing the ingredients, the hands may be rubbed with any SAveet oil; or some pulverized li- quorice, starch, or flour, may be sprinkled over them during the process. As soon as the lozenges are formed, they must be placed on an inverted sieve, in a shady but airy situation, where they should be frequently turned, in order that they may be perfectly dried; and, when all moisture is exhaled, they shoulcl be preserved in glass, or in well-glazed earthen vessels, secure from the influence of clamp air. Liquorice Lozenges :....Let four' ounces of the extract of liquorice, (Spanish juice) ; a similar quanti- ty of gum-arabic, and eight ounces of double-refined sugar, be dissolv- ed in warm water, and strained ; after which the ingredients are to be evaporated to a proper consist- ence......This preparation is an agreeable pectoral, and may be used at pleasure: it is Avell calcu- lated to allay that tickling sensa- tion in the throat, Avhich excites coughing. White Pectoral Lozenges....con- sist of one pound of double-refined sugar ; four ounces of gum-arabic, LUC LUC .<09 and one ounce of starch: these ingredients should be finely pulve- rized, and formed into a mass of a due consistence for lozenges, which in their effects are similar to those of the preceding compo- sition. Liquorice Lozenges with Opium : ....Take tAvo drams of pure opium, and half an ounce of tincture of Tolu: let the opium be ground Avith the tincture till it be perfectly dissolved, when eight ounces of common syrup, and five ounces of extract of liquorice previously soft- ened in warm water, are to be gra- dually added. While these ingre- dients are triturating, five ounces of pulverized gum-arabic are, by degrees, to be sprinkled in the mixture; and, as soon as the whole is incorporated, it may be formed into lozenges, each of which should weigh ten grains....These are very servicable for troublesome coughs that depend on an irritation of the fauces, which they remarkably tend to relieve ; but should not be used too freely, as the large pro- portion of opium they contain, can- not fail to render the body costive. Lozenges of Magnesia....\^et four ounces of magnesia, two ounces of double-refined sugar, and one scruple of pulverized ginger, be incorporated Avith the mucilage of gum-arabic, and Avorked into a pro- per form. This preparation is emi- nently useful to those who are troubled Avith the heart-burn ; es- pecially if that complaint depend on acidity generated in the sto- mach. LUCERN, or Medicago sativa, L. a valuable exotic plant, Avhich sometimes groAvs naturally in mea- dows, pastures, and on ditch-banks; floAvers in the months of June and July.....It Avas introduced from France into Britain, about the mid- dle ofthe seventeenth century. Lucern thrives best in deep, rich, friable loams, Avhether they abound in sand or gravel; as Avell as in all good dry soils, and in the coldest climate. As the luxuriance of its crops depends entirely on keeping the soil clear from weeds, this circumstance ought to be par- ticularly attended to, while the plant is young. The land ought, therefore, to be previously cleaned; for which purpose Mr. Young re- commends two successive crops of turnips or of carrots, as the most successful mode of preparing it; but, if a fallow be found more con- venient, a man shoulcl folloAv the ploughs or harrows Avhile Avork- ing; collect all roots, Aveeds, Sec. and clear away such as have taken too deep root, to be eradicated by those implements. The soil must be ploughed and harroAved three times in the second spring, pre- viously to the sowing, in order that it may be perfectly pulverized. There is no absolute necessity for manure; though, when laid on, it should be spread Avith the first crop of carrots or turnips. The land being thus prepared, lucern may be propagated either by sowing it broad-cast; by drill- ing; or by transplanting it; all of which methods have been attend- ed with such success, as to render it diflicult to decide Avhich is the most advantageous. The proper season for soAving, is towards the end of March, or in the month of April: if broadcast, 20lbs. of seed Avill he required for one acre ; if drilled, 6lbs. will suffice, provided the seed be set in equi-distant roAVs of two feet; and, if the lu- cern be sown with corn, the value of the crop Avill be considerably in- 510 LUC LUC creased....The best grain for this purpose, in Mr. Young's opinion, is oats; six pecks of Avhich shoulcl be sown on an acre of very rich land; but, if the soil be indifferent, tAvo bushels are requisite; and, if it be poor, three bushels are to be alloAved to each acre....As soon as the oats are sown and harrowed, the lucern should be deposited in the ground, and a light harrow passed over; a similar method ought to be adopted if the seed be drilled ; but, if sown in a nursery, Avith a view to transplantation, it should not be mixed Avith any com, but committed to the ground early in the spring; after whicii the young plants ought to be carefully hand-hoed, to facilitate their growth till the month of August, Avhen they -will have attained sufficient size to be removed to the field.... This operation is peformed by taking up the plants Avith a sharp spade, during moist Aveather; then cutting off the tap-roots, eight, nine, or ten inches beneath the crown of the plant; though the lateral fibres must be someAvhat shortened, and the stalks clipped off about five inches above the croAvn. After these operations by the knife, the plants are to be thrown into a vessel of Avater, and placed in the shade, that they may retain their freshness. Holes are next to be made with a dibble, and filled Avith Avater,in which the roots are set at the distance of 40 inches from each other, the stalks being earthed up to the height of two inches. Should a dry season suc- ceed, it Avill be requisite to water the plants liberally; as they will thus not only be invigorated, but the soil Avill be settled around their roots....The intermediate spaces eught tobe carefully cleared from Aveeds after every cutting; and Avhen the plant arrives at perfec- tion, it will admit of being mowed five and even six times in one sea- son. Lucern is of great value, and fully merits the commendations bestowed upon its culture. On rich and well-tilled soils, its groAvth is so rapid, that it rises to the height of eighteen inches within thirty or forty days ; and its pro- duce on poor land is fully adequate to maintain three horses per acre; though, if the ground be well ma- naged, it will readily support from three to six horses. The expence of raising this plant is very consi- derable : Mr. Harte, in his Es- says on Husbandry (8vo. 5s. 6d. 2d edit.) estimates it, when trans- planted, at 6/. 13s. per acre for the first year ; and the cost of the se- cond, as well as each subsequent year, during the continuance ofthe plant (which may be fixed upon an average at ten years,) will amount to about 21. per acre. The first use of this beneficial plant is that of soiling horses in the stable : for this purpose it is pecu- liarly advantageous ; feAv other ar- ticles of food agreeing so Avell with those animals. It is likewise emi- nently adapted to the soiling of working oxen, coavs, young cattle, and even hogs, in a farm-yard. In short, Mr. Young conceives lu- cern to be Avell calculated for fat- tening oxen, though it has neA'er been tried with such design. Far- ther, as hogs do not bite so closely as sheep, he supposes that the for- mer might eat it Avith safety, and that a small field, planted Avith it, near the farm yard, " Avould be of admirable use and profit." Beside these various purposes to which lucern is subservient, it ame- LUC Horates the soil so that consider- able crops of corn have been ob- tained after it; nay, instances have occurred, in Avhich a complete ploughing, that was given with a view to eradicate it for corn, has renovated this plant to such a de- gree, that it was left again for ano- ther series of years. Those of our agricultural readers, who Avish to acquire more minute information relative to the management of lu- cern, will consult Mr. Harte's classical work above mentioned, and also Mr. RocqyE's Practical Treatise on cultivating Lucern Grass (8a'0. Is. 6d.) in which this inter- esting subject is fully discussed, while its advantages and e::pences are fairly appreciated. [Under the article grass, some observations Avere given upon the culture of lucern, in this country, which being the result of experi- ence, deserve attention. A friend informs the editor, that he tried it many years since, near Charleston S. C. in drills, and that it succeed- ed admirably. The long continued heatenabled him to cut it five limes in one season. Dr. Muhlenberg of Lancaster cultivates it, and " sows it alone, after potatoes or Indian corn, or in preference after cabbage crops, about the 2d of May ; he cuts and feeds it green,." and speaks highly of it. Lucern certainly is Avell calculat- ed for the hot summers of the United States ; its long tap root seeking nourishment from a great depth, enables it to withstand the destructive droughts, which so fre- quently occur. The Editor saAV it in July last, near Philadelphia, in a field Avith clover, green and fresh while the clover was nearly des- troyed, no rain having fallen for some Aveeks. LUN 511 The seed should be fresh, and if sent for to France, (whence the British seedsmen obtain it) care shoidd be taken to procure that of the last season.] Lumbago. See Rheumatism. Lunacy. See Madness. LUNGS, in anatomy, denote the two viscera or lobes in the cavity of the breast, by which Ave breathe. They are connected Avith the neck, and situated on the right and left side of the heart. Being furnish- ed with innumerable cells, which are formed by the descent of the wind-pipe into the lungs, those bronchial tubes communicate Avith each other; and the Avhole appears not unlike a honey-comb. The most important use of the lungs is that of respiration, by Avhich the circulation of the blood is supposed to be effected ; and by the consequent alternate pressure of the different parts of the loAver belly, the digestion of food is pro- moted. Besides, not only the ex- pulsion of the feces and urine greatly depends on the constant action ofthe lungs, but likeAvise the sense of smelling is enjoyed by in- haling the air; and it is chiefly by the organic structure of these A'es- sels, that mankind arc enabled to speak.....Lastly, they perform the office of excretion, and expel those useless matters at hich, if retained in the system, Avould be produc- tive of fatal consequences. The organs of breathing are sub- ject to various affections, such as Asthma, Catarrh, Cough, &c. Avhich are discussed in their alpha- betical series. Hence, Ave shall at present treat only of the Peripneu- monia, or Inflammation of the Lungs.....This dangerous affection manifests itself by a moist cough, in which the expectorated matter 512 L U N LUN is frequently streaked with blood ; by an obtuse, dull pain under the breast-bone, or between the should- ers; anxiety and difficulty of breathing; the face is swelled, and appears of a purplish hue. It chiefly attacks persons of gross ha- bits, who eat strong food, and drink viscid liquors : it is general- ly fatal to the asthmatic, especially if they be of an advanced age. Causes. Aw inflammation ofthe lungs is not ahvays a primary dis- order, but more frequently is the consequence of aquinscy, pleurisy, catarrh, and other diseases. It al- so arises from an obstructed per- spiration produced by cold; from the Avearing of wet clothes ; from too violent exercise ; fractures or other injuries of the ribs ; suppres- sion of the itch, rose, and other cutaneous eruptions; as well as from the exhalation of noxious or sulphureous particles ; and lastly, from worms. The peripneumony is divided into the spurious, which is occa- sioned by pituitous or viscid mat- ter obstructing the lungs ; and the catarrhal, which may originate from any ofthe causes already spe- cified, but more especially from a defluxion of thin acrid matter on these organs. The treatment of l>oth, however, being similar, we shall briefly state the chief points relative to this subject. Without exception, the most efficacious remedy in pulmonary inflammation is blood-letting, which may be performed in either arm; and the quantity of blood to be taken aAvay must be in pro- portion to the patient's strength.... Leeches may also be advantageous- ly applied; and, if a large portion of blood is to be draAvn, it Avill be safer to have recourse to cupping and scarification, as nearly as pos- sible to the part affected. Next to bleeding, the antiphlogistic or cooling regimen should be strictly adhered to ; the patient not be in- dulged in feather-beds, or warm couches, so long as he can support himself; and warm diluent drinks, impregnated with vegetable and nitrous acids, should be given in copious draughts. Poultices and fomentations have also been applied to the painful side with considerable success ; but the repeated use of blisters has been found more effectual. Much, how- ever, depends on an easy expecto- ration, for which purpose linseed- oil, or other mucilaginous demul- cents, are eminently serviceable. De Haen recommends the use of oil mixed Avith opium ; Dr. Hamil- ton found the latter drug, when combined Avith calomel, to be very beneficial in this and other inflammatory diseases ; and his ex- perience of this medicine has been amply confirmed. Among the various remedies proposed with the view of afford- ing relief in the commencement of this formidable disease, few have been more efficacious than the steam of warm Avater impregnated Avith vinegar, and copiously inhaled by means of Dr. Mudge's ma- chine, of Avhich Ave have already given some account, in our 1st vo- lume. (See Inhaler)...One ofthe most powerful expectorants, howe- ver, appears to be the tartarized an- timony, given in very small or nau- seating- doses. And. as inflamma- tions of this nature frequently ter- minate in what are called critical and spontaneous sweats, these ought to be cautiously promoted, but Avithout the aid of stimulant medicines....Lastly, the diet cannot LUN LUN 513 be too slender; it should, indeed, the liquid be reduced to three consist chiefly of Aveak broths, quarts. It is then to be strained, slightly acidulated with the juice of and a pound of honey added, while oranges or of lemons; and the it is hot; and, as soon as it is cold, patient's drink ought to be thin a pint of distilled vinegar. Of this water-gruel, SAveetened with honey, decoction he prescribes one pint to or a decoction of liquorice, the be given, with the addition of an roots of fennel, and the like, in ounce of nitre, every fourth, fifth, which a small portion of currant or sixth hour, according to the or similar jelly, may be dissolved, greater or less urgency of the Inflammation of the Lungs, symptoms. in Farriery, a disorder to Avhich Should the disease progressively horses are occasionally subject. It become more obstinate, and the is indicated by the animal's rest- animal be costive, a clyster ought lessnes, as he never lies doAvn to be given; consisting of two during the prevalence of this ma- quarts of common gruel, six ounces lady: his fever is violent, and he of coarse sugar, four ounces of breathes with difficulty. The mouth Glauber's salt, two ounces of tine- is generally open, whence a kind tureof jalap, and a quarter of a pint of ropy slime flows copiously, Avhile of olive-oil. The injection is to be a viscid reddish or yellowish water repeated once in tAventy-four hours, runs from his nose, and likewise or oftener, if necessary. But, if adheres to the inside of his nostrils, the virulence ofthe disorder abate The first remedy in this com- in consequence of these applica- plaint is bleeding: three English tions, the subsequent treatment quarts of blood should be taken may be similar to that stated in from the animal, on the first clay; p. 256 of our second volume: be- and four pints, on the succeeding side which, one of the following morning. If the unfavourable symp- balls may be administered every toms do not abate, it will be ne- morning, for a fortnight:.....Take cessary to draAV blood repeatedly, Castile soap, six ounces: gum am- one quart at a time; but, if the moniac, tAvo ounces; anise seeds creature be old or weak, the bleed- and cummin seeds, of each four ings ought to be sparing in quan- ounces, in poAvder. These ingre- tity, and more frequently repeated, clients are to he incorporated with Next, some SAveet hay and bran a sufficient quantity of honey to shoulcl be cut very small, scalded form a mass, Avhich should be di- together, and placed in the man- vided into tAvelve balls......The- ger, in order that the fumes may horse's diet, during the progress of be inhaled. Mr. Taplin directs the disease, ought to consist of this interned fomentation to be at- warm mashes of scalded bran, tended to every fourth or fifth sweetened Avith four ounces of ho- hour, and the folloAving decoction ney; while his common chink may to be immediately administered.... be thin gruel, in each draught of Let six ounces of pearl-barley, a Avhich two ounces of cream of tar- similar quantity of split raisins and tar should be dissolved. These pre- Turkey figs cut in slices, and two parations, however, may be gradu- ounces of bruised stick liquorice, ally relinquished, as the animal re- be boiled in a gallon of water, till covers; and the mode of treatment vol. in. 3 U 514 LUP LU T be varied as circumstances may re- cpiire. LUNGWORT, or Pulmonaria, L. a genus of perennial plants, comprising six species, three of which are. natives of Britain: the principal of these is the officinalis, Common LungAVort, Spotted Lung- Avort, Cowslips of Jerusalem, or Broad-leaved Lungwort; growing in woods, and flowering in the months of April and May. This species is eaten by sheep and goats, but is not relished by coavs, and totally refused by horses and hogs. It is cultivated in gardens, on ac- count of its leaves, which, in a fresh state, possess a slightly as- tringent and mucilaginous taste. They are recommended in tickling coughs, pulmonary consumption, Sec. but are more useful as a culi- nary vegetable, and as salad, espe- cially in early spring. When burnt, the common lung- Avort affords a larger proportion of ashes than almost any other plant; the produce, in (general, amounting to one-seventh part of its Aveight. LUPINE, or Lupinus, L. a ge- nus of exotic plants comprising nine species, most of which are cultivated' in gardens, on account of their beautiful flowers: they are raised from' seed, which may be sown in any open borders, where they thrive, and present a pleading variety. Tlie seeds of the White Lu- pine (Lujiir.us albui) have a le- guminous, though disagreeably bit- ter taste, and are said to be vermi- fuge; both avhen taken internally, and applied externally. Some au- thors, however, suppose them to be of a poisonous nature; yet such seeds Avere much used by the Greeks U'. an article of food., and have been rtcomia-udea by C.*- len as affording wholesome ali- ment.....In the Transaction of the Patriotic Society of Milan (vol. ii.' p. 243, Ital. edit.) there is an ac- count of the manner in which this plant may be converted into cord- age or ropes, and likeAvise into paper.....Bechstein says, that its flowers furnish the bees with abun- dance of honey. LUTE, a composition of certain viscid or tenacious matters, Avhich becomes solid, when dry; and which, on being applied to the junctures of vessels, closes them so effectually as to prevent the ad- mission or egress of air. Though lute is chiefly used by chemists, it also comprehends any species of cement, applied to ves- sels, or furnaces, which are ex- posed to an ardent heat. It is va- riously prepared of rye-flour and Avater; quick-lime and the Avhites of eggs; iron filings, brick-dust, and linseed oil ; potters earth, ri- ver-sand, horse-clung, pulverised glass, or flocks of wool- mixed Avith salt-Avater or bullocks blood. The best lute, however, and which is most easily procured in London, is Windaor-loam : it should be mode- rately stiff, so that, Avhen moisten- ed with water, it may be pressed into the side, or crevices, of the furnace, 8;c. As soon as the clay begins to dry, it must be beaten closely clown to the sides, and the fissures repeatedly filled up, till the whole be perfectly closed. The late Dr. Black recommend- ed a simple mixture of sand and clay, as preferable to any other composition. The proportions for resisting the violence of fire are, four parts of sand to one of clay ; but, if the lute be intended for lin- ing or coaling furnaces, he directs. six parts of staid to be taken to one LUX LUX 515 of clay in order thatthe contraction of the latter may be effectually pre- vented. This compound is to be applied in a manner similar to that above stated, but it must be alloAV- ed to dry for a considerable time; after Avhich a fire may be kindled, and the furnace gradually heated for one or tAvo days. The heat should then be raised to the high- est degree of intensity, by which the luting will acquire the hard- ness of free-stone, and afterwards be as durable as any other part of the furnace. [See cement.] LUXATION, signifies the dis- location of any bone out of its na- tural articulation, so as to impede or destroy its proper motion. The general symptoms of this com- plaint are, inability to move the in- jured limb; pain ; tenison; and de- formity ofthe part affected: it is also frequently attended with in- flammation and fever. In the treatment of simple luxa- tions, if the contiguous skin and muscles be much inflamed, leeches ought first to be applied, and the dislocated limb kept in the most easy posture, before the reduction of the bone can be attempted ; be- cause the stretching of a limb, Avhile the surrounding muscles are in a stale of inflammation, may prove highly injurious: the upper part should likewise be held steady, while the surgeon is replacing tlie bone. And, as the contractile power of the muscles frequently resists every mechanical effort, they ought to be previously relaxed by emollient poultices or fomenta- tions, in consequence of which the bone may be easily replaced. After the operation, the limb must be kept in a relaxed state, and the bone supported Avith a bandage, till the parts have recov- ered their proper energy; but, where any visible inflammation re- mains, it Avill again be requisite to apply leeches. If dislocation be accompanied with a fracture near the joint, such injury must be allowed to heal previously to reducing the bone- Where, however, any tumour or collection of matter near the joint is the cause of luxation, this affec- tion may be considered as incura- ble ; but, if it proceed from too great relaxation of the ligaments, or tendons of the joint, the com- plaint has frequently, though gra- dually, been removed by support- ing the limb Avith a proper band- age; by the use of the cold bath, and by electricity......During the whole period, betAveen the setting, and healing of a luxated bone, the patient must preserve the disor- dered part in a state of rest; sub- sist on mild but nutritious aliment; and carefully avoid the influence of the depressing passions. LUXURY denotes voluptuous- ness, or an extravagant indulgence in Avhatever pleases the senses, such as the articles of food, dress, and equipage. The utility or detriment of luxu- ry to a Slate, is a subject on v/hich great difference of opinion prevails among political writers. Nor is it easily decided, whether this pre- dominant feature in mankind may with more propriety be called the offspring of vice or folly ; but luxu- ry doubtless increases in proportion to the influx of trade; and, though it may by prescription be justifia- ble at court, in public officers, or on particular occasions, yet in private individuals it Avill ever remain an object of just reproach. For, by- increasing the expences of a fami- ly, it presents an insuperable bar to 516 LUX LUX matrimonial establishments, and beneficially employed in the sup- thus contributes to the depopulation port ofthe industrious poor....Last- of a country. Farther, it impairs ly, though luxury be the attendant the health and ruins the constitu- on wealth; though it encourage tion of its votaries; and as the opu- arts,manufactures,agriculture, and lent leave their rural seats, in order commerce; and, when its preva- to reside in cities, such change is lence does not corrupt the morals attended with many bad conse- of a people, becomes a national quences to themselves, as well as to benefit, by diffusing riches among their numerous domestics. Thus, all ranks, and enabling the poor to the country is in a manner desert- pay the most exorbitant prices of ed; and thence we may account provisions; yet we presume to say, for the long train of evils arising that the greatest benefit would re- from the indolence and libertinism suit from the observance of sump- of a city-life. tuary laws, which should limit the One of the most pernicious con- expences of individuals from ex- sequences resulting from the rapid ceeding a certain point; because progress of luxury, is the high price that money, which is at present of provisions, Avhich is, in a great spent in the purchase of articles measure, occasioned by the keeping not strictly necessary to domestic of useless servants, as Avell as of life, might thus be diverted into its unnecessary horses: these partly proper channel, and be more gene- consume, and partly Avaste such a rally circulated throughout the portion of food as might be more country. END OF THE THIRD VOLUME. 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